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INDEX

Page numbers in bold italic refer to photographs and illustrations.

Academies of Science, 366, 406 Auseklis (Mikus Krogzems), 228 Adamkus, Valdas, 427, 442 Aušra, 238 Adelstand (nobility), 145, 196 Austrums, 263 Aesti, 7, 8 Agrarian Union, 298, 314, 413 Baltic Appeal to the United Nations, 409 agricultural collectivization, 365, Baltic Germans 367–368 administrators, 131, 132, 190 agricultural reforms, 107, 317, 345 landowners’ dealings with agricultural societies, 282 peasantry, 177 agriculture, settled, 4–7 press (nineteenth century), 207 Aizsargi (home guard), 325 rural, 243 Albert of Buxhoevden, 36–39, 36, 38, 43 Russian state service careers, 199 Albertina University (Königsberg), 114 scholars, 225 All-Estonian Congress, 272 serf emancipation (1816–1819), 171 Altmark, Peace of (1629), 88, 94, 98 Baltic littoral before WWI, 286 Aluna¯ ns, Juris, 224 Baltic littoral after WWI, 304 amber, 6, 8, 25 Baltic littoral after WWII, 361 Andropov, Jurii, 386 Baltic Military District, 346 annexation to the USSR Baltic Sea, 2, 42, 98 (Aug. 1940), 344 maritime trade, 103 anti-Semitic beliefs, 352 piracy, 17 Aps¯tis,ı Je¯kabs, 247 Baltic Way, 404 Ara¯ js, Viktors, 352 Baltijas Ve¯stnesis, 233 Ara¯ js-Kommando, 352 Baltische Monatschrift, 255 Archbishop of Riga, 56, 73, 80, 84 Barbarossa (invasion of USSR 1941), 348 Armistead, George, 266 Barons, Krišja¯ nis, 225, 228 Arvelius, Friedrich Gustav, 167 Basanavicˇius, Jonas, 238, 239, Aspa¯ zija (Elza Rosenberga), 282 272, 285 Augsburg, Peace of (1555), 85 Bauernbefreiung (emancipation of Aukštaitija, 11, 13, 47, 62, 69, 106 serfs), 190

458

Index 459

belief systems, 20–25 sermons vetted, 204 animism, 21–22 Stalinist period, 345, 365 Baltic pantheon, 23 wartime, 288 burial customs, 23 Center Party, 424 generational transmission, 24, 25 Central Committee for Latvian gods, 22–23 Refugees, 290 moral codes, 23 Central League of Veterans of the shamanism, 22 Estonian Independence Belševica, Vizma, 381 Wars, 327 Benedict’s rule, 60 Ce¯sis, 40, 186, 246 Beria, Lavrentii, 370 Charter of Partnership, 430 Berklavs, Eduards, 372 Chernenko, Konstantin, 386 Bermont-Avalov, Pavel, 302 Chernobyl diasaster, 389 Berthold (monk), 35 Christian Democrats, 424 Bielenstein, August, 227, 230 christianization, 34, 45 Bienenstamm, H. von, 174 Carolingian Empire, 29 Biliunas, Jonas, 238 conversion activities, 39 Birkavs, Valdis, 413 eastern Slavs, 31 Bishop of Courland, 56, 80, 86 Latgalians, 32 Bishop of Reval, 80 Lithuania, Grand Duchy of, 65 Bishop of Saaremaa, 56, 80, 86 Livs, 39 Bishop of Tartu, 56, 80, 86 Mindaugas, 48 Blaumanis, Ru¯ dolfs, 282 Norway, 28 Blitzkrieg (lightning war), 338 Prussians, 52 Bloody Sunday (1905), 269 Scandinavia, 28 Bolsheviks, 296–307 Semigallian opposition, 45 Bonaparte, Napoleon, 189 Ugandi and Sakala, 41 invasion of Russia (1812), 190 Christmas battles (1916), 292 book smuggling period, 237 chronicles, 24, 42 bourgeois nationalism, 365, 366, Henry of Livonia, 35, 45 372, 389 Livonian Rhymed Chronicle, 35, 45 Brazauskas, Algirdas, 394, 411, Russian, 8, 10, 17 414, 414 thirteenth–fourteenth century, 10, 17, Bremen, 36 25, 47 Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of (Mar. 1918), written sources, 7–8, 71, 79 299 Chylinski, Samuel, 115 Bretkunas, Jonas, 115 Cimze, Ja¯ nis, 208 Brezhnev, Leonid, 373, 386 cˇinšas (cash payment to escape era of stagnation, 377 obligatory labor), 182 Br¯vzemnieks,ı Fricis, 231 citizenship examinations, 420 Bronze/Iron Age, 5–6 citizenship redeﬁned, 401 Browne, George, 134, 145, 164 coalition governments, 312, 324, 342, Brzostowski, Paul, 145 415, 441, 445 Cold War, 362, 375, 399, 429 cadasters, 110 Commonwealth of Independent Cˇ akste, Ja¯ nis, 310 States, 405 calendars, 167 communist parties in the Baltic, 362, censorship, 169, 213, 231, 374 371–373 during 1905 revolution, 274 Communist Party, 344

