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INDIGENOUS ORGANISING IN GLOBAL CONTEXTS by Steven John Finlay A thesis submitted to the Victoria University of Wellington in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Management 2011 Abstract Drawing from social phenomenology, this thesis builds a grounded theory of indigenisation from two cases in their respective global and historical contexts: Te Wānanga o Raukawa in New Zealand and The Iona Community in Scotland. The theory describes indigenous organising as a process, showing how leaders develop strategies for their organisations to recover, enact and update indigenous knowledge. The theory of indigenisation also shows how actors use this knowledge to rebuild identity and overcome the effects of globalist practices, illustrating the dialectic of how globalisation as a large scale social process may be declining as differing cultures and their ways of organising emerge. ii Acknowledgements This thesis is dedicated to my long suffering family. In completing the thesis I have been given support by many others. Not least of these are: the gracious staff, volunteers and students of Te Wānanga o Raukawa; the members, staff, guests and volunteers of the Iona Community; and especially the staff of the Victoria Management School, and in particular my supervisors Professor John Brocklesby and Dr Deborah Jones. I also thank Professor Coin Campbell-Hunt for his initial support and supervision. Professor Graham Hingangaroa Smith, Professor Manuka Henare and Māori M.P. Hon. John Tamihere also provided invaluable guidance at the early stages of the journey. Professor Whatarangi Winiata and Kathy Galloway have guided my steps along the way. John Ralston Saul was a worthy encourager as the end drew near. Your graciousness in tolerating gaps in my own knowledge, and sharing your own knowledge so fully, is deeply appreciated. I owe a significant debt of gratitude to you all. iii Contents Abstract ii Acknowledgements iii Contents iv Figures xi Tables xii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 The Research Question 2 1.3 Positioning the Research 3 1.4 Positioning the Researcher 6 1.5 Why Social Phenomenology? 9 1.6 Social Phenomenology: A Naturalistic Theory 10 1.7 Social Phenomenology in OS 13 1.8 Naturalistic Research Methods, Naturalistic Generalisation 14 1.9 Cases 18 1.10 Definitions of Terminology 19 1.11 Thesis Summary 22 CHAPTER 2: DEFINING INDIGENEITY IN GLOBAL CONTEXTS 28 2.1 Introduction 28 2.2 Indigeneity in the Context of Globalist Practices 28 2.2.1 Globalisation Fragments Indigenous Knowledge 33 2.2.2. Alienation: The Seeds of Globalisation‟s Demise 39 2.3 Indigenous Organisations: Surviving in Global Contexts. 44 2.4 Indigenous Organisations Enacting Indigenous Knowledge 50 iv 2.5 Indigenous Leadership and Identity 57 2.6 Defining Indigeneity in Wider Literatures 66 2.6.1 Objective Colonialism: Positional Superiority 66 2.6.2 Postcolonial Identity Constructed by the Coloniser 67 2.6.3 Objective Anthropology 70 2.6.4 Indigeneity in Global Agencies; Challenging Nation States 73 2.6.5 Constructing Indigeneity in Anthropology 76 2.6.6 Authentic Indigenous Identity 78 2.7 Indigenous Definitions Used in This Thesis 80 2.8 Summary 85 CHAPTER 3: ORGANISING KNOWLEDGE 87 3.1 Introduction 87 3.2 Social Phenomenology in Philosophical Context 88 3.3 Individual Knowledge Construction and Transmission 90 3.3.1 Typification 92 3.3.2 Language: Constructing and Transmitting Worlds 93 3.3.3 Inter-subjectivity 94 3.3.4 Epistemologies 95 3.3.5 Identity 97 3.4 Enacting Knowledge at Group Levels 99 3.4.1 Group Membership 100 3.4.2 Knowledge Validity 101 3.4.3. Updating Stocks of Knowledge 103 3.5 Garfinkel and Ethno-methodology: Members‟ Methods 106 3.6 Indexicality and Reflexivity 107 3.7 Transmitting and Protecting Social Knowledge 109 3.7.1 Institutional Knowledge and Roles of Leadership 109 v 3.7.2 Legitimising Knowledge 113 3.7.3 Delegitimising Knowledge 116 3.8 Summary 117 CHAPTER 4: CONSTRUCTING NATURALISTIC METHOD 120 4.1 Introduction 120 4.2 Reflecting on Method 120 4.3 Constructing Grounded Theory 121 4.3.1 Naturalistic Case Study Methodology and Selection 122 4.3.2 Case Study Selection 124 4.3.3 Ethnography and Fieldwork 125 4.3.4 Kaupapa Māori Research Protocols 127 4.3.5 Applying Kaupapa Māori Research Protocols 127 4.3.6 Fieldwork 129 4.3.7 Ethnographic Descriptions of Culture 130 4.4 Method in the Field: Interviews and Data Analysis 131 4.4.1 Interviews –Tacit Knowledge and the Reflexive Researcher 132 4.4.2 Defining Indigeneity in Global Contexts 135 4.4.3 Observing the Construction of the Indigenous Organisation 136 4.4.4 Social Context: Legitimising and Delegitimising Knowledge 138 4.4.5 Data Analysis 138 4.4.6 Cross Case Comparison 142 4.4.7 Credibility Criteria for Naturalistic Research 