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Nazism - Rationalwiki

Nazism - Rationalwiki

Nazism - RationalWiki https://rationalwiki.org/wiki/Nazism

Nazism

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Nazism (less commonly known as National ) refers to the political A lunatic Chaplin imitator beliefs held by the (officially the "National Socialist German and his greatest fans Workers' Party" - Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei , commonly Nazism shortened to NSDAP). It resembled the contemporary doctrine of in many particulars, such as its and ethnic , although it had a much stronger emphasis on race. It destroyed terrorized ruled from 1933 to 1945, during a period known as the "Third ." In case you were wondering, the first Reich was the and the second Reich was the . Despite being in office longer than Hitler, the Republic doesn't count. First as tragedy

Communists of that time lumped all their authoritarian enemies together under the label of "". Today, continuing this usage, many people use the terms Nazi and fascist interchangeably. Since very few true Nazis are still living Muhammad Amin al- (although there are quite a few neo-Nazi groups), the term is often used more Husseini generally in reference to various authoritarians, especially those who focus on Question of hate, , or grammar; though brandishing the term Nazi around to anyone who disagrees with you in a haphazard fashion rather diminishes the atrocities committed by the Nazi regime. Then as farce

Freedom Party of Contents Creations 1 Origin James Alex Fields Jr. 2 End-Goal Sarah Maid of Albion 3 Legacy 4 Nazis and craziness v - t - e (https://rationalwiki.org 5 On a /w/index.php?title=Template:Nazism& 6 in Nazism action=edit) 6.1 Allegations of US and church cooperation 7 Nazism in the 8 Nazism in today 9 In popular culture 10 See also 11 External links 12 Notes 13 References

Origin

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The myriad influences leading up to the rise to power of the Nazis are well documented, but there are also many topics which are hotly debated. 's historical determinist book The Decline of the West is cited as an "intellectual" influence although his work was later banned by the Nazis because he dared to criticize them, and because he rejected anti-Semitism. Spengler also rejected racism and found the idea of racial superiority laughable, since the work that the Nazis loved had eight dominant cultures (called 'high cultures'), only two of which were actually European.[1] Ironically, his other book, Prussiandom and Socialism , provided a basis for their view of socialism. Germanic romanticism and national , as expressed in Wagner's operas, the Wandervögel youth movement (which was outlawed by the Nazis, too), and German occultist movements like Ariosophy, are also cited as precursors. More hotly disputed is the extent to which Nietzsche may have been an influence, but his sister Elisabeth was an early and enthusiastic supporter of Hitler's and helped the Nazis to claim him as one at least in name; some allege that certain potentially racist turns of phrase found in contemporary editions of his works (most famously, the "splendid beast of noble race") were added by her after his death.

A more immediate precursor was the state of Germany after , when the country experienced hyperinflation and economic collapse during the period, and suffered under the international sanctions imposed after the war. The predecessor to the Nazi Party, a tiny group of a few dozen individuals calling themselves the "German Workers' Party", was founded in 1919 by an unimaginative nobody called . Hitler, at that time a military man, was given the task of spying on this group but decided to take it over instead. Years later, he came to power promising to restore Germany's "might" after this period of national pessimism and effectively manipulated the recent popularity of Germanic romanticism to his advantage. This proved to be irresistible to some segments of society who were quick to fall for demagoguery blaming "the " and other sinister forces for Germany's plight. The NSDAP's brand of "national socialism" was seen by conservatives and business elites as a favorable alternative to Bolshevik , which had a strong following among the German working class, while many businessmen feared it might overtake Germany. The influence of socialism within the NSDAP is also hotly debated; there was a faction within the party, the Strasserites, that took the "socialism" part of National Socialism seriously, but they were violently purged from the party soon after Hitler consolidated his power.

On the other hand, the claim of certain Religious Right nutjobs like Scott Lively that Nazism emerged out of a homosexual subculture is almost universally discredited, except among homophobes.

End-Goal

National Socialism’s ideological incoherence fuelled its virulence. There was no end-goal of conquest, or of purity: it was focused purely on the twin processes of struggle and of racial strengthening-cleansing. There could be no peace, no acceptable measure of racial purity, no absence of enemies. Nazism was not in this sense Utopian, “because in a Utopia there are no enemies.” Ultimately, every measure short of near-omnicide was a mere tactical concession. The Nazis did not militarise their society and wage wars of conquest because they feared weakness: they did it to be militaristic and to conquer [2]

Legacy

The legacies of Nazism are many and complex. The flagrant way in which this complex legacy is often reduced and simplified in order to score a cheap point has led to the necessity of Godwin's Law:

As an online discussion grows longer, the probability of a comparison involving Nazis or Hitler “ [3] approaches one. ”

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Nazis and occult craziness

The Nazis were also proponents of Horbiger's Cosmic Ice theory which held that the stars were made of ice. They also imagined they had superior intelligence, which seems a bit at odds with the previous sentence.

They contended that the novel "Spring in " ("Frühling in Atlantis" [4] ) by Edmund Kiß (or Edmund Kiss ) was based on truth - that the race was descended from Atlanteans (or if they did not originate in Atlantis then it had to be something similar and northern called Thule), which was later overrun by inferior races. [5] The Waffen-SS (the paramilitary wing of the NSDAP) employed a team of archaeologists searching for proof of these theories, similar to that featured in the Indiana Jones films.

On a political spectrum

People who say "Hitler was a socialist cuz his party included the word socialist" must be “ incredibly confused that the titmouse is a bird

—@TheNewMeat”[6]

Nazism is more complicated than fascism when trying to place it on a political spectrum. The majority of scholars identify Nazism, in practice, as a bizarre form of right-wing .[7] Many Nazis were advocates of third positionism when it came to economics. This meant that they were opposed to both socialism (especially communism) and , despite many being advocates of to own private property (so long as you were an Aryan...but that goes without saying). Where they differ from capitalists (when it comes to economics) is that they openly advocated a kind of symbiosis between the state and big business, where the state would favor certain companies (German-owned, of course) in return for them doing favors to the state. Basically, the Nazis openly endorsed crony . Up until relatively recently, this economic nationalism was shunned by mainstream conservatives. However, ever since the rise of both ultra- and right- wing in the West, these policies have quickly become the ethos of right-wing economic practices. For instance, and the intellectual wing of the alt-lite have expressed explicit third- position economic policies. , while not an economic isolationist like Bannon, follows a model very similar to (but much, much older than) economic nationalism - the precursor to capitalism, corporatism, and socialism: a crony 17th-century system known as mercantilism. Even populists on the economic "left" support economic nationalism, as many of their right-wing counterparts do. While they are both protectionist, the only difference between the pure economic isolationism of the third position and the mercantilism of the right is that the former is obligatory and the latter is coercive via tariffs. However, they both encourage state intervention when setting market prices.

Notable try to push Nazism to the other side of the political spectrum, or deny that Nazism was truly right-wing. While it's obvious that Nazism is completely different from the of their own party's establishment (in that Nazism is much further to the right with its advocacy of anti-Semitism, , misogyny, etc.) that does not automatically discount the fact that there were right-wing elements, by objective definition. Its odd form of right-wing politics, however, is removed from the vast majority of today's mainstream conservatism (neoconservatism should tell you that quite blatantly). Many on the right refuse to accept this, as they are unable to comprehend three basic notions: that "right and left" are both simplistic and arbitrary concepts depending on the context of the time and place (for instance, laissez-faire capitalism, which is now generally seen as being right of centre, was once as radical in 1790 as socialism is seen today); that both wings incorporate countless individual schools of thought, and are not indicative of singular and universal ; and that fascism is actually a lot closer to far-leftism than conservatism is to fascism. The exact

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same thing applies to . Communism and pure state-socialism are far closer to Nazism than it is to modern progressivism. Partisanship is a completely separate issue, as, though it is not as common anymore due to polarization, there can exist left-leaning Republicans (though that is no longer the case, objectively speaking) and right-wing Democrats (such as the Clintons and Jimmy Carter...not to mention that the political spectrum, which was once a contextually simple concept, has been made more complicated than it even should have been in the first place. As a matter of fact, the most extreme of right-wing thought is, by definition, , which mainline fascism like that of in the 1920s and 30s was very similar too.

However, in contrast to standard fascism, Nazism is far more complicated of a system. Besides technically not being fascism, [citation needed ] the hierarchy itself was determined more by race as opposed to aristocracy, and the idea of race as it is understood today did not come about until globalization began, prior to the Age of Enlightenment. Despite Nazism generally being considered a right-wing ideology for the case of simple taxonomy - as it is very similar to the extreme-right ideology that is fascism - stating that it is the epitome of far-right politics or that it is firmly right wing is simply not true. In some ways, it bears nearly or just as many similarities to the extreme left as it does to the extreme right, meaning that it is really both and neither right or left. In terms of its raw ideological ethos and foundations (racism, patriarchy, expansionism, hyper- cultural traditionalism, etc.) it is undoubtedly right. Organizationally , however, it had more left-wing features. The best example would be that Nazi society was collectivistic, supported (which, in the 1930s, was widely a leftist notion), antitheism, uniformity (as long as you were a male), and did not support individualism. It is very similar to the modern alt-right phenomenon, which is both socially far right (for the same reasons as the OG Nazis) and organizationally collectivistic (additionally, many identify as either socialists or left-libertaryans [citation needed ]). They are generally considered a constituency of the American right, however, due to their history of association with the GOP and, more recently, paleoconservative and populist movements, Donald Trump being a great example of the latter (although Trump seems to hold views more in line with monarchism than Nazism, which, in some ways, is even worse). "Alt-right" is a term that was originally coined by the Nazi cosplayer Richard Spencer to describe an ideology that was an alternative to traditional right-wing thought, particularly conservative, hence "alternative to the right", as he put it.

So, basically - both economically and socially - Nazism gives you the worst of both worlds.

In any case, Nazism was primarily concerned with Aryan racial purity and territorial conquests. Racism and were its defining features. Like most imperialist regimes, conquest was done to benefit the population of the imperialist power, in this case, the German volk . existed for fear that Germany was on the brink of starvation and needed resources. As such, German motives for invading , , etc. were equally racist and imperialist. The need for Germany to expand was commonly defended by with the belief that Slavs and Jews were destined to be serfs for , and the extermination of Slavs and Jews was defended by Germany's perceived need for land and resources. [8] It cannot be stressed enough that this type of thinking was frighteningly common among other Western powers. It was only their aggressive pursuit of war and genocide that made them special. In terms of economic policy, the Nazis were unremarkable and very much inside the mainstream. Therefore, if someone does not aggressively support war and genocide, then no matter what side of the political spectrum they're on, they shouldn't be compared to the Nazis.

Religion in Nazism

The role of religion in the ideology of the NSDAP has been a much discussed and controversial question. Hitler made a distinction between "master " and "slave religions." According to Hitler, Master religions would help the Aryan to dominate other races. Religions which preached love and tolerance would hinder the master race in dominating others:

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Hitler extended his rationalizations into religious doctrine, claiming that those who agreed with “ and taught his 'truths,' were 'true' or 'master' religions because they would 'create mastery' by ” avoiding comforting lies. Those that preach love and tolerance, 'in contravention of the facts,' were said to be 'slave" or 'false' religions. The man who recognizes these 'truths,' Hitler continued, was said to be a 'natural leader,' and those who deny it was said to be 'natural slaves.' 'Slaves,' especially intelligent ones, he claimed were always attempting to hinder masters by promoting false religious and political doctrines. [9]

Basically people either had to agree with Nazi-type religion or had to be treated as slaves, and so-called slave religions were persecuted. [10]

The claim by some that Nazism is an atheist ideology can be rejected out of hand. Nazism includes many near- mystical elements drawn from several different types of religion, and the early Nazi party was also involved in several direct conflicts with freethinker groups in Germany as early as the 1920s. This hostility continued after Hitler took power in 1933 when atheist movements were banned in Germany; however, it is worth mentioning that at least a few members were atheists, namely , who was openly anti-Christian, [note 1][11] and some others were probably religious, such as (though he was more into German and Nordic and wanted to revive it as a replacement for ). [12] It is important to note that Nazism is first and foremost an ideology, and thus will attract people from many different backgrounds.

On the other hand, the opposing view that Nazism is essentially based on Christianity is not very credible either, although this is a much more complex issue. Elements and themes drawn from Christianity often figured prominently in Nazi , but these were invariably twisted to fit with the National Socialist context, possibly due to the fact that Christianity was a prime element of Germany's cultural ethos. [13] Overall, it is probably better to see Christianity as carrying out a legitimizing function for Nazism, rather than as a part of its ideological foundations. Eventually, however, a specifically National Socialist brand of Christianity evolved, known as , which was basically quasi-atheistic state worship based upon the notion that Jesus was an Aryan crusader who hated Jews and preached in the name of an antisemitic god that frolicked around in the sky on his horse accompanied by his retinue of Wild Hunt ghost riders for no particular reason other than shits and giggles.

From a political perspective, it would also be outright wrong to categorize Nazism as a movement based on pushing Christian viewpoints, due to the popularity of the German Centre Party with the German of the time. If Hitler were really so eager to push a Christian agenda an alliance with the German Centre party would have occurred. On the other hand, it should be noted that it is undeniable fact that the CDU/CSU (a successor to the German Centre party) had a fair share of success thanks to the fact that former Nazis were in their ranks that successfully attracted other Nazis to vote for them.

On a more practical level, the Nazi ascension to power in 1933 resulted in the unification of the Protestant regional churches in each of the 28 federal states into one church known as the Deutsche Evangelische Kirche (German Evangelical Church ). This new church was from the beginning dominated by the strongly pro-Nazi Deutsche Christen ("German Christian") movement, whose leader, the theologian Ludwig Müller, was also appointed as the first Reichsbishof . However, strong political and theological conflicts inside the Church and waning interest from the Nazi leadership prevented the DEK from ever assuming any prominent role in the Third Reich, and it had faded from significance by 1935. Many smaller Protestant churches remained outside the Deutsche Evangelische Kirche , and in 1934, many of these joined together in the movement known as the Bekennende Kirche ( Confessing Church ), which aimed especially at opposing the influence of the Deutsche Christen . Although many of its members were against the unification of the churches for theological or

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confessional reasons rather than anti-Nazi as such, the Bekennende Kirche were seen as an opposition group by the Nazi government and were eventually persecuted, especially after 1937.

Some Roman clergy attempted, ineffectively, to oppose the Nazi regime. [14] Other clergies, the "Brown Priests" or Braune Pfarrer were party members. [15] Members of parliament from the Catholic Center Party voted for the crucial 1933 Enabling Act that gave Hitler dictatorial powers, after Hitler gave a speech praising the role of religion in the German state. Despite all this, some people seem dead-set on convincing themselves that the Catholic Church in general or Pope Pius XII were somehow complicit in the Nazi crimes. [16][17] Awkward. Hitler seems to have used a mixture of beliefs to justify Nazi ideology, depending on what suited him at the time. This mixture included more or less conventional Christianity, borrowings from Nordic mythology, , and a belief in Germany's and his own personal spiritual predestination for greatness. While he was disdainful of religion in his private life, he did make substantial efforts to accommodate Christian belief as a way of reconciling the German establishment to Nazism. Indeed, he referred to himself publicly as a Christian, yet on a personal level he didn't really care about theology - he was mainly interested in fulfilling his ordained role in history as Führer.

According to , Hitler privately stated "[t]he Mohammedan religion too would have been much more compatible to us than Christianity. Why did it have to be Christianity with its meekness and flabbiness?’" [18] In the book Hitler's Table Talk he also called the religion Bolshevism's "illegitimate child". [19] This could actually be possible due to the rise in and Wahabbism during the time, which themselves were the product of anti-intellectual reactionary thought that grew out of the 's collapse and the fundamentalism that, by then, had already established itself as the primary foundation of Saudi-Arabian society. The Goebbels Diaries by also mentioned that:

The Führer is deeply religious, though completely anti-Christian. He views Christianity as a symptom of decay. Rightly so. It is a branch of the Jewish race. This can be seen in the similarity of their religious rites. Both (Judaism and Christianity) have no point of contact to the animal element, and thus, in the end they will be destroyed. The Führer is a convinced vegetarian on principle. [20]

Goebbels also despised Christianity and advocated for National Socialism as its replacement:

National Socialism is a religion. All we lack is a religious genius capable of uprooting outmoded religious practices and putting new ones in their place. We lack traditions and ritual. One day soon National Socialism will be the religion of all Germans. My Party is my church,… That is my gospel. [21]

The Nazis also were planning to replace Christianity and traditional church institutions with the National Reich Church , a religious organization that essentially would throw all things Christian out the window (bibles, priests, chaplains, religious orders etc.) in favor of a Nazi-based faith as detailed in the "30 Points Program". There was also the German Faith Movement , another religious organization set up by the Nazis that would replace Christianity in favor of a religion that would fall more in line with Nazism mixed with ancient Germanic paganism.

Interestingly, Heinrich Himmler, the Reichsführer of the SS, thought that Islam was compatible with Nazi ideology. He stated that "It's a religion that promotes the warrior and the war - and it promises sex in the

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afterlife." [22] Many Bosnian Muslims, Arabs, Africans, and Indians joined the SS and fought for the Germans throughout the war. [22] On the other hand, many Bosnian Muslims helped Jews during the war, and the Albanian Muslims were so good at hiding Jews that not a single Albanian Jew was killed in . Only one other country was capable of keeping all of its Jews from the Nazis, and that was Bulgaria. It is very likely however that most Muslims weren't that much influenced by Hitler's existence because the division between Arab socialists and Islamists left little room for Nazi ideology to develop, as there is only one party that takes direct influence from Nazi ideology in the Islamic World, the Syrian Social Nationalist party , which was unsurprisingly created by a Greek Orthodox Christian.

Hinduism also played a role in shaping Nazi thought. Not only was the symbol taken from Hindu mythology, but Hitler believed in the Hindu notion of the Ayran race and wanted to create a caste system within Germany. There have been Nazi officers known for reading the Bhagavad Gita. [23] In turn some Indians tried to synthesise Nazism with . Savitri Devi , for instance, argued that Hitler was an of the Hindu God .

To a lesser degree, Buddhism is also seen as an influence of Nazism, in the sense that many Buddhist scriptures were searched by the Nazis to continue the notion of a warrior religion.

Allegations of US and church cooperation

It has been suggested that the Catholic Church helped members of the Nazis escape after World War II with assistance of intelligence agencies.[24]

Nazism in the United States

In 1936, the [25] (also known as Deutsche amerikanische Bund or as it called itself, Amerikadeutscher Volksbund ) was founded after the dissolution of a smaller pro-Nazi group, (which itself was founded by the merger of two even smaller groups, "Gau-Nord Amerika" and the "National Socialist Teutonia Club"). Led by German-born Fritz Julius Kuhn, [26] a naturalized US citizen, it attracted attention to itself by holding marches with members in Nazi uniforms displaying Nazi banners, organizing boycotts of Jewish businesses, and running resort camps in New York, , , , California, Indiana, Michigan, and Pennsylvania [27] used for both Bund parade in New York City in pro-Nazi rallies and training the children of members in an Americanized 1939 version of the . The largest of these was Camp Nordland in Andover Township, New Jersey, covering 204 acres. [28][29]

While the organization is not known to have received any funds from , it did reportedly receive propaganda literature through the German Railroads Information Office, which had offices in the USA. Despite the fact that Kuhn liked to promote himself as an "American Führer," Hitler himself didn't like the publicity the Bund was attracting to itself, preferring that the USA remain isolationist.[30] The height of the group's organization was a 1939 rally at Madison Square Garden, billed as a "Mass Demonstration for True Americanism," where an estimated 20,000 people attended. An estimated 100,000 protesters [31] , many being Jewish war veterans and German-Americans who opposed the Nazi regime, held a demonstration outside. (One protester was beaten by Bund goons when he rushed the stage during Kuhn's speech. [32] ) Despite the arrest and

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imprisonment of Fritz Kuhn for embezzlement of the Bund's funds shortly after the rally, he was still held in high regard by his followers. It wasn't until the US entry into WWII that the group finally disbanded. Kuhn was arrested as an enemy agent after serving his sentence for embezzlement, and held in an camp in Crystal City, for the duration of the war. His U.S. citizenship was later revoked and he was deported to , later dying in in 1951 at age 55, both unrepentant and nearly forgotten. [33][34][35][36]

The first serious pro-Nazi group in post-WWII USA was the (originally "World Union of Free Enterprise National Socialists"), later known as the National Socialist 's Party, [37] founded in 1959 by , a U.S. Navy commander of both WWII and the , who had worked as a commercial artist, sign painter, cartoonist, photographer, advertising agent, and magazine publisher. Rockwell's group, which never had more than an estimated 100 dues-paying members, [38] made a splash in the media with rallies and marches of men in Nazi uniforms, as well as professionally designed propaganda (often the work of Rockwell himself) that promoted the party's philosophy, which included one the earliest accounts of . His popularity included an interview for magazine in 1966, [39] and an extensive speaking tour at American colleges, where he was invited to speak about his extremist views. Rockwell's two attempts of running for public office (as a write-in candidate for President in 1964 and an Independent candidate for George Lincoln Rockwell in of in 1965 [40] ) ended in embarrassing defeats. [41][42] He 1951. Oy vey, another frustrated was fatally shot in 1967 at age 49 by a purged ex-member of his party in an artist! Arlington, Virginia laundromat parking lot. [43][44] Without Rockwell's leadership, the party eventually fractured into a number of smaller groups, [45] but his writings still influence Neo-Nazis of today.

While there a number of miscellaneous Neo-Nazi groups scattered about the USA, the National Socialist Movement (NSM) founded in 1974 based in Detroit, Michigan and led by Jeff Schoep is one of the few that can be rightly called a , since it has run candidates for office. [46] In January 2009, as part of the Adopt-A-Highway trash cleanup program, they sponsored a ½-mile section of US 160 outside of Springfield, Missouri. The state legislature later renamed it the "Rabbi Abraham Joshua Heschel Memorial Highway", after the Jewish theologian who marched alongside Rev. Dr. King, Jr. during the Civil Rights campaign. [47][48] Another Neo-Nazi party is the Traditionalist Worker Party (TWP) (originally the "Traditionalist Youth Network") founded in 2013 by Orthodox Christian, white nationalist and racist Confederate supporter who proudly models his party policies after Nazism.

Nazism in Europe today

See totally not also: Alternative für Deutschland which has nothing to do with this topic; we don't know how it got here. Honest.

The Nazi party, the swastika and essentially everything associated with Nazism, such as the , are currently illegal and banned in Germany as well as in several surrounding countries such as Austria and the . Buildings in Germany and Austria that once displayed or other Nazi symbols that survived the war have been extensively cleansed of such imagery, if not torn down completely. [49] The exhibition and distribution of Nazi propaganda films, such as Triumph des Willens () and Der ewige Jude (The Eternal Jew) , is prohibited in Germany, with the exception for use in academic situations,

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and exhibitors must have formal education in "media science and the history of the Holocaust." The sale of such films is prohibited in Germany, Austria, Italy, and .

Germany has even changed the part of its National Anthem "" ("Song of Germany") officially sung. Instead of the lyrics proclaiming " Deutschland, Deutschland über alles/Über alles in der Welt " ("Germany, Germany above everything/Above everything in the world"), only the third stanza is used, beginning with " Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit/Für das Deutsche Vaterland " ("Unity and justice and freedom/For the German fatherland"). However, it should be noted that already in Weimar times all three stanzas were the official German anthem and only the Nazis commonly shortened it to only the first stanza being played. Contrary to popular belief, the first stanza is in no way illegal and the legal ground for anything being the national anthem is shaky at best, as it is not based on the constitution or any act of parliament but two exchanges of open letters between the (figurehead) president and the chancellor; first between Adenauer and Heuss (the first holders of these offices) and then between Kohl and von Weizsäcker (the holder of said offices upon reunification) [50] .

It should be noted that the first verse of the "Deutschlandlied" contains a geographical description of Germany that, while accurate at the time this song was made, is nowadays widely inaccurate, as it spoke of Germany reaching up to the Memel . Nowadays this river flows through , , and Poland. Performing the first verse of this song wouldn't sit well with people of any of the three above mentioned countries.

The Nazi party anthem, "Horst-Wessel-Lied" ("The Song"), also known as "Die Fahne hoch" ("The Flag on High"), once performed throughout Nazi Germany on par with the national anthem [51] , is now banned in both Germany and Austria, except for educational purposes. [52]

In popular culture

This list is not, nor could ever be, exhaustive. Everyone laughs (or in video games, shoots) at the Nazis, with new works being made every day.