460 Index

Communist Party (cont.) recruitment, 79 factions divide, 396–397 St. George’s Day, 75 Komsomol (youth organization), 363 secularized, 140 membership, 362–364, 371, 388 statutes, 60 communists of Baltic origin, 343 Swordbrothers, 36, 39, 44, 45 computer-oriented world, 447 Teutonic Order, 44, 49, 51–52, 64, concordat 67, 81 Pope Gregory and Tsar Nicholas, 206 attack on Lithuanian lands, 65 Congress of Vienna (1815), 190 disputes with Livonian Order, 68, Congress Poland, 201 maps, 105 constitutions, post-1991, 412 switch to Lutheranism, 84 cooperatives, 279 crusades, 34, 36 Konsums, 282 cultural artifacts, 4 corporations, 57–60, 68 cultural stratiﬁcation, 18, 74, Council of Baltic Sea States (1992), 429 high, 72, 93 coup in Moscow (Aug. 1991), 398 low, 72 Courland, Duchy of, 89, 95, 120, Czartorisky family, 137 122, 134 Biron, Ernst, 140 daina (Latvian). See folk poetry and Biron, Peter, 155 folksongs landed aristocratic families, 140 dainos (Lithuanian). See folk poetry and Piltene District, 88 folksongs Ritterschaft (registry of nobility), Danes, 27, 41, 43, 75 140, 155 Dankers, Oskars, 354 Russian intervention, 140–142 Daugava River, 10, 36, 98, 102 Russian rule, 153 blockage by military, 41 Semigallia, 95 missionaries’ entry route, 35 Couronians (or Kurs), 11, 13, 35, opposition to hydroelectric 43, 112 complex, 389 attacking Riga, 40 Riga controls trade, 57 Gotland raids, 27 trade upstream, 39 Lamekin, 46 World War II front, 288 piracy, 17 Daugavpils, 138, 139, 247 Cracow, 90, 91, 134 Daukantas, Simonas, 175, 212 craft guilds, 143 Democratic Party Saimnieks, 424 creative workers, 380 demographic patterns Crimean War (1853–1856), 215 assimilation, 79 crusaders, 38, 42, 43, 381 Black Death aftermath, 78 German, 33, 40 Courland (eighteenth century), Livonian Order, 47–54, 56, 69, 80, 155–156 82, 84 denationalization, 385–386 attack on Lithuanian lands, 65 drastic depopulation (sixteenth conquest of Semigallia, 45 century), 123 fought Couronians, 44 Inﬂanty (eighteenth century), 153–154 Kettler, Gotthard, 86, 95, 97, in-migration, 16, 79 Plettenberg, Walther von, 81–82, late eighteenth century, 133–134 83, 84 life expectancy, 16 protected by Poland-Lithuania, mortality, 16 86, 94 out-migration, 253

Index 461

population censuses (1920s), 308 enlightened despots, 144 population development, 14, 78–80, 94 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 143 population growth (late eighteenth Equal Rights Party, 422 century), 182 Erbuntertänigkeit (hereditary servility), population statistics, 89 107, 180 Riga’s ethnic mix, 245 estate reduction, 109, 128 Slavic in-migration, 378 Estland social dysfunction (1970–1980), 384 emancipation law (1816), 191 transitional strains (1990s), 404–409 serf emancipation (1816), 190 demokratizaatsia (democratization), 387 Estonia Denmark, 88 1992 government, 412 Frederick II, 86 ancient (forty-five parishes), 13 deportations constitution adopted, 310 June 1941, 347 crusades, 40 1948–1949, 368 Danes’ incursion, 41 rehabilitation of deportees, 371 economic expansion, 279 Derschau, Ernst von, 174 Estophiles, 167, 208 diaspora (end of nineteenth century), 253 general rising (1223), 41 diaspora populations, 382–384 independence (Feb. 1918), 297 Dienas Lapa (Daily Paper), 264 independence war (1918), 301–302 Dievas (Lithuanian god), 23 languages used (nineteenth Dievin‚š (Latvian god), 23 century), 160 Dinsberg‘is, Ernests, 209 Mahtra War (1858), 217 dissidence, 379–382 purge (1950), 372 Domasevicˇius, Andrius, 262 Russian Social Democratic Workers’ Donelaitis, Kristijonas, 151–152, 213 Party, 270 Metai (The Seasons), 151 song festivals, 232 Dorpat (Tartu) University, 114, 208, 250 Swedish rule, 98 Duma (national legislature), 275 twelfth-century territory, 35, 38 Durbe, 44 Estonian Alexander School (1871), 228 Dvinsk. See Daugavpils Estonian language, 10, 93, 112, 115, 280 Džu¯ kija, 13 published works, 160 Estonian Legion, 357 Eggink, Johann Lebrecht, 191 Estonian National Committee, 359 Eglons, Visvaldis, 381 Estonian National Independence Einhorn, Paul, 114, 117 Party, 392 Einsatzkommandos (Nazi special-duty Estonian Popular Front to Support squads), 351 Perestroika, 391 elections (July 1940), 343 Estonians, 10 Elverfeldt, Gustav, 213 defeat, 42 Elverfeldt, Kaarl Gotthard dialects, 71 first play in Latvian, 168 Forselius Teachers Seminary, 164, 249 émigrés Lembit, 46, 64 communities in the west, 409–410, 413 Unnepewe, 46 Lithuanian, 414 Vytames, 46 England, 78 ethnic minorities Enlightenment influences (eighteenth integration (twenty-first century), 446 century), 143–144, 174. See also ethnography, historical, 9 Literaten terminology, 10

