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Effect of Shifting Cultivation and Charcoal Production on Structure, Dynamic and Above-Ground Biomass in the Angolan Miombo and Dry Woodlands

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Effect of Shifting Cultivation and Charcoal Production on Structure, Dynamic and Above-Ground Biomass in the Angolan Miombo and Dry Woodlands Effect of shifting cultivation and charcoal production on structure, dynamic and above-ground biomass in the Angolan miombo and dry woodlands Dissertation with the aim of achieving a doctoral degree at the Faculty of Mathematics, Informatics and Natural Sciences, Department of Biology of the University of Hamburg Submitted by Francisco Maiato Pedro Gonçalves Hamburg, 2019 Date of oral defence: 25th January 2019 The following evaluators recommended the admission of the thesis Prof. Dr. Norbert Jürgens Prof. Dr. Udo Schickhoff ii The thesis is based on four published papers, and two submitted manuscripts: Gonçalves, F.M.P., Revermann, R., Gomes, A.L., Aidar, M.P.M., Finckh, M. & Jürgens, N. (2017) Tree species diversity and composition of miombo woodlands in south-central Angola: a chronosequence of forest recovery after shifting cultivation. International Journal of Forestry Research, Article ID6202093 Gonçalves, F.M.P., Revermann, R., Cachissapa, M.J., Gomes, A.L. & Aidar, M.P.M. (2018) Species diversity, population structure and regeneration of woody species in fallows and mature stands of tropical woodlands of southeast Angola. Journal of Forestry Research 29(6):1569˗1579 Gonçalves, F.M.P., Revermann, R., Finckh, M., Lages, F.M.O.P. & Jürgens, N. (submitted). Integrated socio-economic and ecological assessment of charcoal production in miombo woodlands of south-central Angola. Frontiers in Environmental Science. Chisingui, A.V., Gonçalves, F.M.P., Tchamba, J.J., Luís, J.C., Rafael, M.F.F. & Alexandre, J.L.M. (2018) Vegetation Survey of the Woodlands of Huíla Province. Biodiversity & Ecology 6:426˗437 Gonçalves, F.M.P., Tchamba, J.J., Goyder, D.J. (2016) Schistostephium crataegifolium (Compositae: Anthemideae) a new generic record for Angola. Bothalia ˗ African Biodiversity and Conservation 46(1), a2029 Goyder, D.J. & Gonçalves, F.M.P. (accepted) The Flora of Angola: Collectors, Richness and Endemism. Biodiversity of Angola, Science and Conservation: A Modern Synthesis. iii "In a moment the ashes are made, but a forest is a long time growing" Lucius Annaeus Seneca (4 a.C.) iv For consistency throughout the thesis, the figures, tables and appendices of all the manuscripts comprised in this thesis were renumbered and the references were summarised at the end in alphabetical order. Papers 1, 3, 4, and 5 were published Open access, paper 2 was reprinted with kind permission of Northeast University and Springer-Verlag GmbH Berlin, as part of Springer Nature, while paper 6 was reprinted with permission of the book editors. v Contents Resumo ...................................................................................................................................... 1 Summary .................................................................................................................................... 5 Zusammenfassung ..................................................................................................................... 9 Chapter 1: General Introduction .............................................................................................. 14 Chapter 2: A chronosequence of forest recovery after shifting cultivation ............................. 30 Chapter 3: Species diversity, population structure and regeneration of dry woodlands ......... 51 Chapter 4: Socio-economic and ecological assessment of charcoal production ..................... 70 Chapter 5: Vegetation survey of the woodlands of Huíla Province ...................................... 101 Chapter 6: Schistostephium crataegifolium, a new record from Angola ............................... 125 Chapter 7: The Flora of Angola: Collectors, Richness and Endemism ................................. 134 Chapter 8: Synthesis .............................................................................................................. 154 References .......................................................................................................................... 161 Publications ........................................................................................................................ 193 Affiliation of co-authors .................................................................................................... 198 Author’s contribution ......................................................................................................... 200 List of photographs ............................................................................................................ 