Endless multitudes of artistic works have contained references to and parodies of the Nazis, and as an utterly humorless form of reeking of unwarranted self-importance, Nazism became the perfect target of works of satire, including:

The film The Great Dictator (1940) by Charlie Chaplin. The title character is "Adenoid Hynkel", the Chaplin "as Hitler" in The Great Dictator Dictator of "Tomania". [53] The book Snorre Sel: En Fabel i Farger for Barn og Voksne (1941) by Frithjof Sælen was a satire of Nazi Germany and was translated into several languages (e.g., Snorri the Seal: A Fable in Colors for Adults and Children ). The Nazis belatedly attempted to confiscate all copies in occupied where it was published. The children's book Yertle the Turtle and Other Stories (1951) by " Dr. Seuss " (Theodore Seuss Geisel) tells the story of a turtle who proclaims himself superior to all the others in the pond. In various interviews, Seuss stated that Yertle was a representation of Hitler. [54] The film The Producers (1968) by Mel Brooks, with its play-within-a-film (and later play-within- a-play) "Springtime for Hitler".

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The film Snide and (1997) is set in a mental where patients are allowed to express their delusions by posing as historical members of the Nazi party. True to form, the patient posing as "Hitler" attempts to consolidate his power. [55] "Hitler reacts", [56] a YouTube meme based on a scene in the film Downfall (2004) (German title: Der Untergang ) where Hitler blows a gasket and loses his shit on his subordinates (based on actual events, as described by survivors present in the Führerbunker at that time). For this meme, the parodist simply takes the unsubtitled clip from Downfall and adds humorous subtitles (that naturally do not reflect what Hitler is actually yelling about in the scene), making it look to people who read the subtitles - without paying attention to what's actually being yelled in German - as if Hitler is reacting to whatever the parodist wants. [57]

See also

Adolf Hitler Hitler and evolution World War II Waffen-SS Axis Holocaust Holocaust denial Genocide Neo-Nazism Anti-Semitism White supremacy Fraktur

External links

The I Was Not a Nazi Polka (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yNqoX7Z7OJ0), The Chad Mitchell Trio California State University: In Our Own Backyard: Resisting Nazi Propaganda in Southern California 1933-1945 (http://digital-library.csun.edu/Backyard/index.html) Actual, literal grammar Nazis (https://twitter.com/anp14/status/472873123646545920) Short documentary on the German American Bund's 1939 New York Rally (https://youtu.be /0gU9op16rjQ)

Notes

1. National Socialist and Christian concepts are irreconcilable. The Christian churches build upon man's ignorance and endeavor to keep the greatest possible number of people in a state of ignorance. For it is only in this fashion that the churches can maintain their power. National Socialism, on the other hand, rests on scientific [sic ] foundations. Christianity has certain unalterable principles, established nearly two thousand years ago, which have petrified into a system of dogma that is even further removed from reality. National Socialism, on the other hand, if it is to fulfill its purpose, must forever be brought in harmony with the latest results of scientific inquiry. [sic ]

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References

10. See the article on Nazism § Religion. 1. Those high cultures were specifically the Babylonian, 11. Trial of the Major War Criminals before an Egyptian, Chinese, Indian, Mexican (Mayan/Aztec), International Tribune (http://www.loc.gov/rr/frd Classical (Greek/Roman), Arabian, Western or /Military_Law/pdf/NT_Vol-XXXV.pdf), "European-American" societies. War Trials 2. Bloxham, Donald, The : A Genocide 12. Himmer and religion (Oxford, 2009) p.24 (http://www.worldfuturefund.org/wffmaster/Reading 3. See the Wikipedia article on Godwin's Law. /Germany/himmler.religion.htm), 4. Or to give it its full, and rather clunky, Germanic title: worldfuturefund.org Frühling in Atlantis: Roman aus der Blütezeit des 13. "My feelings as a Christian points me to my Lord and Atlantis (http://www.worldcat.org Savior as a fighter. It points me to the man who once /oclc/20916377), which roughly translates as Spring in loneliness, surrounded by a few followers, in Atlantis: A Novel about the Flowering of the recognized these Jews for what they were and Atlantean Empire (1933). summoned men to fight against them and who, God’s 5. See for instance: Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke, truth! was greatest not as a sufferer but as a fighter." - Sun: Aryan Cults, and the Politics of , April 12, 1922, Munich speech Identity (https://books.google.com 14. Besier, Gerhard and Francesca Piombo: The /books?id=AzYTCgAAQBAJ&hl=da& and Hitler's Germany (2007) source=gbs_navlinks_s) (2002); Vanessa Ward, 15. , Kevin P. Spicer: Hitler's Priests: Catholic Clergy Nationalist Uses of the Atlantis Myth in a Nordic and National Socialism (2008) Framework (http://pseudoarchaeology.org/a10- 16. See, for example, this biased and selective website ward.html), Pseudoarchaeology Research Archive (http://www.nobeliefs.com/nazis.htm) (PARA) Research Paper A-10, January 26, 2008; 17. John Cornwell's disaster hack job book Hitler's Pope: Alicja Bemben, Rafał Borysławski, Justyna Jajszczok The Secret History of Pius XII is probably the most and Jakub Gajda (eds.) Cryptohistories prominent example. (https://books.google.com 18. https://www.newyorker.com/news/george-packer /books?id=KJ3zBgAAQBAJ& /islamized-germans dq=%22edmund+kiss%22+spring+atlantis&hl=da& 19. https://www.davnet.org/kevin/articles/table.html source=gbs_navlinks_s) (2015), particularly "Chapter 20. Goebbels Diaries, 29 December 1939 Ten, The Riddle of Thule: The Search of the Crypto- 21. Joseph Goebbels, diary entry for October 16, 1928. History of a Racially Pure White Utopia"; Manfred 22. Hitler's Renegades (http://www.amazon.com/Hitlers- Nagl, SF, Occult Sciences, and Nazi Myths Renegades-Christer-Jorgensen/dp/1862272476), by (http://www.depauw.edu/sfs/backissues Christer Jorgensen /3/nagl3art.htm), Science Fiction Studies , Volume 1, 23. http://www.ibtimes.com/heinrich-himmler-nazi- No. 3, Spring 1974. hindu-214444 6. (https://twitter.com/thenewmeat/status 24. http://org.law.rutgers.edu/publications/law-religion /926575789029466112) [a (http://archive.is/https: /articles/RJLR_3_1_2.pdf //twitter.com/thenewmeat/status/926575789029466112) w 25. "Bund" (pronounced "booned") is German for (https://web.archive.org/web/*/https://twitter.com/thenewmeat "federation." /status/926575789029466112)] 26. No relation to the politician with a 7. Fritzsche, Peter. Germans into Nazis , Cambridge, similar name. Mass.: Press, 1998; Eatwell, 27. A camp was planned for the Kettletown section of Roger. Fascism, A History . Viking-Penguin, 1996. pp. Southbury, , but construction was xvii-xxiv, 21, 26–31, 114–140, 352; Griffin, Roger, prevented after local residents who opposed the Bund "Revolution from the Right: Fascism," in David had the zoning laws changed. Parker, ed., Revolutions and the Revolutionary (http://connecticuthistory.org/southbury-takes-on-the- Tradition in the West 1560-1991, : Routledge, nazis/) 2000 28. Click Magazine: "The Nazis In America" 8. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H-2q-QMUIgY (http://www.oldmagazinearticles.com Crash Course World History #220, World War II, A /1930s_German- War for Resources. American_Bund_Nazis_Camp_Nordland_article), 9. http://www.nazism.net/about/ideological_theory/ August 1938

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29. A fictionalized version of the Bund was depicted in 45. The quasi-religious organization , led by the 1939 film Confessions of a Nazi Spy . former Rockwell follower Matthias "Matt" Koehl 30. Coronet Magazine: "Hitler Despises German- (1935-2014), is considered to be the "official" Americans" (http://oldmagazinearticles.com successor to Rockwell's group. Another Rockwell /Hitlers_view_of_German- follower, (1933-2002), would Americans#.UIWjUoarGSp), April 1941 later found the National Alliance. 31. Number taken from Arnie Bernstein's book Swastika 46. Their best showing at the polls was in 2010, when : Fritz Kuhn and the Rise and Fall of the Jeff Hall openly ran as an NSM candidate for a seat German-American Bund on the Western Municipal Water Board in Riverside 32. Sources identify this man as Isadore Greenbaum, a County, California[1] (http://articles.latimes.com 26-year-old unemployed plumber's assistant and /2010/oct/19/local/la-me-nazi-candidate-20101019), former Merchant Marine from . He was later finishing 2 nd of 2 candidates with 27.66% of the fined $25 (roughly $430 when adjusted for inflation) votes[2] (http://www.nsm88.org/elections for Disturbing the Peace. /NSMreceives28percentinCA2010.htm). The 33. Footage of German American Bund activity following year, Hall was murdered by his own son[3] (http://youtu.be/Iw4_xmUgo3w) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murder_of_Jeff_Hall). 34. US Holocaust Memorial Museum: German American 47. Jewish Times; "Highway To Heschel" Bund (http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en (http://jewishtimes.com/highway-to-heschel /article.php?ModuleId=10005684) /#.UwwMy_ldVqo), May 30, 2013, 35. FBI Records: German American Federation/Bund 48. His daughter, Prof. Susannah Heschel, objected to (http://vault.fbi.gov/german-american-bund) this. (http://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/23/us 36. Failuremag.com: Fritz Kuhn and the German- /23heschel.html?ref=us) American Bund (http://failuremag.com/feature/article 49. Geoff Walden's website "Third Reich In Ruins" /fritz-kuhn-and-the-german-american-bund/) (http://thirdreichruins.com/) 37. Virginia apparently refused to allow the terms "Nazi" 50. see this section (https://en.wikipedia.org or "National Socialist" in names of incorporation, so /wiki/Deutschlandlied#Use_after_World_War_II) of the group's official business name was "George the wikipedia article on the details Lincoln Rockwell Party, Inc." 51. The common way was to play the Nazi party anthem 38. Number taken from a declassified 1965 declassified after or before the first stanza of the Lied der FBI monograph on the American Nazi Party Deutschen (https://archive.org/details/AmericanNaziParty) 52. The song's melody has been appropriated with 39. 1966 Playboy interview of George Lincoln Rockwell different lyrics by a number of Fascist organizations, (http://archive.org/details/1966PlayboyInterview) such as "Comrades, the Voices (of the Dead 40. Promotional poster for Rockwell's 1965 run for Battalions)" by the British Union of Fascists, Virginia Governor (http://afflictor.com/wp-content "Banners of the Above" by the USA-based All- /uploads/2010/02/RockwellGovernorPoster.jpg.jpeg) Russian Fascist Organization, and "Raise the 41. George Lincoln Rockwell 1965 Virginia Banners" by Greece's . Gubernatorial Promotional film (http://youtu.be 53. In Chaplin's 1964 autobiography, he wrote that if he /u_zsbpfyL8E) (WARNING: Racist language) knew of the horrors at the concentration camps at that 42. His 1964 write-in campaign for the Presidency netted time, he couldn't have made the film. 212 votes, and he finished fourth out of four 54. http://mentalfloss.com/article/28843/10-stories- candidates in his 1965 Virginia run with only 5,730 behind-dr-seuss-stories votes, or 1.02% of the popular vote. He ran as an 55. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0120833/ Independent because the Virginia electoral officers 56. http://knowyourmeme.com/memes/downfall-hitler- refused to allow the terms "Nazi" or "National reacts Socialist" to be used on the ballot. He did, however, 57. Hitler Downfall parodies: 25 worth watching: use "Vote White" as his campaign slogan. Subtitled parodies of Adolf Hitler's last days in the 43. Murderpedia article on John Palter bunker, as depicted in the 2004 Second World (http://murderpedia.org/male.P/p/patler-john.htm) War film Downfall, have become one of the web's 44. Death of an Arlington Nazi most enduring memes (http://www.telegraph.co.uk (http://www.northernvirginiamag.com/entertainment /technology/news/6262709/Hitler-Downfall-parodies- /entertainment-features/2010/12/30/death-of-an- 25-worth-watching.html) (7:00AM BST 06 Oct 2009) arlington-nazi/), Northern Virginia Magazine The Telegraph .

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13 of 13 5/26/2018, 12:05 AM Neo-Nazism - RationalWiki https://rationalwiki.org/wiki/Neo-Nazism

Neo-Nazism

From RationalWiki

Neo-Nazism is a modern movement of some of the ideals of the aborted Nazi A lunatic Chaplin imitator regime of Germany. Neo-Nazis are most prominently characterized by a belief and his greatest fans in white racial superiority, homophobia, and their anti- Nazism Semitism.

Examples of neo-Nazism include some subcultures. The term is often used for any racist or far-right movement, regardless of whether they explicitly espouse the views of Adolf Hitler.

First as tragedy

Contents Erwin Rommel 1 Modern Neo-Nazism Richard Spencer 2 Views on religion 2.1 Religion in the Third Reich Muhammad Amin al- Husseini 2.2 Naturalism Positive Christianity 3 Views on 4 See also Then as farce 5 External links 6 References Freedom Party of Austria Holocaust denial Red Ice Creations John Hagee Modern Neo-Nazism William Luther Pierce Neo-Nazis often promote a martial, survivalist, "macho" lifestyle among their v - t - e (https://rationalwiki.org adherents. Anything that keeps the suckers in a suitable frenzy of hatred /w/index.php?title=Template:Nazism& against the "racial enemies" is promoted; notable examples are genres of action=edit) music such as , National Socialist black metal and most recently variants of the non-political called Fashwave and Trumpwave.

What Neo-Nazis fail to understand is that, with the level of human dispersal and general intermingling of cultures, race groups, and various other things, a pure "Aryan" would be virtually impossible without a severe amount of inbreeding, resulting in a drooling imbecile.

This says more than enough about the people proposing it.

Views on religion

American conservatism, including such "traditional" racist groups as the and the Council of Conservative Citizens, has a strongly Christian character, particularly Protestant (with anti-Catholicism having once been a major force on the paranoid right). In recent years, this has gravitated toward evangelical

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Christianity. Many neo-Nazis, however, reject Christianity as a derivative of Judaism and are instead interested in various forms of mysticism and Nordic neo-paganism. Wotanism (otherwise known as ), a white- supremacist variant of the non-racist Germanic neopagan religion Asatru is popular among neo-Nazis, finding a notable proponent in David Lane, author of the "." William Luther Pierce, author of and founder of the National Alliance, was also the leader of an outfit called the "Cosmotheist Community Church." Another example of a non-Christian religion that's popular among Neo-Nazis is founded by in 1973 which has a flag in Nazi red, white, black, has emphasis on the survival of the white race, Rahowa (short for racial holy war), and hatred of Jews, "", and non-white "mud races".

However, there are neo-Nazis who do follow Christianity such as and the Traditionalist Workers Party, either the orthodox sort, (a version of Christianity that is white nationalist and opposes and miscegnation) or heretical variants like Christian Identity. Many Christian neo-Nazis reconcile their anti-Semitism with their following of the teachings of Jesus by subscribing to the Khazar myth, claiming that modern Jews (particularly Ashkenazi Jews) are impostors to the claim of being descended from the ancient Israelites, that they are instead descended from converts from the Khazar people north of the Caucusus, and that white Europeans are the true heirs of Israel.

Religion in the Third Reich

See the main article on this topic: Nazism § Religion in Nazism

As for Adolf Hitler and the original Nazis, their relationship with the faith was conflicted, but Hitler described himself as Christian (at least publicly; in private Hitler condemned Christianity in Hitler's Table Talk and in the Goebbels Diaries ). For a while, he and Nazi ideologue promoted a Nazified brand of the faith known as Positive Christianity and attempted to unite Germany's Protestant churches under its banner, but they ran into stiff opposition from the Confessing Church movement, which was repulsed by the Nazis' attempts to force their ideology into the pulpit, and so they largely gave up after 1935. Although was never outright banned, atheist groups were, and atheism was generally frowned upon. Esoteric, neo-pagan, and occultist movements [1] were tolerated, but all occult secret societies were banned, though this had less to do with anti- occult activism and more to do with the fact that Hitler just didn't trust secret societies.

Naturalism

Some neo-Nazis are naturalists, even atheists, basing their racial prejudice not in religious premises but rather in so-called "racial realism", usually with non-Jewish at the top of the hierarchy of ideal innate propensities, a convenient "fact" given the racial demographics of neo-Nazism. They often concede, however, that East Asians and even Ashkenazi Jews have higher average IQ scores than white people. These points are, however, often minimized by hypothesizing compensatory innately weird traits or dispositions in Asians, or just being part of being "evil" in Jews, or yet, being just a fraud from a conspiracy of Jewish scholars while using mental gymnastics to avoid the question of how a "dumb" people could defraud the majority. While it could be that ancestral populations wouldn't necessarily share the same average frequencies for eventual genes influencing behavioral dispositions or abilities, the range of actually realistic possibilities is not in accord with what usually comes under the dishonest misnomer of "racial realism". Not only is the epic-fantasy doomsday scenario false, but it still could be that, in the end, it's some other race that would be on "top" of this meaningless, arbitrary hierarchy.

Views on Israel

A large number of neocons not only support the existence of the state of Israel, but also believe that it is

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justified in its occupation of the territories given to the Palestinians in the 1947 partition. Some religious supporters, known as Christian Zionists, view the existence of Israel, and more specifically the rebuilding of the Holy Temple in Jerusalem , as a prerequisite for the fulfillment of end times prophecy and the Second Coming, while more secular conservatives view Israel as a key ally in the unstable Middle East (and, formerly, as a bulwark against communism). For example, the German neo-Nazi website called "PI news" ( Politically incorrect news) sharing pro-Israel and pro-American contents by virtue of their anti-Islamic views of the world. [2][3]

Neo-Nazis, needless to say, have the exact opposite view, treating Israel and pro-Israel groups as their greatest enemies. Many neo-Nazis have sought common cause with radical Islamist and Palestinian groups in opposing Israel and the Jews. Some have even shown an interest in Islam, especially the Shi'a Islam practiced in Iran, as an anti-Semitic vehicle. [4] On the other hand, other neo-Nazis find Muslims to be just another non-white threat, as evidenced by Wade Michael Page, a neo-Nazi who shot up a Sikh temple in Wisconsin, having mistaken it for a mosque. [5]

See also

Alt-right, of which some Neo-Nazis proudly proclaim allegiance Aryan Nations, a Neo-Nazi, white supremacist, Christian Identity organization Metapedia, Neo-Nazi version of Wikipedia Rightpedia, alt-right version of Wikipedia that broke off from Metapedia Stormfront, the world's largest Neo-Nazi website Third positionism, political position that combines right and left-wing beliefs. Also counts Neo-Nazis within it's ranks White nationalism, both this movement and Neo-Nazism overlap frequently Whitehonor.com, Neo-Nazi website Stalin apologetics, the extreme opposite

External links

Neo-Nazi/Skinhead database (http://www.adl.org/PresRele/NeoSk_82/default.htm) at the Anti- Defamation League. Neo-Nazi overview (http://www.splcenter.org/get-informed/intelligence-files/ideology/neo-nazi) at the Southern Poverty Law Center.

References

1. A case in point was the , an occultist group that sponsored the original German Workers' Party before it became the Nazis. Its membership has been described (http://books.google.com/books?id=nV-N10gyoFwC&dq) as a "who's who" of early Nazi figures and sympathizers, including , , and Alfred Rosenberg. However, Hitler himself, despite what Wolfenstein 3D may have told you, was not only never a part of the group, but had it outlawed in 1933, not long after he came to power. SS Reichsfurher Heinrich Himmler, on the other hand, had a far more enthusiastic view of the occult than Hitler did, and is believed to have incorporated elements of the Thule Society into the SS. This goes to show that, much like the Founding Fathers and the editors of the Bible, the leaders of the Nazi Party were individuals with a fairly conflicting set of views that can't really be used to support or oppose one cause or another. 2. Politically incorrect homepage [1] (https://www.pi-news.net/) 3. Israel - Politically Incorrect [2] (https://www.pi-news.net/category/israel)

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4. Eldridge, Lance. "Strange Bedfellows: The neo-Nazi movement and radical Islam." (http://www.policeone.com /columnists/Lance-Eldridge/articles/5910039-Strange-bedfellows-The-neo-Nazi-movement-and-radical-Islam/) PoliceOne , 15 Aug. 2012. 5. Leitsinger, Miranda. "Experts: Alleged temple gunman Wade Michael Page led neo-Nazi band, had deep extremist ties." (http://usnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2012/08/06/13147115-experts-alleged-temple-gunman-wade-michael-page- led-neo-nazi-band-had-deep-extremist-ties) NBC News, 6 August 2012.

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4 of 4 5/26/2018, 12:05 AM Nazism

National Socialism (German: Nationalsozialismus), more commonly known as Nazism (/ˈnɑːtsi.ɪzəm, ˈnæt-/),[1] is the ideology and practices associated with the Nazi Party – officially the National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei or NSDAP) – in Nazi Germany, and of other far-right groups with similar aims.

Nazism is a form of fascism and showed that ideology's disdain for liberal and the parliamentary system, but also incorporated fervent , and eugenics into its creed. Its extreme nationalism came from Pan-Germanism and the Völkisch movement prominent in the of the time, and it was strongly influenced by the anti-Communist paramilitary groups that emerged after Germany's defeat in World War I, from which came the party's "cult of " which was "at the heart of the movement."[2]

Nazism subscribed to theories ofracial hierarchy and Social Darwinism, identifying the Germans as a part of what the Nazis regarded as an Aryan or Nordic master race.[3] It aimed to overcome social divisions and create a German homogeneous society based on racial purity which represented a people's community (). The Nazis aimed to unite all Germans living in historically German territory, as well as gain additional lands for German expansion under the doctrine of Lebensraum and exclude those who they deemed either community aliens or "inferior" races.

The term "National Socialism" arose out of attempts to create a nationalist redefinition of "socialism", as an alternative to both international socialism and free market capitalism. Nazism rejected the Marxist concept of , opposed cosmopolitan internationalism and sought to convince all parts of the new German society to subordinate their personal interests to the "common good", accepting political interests as the main priority of economic organization.[4]

The Nazi Party's precursor, the Pan-German nationalist and antisemitic German Workers' Party, was founded on 5 January 1919. By the early 1920s the party was renamed the National Socialist German Workers' Party – to attract workers away from left-wing parties such as the Social Democrats (SPD) and the Communists (KPD) – and Adolf Hitler assumed control of the organization. The National Socialist Program or "25 Points" was adopted in 1920 and called for a united Greater Germany that would deny citizenship to Jews or those of Jewish descent, while also supporting land reform and the of some industries. In ("My Struggle"; 1924–1925), Hitler outlined the anti-Semitism and anti-Communism at the heart of his political philosophy, as well as his disdain for representative democracy and his belief in Germany's right to territorial expansion.[5]

The Nazi Party won the greatest share of the popular vote in the two Reichstag general elections of 1932, making them the largest party in the legislature by far, but still short of an outright majority. Because none of the parties were willing or able to put together a coalition government, in 1933 Hitler was appointed by President , through the support and connivance of traditional conservative nationalists who believed that they could control him and his party. Through the use of emergency presidential decrees by Hindenburg, and a change in the Weimar Constitution which allowed the Cabinet to rule by direct decree, bypassing both Hindenburg and the Reichstag, the Nazis had soon established aone-party state.

The (SA) and the (SS) functioned as the paramilitary organizations of the Nazi Party. Using the SS for the task, Hitler purged the party’s more socially and economically radical factions in the mid-1934 , including the leadership of the SA. After the death of President Hindenburg, political power was concentrated in Hitler's hands and he became Germany's as well as the head of the government, with the title of Führer, meaning "leader". From that point, Hitler was effectively the dictator of Nazi Germany, which was also known as the "Third Reich", under which Jews, political opponents and other "undesirable" elements were marginalized, imprisoned or murdered. Many millions of people were eventually exterminated in a genocide which became known as the Holocaust during World War II, including around two-thirds of the Jewish population of Europe. Following Germany's defeat in World War II and the discovery of the full extent of the Holocaust, Nazi ideology became universally disgraced. It is widely regarded as immoral and evil, with only a few fringe racist groups, usually referred to as neo-Nazis, describing themselves as followers of National Socialism.

Contents

Etymology Position within the political spectrum Origins Völkisch nationalism Racial theories and antisemitism Response to World War I and Ideology Nationalism and racialism Irredentism and expansionism Racial theories Social class Sex and gender Opposition to homosexuality Religion Economics Anti-communism Anti-capitalism Totalitarianism Post–war Nazism See also References External links

Etymology

The full name of the party was Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (English: National-Socialist German Workers' Party) for which they officially used the acronym NSDAP.