462 Index

European Union, 429, 443 Great Patriotic War. See World War II full membership (2004), 435 Great War. See World War I europeanization, 54, 56, 57, 72 Griskevicˇius, Petras, 388 eastern Baltic littoral, 53 Grünau, Simon northern Baltic littoral, 45 Chronicle, 114 gubernnias (provinces), 128 Faehlmann, Friedrich, 210 guerilla units, 348, 349, 360. See also famines (1695–1697), 123 forest brothers Farmers Party, 327 Fatherland and Freedom Party, 420 Habsburg Empire Fatherland League, 328 Maria Theresa, 144, 152 feudalism, 30, 53, 56, 57, 62 Metternich, Klemens von, 201 ﬁve-year plans, 364, 375, 376 Hanseatic League, 61, 98, 103 folk poetry and folksongs, 21, 149, 231 Harju, 13 Herder’s collection ( 1787), 150 Harmony Party, 413 Fölkersahm, Hamilkar von, 218, 219 Hartmanis, Indrik‚is, 213 forest brothers, 360, 374 Herder, Johann Gottfried, 149–151, Fu˝ reccerus, Christophorus, 115 150, 176, 420 Herrnhut. See Moravian Brethren Gelehrtenstand (learned estate), 145, movement 170, 172–176, 207 Hilfswillige (Nazi support units), 358 composition, 165 hillforts, 15, 19, 34, 38, 45 Geležinis vilkas (Iron Wolf), 324 Tartu, 42 General Jewish Workers’ Union (Bund), Himmler, Heinrich, 354 262, 270 history writing, 367 German language, 53, 105, 133 “new” history, 436 Low, 70, 113 Hitler, Adolf, 336 prestige, 93 Holocaust, 351–354, 383 scholarly societies use, 175 research, 440 undeutsch (non-), 71 Holy Roman Emperor, 96 German occupation forces, 288 Charles V, 84 German-speaking elite, 61, 129, Holy Roman Empire, 67, 78, 98 161, 176 Homeland Union Party, 420, 424 glasnost’ (openness), 387 Hornung, Johann globalization, 447 Estonian, 115 Glück, Ernst, 123 Humanität (Herderian concept of Latvian Bible translator, 116 humanity), 149 Godmanis, Ivars, 411 Hungary, 78 Golden Horde, 62, 65 hunter-gatherers, 3 Goltz, Rüdiger von der, 302 Hupel, August Wilhelm, 132, 167, 174 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 387 , 395 Hurt, Jakob, 228, 231 Gorbunovs, Anatolijs, 394, 411, 413 Hus, John. See Protestant reforms Göring, Hermann, 351 Husovianus, Mikolajus, 114 governments-in-exile, unofﬁcial Lozaraitis, Stasys, 342 Ikšk‚ile, 35 Zarin‚ š,Ka¯ rlis, 342 Ilves, Toomas, 442 Great Assembly of Vilnius, 272 incursions, 26–28 Great Northern War ( 1700–1721), 104, incursion-plunder-withdrawal, 27 119–123, 133 Rus’ raids, 32