143 4.5 Summary 144 CHAPTER 5: CONSTRUCTING INDIGENEITY IN GLOBAL CONTEXTS 146 5.1 Introduction 146 5.2 Constructing Māori of Aotearoa New Zealand 146 vi 5.2.1 Tangata Whenua: The People Are the Land 148 5.2.2 Colonial New Zealand: Fragmenting Indigenous Knowledge 149 5.2.3 The Treaty of Waitangi 151 5.2.4 Land Confiscation and Language Loss 152 5.2.5 Māori Challenge and Redress 154 5.2.6 The Treaty Act and Settlements 155 5.2.7 Recovering Te Reo: Kohanga Reo and Whare Wānanga 156 5.2.8 Māori Political Autonomy and Representation 159 5.3 Constructing Scottish „Celtic‟ 161 5.3.1 Early Celtic and Scottish National Identity 165 5.3.2 Scotland Assimilated In Union 168 5.3.3 Land Clearances and Celtic Cosmology Fragmented 169 5.3.4 Celtic Knowledge Survives Globalist Fragmentation 172 5.3.5 Current Context: Sovereignty and Nationhood 173 5.3.6 Gaelic Renaissance 176 5.3.7 Celtic Revival 177 5.4 Summary 178 CHAPTER 6: EXPLORING TWO INDIGENOUS ORGANISATIONS 179 6.1 Introduction 179 6.2 TWoR in Context: The ART Confederation & Te Rauparaha 179 6.2.1 Generation 2000: Reclaiming Māori Knowledge 182 6.2.2 Professor Winiata: The „Generation 2000‟ Visionary 186 6.2.3 TWoR: Māori Knowledge Recovery and Embellishment 189 6.2.4 TWoR Today 192 6.2.5 A Tikanga Māori Institution: Enhancing Māori Knowledge 193 6.3 Iona in Context: Columban Celtic Mission 195 6.3.1 The IC: Claiming Columban Mission in the Urban Context 196 vii 6.3.2 A Celtic Institution? 198 6.3.3 George MacLeod: The Visionary Celtic Environmentalist 199 6.3.4 Founding Purposes and the Celtic Imaginary 200 6.3.5 The IC Today 204 6.4 Discussion 209 6.5 Summary 211 CHAPTER 7: DEFINING AND ENACTING MĀORI KNOWLEDGE 213 7.1 Introduction 213 7.2 Preparing Cultural Competence 213 7.2.1 Approach to TWoR 215 7.2.2. Defining Māori Knowledge − Māori Worldviews 221 7.2.3 Defining Indigeneity - Constructing Identity 223 7.2.4 Boundaries and Rules: The Theory of Wānanga 228 7.2.5 Theory of Wānanga Session 229 7.2.6 Māori Knowledge and Life Projects in Social Context 231 7.2.7 Experiencing Colonialism and Postcolonialism 233 7.2.8 Māori Knowledge at Individual Levels 235 7.3 Discussion 238 7.4 Summary 239 CHAPTER 8: DEFINING AND ENACTING CELTIC KNOWLEDGE 240 8.1 Introduction 240 8.2 Iona Programme 2003: On the Move 240 8.2.1 Celtic Knowledge - Celtic Liturgy 245 8.2.2 Defining Indigeneity 247 8.2.3 Defining Celtic 251 8.2.4 IC: Recovering and Enacting Celtic Knowledge 257 viii 8.3 Experiencing Celtic Knowledge and Plotting Boundaries 262 8.3.1 Boundaries - Drawing from the Benedictine 265 8.3.2 Celtic Knowledge: Building Community 266 8.3.3 Historical and Neocolonial Impositions on Celtic Knowledge 273 8.4 Discussion: Indigeneity Defined and Enacted in a Celtic Context 276 8.5 Summary 277 CHAPTER 9: ORGANISING WITH INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE 281 9.1 Introduction 281 9.2 Māori Organising: Constructing a Tikanga Māori Organisation 281 9.2.1 Overcoming Knowledge Challenges 283 9.2.2 Autonomy in Decision Making: The Academic Board 287 9.2.3 Māori Knowledge: Continuity and Adaptiveness 290 9.2.4 Māori Knowledge Coordinates Organising 293 9.2.5 Māori Organising at the Social Level 295 9.3 Summary 297 9.4.1 Challenging Celtic Knowledge inside the IC 302 9.4.2 Challenging Celtic outside the Community 303 9.4.3 Celtic Knowledge: Continuity and Change 305 9.4.4 Constructing the Celtic Christian Holistic Cosmology 309 9.4.5 Celtic Knowledge Coordinates Organising 311 9.4.6 Celtic Knowledge at the Social Level 312 9.5. Summary 312 CHAPTER 10: INDIGENOUS ORGANISING IN GLOBAL CONTEXTS 315 10.1 Introduction 315 10.2 Defining Indigeneity from Holistic Cosmologies 315 10.3 Comparing and Theorising Indigenous Organisations 320 ix 10.3.1 The Indigenous Organisation in Global Contexts 321 10.3.2 Indigenous Organising as a Process 323 10.4 Indigenous Leadership 328 10.4.1 Māori Leadership: Rangatiratanga 329 10.4.2 Celtic Leadership 330 10.4.3 Indigenous Leadership Enabling Knowledge and Organising 331 10.4.4 Enacting Indigenous Knowledge - Antecedent Conditions 334 10.4.5 Challenges to Indigneous Knowledge 336 10.4.6. Indigenisation 337 10.5. Credibility Criteria of Research Findings 343 10.6 Conclusion 346 10.7 Limitations of the Research 355 10.8 Areas for Future Research 358 APPENDIX: SAMPLE INFORMATION SHEET 360 MĀORI GLOSSARY 362 BIBLIOGRAPHY 364 x Figures Figure 1: Thesis Structure 27 Figure 2: Impacts of Colonisation on Aboriginal Health 38 Figure 3 : The Flow of Naturalistic Inquiry, Applied to a PhD Context 123 Figure 4: The Abductive Process 139 Figure 5: NVivo Full Interview Example 140 Figure 6: Example Page from The Book of Kells 164 Figure 7: Iona in Historical and Physical Location 167 Figure 8: Te Raupara and Interior of Rangiātea Church, Otaki.
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