The term "Nazi" was in use before the rise of the NSDAP as a colloquial and derogatory word for a backwards farmer or peasant, characterizing an awkward and clumsy person. This was derived from Nazi a hypocorism of the German men's name Ignatz (itself a variation of the men's name Ignatius) – Ignatz being a common Flag of the Nazi Party, similar but not [6][7] name at the time in , the area from which the NSDAP emerged. identical to the national flag of Nazi Germany (1933–1945) In the 1920s, political opponents of the NSDAP in the German labour movement seized on this and – using the earlier abbreviated term "Sozi" for Sozialist (English: Socialist) as an example[8] – shortened the first part of the party's name, [Na]tionalso[zi]alistische, to the dismissive "Nazi", in order to associate them with the derogatory use of the term mentioned above.[9][7][10][11][12][13]

After the NSDAP's rise to power in the 1930s, the use of the term "Nazi" by itself or in terms such asNazi " Germany", "Nazi regime" and so on was popularised by German exiles. From them, the term spread into other languages and it was eventually brought back into Germany after World War II.[10] The NSDAP briefly adopted the designation "Nazi" in an attempt to reappropriate the term, but it soon gave up this effort and generally avoided using the term while it was in power.[10][11]

Position within the political spectrum

The majority of scholars identify Nazism in both theory and practice as a form of far-right politics.[14] Far-right themes in Nazism include the argument that superior people have a right to dominate other people and purge society of supposed inferior elements.[15] Adolf Hitler and other proponents denied that Nazism was either left- wing or right-wing, instead they officially portrayed Nazism as a syncretic movement.[16][17] In Mein Kampf, Hitler directly attacked both left-wing and right- wing politics in Germany, saying:

Foreground, left to right: FührerAdolf Today our left-wing politicians in particular are constantly insisting Hitler; Hermann Göring; Minister of that their craven-hearted and obsequious foreign policy necessarily Propaganda Joseph Goebbels; and results from the disarmament of Germany, whereas the truth is that Rudolf Hess this is the policy of traitors ... But the politicians of the Right deserve exactly the same reproach. It was through their miserable cowardice that those ruffians of Jews who came into power in 1918 were able to rob the nation of its arms.[18]

In a speech given in Munich on 12 April 1922, Hitler stated that:

There are only two possibilities in Germany; do not imagine that the people will forever go with the middle party, the party of Nazis alongside members of the far- compromises; one day it will turn to those who have most right reactionary and monarchist consistently foretold the coming ruin and have sought to dissociate German National People's Party themselves from it. And that party is either the Left: and then God (DNVP) during the brief NSDAP– help us! for it will lead us to complete destruction - to Bolshevism, DNVP alliance in the Harzburg Front or else it is a party of the Right which at the last, when the people is from 1931 to 1932 in utter despair, when it has lost all its spirit and has no longer any faith in anything, is determined for its part ruthlessly to seize the reins of power - that is the beginning of resistance of which I spoke a few minutes ago.[19]

When asked whether he supported the "bourgeois right-wing", Hitler claimed that Nazism was not exclusively for any class and he also indicated that it favoured neither the left nor the right, but preserved "pure" elements from both "camps" by stating: "From the camp of bourgeois tradition, it takes national resolve, and from thematerialism of the Marxist dogma, living, creative Socialism".[20]

Historians regard the equation of National Socialism as 'Hitlerism' as too simplistic since the term was used prior to the rise of Hitler and the Nazis and the different ideologies incorporated into Nazism were already well established in certain parts of German society before World War I.[21] The Nazis were strongly influenced by the post–World War I far-right in Germany, which held common beliefs such as anti-, anti- and antisemitism, along with nationalism, contempt for the and condemnation of the Weimar Republic for signing the armistice in November 1918 which later led it to sign the Treaty of Versailles.[22] A major inspiration for the Nazis were the far-right nationalist Freikorps, paramilitary organizations that engaged in political violence after World War I.[22] Initially, the post–World War I German far-right was dominated by monarchists, but the younger generation, which was associated with Völkisch nationalism, was more radical and it did not express any emphasis on the restoration of the German monarchy.[23] This younger generation desired to dismantle the Weimar Republic and create a new radical and strong state based upon a martial ruling ethic that could revive the "Spirit of 1914" which was associated with German national unity (Volksgemeinschaft).[23]

The Nazis, the far-right monarchists, the reactionary German National People's Party (DNVP) and others, such as monarchist officers in the and several prominent industrialists, formed an alliance in opposition to the Weimar Republic on 11 October 1931 in Bad Harzburg, officially known as the "National Front", but commonly referred to as the Harzburg Front.[24] The Nazis stated that the alliance was purely tactical and they continued to have differences with the DNVP. The Nazis described the DNVP as a bourgeois party and they called themselves an anti-bourgeois party.[24] After the elections of 1932, the alliance broke down when the DNVP lost many of its seats in the Reichstag. The Nazis denounced them as "an insignificant heap of ".[25] The DNVP responded by denouncing the Nazis for their socialism, their street violence and the "economic experiments" that would take place if the Nazis ever rose to power.[26] Kaiser Wilhelm II, who was pressured to abdicate the throne and flee into exile amidst an attempted communist revolution in Germany, initially supported the Nazi Party. His four sons, including Prince Eitel Friedrich and Prince Oskar, became members of the Nazi Party in hopes that in exchange for their support, the Nazis would permit the restoration of the monarchy.[27]

There were factions within the Nazi Party, both conservative and radical.[28] The conservative Nazi Hermann Göring urged Hitler to conciliate with capitalists and reactionaries.[28] Other prominent conservative Nazis included Heinrich Himmler and .[29] The radical Nazi Joseph Goebbels hated capitalism, viewing it as having Jews at its core and he stressed the need for the party to emphasize both a proletarian and a national character. Those views were shared by , who later left the Nazi Party in the belief that Hitler had betrayed the party's socialist goals by allegedly endorsing capitalism.[28] Large segments of the Nazi Party staunchly supported its official socialist, revolutionary and anti-capitalist positions and expected both a social and an economic revolution when the party gained power in 1933.[30] Many of the million members of the Sturmabteilung (SA) were committed to the party's official socialist program,[30] including many Social Democrats and Communists who switched sides and became known as "Beefsteak Nazis": brown on the outside and red inside.[31] The leader of the SA, Ernst Röhm, pushed for a "second revolution" (the "first revolution" being the Nazis' seizure of power) that would entrench the party's official socialist program. Furthermore, Röhm desired that the SA absorb the much smaller German Army into its ranks under his leadership.[30]

Before he joined the to fight in World War I, Hitler had lived a bohemian lifestyle as a petty street watercolour artist in and Munich and he maintained elements of this lifestyle later on, going to bed very late and rising in the afternoon, even after he became Chancellor and then Fuhrer.[32] After the war, his battalion was absorbed by the from 1918 to 1919, where he was elected Deputy Battalion Representative. According to historian Thomas Weber, Hitler attended the funeral of communist Kurt Eisner (a German Jew), wearing a black mourning armband on one arm and a red communist armband on the other,[33] which he took as evidence that Hitler's political beliefs had not yet solidified.[33] In Mein Kampf, Hitler never mentioned any service with the Bavarian Soviet Republic and he stated that he became an antisemite in 1913 during his years in Vienna. This statement has been disputed by the contention that he was not an antisemite at that time,[34] even though it is well established that he read many antisemitic tracts and journals during time and admiredKarl Lueger, the antisemitic mayor of Vienna.[35] Hitler altered his political views in response to the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in June 1919 and it was then that he became an antisemitic, German nationalist.[34] As a Nazi, Hitler expressed opposition to capitalism, regarding it as having Jewish origins and accused capitalism of holding nations ransom to the interests of a parasiticcosmopolitan rentier class.[36]

Hitler took a pragmatic position between the conservative and radical factions of the Nazi Party, accepting private property and allowing capitalist private enterprises to exist so long as they adhered to the goals of the Nazi state, but if a capitalist private enterprise resisted Nazi goals, he sought to destroy it.[28] Once the Nazis achieved power, Röhm's SA launched attacks against individuals deemed to be associated with conservative reaction, without Hitler's authorization.[37] Hitler considered Röhm's independent actions to be both a violation and a threat to his leadership, as well as a threat to the regime because they alienated both the conservative President Paul von Hindenburg and the conservative-oriented German Army and jeopardized the regime's relationship with them.[38] This resulted in Hitler purging Röhm and other radical members of the SA in what came to be known as the Night of the Long Knives.[38] Although he opposed communist ideology, Hitler publicly praised the 's leader and Stalinism on numerous occasions.[39] Hitler commended Stalin for seeking to purify the Communist Party of the Soviet Union of Jewish influences, noting Stalin's purging of Jewish communists such as Leon Trotsky, Grigory Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev and Karl Radek.[40] While Hitler had always intended to bring Germany into conflict with the Soviet Union so he could gain Lebensraum ("living space"), he supported a temporary strategic alliance between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union to form a common anti-liberal front so they could crush liberal , particularlyFrance .[39]

Origins

Völkisch nationalism One of the most significant ideological influences on the Nazis was the German nationalist Johann Gottlieb Fichte, whose works had served as an inspiration to Hitler and other Nazi Party members, including and Arnold Fanck.[41] In Speeches to the German Nation (1808), written amid Napoleonic France's occupation of Berlin, Fichte called for a German national revolution against the French occupiers, making passionate public speeches, arming his students for battle against the French and stressing the need for action by the German nation so it could free itself.[42] Fichte's nationalism was populist and opposed to traditional elites, spoke of the need for a "People's War" (Volkskrieg) and put forth concepts similar to those which the Nazis adopted.[42] Fichte promoted German exceptionalism and stressed the need for the German nation to purify itself (including purging the of French words, a policy that the Nazis undertook upon their rise to power).[42] Johann Gottlieb Fichte, considered one of the Another important figure in pre-Nazi völkisch thinking was Wilhelm Heinrich Riehl, whose fathers of German work—Land und Leute (Land and People, written between 1857 and 1863)—collectively tied nationalism the organic German Volk to its native landscape and nature, a pairing which stood in stark opposition to the mechanical and materialistic civilization which was then developing as a result of industrialization.[43] Geographers Friedrich Ratzel and Karl Haushofer borrowed from Riehl's work as did Nazi ideologues Alfred Rosenberg and Paul Schultze-Naumburg, both of whom employed some of Riehl’s philosophy in arguing that "each nation- state was an organism that required a particular living space in order to survive".[44] Riehl’s influence is overtly discernible in the Blut und Boden () philosophy introduced by Oswald Spengler, which the Nazi agriculturalist Walther Darré and other prominent Nazis adopted.[45][46]

Völkisch nationalism denounced soulless materialism, individualism and secularised urban industrial society, while advocating a "superior" society based on ethnic German "folk" culture and German "blood".[47] It denounced foreigners and foreign ideas and declared that Jews, Freemasons and others were "traitors to the nation" and unworthy of inclusion.[48] Völkisch nationalism saw the world in terms of and romanticism and it viewed societies as organic, extolling the virtues of rural life, condemning the neglect of tradition and the decay of morals, denounced the destruction of the natural environment and condemned "cosmopolitan" cultures such as Jews and Romani.[49]

The first party that attempted to combine nationalism and socialism was the (Austria-Hungary) German Workers' Party, which predominantly aimed to solve the conflict between the Austrian Germans and the Czechs in the multi-ethnic Austrian Empire, then part of Austria-Hungary.[50] In 1896 the German politician Friedrich Naumann formed the National-Social Association which aimed to combine German nationalism and a non-Marxist form of socialism together; the attempt turned out to be futile and the idea of linking nationalism with socialism quickly became equated with antisemites, extreme German nationalists and the Völkisch movement in general.[21]

During the era of Imperial Germany, Völkisch nationalism was overshadowed by both Prussian patriotism and the federalist tradition of various states therein.[51] The events of World War I, including the end of the Prussian monarchy in Germany, resulted in a surge of revolutionary Völkisch nationalism.[52] The Nazis supported such revolutionary Völkisch nationalist policies[51] and they claimed that their ideology was influenced by the leadership and policies of German Chancellor , the founder of the German Empire.[53] The Nazis declared that they were dedicated to continuing the process of creating a unified German nation state that Bismarck had begun and desired to achieve.[54] While Hitler was supportive of Bismarck's creation of the German Empire, he was critical of Bismarck's moderate domestic policies.[55] On the issue of Bismarck's support of a Kleindeutschland ("Lesser Germany", excluding Austria) versus the Pan-German Großdeutschland ("Greater Germany") which the Nazis advocated, Hitler stated that Bismarck's attainment of Kleindeutschland was the "highest achievement" Bismarck could have achieved "within the limits possible at that time".[56] In Mein Kampf (My Struggle), Hitler presented himself as a "second Bismarck".[56]

During his youth in Austria, Hitler was politically influenced by Austrian Pan-Germanist proponent Georg Ritter von Schönerer, who advocated radical German nationalism, Georg Ritter von Schönerer, [57] antisemitism, anti-Catholicism, anti-Slavic sentiment and anti-Habsburg views. From von a major exponent of Pan- Schönerer and his followers, Hitler adopted for the Nazi movement the Heil greeting, the Germanism Führer title and the model of absolute party leadership.[57] Hitler was also impressed by the populist antisemitism and the anti-liberal bourgeois agitation of Karl Lueger, who as the mayor of Vienna during Hitler's time in the city used a rabble-rousing style of oratory that appealed to the wider masses.[58] Unlike von Schönerer, Lueger was not a German nationalist and instead was a pro-Catholic Habsburg supporter and only used German nationalist notions occasionally for his own agenda.[58] Although Hitler praised both Lueger and Schönerer, he criticized the former for not applying a racial doctrine against the Jews and Slavs.[59]

Racial theories and antisemitism The concept of the , which the Nazis promoted, stems from racial theories asserting that Europeans are the descendants of Indo-Iranian settlers, people of ancient India and ancient Persia.[60] Proponents of this theory based their assertion on the fact that words in European languages and words in Indo-Iranian languages have similar pronunciations and meanings.[60] Johann Gottfried Herder argued that the held close racial connections to the ancient Indians and the ancient Persians, who he claimed were advanced peoples that possessed a great capacity for wisdom, nobility, restraint and science.[60] Contemporaries of Herder used the concept of the Aryan race to draw a distinction between what they deemed to be "high and noble" Aryan culture versus that of "parasitic" Semitic culture.[60]

Notions of white supremacy and Aryan racial superiority were combined in the 19th century, with white supremacists maintaining the belief that certain groups of white people were members of an Aryan "master race" that is superior to other races and , one of the particularly superior to the Semitic race, which they associated with "cultural key inventors of the theory of the "Aryan race" sterility".[60] Arthur de Gobineau, a French racial theorist and aristocrat, blamed the fall of the ancien régime in France on racial degeneracy caused by racial intermixing, which he argued had destroyed the purity of the Aryan ace,r a term which he only reserved for Germanic people.[61][62] Gobineau's theories, which attracted a strong following in Germany,[61] emphasized the existence of an irreconcilable polarity between Aryan (Germanic) and Jewish cultures.[60]

Aryan mysticism claimed that Christianity originated in Aryan religious traditions, and that Jews had usurped the legend from Aryans.[60] Houston Stewart Chamberlain, an English proponent of racial theory, supported notions of Germanic supremacy and antisemitism in Germany.[61] Chamberlain's work, The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century (1899), praised Germanic peoples for their creativity and idealism while asserting that the Germanic spirit was threatened by a "Jewish" spirit of selfishness and materialism.[61] Chamberlain used his thesis to promote monarchical conservatism while denouncing democracy, liberalism and socialism.[61] The book became popular, especially in Germany.[61] Chamberlain stressed a nation's need to maintain its racial purity in order to prevent its degeneration and argued that racial intermingling with Jews should never be permitted.[61] In 1923, Chamberlain met Hitler, whom he admired as a leader of the rebirth of the free spirit.[63] Madison Grant's work The Passing of the Great Race (1916) advocated Nordicism and proposed that a eugenics program should be implemented in order to preserve the purity of the . After reading the book, Hitler called it "my Bible".[64]

In Germany, the belief that Jews were economically exploiting Germans became prominent due to the ascendancy of many wealthy Jews into prominent positions upon the in 1871.[65] Empirical evidence demonstrates that from 1871 to the early 20th century, German Jews were overrepresented in Germany's upper and middle classes while they were underrepresented in Germany's lower classes, particularly in the fields of agricultural and industrial labour.[66] German Jewish financiers and bankers played a key role in fostering Germany's economic growth from 1871 to 1913 and they benefited enormously from this boom. In 1908, amongst the twenty-nine wealthiest German with aggregate Houston Stewart fortunes of up to 55 million marks at the time, five were Jewish and the Rothschilds were the Chamberlain, whose book second wealthiest German .[67] The predominance of Jews in Germany's banking, The Foundations of the commerce and industry sectors during this time period was very high, even though Jews were Nineteenth Century would prove to be a seminal work estimated to account for only 1% of the population of Germany.[65] The overrepresentation of in the history of German Jews in these areas fueled resentment among non-Jewish Germans during periods of economic nationalism crisis.[66] The 1873 stock market crash and the ensuing depression resulted in a spate of attacks on alleged Jewish economic dominance in Germany and antisemitism increased.[66] During this time period, in the 1870s, German Völkisch nationalism began to adopt antisemitic and racist themes and it was also adopted by a number of political movements.[68]

Radical Antisemitism was promoted by prominent advocates of Völkisch nationalism, including Eugen Diederichs, Paul de Lagarde and Julius Langbehn.[49] De Lagarde called the Jews a "bacillus, the carriers of decay ... who pollute every national culture ... and destroy all faiths with their materialistic liberalism" and he called for the extermination of the Jews.[69] Langbehn called for a war of annihilation against the Jews and his genocidal policies were published by the Nazis and given to soldiers on the front during World War II.[69] One antisemitic ideologue of the period, Friedrich Lange, even used the term "National Socialism" to describe his own anti-capitalist take on theVölkisch nationalist template.[70]

Johann Gottlieb Fichte accused Jews in Germany of having been and inevitably of continuing to be a "state within a state" that threatened German national unity.[42] Fichte promoted two options in order to address this, his first one being the creation of a Jewish state in Palestine so the Jews could be impelled to leave Europe.[71] His second option was violence against Jews and he said that the goal of the violence would be "to cut off all their heads in one night, and set new ones on their shoulders, which should not contain a single Jewish idea".[71]

The Protocols of the Elders of Zion (1912) is an antisemitic forgery created by the secret service of the Russian Empire, the Okhrana. Many antisemites believed it was real and thus became widely popular after World War I.[72] The Protocols claimed that there was a secret international Jewish conspiracy to take over the world.[73] Hitler had been introduced to The Protocols by Alfred Rosenberg and from 1920 onwards he focused his attacks by claiming that Judaism and Marxism were directly connected, that Jews and Bolsheviks were one and the same and that Marxism was a Jewish ideology-this became known as "".[74] Hitler believed that The Protocols were authentic.[75]

Prior to the Nazi ascension to power, Hitler often blamed moral degradation on Rassenschande ("racial defilement"), a way to assure his followers of his continuing antisemitism, which had been toned down for popular consumption.[76] Prior to the induction of the Nuremberg Race Laws in 1935 by the Nazis, many German nationalists such as strongly supported laws to ban Rassenschande between Aryans and Jews as racial treason.[76] Even before the laws were officially passed, the Nazis banned sexual relations and marriages between party members and Jews.[77] Party members found guilty of Rassenschande were severely punished; some party members were even sentenced to death.[78] The Nazis claimed that Bismarck was unable to complete German national unification because Jews had infiltrated the German parliament and they claimed that their abolition of parliament had ended this obstacle to unification.[53] Using the stab-in-the-back myth, the Nazis accused Jews—and other populations who it considered non-German—of possessing extra-national loyalties, thereby exacerbating German antisemitism about the Judenfrage (the ), the far-right political canard which was popular when the ethnic Völkisch movement and its politics of for establishing a Großdeutschland was strong.[79][80]

Nazism's racial policy positions may have developed from the views of important biologists of the 19th century, including French biologist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, through Ernst Haeckel's idealist version of Lamarckism and the father of genetics, German botanist Gregor Caricatures of Bolshevik Mendel.[81] However, Haeckel's works were later condemned and banned from bookshops leaders Vladimir Lenin, Karl and libraries by the Nazis as inappropriate for "National-Socialist formation and education in Radek, Julius Martov and the Third Reich". This may have been because of his "monist" atheistic, materialist Emma Goldman from Alfred philosophy, which the Nazis disliked.[82] Unlike Darwinian theory, Lamarckian theory Rosenberg's The Jewish officially ranked races in a hierarchy of evolution from apes while Darwinian theory did not Bolshevism, which assert that Bolshevism is a Jewish grade races in a hierarchy of higher or lower evolution from apes, but simply stated that all ideology humans as a whole had progressed in their evolution from apes.[81] Many Lamarckians viewed "lower" races as having been exposed to debilitating conditions for too long for any significant "improvement" of their condition to take place in the near future.[83] Haeckel utilised Lamarckian theory to describe the existence of interracial struggle and put races on a hierarchy of evolution, ranging from wholly human subhumanto .[81]

Mendelian inheritance, or Mendelism, was supported by the Nazis, as well as by mainstream eugenicists of the time. The Mendelian theory of inheritance declared that genetic traits and attributes were passed from one generation to another.[84] Eugenicists used Mendelian inheritance theory to demonstrate the transfer of biological illness and impairments from parents to children, including mental disability, whereas others also utilised Mendelian theory to demonstrate the inheritance of social traits, with racialists claiming a racial nature behind certain general traits such as inventiveness or criminal behaviour.[85]

Response to World War I and Italian Fascism During World War I, German sociologist Johann Plenge spoke of the rise of a "National Socialism" in Germany within what he termed the "ideas of 1914" that were a declaration of war against the "ideas of 1789" (the French Revolution).[86] According to Plenge, the "ideas of 1789" which included the rights of man, democracy, individualism and liberalism were being rejected in favour of "the ideas of 1914" which included the "German values" of duty, discipline, law and order.[86] Plenge believed that ethnic solidarity (Volksgemeinschaft) would replace class division and that "racial comrades" would unite to create a socialist society in the struggle of "proletarian" Germany against "capitalist" Britain.[86] He believed that the "Spirit of 1914" manifested itself in the concept of the "People's League of National Socialism".[87] This National Socialism was a form of state socialism that rejected the "idea of boundless freedom" and promoted an economy that would serve the whole of Germany under the leadership of the state.[87] This National Socialism was opposed to capitalism due to the components that were against "the national interest" of Germany, but insisted that National Socialism would strive for greater efficiency in the economy.[87] Plenge advocated an authoritarian, rational ruling elite to develop National Socialism through a hierarchicaltechnocratic state.[88] Plenge's ideas formed the basis of Nazism.[86]

Oswald Spengler, a German cultural philosopher, was a major influence on Nazism, although after 1933 he became alienated from Nazism and was later condemned by the Nazis for criticising Adolf Hitler.[89] Spengler's conception of national socialism and a number of his political views were shared by the Nazis and the Conservative Revolutionary movement.[90] Spengler's views were also popular amongst Italian Fascists, including .[91]

Spengler's book The Decline of the West (1918), written during the final months ofW orld War I, addressed the supposeddecadence of modern European civilization, which he claimed was caused by atomising and irreligious individualisation and cosmopolitanism.[89] Spengler's major thesis was that a law of historical development of cultures existed involving a cycle of birth, maturity, ageing and

[89] death when it reaches its final form of civilisation.[89] Upon reaching the point of civilisation, a culture will lose its creative capacity and succumb to decadence until the emergence of "barbarians" creates a new epoch.[89] Spengler considered the as having succumbed to decadence of intellect, money, cosmopolitan urban life, irreligious life, atomised individualisation and believed that it was at the end of its biological and "spiritual" fertility.[89] He believed that the "young" German nation as an imperial power would inherit the legacy of Ancient , lead a restoration of value in "blood" and instinct, while the ideals of rationalism would be revealed as absurd.[89]

Spengler's notions of "Prussian socialism" as described in his book Preussentum und Sozialismus ("Prussiandom and Socialism", 1919), influenced Nazism and the Conservative Revolutionary movement.[90] Spengler wrote: "The meaning of socialism is that life is controlled not by the opposition between rich and poor, but by the rank that achievement and Oswald Spengler, a talent bestow. That is our freedom, freedom from the economic despotism of the philosopher of history individual".[90] Spengler adopted the anti-English ideas addressed by Plenge and Sombart during World War I that condemned English liberalism and English parliamentarianism while advocating a national socialism that was free from Marxism and that would connect the individual to the state through corporatist organisation.[89] Spengler claimed that socialistic Prussian characteristics existed across Germany, including creativity, discipline, concern for the greater good, productivity and self-sacrifice.[92] He prescribed war as a necessity by saying: "War is the eternal form of higher human existence and states exist for war: they are the expression of the will to war".[93]