Index 463

independence wars, 300–307 Kaunas University, 331, 410 Inﬂanty, 96, 134, 138–139, 151, 204. See Kemps, Francis, 276, 302, 333 also Livonia, Polish Kettler ducal dynasty Russian rule, 153 Gotthard, 95, 140 Insurrection of 1863–1864, 235–236 Jacob, 102 intelligentsias landholdings, 108 New Current, 264 Keyserling, Peter Ernst von, 174 Interfront groups, 394 KGB-sponsored cultural exchanges, 383 Internationalist Front, 392 Khrushchev, Nikita, 370 inventory of peoples, 10–14 Kirchensteins, Augusts, 343 iron inventory, 195 Klaipe˙da (Memel), 106, 335, 359 I¯va¯ ns, Dainis, 389, 411 Klein, Daniel Grammaticus Litvanica, 115 Jäger, K., 352 Koidula, Lydia, 228, 230 Jakobson, Carl Robert, 228, 231 Köler, Johann, 228, 231 Jannau, Heinrich J., 146–147, 177 Komsomol (youth organization), 369 Jannsen, Johann Voldemar, 228, 231 Königsberg, University of Järva, 13 (E. Prussia), 144 Jatvings (or Sudavians), 12 Krastkalns, Andrejs, 298 Jauna¯ Stra¯va (the New Current), 262 Kreutzwald, Friedrich Reinhold, 210, Jelgava, 45, 96, 155, 246 211, 225, 228 Jelgava castle, 141 Kre˙we, Union of, 66, 70, 91 Jersika, 46 Kronvalds, Atis, 228, 229, 231 Jews, 173, 251, 284 Kross, Jaan, 374 annihilation (1941), 352 Kudirka, Vincas, 238 escaping, 349 Kukk, Jüri, 380 ghettoes, 353 kulaks, 368 pale of settlement, 158 Kurelis, Ja¯ nis, 359 Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, 94 Kuresaare, 88 Uri ben Aaron Halevi, 161 Kurland Yiddish-Hebrew use, 161 emancipation law (1817), 191 Jumara, 40 serf emancipation (1817), 190 Jungestland and Junglettland, 228 Kviesis, Alberts, 325 Jurjew (Tartu) University formerly Dorpat, 251 Läänemaa, 13, 41 Ju¯ rmala, 377 Laar, Mart, 412, 420 labor-rent system, 196, 217 Kabiliu¯ nas, Petras, 354 La¯cˇple¯sis (Latvian epic), 232 Käbin, Johannes, 372 Laidoner, Johan, 301 Kalanta, Romas, 379 Land Funds, 318 Kalevipoeg (Estonian epic), 210, landed estates (early eighteenth century), 225, 232 177–182 Kalnbe¯rzin‚ š,Ja¯ nis, 362, 372 sizes and types, 179 Kardis, Treaty of (1661), 119 landowners, 74, 94, 108, 131, 317 Karotamm, Nikolai, 362 control of peasantry, 106 Kaudz¯te,ı Reinis and Mat¯ss,ı 231 moved their serfs, 76 Kauguri district patriarchal responsibilities, 109 peasant unrest (1802), 186 rights, 59, 96 Kaunas, 251 Landsbergis, Vytautas, 411, 420, 424

464 Index

Landtag (regional parliament), 69, 81, Latvian National Committee, 359 85, 129, 132, 178 Latvian National Independence language laws, 426 Movement, 392, 413 languages, 70–72 Latvian Popular Front, 391 Baltic, 10, 71 Latvian riflemen. See stre¯lnieki ethnic divide of, 53 Latvian Social Democratic Workers’ Finno-Ugric, 9–10, 71 Party, 270, 281, 292 Herder’s concern, 149 Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic, 302 historical Latvians, 71 terminology, 8–10 subjects of Russian tsar, 153 Indo-European, 9–10 Latviešuav¯zesı , 208, 224 pidgins, 72, 113 Lauristin, Marju, 411 Slavic, 72 League of Nations, 308, 318, Lankauskas, Romualdas, 381 329, 338 Larka, Andres, 327 legal particularism, 58 late Neolithic period, 3–6 Leibeigenschaft (possession of the Latgale, 151, 222, 275–277, 332, 443. See body), 107 also Inflanty; Livonia, Polish Leita¯ ns, Ansis, 209 landowners, 205 Lelewel, Joachim, 175 serf emancipation (1861), 190 Letter of 17 Communists, 380 Latgalians, 10, 13, 38, 112, 229 Lettonia (student fraternity), 250 Christian conversions, 36 liberum veto, 136 crusaders, 40 Lielupe River, 45 defeat, 42 Liepa¯ ja, 246, 302 language, 71, 89, 229 Liiv, Juhan, 231 Ru¯ sin‚ š, 46 literacy Ta¯ livaldis, 46 eighteenth century, 164–165 Varidots, 46 nineteenth century, 233–234 Viescekis, 46 in vernacular languages, 112–118 Visvaldis, 46 Literaten, 143, 145–152 Latin language, 17, 53, 70, 73 literature of compromise, 374 Latvia Lithuania, 222 1993 government, 413 1992 government, 414–415 banking crisis (1995–1996), 425 authoritarian rule, 320 bloodless coup (1934), 325 book ban, 260 constitution adopted, 310 constitution adopted, 311 democratic republic proclaimed early lands, 35, 43, 44 (Nov. 1918), 299 forty-year book prohibition, 236 independence war, 302–304 Hill of Crosses, 447 peace treaty (Feb. 1920), 304 independence war, 304–306 purge (1959), 373 Jewish population, 251 song festivals, 232 languages used (nineteenth Latvia, University of, 331 century), 161 Latvia’s Way, 413, 424 partitioning, 156–157 Latvian language, 71, 93, 112, 281 public unification declaration middle dialect, 276 (1916), 294 published works, 160 russification policy, 206 Latvian Legion, 357 Teutonic Order, 47–54 “Courland kettle”, 359 Uprising of 1830–1831, 198–204