202 List of figures ..................................................................................................................... 203 List of tables ....................................................................................................................... 207 Dedication .......................................................................................................................... 208 Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ 209 Appendices ......................................................................................................................... 210 vi Resumo As florestas de Miombo constituem um dos mais extensos ecossistemas em África. Cobrindo grande parte do território de Angola, estendendo-se para a República Democrática do Congo, Zâmbia, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Moçambique e Tanzânia. Caracteristicamente, são dominadas por espécies lenhosas dos géneros Brachystegia, Julbernardia e Isoberlinia pertencentes à família Fabaceae, subfamília Detarioideae. O Rio Cubango/Okavango tem a sua nascente no planalto central Angolano, onde o Miombo cobre extensas áreas ao longo do rio, descendo para sudoeste na província do Cuando Cubango, onde as formações de miombo vão gradualmente dando lugar às fllorestas secas de Baikiaea plurijuga e Schinziophyton rautanenii. Daqui o rio Cubango segue o seu curso normal em direcção à Namíbia e, finalmente, desaparece no Deserto do Kalahari no Botswana, formando uma extensa zona húmida, o Delta do Okavango. Esta extensa área de florestas ao longo da bacia do Cubango é vital para a manutenção da biodiversidade e dos múltiplos serviços ecológicos a esta associada. Contudo, a área tem sido sujeita a profundas e rápidas transformações, principalmente devido ao crescimento da população humana ao longo do rio, o que coincide com um aumento no uso da terra e com a sobre-exploração dos recursos naturais da região. Estes desenvolvimentos sugerem a necessidade de estudos mais profundos destes ecossistemas, para identificar as principais ameaças à biodiversidade da região e, ao mesmo tempo, proporcionar aos países que partilham a bacia, suporte técnico e científico para a utilização sustentável dos seus recursos naturais em benefício das suas populações (Capítulo 1). Neste contexto, a presente tese teve como objectivos: (a) avaliar o efeito da agricultura itinerante na estrutura e dinâmica da vegetação lenhosa no miombo e nas formações secas de Baikiaea numa cronosequência de abandono, caracterizada por diferentes idades de pousios; (b) caracterizar a produção de carvão na região e avaliar a subsistência das famílias e rendimentos derivados da actividade; (c) documentar a diversidade florística da região, com ênfase para a ocorrência de espécies de plantas endémicas, potenciais espécies novas para a ciência e/ou registos novos de distribuição geográfica. Estes objectivos encontram-se detalhados em quatro artigos científicos que compreendem a presente tese. O primeiro artigo apresenta os resultados da dinâmica das espécies lenhosas do miombo após perturbação devido à agricultura itinerante, numa cronosequência caracterizada por diferentes idades de pousio, ao mesmo tempo que são discutidas as variações na composição das espécies nos estágios iniciais da sucessão e 1 comparadas às formações de miombo mais intactas (Capítulo 2). Abordagem similar foi aplicada às formações secas características da região de Caiundo na província do Cuando Cubango, embora não tenha sido possível estabelecer uma cronosequência de diferentes idades de pousios como no caso do miombo, uma vez que os campos agrícolas da região são geralmente utilizados por períodos de tempo relativamente longos. Entretanto, foi possível analisar as variações na composição e diversidade de espécies nas antigas várzeas, previamente identificadas como tendo sido utilizadas para agricultura, e comparadas com áreas de vegetação intacta, que não tenham sido sujeitas a qualquer tipo de perturbação de origem antropogénica. Este capítulo também se discute os principais aspectos que governam a dinâmica da regeneração das principais espécies lenhosas, que estão também sujeitas a exploração de madeira, com particular ênfase à frequência e sazonalidade das queimadas (Capítulo 3). A análise e caracterização da produção de carvão, assim como a sua contribuição na geração de receitas das famílias envolvidas na actividade, foi outro aspecto importante abordado nesta tese. Devido ao aumento da produção de carvão na região e às ameaças que a actividade coloca para a preservação deste ecossistema, devem ser estudadas fontes alternativas de rendimento para reduzir a crescente procura dos recursos lenhosos da região. Ao mesmo tempo, isto poderá contribuir para a geração de rendimento das famílias envolvidas na produção de carvão, no contexto da iniciativa das Nações Unidas para a redução das emissões devidas à desflorestação e degradação das florestas nos países em desenvolvimento
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