Spengler's definition of socialism did not advocate a change to property relations.[90] He denounced Marxism for seeking to train the to "expropriate the expropriator", the capitalist and then to let them live a life of leisure on this expropriation.[95] He claimed that "Marxism is the capitalism of the working class" and not true socialism.[95] According to Spengler, true socialism would be in the form of corporatism, stating that "local corporate bodies organised according to the importance of each occupation to the people as a whole; higher representation in stages up to a supreme council of the state; mandates revocable at any time; no The Marinebrigade Erhardt during organised parties, no professional politicians, no periodic elections".[96] the in Berlin, 1920[94] (the Marinebrigade Erhardt used the Wilhelm Stapel, an antisemitic German swastika as its symbol, as seen on intellectual, utilised Spengler's thesis on the their helmets and on the truck, which cultural confrontation between Jews as whom inspired the Nazi Party to adopt it as the movement's symbol) Spengler described as a Magian people versus Europeans as a Faustian people.[97] Stapel described Jews as a landless nomadic people in pursuit of an international culture whereby they can integrate into Western civilisation.[97] As such, Stapel claims that Jews have been attracted to "international" versions of socialism, pacifism or capitalism because as a landless people the Jews have transgressed various national cultural boundaries.[97]

Arthur Moeller van den Bruck was initially the dominant figure of the Conservative Revolutionaries influenced Nazism.[98] He rejected reactionary conservatism while proposing a new state that he coined the "Third Reich", which would unite all classes under authoritarian The book rule.[99] Van den Bruck advocated a combination of the nationalism of the right and the (1923), translated as "The socialism of the left.[100] Third Reich", by Arthur Moeller van den Bruck Fascism was a major influence on Nazism. The seizure of power by Italian Fascist leader Benito Mussolini in the in 1922 drew admiration by Hitler, who less than a month later had begun to model himself and theNazi Party upon Mussolini and the Fascists.[101] Hitler presented the Nazis as a form of German fascism.[102][103] In November 1923, the Nazis attempted a "March on Berlin" modelled after the March on Rome, which resulted in the failed in Munich.[104]

Hitler spoke of Nazism being indebted to the success of Fascism's rise to power in Italy.[105] In a private conversation in 1941, Hitler said that "the brown shirt would probably not have existed without the black shirt", the "brown shirt" referring to the Nazi militia and the "black shirt" referring to the Fascist militia.[105] He also said in regards to the 1920s: "If Mussolini had been outdistanced by Marxism, I don't know whether we could have succeeded in holding out. At that period National Socialism was a very fragile growth".[105]

Other Nazis—especially those at the time associated with the party's more radical wing such as , Joseph Goebbels and Heinrich Himmler—rejected Italian Fascism, accusing it of being too conservative or capitalist.[106] Alfred Rosenberg condemned Italian Fascism for being racially confused and having influences from philosemitism.[107] Strasser criticised the policy of Führerprinzip as being created by Mussolini and considered its presence in Nazism as a foreign imported idea.[108] Throughout the relationship between Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, a number of lower-ranking Nazis scornfully viewed fascism as a conservative movement that lacked a full revolutionary potential.[108]

Ideology

Nationalism and racialism German Nazism emphasized German nationalism, including both irredentism and expansionism. Nazism held racial theories based upon the belief of the existence of an Aryan master race that was superior to all other races. The Nazis emphasised the existence of racial conflict between the Aryan race and others—particularly Jews, whom the Nazis viewed as a mixed race that had infiltrated multiple societies and was responsible for exploitation and repression of the Aryan race. The Nazis also categorised Slavs as .[109]

Irredentism and expansionism The German Nazi Party supported German irredentist claims to Austria, Alsace- Lorraine, the region now known as theCzech Republic and the territory known since 1919 as the Polish Corridor. A major policy of the German Nazi Party was Lebensraum ("living space") for the German nation based on claims that Germany after World War I was facing an overpopulation crisis and that expansion was needed to end the country's overpopulation within existing confined territory, and provide resources necessary to its people's well-being.[110] Since the 1920s, the Nazi Party publicly promoted the expansion of Germany into territories held by the Soviet Beginning of Lebensraum, the Nazi Union.[111] German expulsion of from In Mein Kampf, Hitler stated that Lebensraum would be acquired in , central Poland, 1939 especially Russia.[112] In his early years as the Nazi leader, Hitler had claimed that he would be willing to accept friendly relations with Russia on the tactical condition that Russia agree to return to the borders established by the German–Russian peace agreement of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk signed by Vladimir Lenin of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic in 1918 which gave large territories held by Russia to German control in exchange for peace.[111] In 1921, Hitler had commended the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk as opening the possibility for restoration of relations between Germany and Russia by saying:

Through the peace with Russia the sustenance of Germany as well as the provision of work were to have been secured by the acquisition of land and soil, by access to raw materials, and by friendly relations between the two lands.

[111] — Adolf Hitler[111]

From 1921 to 1922, Hitler evoked rhetoric of both the achievement of Lebensraum involving the acceptance of a territorially reduced Russia as well as supporting Russian nationals in overthrowing the Bolshevik government and establishing a new Russian government.[111] Hitler's attitudes changed by the end of 1922, in which he then supported an alliance of Germany with Britain to destroy Russia.[111] Hitler later declared how far he intended to expand Germany into Russia:

Asia, what a disquieting reservoir of men! The safety of Europe will not be assured until we have driven Asia back behind the Urals. No organized Russian state must be allowed to exist west of that line. Topographical map of Europe: the Nazi Party declared support for [113] — Adolf Hitler Drang nach Osten (expansion of Germany east to the Ural Policy for Lebensraum planned mass expansion of Germany's borders to eastwards Mountains), that is shown on the of the Ural Mountains.[113][114] Hitler planned for the "surplus" Russian population upper right side of the map as a living west of the Urals to be deported to the east of the Urals.[115] brown diagonal line

Racial theories In its racial categorization, Nazism viewed what it called the Aryan race as the master race of the world—a race that was superior to all other races.[116] It viewed Aryans as being in racial conflict with a mixed race people, the Jews, whom the Nazis identified as a dangerous enemy of the Aryans. It also viewed a number of other peoples as dangerous to the well-being of the Aryan race. In order to preserve the perceived racial purity of the Aryan race, a set of race laws was introduced in 1935 which came to be known as the . At first these laws only prevented sexual relations and marriages between Germans and Jews, but they were later extended to the "Gypsies, Negroes, and their bastard offspring", who were described by the Nazis as people of "alien blood".[117][118] Such relations between Aryans (cf. Aryan certificate) and non-Aryans were now punishable under the race laws as Rassenschande or "race defilement".[117] After the war began, the race defilement law was extended to include all foreigners (non- Germans).[119] At the bottom of the racial scale of non-Aryans were Jews, Romanis, Slavs[120] and .[121] To maintain the "purity and strength" of the Aryan race, the Nazis eventually sought to exterminate Jews, Romani, Slavs and the physically and mentally disabled.[120][122] Other groups deemed "degenerate" and "asocial" who were not targeted for extermination, but were subjected to exclusionary treatment by the Nazi state, included homosexuals, blacks, Jehovah's Witnesses and political opponents.[122] One of Hitler's ambitions at the start of the war was to exterminate, expel or enslave most or all Slavs from Central and Eastern Europe in order to acquire living space for German settlers.[123]

A Nazi era school textbook for German students entitled Heredity and Racial Biology for Students written by Jakob Graf described to students the Nazi conception of the Aryan race in a section titled "The Aryan: The Creative Force in Human History".[116] Graf claimed that the original Aryans developed from Nordic peoples who invaded ancient India and launched the initial development of Aryan culture there that later spread to ancient Persia and he claimed that the Aryan presence in Persia was what was responsible for its development into an empire.[116] He claimed that ancient Greek culture was developed by Nordic peoples due to paintings of the time which showed Greeks who were tall, light-skinned, light-eyed, A "poster information" from the blond-haired people.[116] He said that the Roman Empire was developed by the exhibition "Miracle of Life" in Berlin in 1935 Italics who were related to the Celts who were also a Nordic people.[116] He believed that the vanishing of the Nordic component of the populations in Greece and Rome led to their downfall.[116] The Renaissance was claimed to have developed in the Western Roman Empire because of the Germanic invasions that brought new Nordic blood to the Empire's lands, such as the presence of Nordic blood in the Lombards (referred to as Longobards in the book); that remnants of the western Goths were responsible for the creation of the Spanish Empire; and that the heritage of the Franks, Goths and Germanic peoples in France was what was responsible for its rise as a major power.[116] He claimed that the rise of the Russian Empire was due to its leadership by people of Norman descent.[116] He described the rise of Anglo-Saxon societies in North America, South Africa and as being the result of the Nordic heritage of Anglo- Saxons.[116] He concluded these points by saying: "Everywhere Nordic creative power has built mighty empires with high-minded ideas, and to this very day Aryan languages and cultural values are spread over a large part of the world, though the creative Nordic blood has long since vanished in many places".[116]

In Nazi Germany, the idea of creating a master race resulted in efforts to "purify" the Deutsche Volk through eugenics and its culmination was the compulsory sterilization or the involuntary euthanasia of physically or mentally disabled people. After World War II, the euthanasia programme was named Action T4.[124] The ideological justification for euthanasia was Hitler's view of Sparta (11th century – 195 BC) as the original Völkisch state and he praised Sparta's dispassionate destruction of congenitally deformed infants in order to maintain racial purity.[125][126] Some non- Aryans enlisted in Nazi organisations like the Hitler Youth and the , A wagon piled high with corpses including Germans of African descent[127] and Jewish descent.[128] The Nazis outside the crematorium in began to implement "" policies as soon as they came to power. The Buchenwald concentration camp July 1933 "Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring" prescribed compulsory sterilization for people with a range of conditions which were thought to be hereditary, such as schizophrenia, epilepsy, Huntington's chorea and "imbecility". Sterilization was also mandated for chronic alcoholism and other forms of social deviance.[129] An estimated 360,000 people were sterilised under this law between 1933 and 1939. Although some Nazis suggested that the programme should be extended to people with physical disabilities, such ideas had to be expressed carefully, given the fact that some Nazis had physical disabilities, one example being one of the most powerful figures of the regime, Joseph Goebbels, who had a deformed right leg.[130]

Nazi racial theorist Hans F. K. Günther argued that European peoples were divided into five races: Nordic, Mediterranean, Dinaric, Alpine and East Baltic.[3] Günther applied a Nordicist conception in order to justify his belief that Nordics were the highest in the racial hierarchy.[3] In his book Rassenkunde des deutschen Volkes (1922) ("Racial Science of the German People"), Günther recognised Germans as being composed of all five races, but emphasized the strong Nordic heritage among them.[131] Hitler read Rassenkunde des deutschen Volkes, which influenced his racial policy.[132] Gunther believed that Slavs belonged to an "Eastern race" and he warned against Germans mixing with them.[133] The Nazis described Jews as being a racially mixed group of primarily Near Eastern and Oriental racial types.[134] Because such racial groups were concentrated outside Europe, the Nazis claimed that Jews were "racially alien" to all European peoples and that they did not have deep racial roots in Europe.[134]

Günther emphasized Jews' Near Eastern racial heritage.[135] Günther identified the mass conversion of the Khazars to Judaism in the 8th century as creating the two major branches of the Jewish people, those of primarily Near Eastern racial heritage became the Ashkenazi Jews (that he called Eastern Jews) while those of primarily Oriental racial heritage became the (that he called Southern Jews).[136] Günther claimed that the Near Eastern type was composed of commercially spirited and artful traders, that the type held strong psychological manipulation skills which aided them in trade.[135] He claimed that the Near Eastern race had been "bred not so much for the conquest and exploitation of nature as it had been for the conquest and exploitation of people".[135] Günther believed that European peoples had a racially motivated aversion to peoples of Near Eastern racial origin and their traits, and as evidence of this he showed multiple examples of depictions of satanic figures with Near Eastern physiognomies in European art.[137]

Hitler's conception of the Aryan Herrenvolk ("Aryan master race") excluded the vast majority of Slavs from central and eastern Europe (i.e. Poles, , , etc.). They were regarded as a race of men not inclined to a higher form of civilization, which was under an instinctive force that reverted them back to nature. The Nazis also regarded the Slavs as having dangerous Jewish and Asiatic, meaning Mongol, influences.[138] Because of this, the Nazis declared Slavs to be Untermenschen ("subhumans").[139] Nazi anthropologists attempted to scientifically prove the historical admixture of the Slavs who lived further East and leading Nazi racial theorist Hans Günther regarded the Slavs as being primarily Nordic centuries ago but he believed that they had mixed with non-Nordic types over time.[140] Exceptions were made for a small percentage of Slavs who the Nazis saw as descended from German settlers and therefore fit to be Germanised and considered part of the Aryan master race.[141] Hitler described Slavs as "a mass of born slaves who feel the need for a master".[142] The Nazi notion of Slavs as inferior served as a legitimization of their desire to create Lebensraum for Germans and other Germanic people in eastern Europe, where millions of Germans and other Germanic settlers would be moved into once those territories were conquered, while the original Slavic inhabitants were to be annihilated, removed or enslaved.[143] Nazi Germany's policy changed towards Slavs in response to military manpower shortages, forced it to allow Slavs to serve in its armed forces within the occupied territories in spite of the fact that they were considered "subhuman".[144]

Hitler declared that racial conflict against Jews was necessary in order to save Germany from suffering under them and he dismissed concerns that the conflict with them was inhumane and unjust:

We may be inhumane, but if we rescue Germany we have achieved the greatest deed in the world. We may work injustice, but if we rescue Germany then we have removed the greatest injustice in the world. We may be immoral, but if our people is rescued we have opened the way for morality.[145]

Nazi propagandist Joseph Goebbels frequently employed antisemitic rhetoric to underline this view: "The Jew is the enemy and the destroyer of the purity of blood, the conscious destroyer of our race ... As socialists, we are opponents of the Jews, because we see, in the Hebrews, the incarnation ofcapitalism , the misuse of the nation's goods".[146]

Social class Nazism rejected the Marxist concept of internationalist class struggle, but supported the "class struggle between nations" and sought to resolve internal class struggle in the nation while it identified Germany as a fighting against plutocratic nations.[147]

In 1922, Hitler discredited other nationalist and racialist political parties as disconnected from the mass populace, especially lower and working-class young people:

The racialists were not capable of drawing the practical conclusions from correct theoretical judgements, especially in the Jewish Question. In this way, the German racialist movement developed a similar pattern to that of the 1880s and 1890s. As in those days, its leadership gradually fell into the hands of highly honourable, but fantastically naïve men of learning, professors, district counsellors, schoolmasters, and lawyers—in short a bourgeois, idealistic, and refined class. It lacked the warm breath of the nation's youthful vigour.[148]

The Nazi Party had many working-class supporters and members and a strong appeal to the middle class. The financial collapse of the white collar middle-class of the 1920s figures much in their strong support of Nazism.[149] In the poor country that was the Weimar Republic of the early 1930s, the Nazi Party realised their socialist policies with food and shelter for the unemployed and the homeless—who were later recruited into the BrownshirtSturmabteilung (SA – Storm Detachments).[149]

Sex and gender Nazi ideology advocated excluding women from political involvement and confining them to the spheres of "Kinder, Küche, Kirche" (Children, Kitchen, Church).[150] Many women enthusiastically supported the regime, but formed their own internal hierarchies.[151] Hitler's own opinion on the matter of was that while other eras of German history had experienced the development and of the female mind, the National Socialist goal was essentially singular in that it wished for them to produce a child.[152] Based on this theme, Hitler once remarked about women that "with every child that she brings into the world, she fights her battle for the nation. The man stands up for the Volk, exactly as the woman stands up for the family".[153] Proto-natalist programs in Nazi Germany offered favourable loans and grants to newlyweds and encouraged them to give birth to offspring by providing them with additional incentives.[154] Contraception was discouraged for racially valuable women in Nazi Germany and abortion was forbidden by strict legal mandates, including prison sentences for women who sought them as well as prison sentences for doctors who performed them, whereas abortion for racially "undesirable" persons was encouraged.[155][156]

While unmarried until the very end of the regime, Hitler often made excuses about his busy life hindering any chance for marriage.[157] Among National Socialist ideologues, marriage was valued not for moral considerations but because it provided an optimal breeding environment. Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler reportedly told a confidant that when he established the program, an Obligations of Polish workers in organisation that would dramatically increase the birth rate of "Aryan" children Germany, warning them of the death penalty for any sexual relations through extramarital relations between women classified as racially pure and their between Germans and Poles male equals, he had only the purest male "conception assistants" in mind.[158]

Since the Nazis extended the Rassenschande ("race defilement") law to all foreigners at the beginning of the war,[119] pamphlets were issued to German women which ordered them to avoid sexual relations with foreign workers who were brought to Germany and the pamphlets also ordered German women to view these same foreign workers as a danger to their blood.[159] Although the law was applicable to both genders, German women were punished more severely for having sexual relations with foreign forced labourers in Germany.[160] The Nazis issued the Polish decrees on 8 March 1940 which contained regulations concerning the Polish forced labourers (Zivilarbeiter) who were brought to Germany during World War II. One of the regulations stated that any Pole "who has sexual relations with a German man or woman, or approaches them in any other improper manner, will be punished by death".[161]

After the decrees were enacted, Himmler stated:

Fellow Germans who engage in sexual relations with male or female civil workers of the Polish nationality, commit other immoral acts or engage in love affairs shall be arrested immediately.[162]

The Nazis later issued similar regulations against the Eastern Workers (Ost-Arbeiters), including the imposition of the death penalty if they engaged in sexual relations with German persons.[163] Heydrich issued a decree on 20 February 1942 which declared that sexual intercourse between a German woman and a Russian worker or would result in the Russian man being punished with the death penalty.[164] Another decree issued by Himmler on 7 December 1942 stated that any "unauthorised sexual intercourse" would result in the death penalty.[165] Because the Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour did not permit capital punishment for race defilement, special courts were convened in order to allow the death penalty to be imposed in some cases.[166] German women accused of race defilement were marched through the streets with their head shaven and placards detailing their crimes were placed around their necks[167] and those convicted of race defilement were sent to concentration camps.[159] When Himmler reportedly asked Hitler what the punishment should be for German girls and German women who were found guilty of race defilement with prisoners of war (POWs), he ordered that "every POW who has relations with a German girl or a German would be shot" and the German woman should be publicly humiliated by "having her hair shorn and being sent to a concentration camp".[168]

The was particularly regarded as instructing girls to avoid race defilement, which was treated with particular importance for young females.[169]

Opposition to homosexuality After the Night of the Long Knives, Hitler promoted Himmler and the SS, who then zealously suppressed homosexuality by saying: "We must exterminate these people root and branch ... the homosexual must be eliminated".[170] In 1936, Himmler established the "Reichszentrale zur Bekämpfung der Homosexualität und Abtreibung" ("Reich Central Office for the Combating of Homosexuality and Abortion").[171] The Nazi regime incarcerated some 100,000 homosexuals during the 1930s.[172] As concentration camp prisoners, homosexual men were forced to wear pink triangle badges.[173][174] Nazi ideology still viewed German men who were gay as a part of the Aryan master race, but the Nazi regime attempted to force them into sexual and social conformity. Homosexuals were viewed as failing in their duty to procreate and reproduce for the Aryan nation. who would not change or feign a change in their were sent to concentration camps under the "Extermination Through Work" campaign.[175]

Religion The Nazi Party Programme of 1920 guaranteed freedom for all religious denominations which were not hostile to the State and it also endorsed Positive Christianity in order to combat "the Jewish-materialist spirit".[176] Positive Christianity was a modified version of Christianity which emphasized racial purity and nationalism.[177] The Nazis were aided by theologians such as Ernst Bergmann. In his work Die 25 Thesen der Deutschreligion (Twenty-five Points of the German Religion), Bergmann held the view that the Old Testament of the Bible was inaccurate along with portions of the New Testament, claimed that Jesus was not a Jew but was instead of Aryan origin and he also claimed that Adolf Hitler was the Homophobia: Berlin memorial to homosexual victims of the Holocaust: new messiah.[177] Totgeschlagen—Totgeschwiegen (Struck Dead—Hushed Up) Hitler denounced the Old Testament as "Satan's Bible" and utilising components of the New Testament he attempted to prove that Jesus was both an Aryan and an antisemite by citing passages such as John 8:44 where he noted that Jesus is yelling at "the Jews", as well as saying to them "your father is the devil" and the Cleansing of the Temple, which describes Jesus' whipping of the "Children of the Devil".[178] Hitler claimed that the New Testament included distortions byPaul the Apostle, who Hitler described as a "mass-murderer turned saint".[178] In their propaganda, the Nazis utilised the writings of Martin Luther, the founder of . They publicly displayed an original edition of Luther's On the Jews and their Lies during the annual .[179][180] The Nazis endorsed the pro-Nazi Protestant German Christians organization. Members of the German Christians organization celebrating Luther Day The Nazis were initially very hostile to Catholics because most Catholics supported in Berlin in 1933, speech by Bishop Hossenfelder the German Centre Party. Catholics opposed the Nazis' promotion of compulsory sterilization of those whom they deemed inferior and theCatholic Church forbade its members to vote for the Nazis. In 1933, extensive Nazi violence occurred against Catholics due to their association with the Centre Party and their opposition to the Nazi regime's sterilization laws.[181] The Nazis demanded that Catholics declare their loyalty to the German state.[182] In their propaganda, the Nazis used elements of Germany's Catholic history, in particular the German Catholic Teutonic Knights and their campaigns in Eastern Europe. The Nazis identified them as "sentinels" in the East against "Slavic chaos", though beyond that symbolism, the influence of the [183] Teutonic Knights on Nazism was limited. Hitler also admitted that the Nazis' Hitler in 1935 with Cesare Orsenigo, night rallies were inspired by the Catholic rituals which he had witnessed during his the Catholic Church's nuncio to Catholic upbringing.[184] The Nazis did seek official reconciliation with the Germany Catholic Church and they endorsed the creation of the pro-Nazi Catholic Kreuz und Adler, an organization which advocated a form of that would reconcile the Catholic Church's beliefs with Nazism.[182] On 20 July 1933, a concordat (Reichskonkordat) was signed between Nazi Germany and the Catholic Church, which in exchange for acceptance of the Catholic Church in Germany required German Catholics to be loyal to the German state. The Catholic Church then ended its ban on members supporting the Nazi Party.[182] Historian Michael Burleigh claims that Nazism used Christianity for political purposes, but such use required that "fundamental tenets were stripped out, but the remaining diffuse religious emotionality had its uses".[184] Burleigh claims that Nazism's conception of spirituality was "self-consciously pagan and primitive".[184] However, historian rejects the claim that Nazism was primarily pagan, noting that although there were some influential neo-paganists in the Nazi Party, such as Heinrich Himmler and Alfred Rosenberg, they represented a minority and their views did not influence Nazi ideology beyond its use for symbolism. It is noted that Hitler denounced Germanic paganism in Mein Kampf and condemned Rosenberg's and Himmler's paganism as "nonsense".[185]

Economics Generally speaking, Nazi theorists and politicians blamed Germany’s previous economic failures on political causes like the influence of Marxism on the workforce, the sinister and exploitative machinations of what they called international Jewry and the vindictiveness of the western political leaders' war reparation demands. Instead of traditional economic incentives, the Nazis offered solutions of a political nature, such as the elimination of organised labour groups, rearmament (in contravention of the Versailles Treaty) and biological politics.[186] Various work programs designed to establish full-employment for the German population were instituted once the Nazis seized full national power. Hitler encouraged nationally supported projects like the construction of the Autobahn, the introduction of an affordable people’s car (Volkswagen) and later the Nazis bolstered the economy through the business and employment generated by military rearmament.[187] Not only did the Nazis benefit early in the regime's existence from the first post–Depression economic upswing, their public works projects, job- procurement program and subsidised home repair program reduced unemployment by as much as 40 percent in one year, a development which tempered the unfavourable psychological climate caused by the earlier economic crisis and Deutsches Volk–Deutsche Arbeit: encouraged Germans to march in step with the regime.[188] German People, German Work, the alliance of worker and work (1934) To protect the German people and currency from volatile market forces, the Nazis also promised social policies like a national labour service, state-provided health care, guaranteed pensions and an agrarian settlement program.[189] Agrarian policies were particularly important to the Nazis since they corresponded not just to the economy but to their geopolitical conception of Lebensraum as well. For Hitler, the acquisition of land and soil was requisite in moulding the German economy.[190] To tie farmers to their land, selling agricultural land was prohibited.[191] Farm ownership was nominally private, but business monopoly rights were granted to marketing boards to control production and prices with a quota system.[192] The “Hereditary Farm Law of 1933” established a cartel structure under a government body known as the Reichsnährstand (RNST) which determined “everything from what seeds and fertilizers were used to how land was inherited”.[193]