Index 465

The Uprising (June 1941), 348 Livonia, Swedish, 88, 98 Vilnius returned, 339, 341 Livonian Confederation, 45, 52, 54–62, Lithuania Minor, 200, 204, 237, 55, 68, 75, 78 252, 293 collapse, 80–90 scholarly society, 175 Livonian Wars, 81, 86 Lithuania, Grand Duchy of, 62–67, 63, Livs (or Livonians), 10, 13, 36, 112 68, 75, 295 crusaders, 40 Gediminid dynasty, 51, 62, 69 defeat, 42 Gediminas, 51, 62, 79 Kaupo, 46 magnates and gentry, 91, 134 missionized, 35 Polish-speaking clergy, 113 local self-government, 196 Russian rule, 153 Lozoraitis, Stasys, 415 Lithuanian Democratic Labor Party, Lublin, Union of (1569), 90 414, 422, 426 Luther, Martin, 81, 82–84 Lithuanian Freedom League, 392 Lutheran catechisms Lithuanian grand dukes, 62, 65, 69, 70 Koell, Johann, 114 Casimir, 91 Mažvydas, Martynas, 114 Jagellonian dynasty, 66 Lutheran Church, 155 Jogaila, 62, 65, 66, 91 Lutheran clergy, 117 Mindaugas, 48–51, 62, 64 Eisen, Johann George, 145 Sigismund II, 107 indigenous language use, 112 Vaišelga, 50 oral tradition, 151 Vytautas the Great, 69 visitation books, 111 Lithuanian language, 62, 93, 112, 151, Lutheranism, 84–86 200, 283 pietism, 161 Cyrillic used (late nineteenth century), 236 Maapäev (provincial assembly), 296 Polish inﬂuence, 168 Macˇiulis, Jonas, 238 published works, 160 Mäe, Hjalmar, 354 Lithuanian Movement for maﬁa, 425 Restructuring, 391 Manasein, N. A., 258 Lithuanian Provisional Mancelius, Georgius, 118 Government, 348 sermon collection, 115 Lithuanian Social Democratic Party, manorial system, 106–111, 143 262, 264, 422 martial law, 273 Lithuanian Statutes, 93, 135, 156 Marxism-Leninism ideology, 366 third version revoked (1840), 204 Marxist socialism, 261 Lithuanian–Polish border dispute Masing, Otto Wilhelm, 167 (1921–1923), 306 mass rallies, 390 Lithuanians Matrikul (register of noble families), migration to USA (1860–1914), 129, 140 254, 285 Mazovia, Duke of, 52 Lituanus, Michalonus, 114 Mazovian Lakes, 12 L¯ventaı ¯ ls, Ansis, 209 Meierovics, Guna¯ rs, 413 Livland Meinhard (monk), 35 emancipation law (1819), 191 Memel. See Klaipe˙da serf emancipation (1819), 190 mentally impaired annihilated Livonia, 43, 99, 127 (1941), 354 Livonia, Polish, 89, 96, 122 mercantilism, 100

466 Index

merchants, 75, 79, 103 NKVD (Soviet state security organ), 343 guilds, 143 nobility. See Adelstand Meri, Lennart, 412, 414, 427 nomenklatura system, 363, 368, 401 Merkel, Garlieb, 148–149, 173, non-recognition policy, 346, 383 177, 207 Noor-Eesti (Young Estonia), 262, 278 Die Letten ...(1797), 148 Northwest Territory. See Lithuania Merkys, Antanas, 343 Nystad, Treaty of (1721), 122, 124 Miczkiewicz, Adam, 202 Mielke, Christian Gottlieb, 168 Oberost (wartime governance), 288 Mikalauskas, Leonas, 262 October Manifesto, 272, 273 military base agreements, 339–340, Oliva, Treaty of (1660), 119 ministries, 416, 432 oral tradition, 117, 166, 226 minority nationalities, 315–317 Herder’s enthusiasm for, 150 Mitau. See Jelgava Organization on Security and Moldavia, 78 Cooperation in Europe Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, 338 (OSCE), 431 Moravian Brethren movement, 161–164 organized history profession, 437 Herrnhut missionaries, 162 origins, 2–13 meeting house, 163 Orthodox Christians, 34 Paap, Tallima (preacher), 164 missionaries, 36, 74 spirit of disobedience, 186 Ösel. See Saaremaa Zinzendorf, Nicolaus Ludwig Ostland (Nazi’s Baltic region), 350 von, 162 cultural activities, 355 Moravskis, Alfonsas, 262, 264 mandatory labor service, 356 Muraviev, Mikhail, 236 self-government groups, 354 Muscovy, 70, 78, 81, 87, volunteer police battalions, 356 Livonian Wars, 86 Otepää fortress, 40, 41 Muslims, 29, 30, 34 Ottoman Empire, 78 mutual assistance pacts, 339 out-migration for work (2004), 443–444 Narbutt, Theodor, 175 Narva, 103, 120, 121, 248 Pacta Subjectionis, 95 national army units, 290 Pakšas, Rolandas, 442 national awakenings, 237, 276 Paleckis, Justas, 343 ﬁnal phase, 273 papacy, 30, 44, 73, 82 national cadres, 369, 370 Gregory XVI, 206 national culture hierarchy, 60 perpetuation, 419 Innocent III, 36, 38, 39 National Harmony, 422 Innocent IV, 48 national histories, 438 John Paul II, 386 national identity, 254–256 secret instructions, 206 NATO (North Atlantic Treaty terra Mariana (Baltic littoral), 54 Organization), 375, 429 parliaments full membership (2004), 435 elections, 415–418 Nazi Germany, 336 procedures, 311–312 racial theory, 354 Pärn, Jakob, 231 Nemunas River, 11 Pärno Postimees, 233 neutrality policy, 330, 335, 337 Pärnu, 128 Niedra, Andrievs, 302 Parrott, Georg Friedrich, 208