The Nazis sought to gain support of workers by declaring May Day, a day celebrated by organised labour, to be a paid holiday and held celebrations on 1 May 1933 to honour German workers.[194] The Nazis stressed that Germany must honour its workers.[195] The regime believed that the only way to avoid a repeat of the disaster of 1918 was to secure workers' support for the German government.[194] The Nazis wanted all Germans take part in the May Day celebrations in the hope that this would help break down class hostility between workers and burghers.[195] Songs in praise of labour and workers were played by state radio throughout May Day as well as fireworks and an air show in Berlin.[195] Hitler spoke of workers as patriots who had built Germany's industrial strength, had honourably served in the war and claimed that they had been oppressed under economic liberalism.[196] The Berliner Morgenpost, which had been strongly associated with the political left in the past, praised the regime's May Day celebrations.[196]

The Nazis continued social welfare policies initiated by the governments of the Weimar Republic and mobilised volunteers to assist those impoverished, "racially-worthy" Germans through the National Socialist People's Welfare (NSV) chairman Erich Hilgenfeldt organisation.[197] This organisation oversaw charitable activities, and became the largest civic organisation in Nazi Germany.[197] Successful efforts were made to get middle-class women involved in social work assisting large families.[198] The Winter Relief campaigns acted as a ritual to generate public sympathy.[199] Bonfires were made of school children's differently coloured caps as symbolic of the abolition of class differences.[198] Large celebrations and symbolism were used extensively to encourage those engaged in physical labour on behalf of Germany, with leading National Socialists often praising the "honour of labour", which fostered a sense of community (Gemeinschaft) for the German people and promoted solidarity towards the Nazi cause.[200]

Hitler believed that private ownership was useful in that it encouraged creative competition and technical innovation, but insisted that it had to conform to national interests and be "productive" rather than "parasitical".[201] Private property rights were conditional upon the economic mode of use and if it did not advance Nazi economic goals, then the state could nationalise it.[202] Although the Nazis privatised public properties and public services, they also increased economic state control.[203] Under Nazi economics, free competition and self-regulating markets diminished, but Hitler's social Darwinist beliefs made him reluctant to entirely disregard business competition and private property as economic engines.[204][205]

Hitler primarily viewed the German economy as an instrument of power and believed the economy was not just about creating wealth and technical progress so as to improve the quality of life for a nation's citizenry, therefore economic success was paramount in that as it provided the means and material foundations necessary for military conquest.[206] While economic progress generated by National Socialist programs had its role in appeasing the German people, the Nazis and Hitler in particular did not believe that economic solutions alone were sufficient to thrust Germany onto the stage as a world power. The Nazis thus sought first to secure a command economy through general economic revival accompanied by massive military spending for rearmament, especially later through the implementation of the Four Year Plan, which consolidated their rule and firmly secured a command relationship between the German arms industry and the National Socialist government.[207] Between 1933 and 1939, military expenditures were upwards of 82 billion Reichsmarks and represented 23 percent of Germany's gross national product as the Nazis mobilised their people and economy for war.[208]

Anti-communism Historians Ian Kershaw and Joachim Fest argue that in post–World War I Germany, the Nazis were one of many nationalist and fascist political parties contending for the leadership of Germany's anti-communist movement. The Nazis claimed that communism was dangerous to the well-being of nations because of its intention to dissolve private property, its support of class conflict, its aggression against the middle class, its hostility towards small business and its atheism.[209] Nazism rejected class conflict-based socialism and economic egalitarianism, favouring instead a stratified economy with social classes based on merit and talent, retaining private property and the creation of national solidarity that transcends class distinction.[210]

During the 1920s, Hitler urged disparate Nazi factions to unite in opposition toJewish Bolshevism.[211] Hitler asserted that the "three vices" of "Jewish Marxism" were democracy, pacifism and internationalism.[212]

During a speech that Hitler often repeated during August 1920 titled "Why We Are Anti-Semites", he stated: "Since we are socialists, we must necessarily also be antisemites because we want to fight against the very opposite: materialism and mammonism… How can you not be an antisemite, being a socialist!".[213] Joseph Goebbels published a pamphlet titled The Nazi-Sozi which gave brief points of how National Socialism differed from Marxism.[214] In 1930, Hitler said: "Our adopted term 'Socialist' has nothing to do with Marxist Socialism. Marxism is anti-property; true Socialism is not".[215]

During the late 1930s and the 1940s, anti-communist regimes and groups that supported Nazism included the Falange in , the Vichy regime and the 33rd Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS Charlemagne (1st French) in France and the British Union of Fascists under Sir .[216]

Anti-capitalism The Nazis argued that capitalism damages nations due to international finance, the economic dominance of big business and Jewish influences.[209] Nazi propaganda posters in working class districts emphasised anti-capitalism, such as one that said: "The maintenance of a rotten industrial system has nothing to do with nationalism. I can love Germany and hate capitalism".[217] Both in public and in private, Hitler expressed disdain for capitalism arguing that it holds nations ransom in the interests of a parasitic cosmopolitan rentier class.[218] He opposed free market capitalism's profit-seeking impulses and desired an economy in which community interests would be upheld.[201] Hitler also distrusted capitalism for being unreliable due to its egotism and he preferred a state-directed economy that is subordinated to the interests of theV olk.[218]

Hitler told a party leader in 1934: "The economic system of our day is the creation of the Jews".[218] Hitler said to Benito Mussolini that capitalism had "run its course".[218] Hitler also said that the business "know nothing except their profit. 'Fatherland' is only a word for them".[219] Hitler was personally disgusted with the ruling bourgeois elites of Germany during the period of the Weimar Republic, who he referred to as "cowardly shits".[220]

In Mein Kampf, Hitler effectively supported mercantilism in the belief that economic resources from their respective territories should be seized by force, as he believed that the policy of Lebensraum would provide Germany with such economically valuable territories.[221] Hitler argued that the only means to maintain economic security was to have direct control over resources rather than being forced to rely on world trade.[221] Hitler claimed that war to gain such resources was the only means to surpass the failing capitalist economic system.[221]

A number of other Nazis held strong revolutionary socialist and anti-capitalist beliefs, most prominently Ernst Röhm, the leader of the Sturmabteilung (SA).[222] Röhm claimed that the Nazis' rise to power constituted a national revolution, but insisted that a socialist "second revolution" was required for Nazi ideology to be fulfilled.[37] Röhm's SA began attacks against individuals deemed to be associated with conservative reaction.[37] Hitler saw Röhm's independent actions as violating and possibly threatening his leadership, as well as jeopardising the regime by alienating the conservative President Paul von Hindenburg and the conservative- oriented German Army.[38] This resulted in Hitler purging Röhm and other radical members of the SA.[38]

Another radical Nazi, Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels, had stressed the socialist character of Nazism and claimed in his diary in the 1920s that if he were to pick between Bolshevism and capitalism, he said "in final analysis", "it would be better for us to go down with Bolshevism than live in eternal under capitalism".[223]

Totalitarianism Under Nazism, with its emphasis on the nation, individualism was denounced and instead importance was placed upon Germans belonging to the GermanV olk and "people's community" (Volksgemeinschaft).[224] Hitler declared that "every activity and every need of every individual will be regulated by the collectivity represented by the party" and that "there are no longer any free realms in which the individual belongs to himself".[225] Himmler justified the establishment of a repressive police state, in which the security forces could exercise power arbitrarily, by claiming that national security and order should take precedence over the needs of the individual.[226]

According to the famous philosopher and political theorist, Hannah Arendt, the allure of Nazism as a totalitarian ideology (with its attendant mobilisation of the German population) resided within the construct of helping that society deal with the cognitive dissonance resultant from the tragic interruption of the First World War and the economic and material suffering consequent to the Depression and brought to order the revolutionary unrest occurring all around them. Instead of the plurality that existed in democratic or parliamentary states, Nazism as a totalitarian system promulgated "clear" solutions to the historical problems faced by Germany, levied support by de-legitimizing the former government of Weimar and provided a politico-biological pathway to a better future, one free from the uncertainty of the past. It was the atomised and disaffected masses that Hitler and the party elite pointed in a particular direction and using clever propaganda to make them into ideological adherents, exploited in bringing Nazism to life.[227]

While the ideologues of Nazism, much like those of Stalinism, abhorred democratic or parliamentary governance as practiced in the United States or Britain, their differences are substantial. An epistemic crisis occurs when one tries to synthesize and contrast Nazism and Stalinism as two-sides of the same coin with their similarly tyrannical leaders, state-controlled economies and repressive police structures. Namely, while they share a common thematic political construction, they are entirely inimical to one another in their worldviews and when more carefully analysed against one another on a one-to-one level, an "irreconcilable asymmetry" results.[228] Post–war Nazism

Following Nazi Germany's defeat in World War II and the end of the Holocaust, overt expressions of support for Nazi ideas were prohibited in Germany and other European countries. Nonetheless, movements which self-identify as National Socialist or which are described as adhering to National Socialism continue to exist on the fringes of politics in many western societies. Usually espousing a white supremacist ideology, many deliberately adopt the symbols of Nazi Germany.[229]

See also

Comparison of Nazism and Stalinism Fascist Functionalism versus intentionalism List of books about Nazi Germany National syndicalism Nazi occultism Political views of Adolf Hitler

References

Notes

1. Jones, Daniel (2003) [1917]. Roach, Peter; Hartmann, James; Setter, Jane, eds. English Pronouncing Dictionary. Cambridge University Press.ISBN 3-12-539683-2. 2. [Evans (2003), p.229 3. Baum, Bruce David (2006).The Rise and Fall of the Caucasian Race: A Political History of Racial Identity. New York City/London: Press. p. 156. 4. Kobrak, Christopher; Hansen, Per H.; Kopper, Christopher (2004). "Business, Political Risk, and Historians in the Twentieth Century". In Kobrak, Christopher; Hansen, Per H.European Business, , and Political Risk, 1920-1945 (https://books.google.ca/books?id=1oXbDyeLYXoC&pg=PA16&lpg=PA16&dq=Feldman,+Gerald.+The+E conomic+Origins+of+European+Fascism&source=bl&ots=EQvpyEizl7&sig=-Y7OUYWOAg5NMYi2LYLLP8bUO6U& hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi399mk2IPPAhVW5mMKHdKKA_cQ6AEIIjAC#v=onepage&q=anti-capitalist%20enough &f=false). New York City/Oxford: Berghahn Books. pp. 16–7. ISBN 1-57181-629-1. 5. Kershaw 1999, pp. 243-44, 248-49. 6. Gottlieb, Henrik; Morgensen, Jens Erik, eds. (2007).Dictionary Visions, Research and Practice: Selected Papers from the 12th International Symposium on Lexicography, Copenhagen 2004 (https://books.google.com/books?id=Ua ggHAJ7jToC&pg=PA247) (illustrated ed.). Amsterdam: J. Benjamins Pub. Co. p. 247.ISBN 978-9027223340. Retrieved 22 October 2014. 7. Harper, Douglas. "Nazi" (http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Nazi). etymonline.com. Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 22 October 2014. 8. "Nazi" (http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Nazi). Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 18 August 2017. 9. Lepage, Jean-Denis (2009).Hitler Youth, 1922-1945: An Illustrated History. McFarland. p. 9. ISBN 978-0786439355. 10. Rabinbach, Anson; Gilman, Sander, eds. (2013). The Third Reich Sourcebook (https://books.google.com/books?id= XhDakMp55i0C&pg=PA4). Berkeley, California: California University Press. p. 4. ISBN 9780520955141. 11. Copping, Jasper (23 October 2011)."Why Hitler hated being called a Nazi and what's really in humble pie – origins of words and phrases revealed" (https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/8843158/Why-Hitler-ha ted-being-called-a-Nazi-and-whats-really-in-humble-pie-origins-of-words-and-phrases-revealed.html). . Retrieved 22 October 2014. 12. Seebold, Elmar, ed. (2002). Kluge Etymologisches Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache (in German) (24th ed.). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-017473-1. 13. Nazi. In: Friedrich Kluge, Elmar Seebold:Etymologisches Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache. 24. Auflage, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/New York 2002, ISBN 3-11-017473-1 (Online Etymology Dictionary:Nazi (http://www.etymonline.c om/index.php?term=Nazi)). 14. Fritzsche, Peter (1998). Germans into Nazis. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.ISBN 978- 0674350922. Eatwell, Roger (1997). Fascism, A History. Viking-Penguin. pp. xvii–xxiv, 21, 26–31, 114–40, 352.ISBN 978- 0140257007. Griffin, Roger (2000). "Revolution from the Right: Fascism". In Parker, David. Revolutions and the Revolutionary Tradition in the West 1560-1991. London: Routledge. pp. 185–201.ISBN 978-0415172950. 15. Oliver H. Woshinsky. Explaining Politics: Culture, Institutions, and Political Behavior. Oxon, England, UK; New York, New York, USA: Routledge, 2008. p. 156. 16. Hitler, Adolf in Domarus, Max and Patrick Romane, eds. The Essential Hitler: Speeches and Commentary, Waulconda, Illinois: Bolchazi-Carducci Publishers, Inc., 2007, p. 170. 17. Koshar, Rudy. Social Life, Local Politics, and Nazism: Marburg, 1880-1935, University of Press, 1986. p. 190. 18. Hitler, Adolf, Mein Kampf, Bottom of the Hill Publishing, 2010. p. 287. 19. Dawidowicz, Lucy. A Holocaust Reader Behrman House, Inc, 1976. p. 31. 20. Adolf Hitler, Max Domarus. The Essential Hitler: Speeches and Commentary. pp. 171, 172–173. 21. Kershaw 1999, p. 135. 22. Peukert, Detlev, The Weimar Republic. 1st paperback ed. Macmillan, 1993.ISBN 9780809015566, pp. 73–74. 23. Peukert, Detlev, The Weimar Republic. 1st paperback ed. Macmillan, 1993.ISBN 9780809015566, p. 74. 24. Beck, Hermann The Fateful Alliance: German Conservatives and Nazis in 1933: The Machtergreifung in a New Light, Berghahn Books, 2008.ISBN 9781845456801, p. 72. 25. Beck, Hermann The Fateful Alliance: German Conservatives and Nazis in 1933: The Machtergreifung in a New Light, 2008. pp. 72–75. 26. Beck, Hermann The Fateful Alliance: German Conservatives and Nazis in 1933: The Machtergreifung in a New Light, 2008. p. 84. 27. Miranda Carter. George, Nicholas and Wilhelm: Three Royal Cousins and the Road to World War I. Borzoi Book, 2009. Pp. 420. 28. Mann, Michael, Fascists, New York City: Cambridge University Press, 2004. p. 183. 29. Browder, George C., Foundations of the Nazi Police State: The Formation of Sipo and SD, paperback, Lexington, Kentucky, USA: Kentucky University Press, 2004. p. 202. 30. Bendersky, Joseph W. (2007). A Concise History of Nazi Germany. Plymouth, England: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Inc. p. 96. ISBN 9780742553637. 31. Heiden, Konrad (1938) Hitler: A Biography, London: Constable & Co. Ltd. p.390 32. Glenn D. Walters. Lifestyle Theory: Past, Present, and Future. Nova Publishers, 2006. p. 40. 33. Weber, Thomas, Hitler's First War: Adolf Hitler, the Men of the List , and the First World War, Oxford, England, UK: , 2011. p. 251. 34. Gaab, Jeffrey S., Munich: Hofbräuhaus & History: Beer, Culture, & Politics, 2nd ed. New York City: Peter Lang Publishing, Inc, 2008. p. 61. 35. Kershaw 1999, pp. 34-35, 50-52, 60-67. 36. Overy, R.J., The Dictators: Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Russia, W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2004. pp. 399–403. 37. Nyomarkay, Joseph (1967). Charisma and Factionalism in the Nazi Party. Univ Of Minnesota Press.ISBN 978- 0816604296. P. 130. 38. Nyomarkay 1967, p. 133. 39. Furet, François, Passing of an Illusion: The Idea of Communism in the wentiethT Century, , Illinois' London, England: University of Chicago Press, 1999.ISBN 0-226-27340-7, pp. 191–192. 40. Furet, François, Passing of an Illusion: The Idea of Communism in the wentiethT Century, 1999. p. 191. 41. Ryback, Timothy W. (2010). Hitler's Private Library: The Books That Shaped His Life. New York City; : Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0307455260. Pp. 129–130. 42. Ryback 2010, p. 129. 43. George L. Mosse, The Crisis of German Ideology: Intellectual Origins of the Third Reich (New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1964), pp. 19-23. 44. Thomas Lekan and Thomas Zeller, "Introduction: The Landscape of German Environmental History," in Germany's Nature: Cultural Landscapes and Environmental History, edited by Thomas Lekan and Thomas Zeller (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2005), p. 3. 45. The Nazi concept of Lebensraum has connections with this idea, with German farmers being rooted to their soil, needing more of it for the expansion of the German Volk - whereas the Jew is precisely the opposite, nomadic and urban by nature. See: Roderick Stackelberg,The Routledge Companion to Nazi Germany (New York: Routledge, 2007), p. 259. 46. Additional evidence of Riehl’s legacy can be seen in the Riehl Prize, Die Volkskunde als Wissenschaft (Folklore as Science) which was awarded in 1935 by the Nazis. See: George L. Mosse,The Crisis of German Ideology: Intellectual Origins of the Third Reich (New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1964), p. 23.Applicants for the Riehl prize had stipulations that included only being of Aryan blood, and no evidence of membership in any Marxist parties or any organisation that stood against National Socialism. See: Hermann Stroback, "Folklore and Fascism before and around 1933," in The Nazification of an Academic Discipline: Folklore in the Third Reich, edited by James R Dow and Hannjost Lixfeld (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994), pp. 62-63. 47. Cyprian Blamires. World Fascism: A Historical Encyclopedia, Volume 1. Santa Barbara, California, USA: ABC-CLIO, Inc., 2006. p. 542. 48. Keith H. Pickus. Constructing Modern Identities: Jewish University Students in Germany, 1815–1914. Detroit, Michigan, USA: Wayne State University Press, 1999. p. 86. 49. Jonathan Olsen. Nature and Nationalism: Right-wing Ecology and the Politics of Identity in Contemporary Germany. New York, New York, USA: Palgrave Macmillan, 1999. p. 62. 50. Andrew Gladding Whiteside, Austrian National Socialism before 1918, (1962), pp. 1-3 51. Nina Witoszek, Lars Trägårdh. Culture and Crisis: The Case of Germany and . Berghahn Books, 2002. pp. 89–90. 52. Witoszek, Nina and Lars Trägårdh, Culture and Crisis: The Case of Germany and Sweden, Berghahn Books, 2002, p. 90. 53. Gerwarth, Robert (2007).The Bismarck Myth: Weimar Germany and the Legacy of the Iron Chancellor. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199236893. P. 150. 54. Gerwarth 2007, p. 149. 55. Gerwarth 2007, p. 54. 56. Gerwarth 2007, p. 131. 57. David Nicholls. Adolf Hitler: A Biographical Companion. Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA: University of North Carolina Press, 2000. pp. 236–237. 58. David Nicholls. Adolf Hitler: A Biographical Companion. Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA: University of North Carolina Press, 2000. pp. 159–160. 59. Brigitte Hamann (2010). Hitler's Vienna: A Portrait of the Tyrant as a Young Man. Tauris Parke Paperbacks. p. 302. ISBN 978-1-84885-277-8. 60. Blamires, Cyprian; Jackson, Paul.World Fascism: A Historical Encyclopedia: Volume 1. Santa Barbara, California, USA: ABC-CLIO, Inc, 2006. p. 62. 61. Stackelberg, Roderick; Winkle, Sally Anne.The Nazi Germany Sourcebook: An Anthology of extsT , London: Routledge, 2002. p. 11. 62. The Cambridge Companion to Tacitus, p. 294. A. J. Woodman - 2009 "The white race was defined as beautiful, honourable and destined to rule; within it the Aryans arecette ' illustre famille humaine, la plus noble'." Originally a linguistic term synonymous with Indo-European,Aryan ' ' became, not least because of the Essai, the designation of a race, which Gobineau specified was 'la race germanique' 63. Blamires, Cyprian and Paul Jackson,World Fascism: A Historical Encyclopedia: Volume 1, 2006. p. 126. 64. Stefan Kühl (2002). Nazi Connection: Eugenics, American Racism, and German National Socialism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195149785. 65. William Brustein. Roots of Hate: Anti-Semitism in Europe Before the Holocaust. Cambridge University Press, 2003. P. 207. 66. Brustein, 2003, p. 210. 67. William Brustein. Roots of Hate: Anti-Semitism in Europe Before the Holocaust. Cambridge University Press, 2003. P. 207, 209. 68. Nina Witoszek, Lars Trägårdh. Culture and Crisis: The Case of Germany and Sweden. Berghahn Books, 2002. p. 89. 69. Jack Fischel. The Holocaust. Westport, Connecticut, USA: Greenwood Press, 1998. p. 5. 70. Philip Rees, Biographical Dictionary of the Extreme Right Since 1890, Simon & Schuster, 1990, p. 220 71. Ryback 2010, p. 130. 72. Roderick Stackelberg, Sally Anne Winkle.The Nazi Germany Sourcebook: An Anthology of extsT , 2002. p. 45. 73. Ian Kershaw. Hitler, 1936-45: Nemesis. New York, New York: USA: W. W. Norton & Company Inc., 2001. p. 588. 74. David Welch. Hitler: Profile of a Dictator. 2nd edition. New York, New York, USA: UCL Press, 2001. pp. 13–14. 75. David Welch. Hitler: Profile of a Dictator, 2001. p. 16. 76. Claudia Koonz (1 November 2005).The Nazi Conscience. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.ISBN 978-0- 674-01842-6. 77. Richard Weikart (21 July 2009). Hitler's Ethic. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 142.ISBN 978-0-230-62398-9. 78. Sarah Ann Gordon (1984).Hitler , Germans, and the "Jewish Question". Princeton University Press. p. 265.ISBN 0- 691-10162-0. 79. " Holocaust Museum - Antisemitism - Post World War 1" (history), www.flholocaustmuseum.org, 2003, webpage: Post-WWI Antisemitism (http://www.flholocaustmuseum.org/history_wing/antisemitism/post_ww1.cfm) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20081003233617/http://www.flholocaustmuseum.org/history_wing/antisemitis m/post_ww1.cfm) October 3, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.. 80. "THHP Short Essay: What Was the Final Solution?". Holocaust-History.org, July 2004, webpage:HoloHist-Final (htt p://www.holocaust-history.org/short-essays/final-solution.shtml): notes that Hermann Göring used the term in his order of July 31, 1941 to Reinhard Heydrich, chief of the Reich Main Security Office (RSHA). 81. Peter J. Bowler. Evolution: The History of an Idea. 2nd edition. Berkeley and , California, USA: University of California Press, 1989. pp. 304–305. 82. Robert J. Richards. Myth 19 That Darwin and Haeckel were Complicit in Nazi Biology. The University of Chicago, Illinois, USA. http://home.uchicago.edu/~rjr6/articles/Myth.pdf 83. Peter J. Bowler. Evolution: The History of an Idea, 1989. p. 305. 84. Denis R. Alexander, Ronald L. Numbers. Biology and Ideology from Descartes to Dawkins. Chicago, Illinois, USA; London, England, UK: University of Chicago Press, 2010. p. 209. 85. Henry Friedlander. The Origins of Nazi Genocide: From Euthanasia to the Final Solution. Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA: University of North Carolina Press, 1995. p. 5. 86. Kitchen, Martin, A History of Modern Germany, 1800-2000, Malden, Massaschussetts, USA; Oxford, England, UK; Carlton, Victoria, Australia: Blackwell Publishing, Inc., 2006. p. 205. 87. Hüppauf, Bernd-Rüdiger War, Violence, and the Modern Condition, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co., 1997. p. 92. 88. Rohkrämer, Thomas, "A Single Communal Faith?: The German Right from Conservatism to National Socialism", Monographs in German History. Volume 20, Berghahn Books, 2007. p. 130 89. Blamires, Cyprian; Jackson, Paul.World Fascism: A Historical Encyclopedia: Volume 1. Santa Barbara, California, USA: ABC-CLIO, Inc, 2006. p. 628. 90. Winkler, Heinrich August and Alexander Sager, Germany: The Long Road West, English ed. 2006, p. 414. 91. Blamires, Cyprian; Jackson, Paul.World Fascism: A Historical Encyclopedia: Volume 1, 2006. p. 629. 92. Weitz, Eric D., Weimar Germany: Promise and Tragedy, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2007. pp. 336–337. 93. Weitz, Eric D., Weimar Germany: Promise and Tragedy, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2007. p. 336. 94. German Federal Archive image description 95. Hughes, H. Stuart, Oswald Spengler, New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 1992. p. 108. 96. Hughes, H. Stuart, Oswald Spengler, New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 1992. p. 109. 97. Kaplan, Mordecai M. Judaism as a Civilization: Toward a Reconstruction of American-Jewish Life. p. 73. 98. Stern, Fritz Richard The politics of cultural despair: a study in the rise of the Germanic ideology University of California Press reprint edition (1974) p. 296 99. Burleigh, Michael The Third Reich: a new history Pan MacMillan (2001) p. 75 100. Redles, David Nazi End Times; The Third Reich as a Millennial Reich in Kinane, Karolyn & Ryan, Michael A. (eds) End of Days: Essays on the Apocalypse from Antiquity to Modernity McFarland and Co (2009) p. 176. 101. Kershaw 1999, p. 182. 102. Fulda, Bernhard. Press and Politics in the Weimar Republic. Oxford University Press, 2009. p. 65. 103. Carlsten, F. L. The Rise of Fascism. 2nd ed. University of California Press, 1982. p. 80. 104. David Jablonsky. The Nazi Party in Dissolution: Hitler and the Verbotzeit, 1923–1925. London, England, UK; Totowa, New Jersey, USA: Frank Cass and Company Ltd., 1989. pp. 20–26, 30 105. Hugh R. Trevor-Roper (ed.), Gerhard L. Weinberg (ed.). Hitler's Table Talk 1941-1944: Secret Conversations. Enigma Books, 2008. p10 106. Stanley G. Payne. A History of Fascism, 1914-1945. Madison, Wisconsin, USA: Wisconsin University Press, 1995. pp. 463–464. 107. Stanley G. Payne. A History of Fascism, 1914–1945, 1995. p. 463. 108. Stanley G. Payne. A History of Fascism, 1914–1945, 1995. p. 464. 109. Steve Thorne. The Language of War. London, England, UK: Routledge, 2006. p. 38. 110. Stephen J. Lee. Europe, 1890-1945. p. 237. 111. Peter D. Stachura. The Shaping of the Nazi State. p. 31. 112. Joseph W. Bendersk, A History of Nazi Germany: 1919-1945, p. 177 113. André Mineau. : Ideology and Ethics Against Human Dignity. Rodopi, 2004. P. 36 114. Rolf Dieter Müller, Gerd R. Ueberschär. Hitler's War in the East, 1941–1945: A Critical Assessment. Berghahn Books, 2009. P. 89. 115. Bradl Lightbody. The Second World War: Ambitions to Nemesis. London, England, UK; New York, New York, USA: Routledge, 2004. P. 97. 116. George Lachmann Mosse. Nazi Culture: Intellectual, Cultural and Social Life in the Third Reich. p79. 117. S. H. Milton (2001). ""Gypsies" as social outsiders in Nazi Germany". In Robert Gellately; Nathan Stoltzfus.Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany. Princeton University Press. pp. 216, 231.ISBN 9780691086842. 118. Michael Burleigh (7 November 1991).The Racial State: Germany 1933-1945. Cambridge University Press. p. 49. ISBN 978-0-521-39802-2. 119. Majer 2003, p. 180. 120. Mineau, André (2004). Operation Barbarossa: Ideology and Ethics Against Human Dignity. Amsterdam; New York: Rodopi. p. 180. ISBN 90-420-1633-7. 121. Simone Gigliotti, Berel Lang.The Holocaust: a reader. Malden, Massachusetts, USA; Oxford, England, UK; Carlton, Victoria, Australia: Blackwell Publishing, 2005. p. 14. 122. Simone Gigliotti, Berel Lang.The Holocaust: A Reader. Malden, Massachusetts, USA; Oxford, England, UK; Carlton, Victoria, Australia: Blackwell Publishing, 2005. p. 14. 123. William W. Hagen (2012). "German History in Modern Times: Four Lives of the Nation (https://books.google.com/boo ks?id=zBgr3kL-PP4C&pg=&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false)". Cambridge University Press. p. 313.ISBN 0-521- 19190-4 124. Sandner (1999): 385 (66 in PDF (http://www.ifz-muenchen.de/heftarchiv/1999_3.pdf)) Note 2. The author claims that the term was not used by the Nazis and that it was first used in the trials of the doctors and later included in the . 125. Hitler, Adolf (1961). Hitler's Secret Book. New York: Grove Press. pp. 8–9, 17–18.ISBN 0-394-62003-8. OCLC 9830111 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/9830111). "Sparta must be regarded as the first Völkisch State. The exposure of the sick, weak, deformed children, in short, their destruction, was more decent and in truth a thousand times more humane than the wretched insanity of our day which preserves the most pathological subject." 126. Mike Hawkins (1997). Social Darwinism in European and American Thought, 1860–1945: nature as model and nature as threat (https://books.google.com/?id=SszNCxSKmgkC&pg=PA276&dq=Hitler%27s+Secret+Book+sparta). Cambridge University Press. p. 276.ISBN 0-521-57434-X. OCLC 34705047 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/3470504 7). 127. Clarence Lusane. Hitler's Black Victims: The Historical Experiences of Afro-Germans, European Blacks, Africans, and in the Nazi Era. Routledge, 2002. pp. 112, 113, 189. 128. Bryan Rigg (1 September 2004).Hitler's Jewish Soldiers: The Untold Story Of Nazi Racial Laws And Men Of Jewish Descent In The German Military. University Press of Kansas.ISBN 978-0-7006-1358-8. 129. Evans, p.507 130. This was the result of either aclub foot or osteomyelitis. Goebbels is commonly said to have hadclub foot (talipes equinovarus), a congenital condition. William L. Shirer, who worked in Berlin as a journalist in the 1930s and was acquainted with Goebbels, wrote inThe Rise and Fall of the Third Reich (1960) that the deformity was caused by a childhood attack of osteomyelitis and a failed operation to correct it. 131. Anne Maxwell. Picture Imperfect: Photography and Eugenics, 1870-1940. Eastbourne, England: UK; Portland, Oregon, USA: SUSSEX ACADEMIC PRESS, 2008, 2010. .P 150. 132. John Cornwell. Hitler's Scientists: Science, War, and the Devil's Pact. Penguin, Sep 28, 2004.[1] (https://books.goog le.com/books?id=5bA2vTgvobAC&pg=PT68&dq=hitler+gunther+aryan&hl=en&sa=X&ei=q2IYUfKYIoyayQHBmoG4 Dg&ved=0CGMQ6AEwCQ) 133. Made in. Germany (Racism Analysis |Yearbook 2 - 2011) Ed. by Wulf D. Hund, Christian Koller, Moshe Zimmermann page 19 134. Max Weinreich. Hitler's Professors: The Part of Scholarship in Germany's Crimes Against the Jewish People. Yale University Press, 1999. P. 111. 135. Steinweis, p. 28. 136. Steinweis, pp. 31–32 137. Steinweis, p. 29 138. André Mineau. Operation Barbarossa: Ideology and Ethics Against Human Dignity. Rodopi, 2004. pp. 34–36. 139. Steve Thorne. The Language of War. London, England, UK: Routledge, 2006. p. 38. 140. Anton Weiss Wendt (11 August 2010). Eradicating Differences: The Treatment of Minorities in Nazi-Dominated Europe. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 63.ISBN 978-1-4438-2449-1. 141. Wendy Lower. Nazi Empire-building and the Holocaust In . The University of North Carolina Press, 2005. p. 27. 142. Marvin Perry. Western Civilization: A Brief History. Cengage Learning, 2012. P. 468. 143. Bendersky, Joseph W. (2007). A Concise History of Nazi Germany. Plymouth, England: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Inc. pp. 161–162.ISBN 9780742553637. 144. Norman Davies. Europe at War 1939–1945: No Simple Victory. Pan Macmillan, 2008. pp. 167, 209. 145. Richard A. Koenigsberg. Nations have the Right to Kill: Hitler, the Holocaust, and War. New York, New York, USA: Library of Social Science, 2009. p. 2. 146. Goebbels, Joseph; Mjölnir (1932).Die verfluchten Hakenkreuzler. Etwas zum Nachdenken. Munich: Franz Eher Nachfolger. English translation: Those Damned Nazis (http://www.calvin.edu/academic/cas/gpa/haken32.htm). 147. David Nicholls. Adolf Hitler: A Biographical Companion. Santa Barbara, California, USA: ABC-CLIO, 2000. p. 245. 148. Burleigh, Michael. The Third Reich: A New History, New York, USA: Hill and Wang, 2000. pp. 76–77. 149. Burleigh, Michael. The Third Reich: A New History, New York, USA: Hill and Wang, 2000. p. 77. 150. For more elucidation about this conception and its oversimplification, see: Renate Bridenthal and Claudia Koonz, "Beyond Kinder, Küche, Kirche: Weimar Women in Politics and Work" in Renate Bridenthal, et al. (eds),When Biology Became Destiny in Weimar and Nazi Germany (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1984), pp. 33-65. 151. Claudia Koonz, Mothers in the Fatherland: Women, the Family and Nazi Politics (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1988), pp. 53-59. 152. Hitler on 23 November 1937. In Max Domarus ed.,Hitler: Reden und Proklamationen, 1932-1945, (vol I). Triumph. (Würzburg: Verlagsdruckerei Schmidt, 1962), p. 452. 153. Adolf Hitler in a speech to the National Socialist Women's Congress, published in theVölkischer Beobachter, 15 (Wiener Library Clipping Collection). Cited from: George Mosse,Nazi Culture: Intellectual, Cultural and Social Life in the Third Reich (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2003), p. 40. 154. Claudia Koonz, Mothers in the Fatherland: Women, the Family and Nazi Politics (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1988), p. 149, pp. 185-187. 155. Jill Stephenson, Women in Nazi Germany (London and New York: Longman, 2001), pp. 37-40. 156. Gerda Bormann was concerned by the ratio of racially valuable women that outnumbered men and she thought that the war would make the situation worse in terms of childbirths, so much so that she advocated a law (never realised however) which allowed healthy Aryan men to have two wives. See: Anna Maria Sigmund,Women of the Third Reich (Ontario: NDE, 2000), pp. 17-19. 157. Anna Maria Sigmund, Women of the Third Reich (Ontario: NDE, 2000), p. 17. 158. Himmler was thinking about members of the SS fulfilling this task. See: ,Totenkopf und Treue. Aus den Tagebuchblättern des finnischen Medizinalrats Felix Kersten (: Mölich Verlag, 1952), pp. 228-229. 159. Leila J. Rupp (1 January 1978).Mobilizing Women for War: German and American Propaganda, 1939-1945. Princeton University Press.ISBN 978-0-691-04649-5. 160. Helen Boak. "Nazi policies on German women during the Second World War - Lessons learned from the First World War?" (https://www.academia.edu/4794258/Nazi_policies_on_German_women_during_the_Second_World_War_-_ Lessons_learned_from_the_First_World_War). pp. 4–5. 161. Robert Gellately (8 March 2001).Backing Hitler: Consent and Coercion in Nazi Germany. Oxford University Press. p. 155. ISBN 978-0-19-160452-2. 162. Friedmann, Jan. "The 'Dishonorable' German Girls: The Forgotten Persecution of Women in World War II" (http://ww w.spiegel.de/international/germany/the-dishonorable-german-girls-the-forgotten-persecution-of-women-in-world-war-i i-a-672803.html). . Retrieved January 21, 2010. 163. Robert Gellately (1990). The and German Society: Enforcing Racial Policy, 1933-1945. Clarendon Press. p. 224. ISBN 978-0-19-820297-4. 164. Richard J. Evans (26 July 2012).The Third Reich at War: How the Nazis Led Germany from Conquest to Disaster. Limited. p. 355.ISBN 978-0-14-191755-9. 165. Majer 2003, p. 369. 166. Majer 2003, p. 331–332. 167. Jill Stephenson (2001). Women in Nazi Germany. Longman. p. 156. ISBN 978-0-582-41836-3. 168. Peter Longerich (2012). Heinrich Himmler: A Life. Oxford University Press. p. 475.ISBN 978-0-19-959232-6. 169. "The Jewish Question in Education (http://www.calvin.edu/academic/cas/gpa/fink.htm)" 170. Plant, 1986. p. 99. 171. Pretzel, Andreas (2005). "Vom Staatsfeind zum Volksfeind. Zur Radikalisierung der Homosexuellenverfolgung im Zusammenwirken von Polizei und Justiz". In Zur Nieden, Susanne.Homosexualität und Staatsräson. Männlichkeit, Homophobie und Politik in Deutschland 1900–1945 (https://books.google.com/books?id=HaZwHeBm2lkC&pg=PA23 6&lpg=PA236#v=onepage&q=&f=false). /M.: Campus Verlag. p. 236. ISBN 978-3-593-37749-0. 172. Bennetto, Jason (November 1, 1997)."Holocaust: Gay activists press for German apology" (http://findarticles.com/p/ articles/mi_qn4158/is_/ai_n14142669). The Independent. Retrieved December 26, 2008. 173. The Holocaust Chronicle, Publications International Ltd. p. 108. 174. Plant, Richard, The Pink Triangle: The Nazi War Against Homosexuals, Owl Books, 1988. ISBN 0-8050-0600-1. 175. Neander, Biedron. "Homosexuals. A Separate Category of Prisoners" (http://en.auschwitz.org/h/index.php?option=co m_content&task=view&id=31&Itemid=3). Auschwitz-Birkenau Memorial and Museum. Retrieved August 10, 2013. 176. J Noakes and G Pridham,Documents on Nazism, 1919-1945, London 1974 177. McNab 2009, p. 182. 178. David Redles. Hitler's Millennial Reich: Apocalyptic Belief and the Search for Salvation. New York, New York, USA; London, England, UK: New York University Press, 2005. p. 60. 179. Scholarship for Martin Luther's 1543 treatise, On the Jews and their Lies, exercising influence on Germany's attitude: * Wallmann, Johannes. "The Reception of Luther's Writings on the Jews from the Reformation to the End of the 19th Century", Lutheran Quarterly, n.s. 1 (Spring 1987) 1:72–97. Wallmann writes: "The assertion that Luther's expressions of anti-Jewish sentiment have been of major and persistent influence in the centuries after the Reformation, and that there exists a continuity between Protestant anti-Judaism and modern racially oriented anti- Semitism, is at present wide-spread in the literature; since the Second World War it has understandably become the prevailing opinion." * Michael, Robert.Holy Hatred: Christianity, Antisemitism, and the Holocaust. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006; see chapter 4 "The Germanies from Luther to Hitler", pp. 105–151. * Hillerbrand, Hans J. "Martin Luther," Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007. Hillerbrand writes: "[H]is strident pronouncements against the Jews, especially toward the end of his life, have raised the question of whether Luther significantly encouraged the development of German anti-Semitism. Although many scholars have taken this view, this perspective puts far too much emphasis on Luther and not enough on the larger peculiarities of German history." 180. Ellis, Marc H. "Hitler and the Holocaust, Christian Anti-Semitism" (http://www3.baylor.edu/American_Jewish/everythi ngthatusedtobehere/resources/PowerPoints/Christian%20Anti-Semitism%20(part%202).ppt) Archived (https://web.ar chive.org/web/20070710100514/http://www3.baylor.edu/American_Jewish/everythingthatusedtobehere/resources/Po werPoints/Christian%20Anti-Semitism%20%28part%202%29.ppt) July 10, 2007, at the Wayback Machine., Baylor University Center for American and Jewish Studies, Spring 2004, slide 14. Also seeNuremberg Trial Proceedings (ht tp://elsinore.cis.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/imt/proc/04-29-46.htm#herrwerth) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/200 60321151237/http://elsinore.cis.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/imt/proc/04-29-46.htm) 2006-03-21 at the Wayback Machine., Vol. 12, p. 318, Avalon Project, Yale Law School, April 19, 1946. 181. Robert Anthony Krieg. Catholic Theologians in Nazi Germany. London, England, UK: Continuum International Publishing Group, 2004. pp. 4-8. 182. Robert Anthony Krieg. Catholic Theologians in Nazi Germany, 2004. p. 4. 183. Ausma Cimdiņa, Jonathan Osmond.Power and Culture: Hegemony, Interaction and Dissent. PLUS-Pisa University Press, 2006. 184. Roger Griffin. Fascism, Totalitarianism and Political Religion. Oxon, England, UK; New York, New York, USA: Routledge, 2005. p. 85. 185. Roger Griffin. Fascism, Totalitarianism and Political Religion, 2005. p. 93. 186. R. J. Overy, War and Economy in the Third Reich (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), pp. 1-5. 187. R. J. Overy, War and Economy in the Third Reich (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), pp. 7-11. 188. , The 12-Year Reich: A Social History of Nazi Germany, 1933-1945 (New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1971), p. 19. 189. Adam Tooze, The Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy (New York: Penguin, 2006), p. 37. 190. Ian Kershaw, Hitler, the Germans, and the Final Solution (New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 2008), pp. 52-53. 191. Rafael Scheck, Germany, 1871-1945: A Concise History, p. 167. 192. Berman, Sheri. The Primacy of Politics: Social Democracy and the Making of Europe's wentiethT Century (https://bo oks.google.com/books?id=BNV5uVCQnq8C&pg=PA146&lpg=PP1&vq=146). p. 146. ISBN 978-0521521109. 193. Sheri Berman, The Primacy of Politics: Social Democracy and the Making of Europe’s Twentieth Century, Cambridge University Press, 2006, p. 146 194. Fritzsche 1998, p. 45. 195. Fritzsche 1998, p. 46. 196. Fritzsche 1998, p. 47. 197. Fritzsche 1998, p. 51. 198. Richard Grunberger, The 12-Year Reich, p. 46, ISBN 003-076435-1 199. Richard Grunberger, The 12-Year Reich, p. 79, ISBN 003-076435-1 200. Alf Lüdtke, "The 'Honor of Labor': Industrial Workers and the Power of Symbols under National Socialism", inNazism and German Society, 1933-1945, edited by David F. Crew (New York: Routledge, 1994), pp. 67-109. 201. Overy, R.J., The Dictators: Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Russia, W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2004. p. 403. 202. Temin, Peter (November 1991). "Soviet and Nazi economic planning in the 1930s".The Economic History Review, New Series. 44 (4): 573–93. doi:10.2307/2597802 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2597802). Abstract in Wiley Online Library (http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1468-0289.1991.tb01281.x/abstract). 203. Guillebaud, Claude W. 1939. The Economic Recovery of Germany 1933-1938. London: MacMillan and Co. Limited. 204. Barkai, Avaraham 1990. Nazi Economics: Ideology, Theory and Policy. Oxford Berg Publisher. 205. Hayes, Peter. 1987 Industry and Ideology IG Farben in the Nazi Era. Cambridge University Press. 206. R. J. Overy, War and Economy in the Third Reich (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), pp. 1-30. 207. , The Third Reich (London & New York: Routledge, 1986), pp.39-48. 208. Jost Dülffer, Nazi Germany 1933-1945: Faith and Annihilation (London: Bloomsbury, 2009), pp. 72-73. 209. Bendersky, Joseph W. A History of Nazi Germany: 1919–1945. 2nd ed. Burnham Publishers, 2000. p. 72. 210. Bendersky, Joseph W. A History of Nazi Germany: 1919–1945. 2nd ed. Burnham Publishers, 2000. p. 40. 211. "They must unite, [Hitler] said, to defeat the common enemy, Jewish Marxism." A New Beginning, Adolf Hitler, Völkischer Beobachter. February 1925. Cited in:T oland, John (1992). Adolf Hitler. Anchor Books. p. 207. ISBN 0- 385-03724-4. 212. Kershaw, Ian (2008). Hitler, the Germans, and the Final Solution. Yale University Press. p. 53.ISBN 0-300-12427-9. 213. Adolf Hitler, Public meeting in the Great Hallof the Hofbräuhaus, Why We Are Antisemites, 1920 214. "The Nazi-Sozi" (http://research.calvin.edu/german-propaganda-archive/nazi-sozi.htm) [Joseph Goebbels, Der Nazi- Sozi (Elberfeld: Verlag der Nationalsozialistischen Briefe, 1927).]. 215. Carsten, Francis Ludwig The Rise of Fascism, 2nd ed. University of California Press, 1982. p. 137. Quoting: Hitler, A., Sunday Express, September 28, 1930. 216. Carroll Quigley, Tragedy and Hope, 1966. p. 619. 217. Bendersky, Joseph W. A History of Nazi Germany: 1919-1945. 2nd ed. Burnham Publishers, 2000. pp. 58–59. 218. Overy, R.J., The Dictators: Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Russia, W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2004. p. 399 219. Overy, R.J., The Dictators: Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Russia, W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2004. p. 230. 220. Kritika: explorations in Russian and Eurasian history, Volume 7, Issue 4. Slavica Publishers, 2006. Pp. 922. 221. Overy, R.J., The Dictators: Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Russia, W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2004. p. 402. 222. Nyomarkay 1967, p. 132. 223. Read, Anthony, The Devil's Disciples: Hitler's Inner Circle, 1st American ed. New York, New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2004. p. 142 224. Mosse, George Lachmann (1966).Nazi Culture: Intellectual, Cultural and Social Life in the Third Reich. Univ of Wisconsin Press. p. 239.ISBN 978-0-299-19304-1. 225. Fest, Joachim. Hitler (https://books.google.com/books?id=BjDrszaNTygC&pg=PA418&dq=%22individual's+entire+lif e%22+hitler&hl=en&sa=X&ei=04gXUro4477RBbXUgEg&ved=0CDsQ6AEwAjgK#v=onepage&q=%22individual's%2 0entire%20life%22%20hitler&f=false). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 418. 226. Browder, George C. Foundations of the Nazi Police State: The Formation of Sipo and SD (https://books.google.com/ books?id=Syyy2MtOrcsC&pg=PA240&dq=individual+needs+nazism&hl=en&sa=X&ei=tIQXUtC3CPKg0wWWwYBo& ved=0CDYQ6AEwATgK#v=onepage&q=individual%20needs%20nazism&f=false). University Press of Kentucky. p. 240. 227. See: Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (Orlando, FL: Harcourt Inc., 1973), pp. 305–459. 228. Michael Geyer and Sheila Fitzpatrick, eds., "Introduction – After otalitarianism:T Stalinism and Nazism Compared", in Beyond Totalitarianism: Stalinism and Nazism Compared (Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), pp. 20–21. 229. Blamires, Cyprian P. (2006). Blamires, C. P.; Jackson, Paul, eds. World Fascism: A Historical Encyclopedia (https://b ooks.google.com/books?id=nvD2rZSVau4C&pg=PA460&dq=neo-nazism&hl=en&sa=X&ei=PIcXUqryD_ON0wWAk4 H4DA&ved=0CDQQ6AEwATgK#v=onepage&q=neo-nazism&f=false). Vol. 1: A-K. ABC-CLIO. pp. 459–461. ISBN 978-1576079409.