Index 467

particularism, 76 Polish language, 113, 175 end of eighteenth century, 159 Polish Livonia. See Latgale passport law (1863), 223 Polish-Lithuania union, 86 Päts, Konstantin, 274, 297, 321, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, 326, 337 90– 97, 130 authoritarian rule, 319 Augustus II, 120 peasant laws Education Commission, 164 Estland (1802), 185 partitions, 153 Estland (1856), 218 Sigismund II Augustus, 86, 95 Livland (1804), 186–189 Sigismund III, 87 Livland (1849), 218 Stanislav II Augustus, 153 Supplementary Points ( 1809), 189 Polish-Lithuanian union, 78 peasantry, 59, 60, 70, 88, 93, 96 political left farmland purchase, 219 Social Democrats, 314 labor obligations, 131–132 political right Lutheranism’s effect, 85 Agrarian Union (Latvia), 314 Merkel’s Die Letten, 148 Christian Democratic Bloc paganism, 73 (Lithuanian), 314 reading skills, 116 Farmers’ Party (Estonia), 314 reform attempts, 144– 145 polonization, 91 rights abrogated, 107 of German landowners, 96 Russian Orthodox converts, 200 Poltava, Battle of ( 1709), 121 serf ﬂight, 110, 181 popular culture, 446 serfs, 100 popular front movements, 419 settlement patterns, 108 Popular Fronts, 393 , 413 surnames, 111, 173, 197 Poruks, Ja¯ nis, 282 uprisings, 75 Poška, Dionizas, 212 Peipus, Lake, 41, 56 Poška, Jaan, 296 Pelše, Arveds, 373 post-communist countries, 441 People’s Movement for Latvia, 422, 424 postwar reconstruction, 364 People’s Party, 424 Potocki family, 137 perestroika (restructuring), 387 Presidential Commissions, 440 Pe¯ rkonkrusts (Thundercross), 329 Pribaltika (Baltic littoral as region), Pe¯ terburgas av¯ı zes, 225 , 234 378, 404 Philomaths, 201 privatization, 425 Miczkiewicz, Adam, 203 Privileges of Sigismund Augustus, 128 phosphate mining protest, 390 Pro Patria, 420, 424 Piast’ dynasty, 65 protectionist stance, 421 Piłsudski, Joseph, 305, 320 Protestant reforms, 77, 81 plague, 123 Anabaptists, 84 Pla¯ tere, Emilija, 199 Anglican Church, 84 Plenum of the Creative Unions, 393 Calvin, John, 84 Pliekša¯ ns, Ja¯ nis. See Rainis Reformation (1517), 81 plunder, 26 See also Lutheranism Poland, 65, 66, 79 Prunskiene, Kazimiera, 411 assembly, 93, 136 Prussia John Casimir, 119 East. See Lithuania Minor Kosciuszko, Tadeusz, 153 Frederick the Great, 144, 152 Louis, 66 Prussians, 44

468 Index

Prussians (cont.) Riga Latvian Association (1868), 228, Old Prussians, 12 258 Pugo, Boris, 388 Riga Polytechnic Institute (1862), 251 Pumpurs, Andrejs, 232 Riga, Gulf of, 11, 377 Riga–Dünaburg railway line, 246 radio, 345 R¯gası Av¯zeı (Riga News), 281 Radziwill family, 137 Rigasche Zeitung, 255 railroad network, 244 Riigikogu (Estonian parliament), 311 Rainis (Ja¯ nis Pliekša¯ ns), 262, 282 post-1991, 412 Rävala, 13 Ritterschaften (corporations of nobility), Red Army 126, 128, 129, 130 counterattack (1944), 357 road-building, 105, 106 recruits from Baltic, 357 Roma refugees, 289, 349 annihilated (1941), 354 committees, 289 Roman Catholic Church, 72, 200, 205 westward movement, 358–359 clergy, 117, 151 Reiters, Ja¯ nis, 115 indigenous language use, 112, 159 resident non-citizens, 444 conciliar movement, 77 return migration, 254 Counter-Reformation, 86, 112 Reval. See Tallinn repressed (1840), 204 revolutionary year of 1905, 262, restricted, 236 268–274 Roman Empire, 6, 7, 29, 31 rex (king), 17 Romove, 21 Rickmann, Heinrich Rosen, O. F. von Polish Jews in Riga, 173 declaration of principle, 131, 177 Riga, 40, 75, 81, 83, 96, 104, Rosenberg, Alfred, 350 120, 126 Rota, Michael, 168 Albert’s headquarters, 36, 37 Rug‘e¯ns, Ja¯ nis, 209 archbishopric seat, 56, 61 Rural Delegates Congress in Riga, 272 commercial center, 103 Rural Party, 422 crusaders’ stronghold, 43 rural settlement patterns Dom Cathedral, 37 farmsteads, 181 ecclesiastical council, 60 villages (collectivities), 181 Estonian attack, 40 Rurik (Rus’ dynasty founder), 31 Freedom Monument, 379 Rus’ principalities, 26, 27, 31–32, 39, 50, growth in nineteenth century, 244 65 guilds, 58, 243 Novgorod, 26, 31, 39, 40, 42 history of (1978), 379 Polotsk, 26, 32, 39 industrial enterprises, 245 Pskov, 26, 39, 40, 41, 106 merchants, 73, 103 Vladimir-Suzdal, 42 Occupation Museum, 410 Russia OMON (special forces) incident, 398 provisional government (1917), 294 Polish Jews at market, 173 Russian Empire population control, 80 Alexander I, 170–172, 189, Russian port (nineteenth century), 176 191, 201 Saeima building, 313 serfdom reform, 183–185 surrendered, 122 Alexander II, 218, 256 Swedish governor-general, 100 Alexander III, 256 Swedish rule, 100 Alexis, 119