Bibliography

Evans, Richard J. (2005).The Third Reich in Power. New York: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-303790-3. Fritzsche, Peter (1990). Rehearsals for Fascism: Populism and Political Mobilization in Weimar Germany. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-505780-5. Kershaw, Ian (1999). Hitler 1889-1936: Hubris. Penguin. ISBN 0140133631. Goodrick-Clarke, Nicholas (2004) [1985]. The Occult Roots of Nazism: Secret Aryan Cults and Their Influence on Nazi Ideology: The Ariosophists of Austria and Germany, 1890–1935. Wellingborough, England: The Aquarian Press. ISBN 0-85030-402-4 and ISBN 1-86064-973-4. Goodrick-Clarke, Nicholas (2003) [2002].: Aryan Cults, Esoteric Nazism and the Politics of Identity. New York University Press. ISBN 0-8147-3155-4. Klemperer, Victor (1947). LTI - Lingua Tertii Imperii. Majer, Diemut (2003). "Non-Germans" Under the Third Reich: The Nazi Judicial and Administrative System in Germany and Occupied Eastern Europe with Special Regard to Occupied Poland, 1939-1945. JHU Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-6493-3. McNab, Chris (2009). The Third Reich. Amber Books Ltd. ISBN 978-1-906626-51-8. Paxton, Robert (2005). The Anatomy of Fascism. London: Penguin Books Ltd.ISBN 0-14-101432-6. Peukert, Detlev (1989). Inside Nazi Germany: Conformity, Opposition, and Racism in Everyday Life. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-04480-5. Redles, David (2005). Hitler's Millennial Reich: Apocalyptic Belief and the Search for Salvation. New York: University Press. ISBN 0-8147-7524-1. Miller, Barbara (2014). Nazi Ideology Before 1933: A Documentation. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-4773- 0445-7. Steigmann-Gall, Richard (2003). The Holy Reich: Nazi Conceptions of Christianity, 1919–1945. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Steinweis, Alan. Studying the Jew: Scholarly Antisemitism in Nazi Germany. Harvard University Press, 2008. Jaworska, Sylvia (2011). "Anti-Slavic imagery in German radical nationalist discourse at the turn of the twentieth century: A prelude to Nazi ideology?" (PDF). Patterns of Prejudice. 45 (5): 435–452. doi:10.1080/0031322x.2011.624762. Further reading

Hitler, Adolf (2000). "24 March 1942".Hitler's Table Talk, 1941–1944: His Private Conversations. translation by Norman Cameron and R. H. Stevens; introduction by H. R. revor-RoperT . Enigma Books. pp. 162–163.ISBN 1- 929631-05-7.

External links

The dictionary definition ofHitlerism at Wiktionary The dictionary definition ofNazi at Wiktionary Hitler's National Socialist Party platform NS-Archiv, a large collection of scanned original Nazi documents. Exhibit on Hitler and the Germans – slideshow by Jonathan Meades (1994):Jerry Building – Unholy Relics of Nazi Germany on YouTube (in 4 parts) One of the first anti-nazi films in historyCalling mr. Smith (1943) against Hitler.

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Text is available under theCreative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of theWikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Neo-Nazism

Neo-Nazism consists of post-World War II militant social or political movements seeking to revive and implement[1][2] the ideology of Nazism. It is a global phenomenon, with organized representation in many countries and international networks. It borrows elements from Nazi doctrine, including , racism up to , , homophobia, anti-Romanyism, antisemitism, anti-communism and initiating the . Holocaust denial is a common feature, as is the incorporation of Nazi symbols and admiration of Adolf Hitler.

In some European and Latin American countries, laws prohibit the expression of pro-Nazi, racist, anti-Semitic, or homophobic views. Many Nazi-related symbols are banned in European countries (especiallyGermany ) in an effort to curtail neo-Nazism.[3]

Contents

Definition Hyperborean racial doctrine Ecology and Paganism and spirituality History Germany, Austria 1945–1950s "Universal National Socialism", 1950s–1970s Holocaust denial and subcultures, 1970s–1990s Lifting of the Iron Curtain, 1990s–present Analogous European movements Italy France Hungary Ukraine Issues Ex-Nazis in mainstream politics Contemporary right-wing populism Around the world Europe Bosnia and Herzegovina Germany Greece Netherlands Poland Russia Sweden Switzerland Turkey Asia India Pakistan Israel Mongolia Taiwan Iran Americas Brazil Costa Rica United States Africa Oceania See also References External links

Definition

The term Neo-Nazism describes any post-World War II militant, social or political movements seeking to revive the ideology of Nazism in whole or in part.[4][5]

The term neo-Nazism can also refer to the ideology of these movements, which may borrow elements from Nazi doctrine, including ultranationalism, anti-communism, racism, ableism, xenophobia, homophobia, anti-Romanyism, antisemitism, up to initiating the Fourth Reich. Holocaust denial is a common feature, as is the incorporation ofNazi symbols and admiration of Adolf Hitler.

Neo-Nazism is considered a particular form offar -right politics and right-wing extremism with its historical orientation at Nazism.[6]

Hyperborean racial doctrine Neo-Nazi philosophers have posited a spiritual, esoteric doctrine of race, which moves beyond the primarily Darwinian-inspired materialist scientific racism popular mainly in the Anglosphere during the 20th century. Figures influential in the development of neo-Nazi racism, such as and ,[7] claim that the Hyperborean ancestors of the Aryans were in the distant past, far higher beings than their current state, having suffered from "involution" due to mixing with the "Telluric" peoples; supposed creations of the . Within this theory, if the "Aryans" are to return to the Golden Age of the distant past, they need to awaken the memory of the blood. An extraterrestrial origin of the Hyperboreans is often claimed. These theories draw influence from and tantrism, building on the work of the . Within this racist Manichaean theory, Jews are held up as the antithesis of nobility, purity and beauty.

Spirits – better to say "beings" – came to this visible world and embodied with matter in order to fight here the Demiurge, which is the real creator of Satan-Jaweh-Jehovah, which in turn created the Jewish genetic robot in order to contaminate the Planet Earth. The first "earth embodiment" of these spirits took place in a Polar body or Hyperborean race. From there in came the dramatic involutionary story of the mixture of the pure race with the original earthly beings and then came the Aryans, which means "twice born"; that is, those who try to recover the purity of the "first born." This is the true meaning of racism.

— Miguel Serrano, Interview by , 1994.[8] Ecology and environmentalism Neo-Nazism generally aligns itself with a blood and soil variation of environmentalism, which has themes in common with , the organic movement and animal .[9][10] This tendency, sometimes called "", was represented in the original German National Socialism by Richard Walther Darré who was the Reichsminister of Food from 1933 until 1942.[11] An annual Reich Harvest Thanksgiving Festival took place in the Third Reich from 1933 until 1937, celebrating the peasantry and farmers. After the Second World War, the leading light in defining the terms of neo-Nazi environmentalism was Savitri Devi, who published the Impeachment of Man (1959, authored in 1946).[12]

A "civilization" that makes such a ridiculous fuss about alleged "war crimes" -- acts of violence against the actual or potential enemies of one's cause -- and tolerates slaughterhouses and vivisection laboratories, and circuses and the fur industry (infliction of pain upon creatures that can never be for or against any cause), does not deserve to live. Out with it! Blessed the day it will destroy itself, so that a healthy, hard, frank and brave, nature-loving and truth-loving élite of supermen with a life-centered faith -- a natural human aristocracy, as beautiful, on its own higher level, as the four-legged kings of the jungle -- might again rise, and rule upon its ruins, for ever!

— Savitri Devi, The Impeachment of Man, 1959.

Paganism and spirituality Although the pre-war National Socialists did have elements interested in the revival of Germanic paganism and some involvement in Occultism (i.e. - the Thule Society, Hess' interest in astrology and the research of the SS's Ahnenerbe), they were careful in presenting this to the general public so as not to alienate the majority of Germans who were Protestant or Catholic. Hitler himself distanced himself from such things. It was also useful in geopolitical and strategic propaganda to present themselves to conservative elements as a barrier of defense against "godless Bolshevism", such as the "Crusade against Bolshevism" rhetoric in regards to Operation Barbarossa. Since the fall of the Third Reich, neo-Nazis have been much more explicit in their embrace of paganism, occultism and esoteric strains of National Socialism. Christianity is typically presented as a semitic "Jewish conspiracy" against the "true" culture of pagan Europe. From the early 1950s, former SS members founded groups such as the and the Landig Group. Later on in the 1990s, international networks such as the Heathen Front, forming a synthesis of Odinism and National Socialism, were formed.

Everybody can relate to and Thor and Freya in Norway, because it is our religion. We are not Christian; Christianity is a Jewish religion, Christianity was originally a Jewish ! Baptism is all about the symbolic ritual of the non-Jewish, or Gentile; they murder the Gentile child and then they call out the Jewish name, which is supposed to replace the pagan soul.

— Varg Vikernes, Heathen Front associate, from prison in Until the Light Takes Us, 2008.

History

Germany, Austria 1945–1950s Following the defeat of Nazi Germany, the political ideology of the ruling party, Nazism, was in complete disarray. The final leader of the National Socialist German Workers' Party was Martin Bormann. He died on 2 May 1945 during the , but the Soviet Union did not reveal his death to the rest of the world, and his ultimate fate remained a mystery for many years. Conspiracy theories emerged about Hitler himself, that he had secretly survived the war and fled to South America or elsewhere.

The Allied Control Council officially dissolved the NSDAP on 10 October 1945, marking the end of "Old" National Socialism. A process of began, and the took place, where many major leaders and ideologues were condemned to death by October 1946, others committed suicide. In both the East and West, surviving ex-party members and military veterans assimilated to the new reality and had no interest in constructing a "Neo-Nazism. However, during the 1949 elections a number of National Socialist advocates such as Fritz Rössler had infiltrated the national conservative , which had 5 members elected. Rössler and others left to found the more radical under . At the onset of the , the SRP favoured the Soviet Union over the United States.[13]

In Austria national independence had been restored, and the explicitly criminalised the NSDAP and any attempt at restoration. West Germany adopted a similar law to target parties it defined as anti-constitutional; Article 21 Paragraph 2 in the Basic Law, banning the Socialist Reich Party in 1952 for being opposed to .

As a consequence some members of the nascent movement of German Neo-Nazism joined the of which Hans-Ulrich Rudel was the most prominent figure. Younger members founded the Wiking-Jugend modeled after the Otto Ernst Remer, leader of the Hitler Youth. The Deutsche Reichspartei stood for elections from 1953 until 1961 postwar Socialist Reich Party. fetching around 1% of the vote each time. Rudel befriended French-born Savitri Devi who was a proponent of Esoteric Nazism. In the 1950s she wrote a number of books, such as Pilgrimage (1958) of prominent Third Reich sites and The Lightning and (1958), in which she claims that Adolf Hitler was an avatar of the God Vishnu. She was not alone in this reorientation of National Socialism towards its Thulean- roots; the Artgemeinschaft, founded by former SS member Wilhelm Kusserow, attempted to promote a new paganism. In the German Democratic Republic a former member of SA, Wilhelm Adam, founded the National of Germany (). It reached out to those attracted by the Nazi Party before 1945 and provide them with a political outlet, so that they would not be tempted to support the far-right again or turn to the anti-communist Western Allies. Stalin wanted to use them to create a new pro- Soviet and anti-Western strain in German politics. According to top Soviet diplomat Vladimir Semyonov Stalin even suggested that they could be allowed to continue publishing their own newspaper, Völkischer Beobachter. While in Austria, former SS member Wilhelm Lang founded an esoteric group known as the Vienna Lodge; he popularised nazism and occultism such as the Black Sun and ideas of Third Reich survival colonies below the polar ice caps.

With the onset of the Cold War the allied forces had lost interest in prosecuting anyone as part of the denazification.[14] In the mid-1950s this new political environment allowed Otto Strasser, an NS activist on the left of the NSDAP, who had founded the to return from exiler. In 1956, Strasser founded the German Social Union as a Black Front successor, promoting a Strasserite "nationalist and socialist" policy, which dissolved in 1962 due to lack of support. Other Third Reich associated groups were the HIAG and dedicated to advancing the interests of Waffen-SS veterans and rehabilitating them into the new democratic society. However, they did not claim to be attempting to restore National Socialism, instead working with thesocial democrats and Christian democrats.

Many bureaucrats who served under the Third Reich continued to serve in German Otto Strasser, leader of the German administration after the war. According to the Center, many of the Social Union, returned from exile to Germany in the mid-1950s. more than 90,000 Nazi war criminals recorded in German files were serving in positions of prominence under Chancellor .[15][16] Not until the were the former concentration camp personnel prosecuted by West Germany in the Belzec trial, Frankfurt Auschwitz trials, Treblinka trials, Chełmno trials, and the Sobibór trial.[17] However, the government had passed laws prohibiting National Socialists from publicly expressing their beliefs. "Universal National Socialism", 1950s–1970s Neo-Nazism found expression outside of Germany including countries who fought against the Third Reich during the Second World War and sometimes adopted Pan-European or "Universal" characteristics, beyond the parameters of German nationalism. The two main tendencies, with differing styles and even worldviews, were the followers of the American , who was fundamentally anti-American and advocated for a Pan-European nationalism and those of George Lincoln Rockwell an American conservative;[nb 1]

Yockey, a neo-Spenglerian author, had written Imperium: The Philosophy of History and Politics (1949) dedicated to "the hero of the twentieth century" (namely, Adolf Hitler) and founded the European Liberation Front. He was interested more in the destiny of Europe; to this end, he advocated a National Bolshevik-esque red-brown alliance against American culture and influenced 1960s figures such as SS-veteran Jean-François Thiriart. Yockey was also fond of Arab nationalism, in particular , as well as this he saw Fidel Castro's Cuban Revolution as a positive and visited officials there. Yockey's views impressed the likes of Otto Ernst Remer and the radical traditionalist philosopher Julius Evola. He was constantly hounded by the FBI and was eventually arrested in 1960, before committing suicide. Domestically, Yockey's biggest sympathisers were the National Renaissance Party, including the likes of James H. Madole, H. Keith Thompson and (protégé of ) and the of .

Rockwell, an American conservative, was first politicised by anti-communism and opposed to racial integration, before becoming anti-Jewish. In response to his opponents calling him a "Nazi", he theatrically appropriated the aesthetic elements of the NSDAP, to "own" the intended insult. In 1959, Rockwell founded the American Nazi Party and instructed his members to dress in imitation SA-style brown shirts, while flying the flag of the Third Reich. In contrast to Yockey, he was pro-American and cooperated with FBI requests, despite the party being targeted under COINTELPRO due to the mistaken belief that they were agents of Nasser's during a brief intelligence "brown scare."[nb 2] Later leaders of American white nationalism came to politics through the ANP; including a teenage David Duke and William Luther Pierce of the National Alliance, although they soon distanced themselves from explicit self-identification with Neo-Nazism.

In 1961, the World Union of National Socialists was founded by Rockwell and Colin George Lincoln Rockwell, founder Jordan of the British National Socialist Movement, adopting the Cotswold Declaration. of the American Nazi Party and French socialite Françoise Dior was involved romantically with Jordan and his deputy progenitor of subsequent John Tyndall and a friend of Savitri Devi, who also attended the meeting. The National uniformed neo-Nazi groups. Socialist Movement wore quasi-SA uniforms, was involved in streets conflicts with the Jewish . In the 1970s, Tyndall's earlier dalliance with neo-Nazism would come back to haunt the National Front, which he led, as they attempted to ride a wave of anti- populism and concerns over British national decline. Televised exposes on This Week (Thames Television TV series) in 1974 and in 1978, showed their neo-Nazi pedigree and damaged their electoral chances. In 1967, Rockwell was killed by a disgruntled former member. Matthias Koehl took control of the ANP and strongly influenced by Savitri Devi gradually transformed it into an esoteric group known as the New Order.

In Franco's Spain, certain SS most notably , Léon Degrelle and the son of became associated with CEDADE (Círculo Español de Amigos de Europa), an organisation which disseminated Third Reich apologetics out of . They intersected with neo-Nazi advocates from Mark Fredriksen in France to in Mexico. In the post- fascist splinter groups such as and Avanguardia Nazionale, involved in the anni di piombo considered National Socialism a reference., created a "Nazi-Maoist" synthesis.

In Germany itself, the various Third Reich nostalgic movements coalesced around the National Democratic Party of Germany in 1964 and in Austria the National Democratic Party in 1967 as the primary sympathisers of the NSDAP past, although more publicly cautious than earlier groups. Holocaust denial and subcultures, 1970s–1990s Holocaust denial, the claim that six million Jews were not deliberately and systematically exterminated as an official policy of the Third Reich and Adolf Hitler, became a more prominent feature in the 1970s. Before this time, Holocaust denial had long existed as a sentiment among neo-Nazis, but had not yet been systematically articulated as a theory with a bibliographical canon. Few of the major theorists of Holocaust denial (who call themselves "revisionists") can be uncontroversially classified as outright neo-Nazis (though some works such as that The Italian group Ordine Nuovo, of forward a clearly sympathetic view of Hitler and the publisher Ernst banned in 1974, drew influence from Zündel was deeply tied to international neo-Nazism), however, the main interest to the Waffen-SS and Guénonian the neo-Nazi movement was by denying the Holocaust, they hoped to rehabilitate Traditionalism via Julius Evola. their political ideology in the eyes of the general public. Did Six Million Really Die? (1974) by and The of the Twentieth Century (1976) by are popular examples of Holocaust denial material.

Key developments in international neo-Nazism during this time include the radicalisation of the Vlaamse Militanten Orde under former Hitler Youth member . They began hosting an annual conference; the "Iron Pilgrimage"; at Diksmuide, which drew kindred ideologues from across Europe and beyond. As well as this, the NSDAP/AO under arose in the United States in 1972 and challenged the international influence of the Rockwellite WUNS. Lauck's organisation drew support from the National Socialist Movement of of Povl Riis-Knudsen and various German and Austrian figures who felt that the The radicalisation of Flemish activist "National Democratic" parties were too bourgeois and insufficiently National group the Vlaamse Militanten Orde in Socialist in orientation. This included Michael Kühnen, , Bela the 1970s, energised international Ewald Althans and Gottfried Küssel of the 1977-founded ANS/NS which called for neo-Nazism. the establishment of a Germanic Fourth Reich. Some ANS/NS members were imprisoned for planning paramilitary attacks on NATO bases in Germany and planning to liberate Rudolf Hess from Spandau Prison. The organisation was officially banned in 1983 by the Minister of the Interior.

During the late 1970s, a British subculture came to be associated with neo-Nazism; the . Portraying an ultra-masculine, crude and aggressive image, with working-class references, some of the skinheads joined the under Michael McLaughlin (successor of ), while others became associated with the National Front'sRock Against Communism project which was meant to counter the SWP's Rock Against Racism. The most significant music group involved was , led by . Together with ex-BM member , Donaldson founded the international Blood & Honour network in 1987. By 1992 this network, with input from , had developed a paramilitary wing; , which intersected with football hooligan firms such as the . The neo-Nazi skinhead movement spread to the United States, with groups such as the . It was popularised from 1986 onwards by of the . Since then it has spread across the world. Films such as Romper Stomper (1992) and American History X (1998) would fix a public perception of neo-Nazism and skinheads being synonymous.

New developments also emerged on the esoteric level, as former Chilean diplomat Miguel Serrano built on the works of the likes of , Otto Rahn, Wilhelm Landig, Julius Evola and Savitri Devi to bind together and flesh out already existing theories. Serrano had been a member of the National Socialist Movement of Chile in the 1930s and from the early days of neo-Nazism had been in contact with key figures across Europe and beyond. Despite this, he was able to work as an ambassador to numerous countries until the rise of . He delivered his magnum opus in 1984, Adolf Hitler: The Ultimate Avatar. Serrano claimed that the Aryans were extragalactic beings who founded and lived the heroic life of Bodhisattvas, while the Jews were supposedly created by the Demiurge, concerned only with coarse materialism. Serrano claimed that a new Golden Age can be attained if the Hyperboreans repurify their blood (supposedly the light of the Black Sun) and restore their "blood-memory." As with Savitri Devi before him, Serrano's works became a key point of reference in neo-Nazism. Lifting of the Iron Curtain, 1990s–present With the fall of the and the collapse of the Soviet Union during the early 1990s, neo-Nazism found fertile ground in the East for their ideas, as hostility to the triumphant liberal order was high and revanchism a widespread feeling. In Russia, during the chaos of the early 1990s, an amorphous mixture ofKGB hardliners, Orthodox neo-Tsarist nostalgics (i.e. - ) and explicit National Socialists found themselves strewn together in the same camp. They were united by opposition to the influence of the United States, against the liberalising legacy of 's perestroika and , Soviet Zionology merged with a more explicit anti-Jewish sentiment. The most significant organisation representing this was under the leadership of , where black-uniform clad Russians Serrano identified Aryan- Hyperborean blood as the "light marched with a red flag incorporating the Swastika under the banner of Russia for of the Black Sun", a symbol found Russians. These forces came together in a last gasp effort to save the Supreme Soviet of at SS-cult site Russia against during the 1993 Russian constitutional crisis. As well as Castle. events in Russia, in newly independent ex-Soviet states, annual commemorations for SS volunteers now took place; particularly inLatvia , Estonia and the Ukraine.

The Russian developments excited German neo-Nazism who dreamed of a Berlin— alliance against the supposedly "decadent" Atlanticist forces; a dream which had been thematic since the days of Remer.[13] The likes of Zündel visited Russia and met with Russian National Unity luminaries such as ex-KGB general Aleksandr Stergilov. Despite these initial aspirations, international neo-Nazism and its close affiliates in ultra-nationalism would be split over the Bosnian War between 1992 and 1995, as part of the breakup of . The split would largely be along ethnic and sectarian lines. The Germans and the French would largely back the Members of the National Bolshevik Western Catholic Croats (Lauck's NSDAP/AO explicitly called for volunteers, Party. The Nazbols tailored ultra- which Kühnen's Free German Workers' Party answered and the French formed the nationalist themes to a native "Groupe Jacques Doriot"), while the Russians and the Greeks would back the Russian environment, while still Orthodox (including Russians from Barkashov's Russian National Unity, flirting with National Socialist 's National Bolshevik Front and Golden Dawn members joined the aesthetics. Greek Volunteer Guard). Indeed, the revival of was able to steal some of the thunder from overt Russian neo-Nazism, as ultra-nationalism was wedded with veneration ofJoseph Stalin in place of Adolf Hitler, while still also flirting with National Socialist aesthetics.

Analogous European movements

Outside Germany, in other countries which were involved with the and had their own native ultra-nationalist movements, which sometimes collaborated with the Third Reich but were not technically German-style National Socialists, revivalist and nostalgic movements have emerged in the post-war period which, as neo-Nazism has done in Germany, seek to rehabilitate their various loosely associated ideologies. These movements include neo-fascists and post-fascists in Italy; Vichyites, Pétainists and "national Europeans" in France; Ustaše sympathisers in Croatia; neo- in Serbia; revivalists in Romania; Hungarists and Horthyists in Hungary; Banderaists in the Ukraine (which had a complicated relationship with the Axis powers) and others.

Italy Following the last stand of Italian fascism with the German-supported towards the end of the Second World War, those elements within Italian society which remained loyal to the legacy of Benito Mussolini and fascism (especially veterans of the National Republican Army), rejecting both the Catholic and Communist alternatives prominent in mainstream Italian politics, founded the Italian Social Movement in 1946 under . The MSI was regarded as the successor of the and the Republican Fascist Party. The motto of the party was "not repudiate, not restore", indicating a more moderate parliamentary democratic neo-fascism, which did not heap scorn on the recent past. Italian society did not undergo a process as extensive as the post-war Denazification campaign in occupied Germany, partly due to the Cold War and the Western Allies not wanting Italy to move towards the Pact (which was not an impossibility at the time).[18][19]

The Italian Social Movement held a similar position in Italian politics that the National Democratic Party of Germany did in Germany; careful enough to stay within the laws of the new democratic state, but still clearly identified with the Axis legacy. During the 1950s, the MSI moved closer to bourgeois conservative politics on the domestic front, which led to radical youths founding splinter groups, such as; Pino Rauti's Ordine Nuovo (later succeeded by ) and 's Avanguardia Nazionale. These organisations, were influenced by the esotericism of Julius Evola and considered the Waffen-SS and Romanian leader The nearest Italy came to returning a reference, moving beyond Italian fascism. They were to fascism was the 1970 Golpe implicated in paramiliary attacks during the late 1960s to the early 1980s, such as Borghese of veteran the Piazza Fontana bombing. Delle Chiaie had even assisted Junio Valerio Borghese Junio Valerio Borghese. in a failed 1970 coup attempt known as the , which attempted to reinstate a fascist state in Italy.

During the late 1980s and early 1990s, the Italian Social Movement under the leadership of moved closer to conservative politics, adopting a "post-fascist" position. This was opposed by the fascist element under Rauti who created Fiamma Tricolore in 1995. The party was dissolved under Fini in 1995, who replaced it with the National Alliance. This party rapidly moved away from any connection to the fascist past, towards the center-right in coalition with Silvio Berlusconi's Forza Italia. The two parties merged in 2009 to become The People of Freedom. Alessandra Mussolini, troubled by Fini's explicit condemnation of her grandfather broke with the AN to found Social Action. Aside from Fiamma Tricolore, the other extant neo-fascist groups in Italy are Forza Nuova, the Fronte Nazionale, Movimento Idea Sociale (another Rauti creation) and the culturalCasaPound project. In terms of current size, they are mostly negligible.