Index 469

Anna, 140 Savisaar, Edgar, 411, 424 Catherine II (the Great), 126, 142, Saxony, 136 152, 157 Scandinavia, 27 Elizabeth, 162 Schimmelpfennig, Adam Friedrich, 168 Ivan III, 82 Schmalkaldic War (1546–1547), 84 Ivan IV (the Terrible), 86 scholarly societies, 175–176 Nicholas I, 170, 199, 200, 206 Schoultz, Karl Friedrich Paul I, 154, 158 peasant laws, 145 Peter I (the Great), 119, 126 seimas. See Poland, assembly port of Riga (nineteenth century), 176 Seimas (Lithuanian parliament), 295, scorched-earth strategy, 122 311 serf emancipation (1861), 222 sejm. See Poland, assembly western borderlands, 171 sejmiki (regional diets), 136, 178 Russian Federation, 399, 428, 430, 445 Selonian language, 71 Russian language, 205, 259, 369 Selonians, 10, 13, 38, 112 Russian Orthodoxy, 259 defeat, 42 conversions, 200 Semigallia, 134 in-migration, 205 Semigallians, 11, 13, 43, 45, 112 Russian Slavophiles, 224 assimilation, 79 Russian Twelfth Army, 291 Nameisis, 46 Russian-speaking cadres, 362 Viestarts, 46 Russian-speaking populations, 445–446 seniores (elders), 17 russification policy, 256–261 serf emanicipation, 191 Russo-Finnish War, 339 serfdom, 59, 107 Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905, 269 abolition, 184 Russow, Balthasar critics, 180 Livonian Chronicle, 113 emancipation, 189–198 Ruthenians, 70 in Baltic littoral, 107 Rüütel, Arnold, 411, 422, 442 reform (early nineteenth century), 183–189 Saaremaa, 13, 41, 42, 128, 162 stratification, 180 Danes invade, 41 Setus, 10 serf emancipation, 194 Sheremetev, Boris, 122 surrendered to Sweden, 88 shock therapy, 408 Saeima (Latvian parliament), 311, 413 Siig, Arvi, 381 sagas, 8 Sirk, Artur, 327 St. George’s Day uprising (1343–1345), Skalvians, 12 75 Slavic speakers, influx, 375 St. Petersburg, 121 Slavs, 12, 30 Sakala, 13, 41, 46 Šleževicius, Mykolas, 304 samizdat (self-published) literature, 379 Sluckis, Mykolas, 374 Chronicle of the Lithuanian Catholic Smelteris, Pe¯teris, 276 Church, 379 Smetona, Antanas, 304, 321, 337 Samson, Hermann authoritarian rule, 312, 319 Neun Auszerlesenen ..., 114 Smigly-Ridz, Edvard, 303 satellite states, 395 Smith, Adam, 194 Satversmes Sapulce (Constitutional Sniecˇkus, Antanas, 362, 372 Convention), 310 Sn¯ps,ı Arturs, 389 Saule, 44 Social Democratic Alliance, 422

470 Index

Social Democrats, 424 surnames, 343 socialism, 256, 261–264 adoption, 197–198 socialist realism, 366 Suvalkija, 13, 271 Society of Estonian Literati (1871), 228 Šviesa, 238 Solidarity trade union, 386 Sweden, 67, 78, 86, 96 Solomon, Elijah Ben, 284 Charles X Gustavus, 119 Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr Charles XII, 119 One Day in the Life of Ivan control of Estonia and Livonia, Denisovich (1957), 371 98–106 song festivals, 260 Eric XVI, 86 Songaila, Ringaudas, 388 Frederick I, 122 soul revisions, 180, 197 Gustavus II Adolphus, 98 Soviet protectorates, 341 Karl IX, 88 Soviet Republic of Litbel, 305 Karl XI, 109 soviet socialist republics road system, 105 growing up in, 369 Ulrica Eleanora, 122 Soviet takeover Vasa dynasty, 98 puppet governments formed, 342 Swedes, 43 Soviet Union, 336 Estonian incursion, 41 dissolution (Dec. 1991), 399 Swedish–Polish War, 88 ultimata (June 1940), 342 Swordbrothers. See crusaders sovietization process, 343–348 Syrvidas, Konstantinas interrupted, 349 dictionary, Latin–Polish–Lithuanian, splinter parties, 314 115 Sponti, Evgenii, 262 szlachta (polonized Lithuanian gentry), Stahl, Heinrich, 115 135, 138 Stahlecker, Walter, 352 Stalin, Joseph, 336, 344 Tacitus, 7, 8 death (1953), 370 Tallinn, 41, 81, 101, 103, 128 era (1945–1953), 365 Hanseatic League member, 248 Stender, Alexander Johann, 167 surrender to Sweden, 86 Stender, Gotthard Friedrich, 166 Swedish governor-general, 100 Stoel, Max van der, 431 Tarapitha, 23 Stolbovo, Treaty of (1617), 98 Tartu, 42, 81 Strandman, Otto, 310 Academia Gustaviana (1631), 249 stre¯lnieki (Latvian riﬂemen), 290–293, Hanseatic League member, 248 366 nineteenth century, 209 bolshevization, 302 Tartu University (formerly Dorpat), 331 Stucˇka, Pe¯teris, 302 Taryba (national council), 294 Stulginskis, Alexander, 311 1918 independence statement, 294 Suits, Gustav, 278 tautininkai (Nationalist Party), 323 Supreme Soviet, 395, 397 Antanas Smetona, 320 disbanded, 416 tax system, reformed, 422 elections of 1990, 396, 410 Teataja (The Herald), 263 former Baltic SSRs, 396 ten-hectare farmers, 367 Latvian SSR, 394 territorial naming, 12–13 Lithuania, 396 thaw (1957–1960), 370 newly independent states, 397 Theodoric, Brother, 36 USSR, 344 Third Reich. See Nazi Germany

Index 471

Thirty Years War, 98 Valka, 208 Tolgsdorff, Ertman, 114 Valmiera, 162 Tõnnison, Jaan, 278, 295 Varangians, 31 traders, 25–26 Vares, Johannes, 343 translation of religious literature, 85 Varpas (The Bell), 238, 263 transparency, 434 Veinbergs, Friedrichs, 281 Transylvania, 78 Venclova, Tomas, 381 Trasuns, Francis, 276 , 333 Ventspils, 246 Trent, Council of (1545–1563), 86 vernacular languages, 85, 166 tribal societies, 10, 13, 14–20, 34, 58, end of eighteenth century, 159–161 64. See also hillforts V¯kı ‚e-Freiberga Vaira, 427, 442 change, pattern of, 19–20 Vikings, 26–28, 29 chieftains, 45–47 sagas, 26 defeat, 43 Scandinavian, 31 occupational skills, 18–19 Viljandi fortress, 40 political leaders, 17–18 Vilnius, 90, 91, 92, 134, 251, 306 population, 14–16 1991 violence, 398 social strata, 18 Vilnius University, 114, 175, 204, 211 Tu¯ belis, Juozas, 324 Virginius, Andreas, 116 Turaida, 40 Virumaa, 13 Liv chieftain, 46 Vistula River, 3 Twentieth Party Congress (1956) Vitebsk, 154, 204, 235, 298 Stalin condemned, 370 voievod (governor), 138 Twenty-Seventh Party Congress Voldemaras, Augustinas, 304, 323 (1986), 387 Völker (Herderian concept of native peoples), 149 Ugandi, 13, 41 Volksdeutsche return (Oct. 1939), 339 Ulmanis, Guntis, 413, 414 volok reforms, 107 Ulmanis, Ka¯ rlis, 274, 299, 302, 321, Volynia, 48 325, 337 authoritarian rule, 312, 319 Wackenbücher (account books), United Nations 188–189 membership (1991), 399, 428 Waffen-SS United People’s Party, 422 national military units, 356 Unity, 392 War of Polish Succession, 136 urbanization, 241–254 Warsaw, Duchy of (1807), 190 Urbonavicˇius, Bronislovas, 262 Warsaw Pact countries, 375 USSR. See Soviet Union Watson, K. F., 208 USSR Congress of Peoples Deputies, 393 Wehrmacht Uudised (The News), 263 Baltic invastion (Aug. 1941), 348 welfare states, 422 Va¯ cietis, Oja¯ rs, 374 Wenden. See Ce¯sis Vadonis (leader of the nation), 326 Wilcken, Karl Reinhold and Christian Vagris, Ja¯ nis, 394 Nikolay, 145 Vaino, Karl, 388 World War I, 285–294 valakas (parcel of land), 107 armistice (Nov. 1918), 300 Valancˇius, Motejus, 212, 238 World War II, 336 Valdema¯rs,Krišja¯nis,225, 228, 231, 258 Writers Unions, 374, 408 Väljas, Vaino, 394 written sources. See chronicles

472 Index

Wycliff, John. See Protestant reforms Zeligowski, Lucjan, 306 Žemaitija, 11, 13, 62, 69, 93 Ycˇas, Martynas, 285 Durbe, Battle of (1260), 44 Year of Terror (1940–1941), inaccessible to crusaders, 64 350 literary activity, 211 Yeltsin, Boris, 399 raiders, 47 Young Pioneers, 369 surrendered by Mindaugas, 50 Treniota, 50 Zamoyski family zemstvo (local governments), 269 landholdings, 108 Zhdanov, Andrei, 366 Zatlers, Valdis, 442 Zionism, 284