France In France, the most enthusiastic collaborationists during the German occupation of France had been the National Popular Rally of Marcel Déat (former SFIO members) and the French Popular Party of Jacques Doriot (former members). These two groups, like the Germans, saw themselves as combining ultra-nationalism and socialism. In the south there existed the vassal state of under the military "Hero of the Verdun", Marshal Philippe Pétain whose Révolution nationale emphasised an authoritarian Catholic conservative politics. Following the liberation of France and the creation of the Fourth French Republic, collaborationists were prosecuted during the épuration légale and nearly 800 put to death for treason underCharles de Gaulle.

In the aftermath of the Second World War, the main concern of the French radical right French neo-fascist groups adopted the Celtic cross as an was the collapse of the French Empire, in particular the , which led to the ambiguous "Christian and pagan" creation of the OAS. Outside of this, individual fascistic activists such as Maurice symbol since the 1940s. Bardèche (brother-in-law of ), as well as SS-veterans Saint-Loup and René Binet, were active in France and involved in the and later the , alongside similar groups from across Europe. Early neo- fascist groups included , which introduced the Celtic cross into use by radical right groups (an association which would spread internationally). A "neither East, nor West" pan-Europeanism was most popular among French fascistic activists until the late 1960s, partly motivated by feelings of national vulnerability following the collapse of their empire; thus the Belgian SS-veteran Jean- François Thiriart's group also had a considerable French contingent.

It was the 1960s, during the Fifth French Republic, that a considerable upturn in French neo-fascism occurred; some of it in response to the Protests of 1968. The most explicitly pro-Nazi of these was the FANE of Mark Fredriksen. Neo-fascist groups included ' , the (which was banned after violent clashes with the Trotskyist LCR) and the student-based Groupe Union Défense. A number of these activists such as François Duprat were instrumental in founding the Front National under Jean- Marie Le Pen; but the FN also included a broader selection from the French hard-right, including not only these neo-fascist elements, but also Catholic integrists, monarchists, Algerian War veterans, Poujadists and national-conservatives. Others from these neo-fascist micro-groups formed theParti des forces nouvelles working against Le Pen.

Within the FN itself, Duprat founded the FANE-backed Groupes nationalistes révolutionnaires faction, until his 1978 assassination. The subsequent history of the French hard right has been the conflict between the national-conservative controlled FN and "national revolutionary" (fascistic and National Bolshevik) splinter or opposition groups. The latter include groups in the tradition of Thiriart and Duprat, such as the Parti communautaire national-européen, Troisième voie, the Nouvelle Résistance of ,[20] Unité Radicale and most recently Bloc identitaire. Direct splits from the FN include the 1987 founded FANE-revival Parti nationaliste français et européen, which was disbanded in 2000. Neo-Nazi organizations are outlawed in the Fifth French Republic, yet a significant number of them still exist.[21]

Croatia Neo-Nazis in Croatia base their ideology on the writings of Ante Pavelić and the Ustaše, a fascist anti-Yugoslav separatist movement.[22] The Ustaše regime committed a genocide against Serbs, Jews and Roma. At the end of World War II, many Ustaše members fled to the West, where they found sanctuary and continued their political and terrorist activities (which were tolerated due to Cold War hostilities).[23][24]

In 1999, 's Square of the Victims of Fascism was renamed Croatian Nobles Square, provoking widespread criticism of Croatia's attitude towards the Holocaust.[25] In 2000, the Zagreb City Council again renamed the sqare Young boy wearing a shirt with aBlack Legion sign at a Thompson concert into Square of the Victims of Fascism.[26] Many streets in Croatia were renamed after the prominent Ustaše figure Mile Budak, which provoked outrage amongst the Serbian minority. Since 2002, there has been a reversal of this development, and streets with the name of Mile Budak or other persons connected with the Ustaše movement are few or non-existent.[27] A plaque in Slunj with the inscription "Croatian Knight Jure Francetić" was erected to commemorate Francetić, the notorious Ustaše leader of the Black Legion. The plaque remained there for four years, until it was removed by the authorities.[27][28]

In 2003, a group of 56 Croatian MPs voted in favor of amendments to the Croatian penal code which contained provisions prohibiting the public display of Nazi symbols, the propagation of Nazi ideology, historical revisionism and holocaust denial. Later that year, Constitutional Court of Croatia annulled the amendments since they were not enacted based on the constitutionally prescribed procedure requiring the majority of 76 out of 151 MP's. The Court didn't question the amendments' content but merely legislative procedure true which they were enacted since the Court is authorized only for that.[29] Nevertheless, an amendment was added in 2006 by which any type of based on factors such as race, color, gender, sexual orientation, religion or national origin was explicitly prohibited.[30]

There have been instances of in Croatia, such as the use of the phrase Srbe na vrbe! ("(Hang) Serbs on the willow trees!"). In 2004, an Orthodox church was spray-painted with pro-Ustaše graffiti.[31][32] During some protests in Croatia, supporters of Ante Gotovina and other at the time suspected war criminals (all acquitted in 2012) have carried nationalist symbols and pictures of Pavelić.[33] On 17 May 2007, a concert in Zagreb by Thompson, a popular Croatian singer, was attended by 60,000 people, some of them wearing Ustaše uniforms. Some gave Ustaše salutes and shouted the Ustaše slogan "Za dom spremni" (For the homeland – ready!). This event prompted the Jerusalem office of the to publicly issue a protest to the Croatian president.[34][35][36][37][38] In 2007, Austrian authorities launched a criminal investigation into the widespread display of Ustaše symbols at a gathering of Croatian nationalists inBleibur g, Austria.[39][40]

Serbia An example of neo-Nazism in Serbia is the group Nacionalni stroj and in 2006 charges were brought against 18 leading members.[41][42][43] The other organization was which was banned on 12 June 2012 by Constitutional Court of Serbia.[44] Besides political parties, there are a few militant neo-nazi organizations in Serbia, such as Blood & Honour Serbia and Combat 18.[45]

Hungary In Hungary, the historical political party which allied itself ideologically with German National Socialism and drew inspiration from it, was the of Ferenc Szálasi. They referred to themselves explicitly as National Socialists and within Hungarian politics this tendency is known as Hungarism. After the Second World War, exiles such as Árpád Henney kept the Hungarist tradition alive. Following the fall of the Hungarian People's Republic in 1989, which was a Marxist- Leninist state and a member of the , many new parties emerged. Amongst these was the of István Győrkös, which was a Hungarist party and considered itself the heirs of Arrow Cross-style National "Hungaria Skins" with a flag evoking Socialism (a self-description they explicitly embraced); it forged links with Gottfried the Arrow Cross in 1997. Küssel and the NSDAP/AO. In the 2000s, Győrkös' movement moved closer to a national communist and neo-Eurasian position, aligned with , cooperating with the Hungarian Workers' Party. Some Hungarists opposed this and founded thePax Hungarica Movement.

In modern Hungary, the ultranationalist is regarded by some scholars as a neo-Nazi party; for example, it has been termed as such by Randolph L. Braham.[46] The party denies being neo-Nazi, although "there is extensive proof that the leading members of the party made no effort to hide their racism and anti-Semitism."[47] Rudolf Paksa, a scholar of the Hungarian far right, describes Jobbik as "anti-Semitic, racist, homophobic and chauvinistic" but not as neo-Nazi because it does not pursue the establishment of a totalitarian regime.[47] Historian Krisztián Ungváry writes that "It is safe to say that certain messages of Jobbik can be called open neo-Nazi propaganda. However, it is quite certain that the popularity of the party is not due to these statements."[48]

Romania In Romania, the ultra- which allied itself with the Axis powers and German National Socialism was the Iron Guard, also known as the Legion of the Archangel Michael. There are some modern political organisations which consider themselves heirs of Legionarism, this includes; Noua Dreaptă and the "Everything For the Country" Party, founded by former Iron Guard members. The latter organisation was outlawed in 2015. Aside, from these Romanian organisations, the Sixty-Four Counties Youth Movement representing ultra-nationalism from the Hungarian minority is also present, especially in Transylvania.[49] Other nationalistic and irridentist groups such as the Greater Romania Party do not originate from Legionarism, but in fact grew out of national communist tendencies from the era of Nicolae Ceaușescu (the party was founded by his "court poet" Corneliu Vadim Tudor).[50]

Ukraine In 1991 Svoboda was founded as the 'Social-National Party of Ukraine'.[51] The party combined radical nationalism and neo-Nazi features.[52][53][54] It was renamed and rebranded 13 years later as 'All-Ukrainian Association Svoboda' in 2004 under . In 2016, The Nation reported that "in Ukrainian municipal elections held [in October 2015], the neo-Nazi Svoboda party won 10 percent of the vote in Kiev and placed second in . The Svoboda party’s candidate actually won the mayoral election in the city of Konotop."[55] The Svoboda party mayor in Konotop reportedly has the number "14/88" displayed on his car and has refused to display the city's official flag because it contains a star of David, and has implied Protesters with neo-Nazi symbols – that Jews were responsible for theHolodomor .[52] SS-Volunteer Division "Galicia" and flags The topic of and its alleged relationship to neo-Nazism came to the fore in polemics about the more radical elements involved in the protests and subsequent from 2013 onward.[54] Some Russian, Latin American, U.S. and Israeli media have attempted to portray the Ukrainian nationalists in the conflict as neo-Nazi.[56][57] The main Ukrainian organisations involved with a neo-Banderaite legacy are ,[58] Svoboda and . The persons regarded as Ukraine's national heroes — , Roman Shukhevych or Dmytro Klyachkivsky of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN) and (UPA) — at times supported and then opposed the presence of theThird Reich in Ukraine.[59][60]

After Yanokovych's ouster in February 2014, the interim Yatsenyuk Government Ukrainian volunteer battalion placed 4 Svoboda members in leading positions: Oleksandr Sych as Vice Prime members with neo-Nazi Minister of Ukraine, Ihor Tenyukh as Minister of Defense, lawyer Ihor Shvaika as symbol, 24 July 2014 Minister of Agrarian Policy and Food and Andriy Mokhnyk as Minister of Ecology and Natural Resources of Ukraine.[61][62] Since 14 April 2016 the Chairman of the Ukrainian Parliament has been ,[63][64] the co-founder of the neo-Nazi 'Social-National Party of Ukraine'.[62]

In June 2015, Democratic Representative and his Republican colleague offered bipartisan amendments to block the U.S. military training of Ukraine's Azov Battalion — called a “neo-Nazi paramilitary militia” by Conyers and Yoho.[65][66][55] Andriy Biletsky, the head of the ultra-nationalist and neo-Nazi political groups Social-National Assembly and Patriots of Ukraine,[67] has been commander of the Azov Battalion.[68] Azov Battalion of the Ukrainian National Guard[65] is fighting pro-Russian separatists in theW ar in Donbass.[69][70] Some members of the battalion are openlywhite supremacists.[68]

Issues

Ex-Nazis in mainstream politics The most significant case on an international level was the election ofKurt Waldheim to the Presidency of Austria in 1986. It came to light that Waldheim had been a member of the National Socialist German Students' League, the SA and served as an intelligence officer during the Second World War. Following this he served as an Austrian diplomat and was the Secretary-General of the from 1972 until 1981. After revelations of Waldheim's past were made by an Austrian journalist, Waldheim clashed with the World Jewish Congress on the international stage. Waldheim's record was defended by Bruno Kreisky, an Austrian Jew who served as Chancellor of Austria. The legacy of the affair lingers on, as Victor Ostrovsky has claimed the doctored the file of Waldheim to implicate him in war crimes.

Contemporary right-wing populism Some critics have sought to draw a connection between Nazism and modern right- wing populism in Europe, but the two are not widely regarded as interchangeable by most academics. In Austria, the Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ) served as a shelter for ex-Nazis almost from its inception. In 1980, scandals undermined Austria's two main parties and the economy stagnated. Jörg Haider became leader of the FPÖ and offered partial justification for Nazism, calling its employment policy effective. In the 1994 Austrian election, the FPÖ won 22 percent of the vote, as well as 33 percent of the vote in Carinthia and 22 percent in Vienna; showing that it had become a force capable of reversing the old pattern of Austrian politics.[71]

Historian Walter Laqueur writes that even though Haider welcomed former Nazis at his meetings and went out of his way to addressSchutzstaf fel (SS) veterans, the FPÖ is not a fascist party in the traditional sense, since it has not made anti-communism an important issue, and it does not advocate the overthrow of the democratic order or the use of violence. In his view, the FPÖ is "not quite fascist", although it is part of a tradition, similar to that of 19th-century Viennese mayor Karl Lueger, which The 1980s dispute between Austrian involves nationalism, xenophobic populism, andauthoritarianism .[72] Haider, who in president Kurt Waldheim and the 2005 left the Freedom Party and formed the Alliance for Austria's Future, was killed World Jewish Congress caused an international incident. in a traffic accident in October, 2008.[73]

Barbara Rosenkranz, the Freedom Party's candidate for the Austrian presidential election, 2010, is controversial for having made allegedly pro-Nazi statements.[74] Rosenkranz is married to Horst Rosenkranz, a key member of a banned neo-Nazi party, who is known for publishing far-right books. Rosenkranz says she cannot detect anything "dishonourable" in her husband's activities.[75]

Around the world

Europe

Belgium A Belgian neo-Nazi organization, Bloed, Bodem, Eer en Trouw (Blood, Soil, Honour and Loyalty), was created in 2004 after splitting from the international network (Blood and Honour). The group rose to public prominence in September 2006, after 17 members (including 11 soldiers) were arrested under the December 2003 anti-terrorist laws and laws against racism, antisemitism and supporters of censorship. According to Justice Minister Laurette Onkelinx Neo-Nazi skinheads in Spain and Interior Minister Patrick Dewael, the suspects (11 of whom were members of the military) were preparing to launch terrorist attacks in order to "destabilize" Belgium.[76] According to the journalist Manuel Abramowicz, of the Resistances,[77] the extremists of the radical right have always had as its aim to "infiltrate the state mechanisms," including the army in the 1970s and the 1980s, throughW estland New Post and the Front de la Jeunesse.[78]

A police operation, which mobilized 150 agents, searched five military barracks (in Leopoldsburg near the Dutch border, Kleine- Brogel, Peer, (Royal military school) and Zedelgem) as well as 18 private addresses in Flanders. They found weapons, munitions, explosives and a homemade bomb large enough to make "a car explode". The leading suspect, B.T., was organizing the trafficking of weapons and was developing international links, in particular with the Dutch far-right movement De Nationale Alliantie.[79] Bosnia and Herzegovina The neo-Nazi white nationalist organization Bosanski Pokret Nacionalnog Ponosa (Bosnian Movement of National Pride) was founded in Bosnia and Herzegovina in July 2009. Its model is the Waffen-SS Handschar Division, which was composed of Bosniak volunteers.[80] It proclaimed its main enemies to be "Jews, Roma, Serbian Chetniks, the Croatian separatists, , Communists, homosexuals and blacks".[81] Its ideology is a mixture of Bosnian nationalism, National Socialism and white nationalism. The group is led by a person nicknamed Sauberzwig, after the commander of the 13th SS Handschar. The group's strongest area of operations is in the Tuzla area of Bosnia.

Czech Republic The government of the Czech Republic strictly punishes neo-Nazism (Czech: Neonacismus). According to a report by the Ministry of the Interior of the Czech Republic, neo-Nazis committed more than 211 crimes in 2013. The Czech Republic has more than 150 members of various neo-Nazi groups. One of them is group Wotan Jugend, based in Germany.

Estonia In 2006, Roman Ilin, a Jewish theatre director from St. Petersburg, Russia, was attacked by neo-Nazis when returning from an underground tunnel after a rehearsal. Ilin subsequently accused Estonian police of indifference after filing the incident.[82] When a dark-skinned French student was attacked in Tartu, the head of an association of foreign students claimed that the attack was characteristic of a wave of neo-Nazi violence. An Estonian police official, however, stated that there were only a few cases involving foreign students over the previous two years.[83] In November 2006, the Estonian government passed a law banning the display of Nazi symbols.[84]

The 2008 United Nations Human Rights Council Special Rapporteur's Report noted that community representatives and non- governmental organizations devoted to human rights had pointed out that neo-Nazi groups were active in Estonia—particularly in Tartu—and had perpetrated acts of violence against non-European minorities.[85]

Germany According to the annual report of Germany's interior intelligence service (Verfassungsschutz) for 2012, at the time there were 26,000 right-wing extremists living in Germany, including 6,000 neo-Nazis.[86] The neo-Nazi organizations are not outlawed in Germany,[87] although Holocaust denial is a crime, according to the German Criminal Code (Strafgesetzbuch § 86a) and § 130 (public incitement).

Greece In April 1967, a few weeks prior to an election, a military coup d'état took place in Neo-Nazi demonstration inLeipzig , Germany in October 2009 Greece and a fascist military government ruled the country from 1967 to 1974. It was called the "Regime of the Colonels", and was headed by Colonel . The official reason given for the coup was that a "communist conspiracy" had infiltrated all levels of society.[88]

Although there have been persistent rumors about an active support of the coup by the U.S. government, there is no evidence to support such claims.[89][90] The timing of the coup apparently caught the CIA by surprise.[91]

The contemporary Greek political party Golden Dawn (Χρυσή Αυγή - Chrysi Avyi), which found its roots in Papadopoulos' regime, has been described as subscribing to Flag of the Golden Dawn neo-fascist and neo-Nazi beliefs and practices.[92] The far right political is generally labelled neo-Nazi, although the group rejects this label. A few Golden Dawn members participated in the Bosnian War in the Greek Volunteer Guard (GVG) and were present inSrebrenica during the .[93][94]

Golden Dawn has spoken out in favour of the Assad regime in Syria,[95] and the Strasserist group Black Lily have claimed to have sent mercenaries to Syria to fight alongside the Syrian regime, specifically mentioning their participation in the Battle of al- Qusayr.[96]

In the elections of 6 May 2012, Golden Dawn received 6.97% of the votes, entering the Greek parliament for the first time with 21 representatives. Due to no coalition amongst the elected parties so as to form a Greek Government, new elections were proclaimed.

In the elections of 17 June 2012, Golden Dawn received 6.92% of the votes, entering the Greek parliament with 18 representatives.

Netherlands The Coordination Forum for Countering Antisemitism reports that on 17 May 2011 in Leek, Groningen, antisemitic graffiti was found at a Jewish school. The graffiti consisted of a swastika and the text "C18", or Combat 18, a neo-Nazi organisation active throughout Europe. The number 18 refers to the initials of Adolf Hitler, A and H being the first and eighth letters of the alphabet, respectively.[97]

Poland Although several small far-right and anti-semitic organisations exist, most notably NOP and ONR, they frequently adhere to Polish nationalism and National Democracy, in which Nazism is generally considered to be against ultra-nationalist principles, and although they are classed as nationalist and fascist movements, they are at the same time considered anti-Nazi. Some of their elements may resemble neo-Nazi features, but these groups frequently dissociate themselves from Nazi elements, claiming that such acts are unpatriotic and they argue that Nazism misappropriated or slightly altered ONR march in Poznań in November 2015 several pre-existing symbols and features, such as distinguishing the from the .[98]

Russia There are a few Russian neo-Nazis that openly admire Adolf Hitler and use the swastika as their symbol. Russian neo-Nazis are characterized by racism, antisemitism, homophobia, and extreme xenophobia towards people from Asia.[99] Their ideology centers on defending Russian national identity against what they perceive as a takeover by minority groups such as Jews, Caucasians, homosexuals, Central Asians, East Asians, Roma people (gypsies), and Muslims. There is also a widespread gay rights Nazi skinhead subculture with its own Vkontakte group, GASH, and an alleged 1700 members in Moscow alone.[100]

Russian neo-Nazis have made it an explicit goal to take over the country by force, and have put serious effort into preparing for this. Paramilitary organizations operating under the guise of sports clubs have trained their members in squad tactics, hand to hand combat and weapons handling. They have stockpiled and used weapons, often illegally.

Neo-Nazism in Russia: The Some observers have noted a subjective irony of Russians embracing Nazism, because one of photograph was taken at an Hitler's ambitions at the start of World War II was the (Master Plan East) anti-homosexual which envisaged to exterminate, expel, or enslave most or all Slavs from central and eastern demonstration in Moscow in [101] October 2010 Europe (e.g., Russians, Ukrainians, Poles etc.). Russian neo-Nazis deny the authenticity of this plan and instead emphasize the 1939-1941 Nazi-Soviet non-aggression pact.[101] At

[102] the end of the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union, over 25 million Soviet citizens had died.[102] In a 2007 news story, ABC News reported, "In a country that lost more people defeating the Nazis than any other country, there are now an estimated 50,000 to 70,000 neo-Nazis, half of the world's total."[103]

The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 caused great economic and social problems, including widespread unemployment and poverty. Several far right paramilitary organizations were able to tap into popular discontent, particularly among marginalized, lesser educated and unemployed youths. Of the three major age groups — youths, adults, and the elderly — youths may have been hit the hardest. The elderly suffered due to inadequate (or unpaid) pensions, but they found effective political representation in the Communist Party, and generally had their concerns addressed through better budget allocations. Adults, although often suffering financially and psychologically due to job losses, were generally able to find new sources of income.

Russian National Unity (RNE), founded in 1990 and led by Alexander Barkashov, has claimed to have members in 250 cities. RNE adopted the swastika as its symbol, and sees itself as the avant-garde of a coming national revolution. It is critical of other major far right organizations, such as the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia (LDPR). Historian Walter Laqueur calls RNE far closer to the Nazi model than the LDPR. RNE publishes several news sheets; one of them, Russky poryadok, claims to have a circulation of 150,000. Full members of RNE are called Soratnik (comrades in arms), receive combat training at locations near Moscow, and many of them work as security officers or armed guards.[104]

On 15 August 2007, Russian authorities arrested a student for allegedly posting a video on the which appears to show two migrant workers being beheaded in front of a red and black swastika flag.[105] Alexander Verkhovsky, the head of a Moscow-based center that monitors hate crime in Russia, said, "It looks like this is the real thing. The killing is genuine ... There are similar videos from the Chechen war. But this is the first time the killing appears to have been done intentionally."[106]

Sweden Neo-Nazi activities in Sweden have previously been limited to white supremacist groups, few of which have a membership over a few hundred members.[107] The main neo-Nazi organization as of 2017 is the Nordic . Nordic Resistance Movement self-identifies as a National Socialist political party. In addition to Sweden, they are also active in Norway, Finland, and Denmark.

Switzerland The neo-Nazi and scene in Switzerland has seen significant growth in the 1990s and 2000s.[108] It is reflected in the foundation of the Partei National Orientierter Schweizer in 2000, which resulted in an improved organizational structure of the neo-Nazi and white supremacist scene.

Turkey Apart from neo-fascist[109][110][111][112][113][114][115] Grey Wolves and the Turkish ultranationalist[116][117][118][119][120][121] Nationalist Movement Party, there are some neo-Nazi organizations in Turkey such as the Turkish Nazi Party[122] or the National Socialist Party of Turkey,[123] which are mainly based on the internet.[124][125][126]

In 2016, the National Socialist Turkey Party, was founded as Turkey´s first National Socialist party.[127]

United Kingdom

Asia

India The Indian subcontinent (similar to Iran) has had cultural links to the "Aryan race" and has often been a topic of discussion on race theories.

In 1940, said, "There is no reason to suppose that Hitler must be a human monster because he passes off as a Nazi or Churchill is a demigod because he calls himself a Democrat. Nazism proved undeniably the saviour of Germany under the set of circumstances Germany was placed in. Who are we to dictate to Germany... or Italy to choose a particular form of policy of government simply?"[128] "Surely Hitler knows better than Pandit Nehru does what Germany best. The very fact that Germany or Italy has so wonderfully recovered and grown so powerful as never before at the touch of Nazi or Fascist magical wand is enough to prove that those political ‘isms’ were the most congenial tonics their health demanded."[128]

Pakistan Pro-Nazi sentiment is widespread in Pakistan, according to the German magazine Der Spiegel, compounded by the anti-Semitism engendered by the opposition to Israel and support for Palestine general throughout the region. Such attitudes, exemplified by a belief that Hitler was a military genius, are shared by both Muslims and , and are related to the belief that Pakistanis are Aryans, and therefore would be accepted in Nazi Germany.[129]

Israel Neo-Nazi activity is not common or widespread in Israel, and the few reported activities have all been the work of extremists, who were punished severely. One notable case is that of , a cell in made up of eight teenage immigrants from the former Soviet Union who had been attacking foreign workers and homosexuals, and vandalizing synagogues with Nazi images.[130][131] These neo-Nazis were reported to have operated in cities across Israel, and have been described as being influenced by the rise of neo-Nazism in Europe;[130][131][132] mostly influenced by similar movements in Russia and Ukraine, as the rise of the phenomenon is widely credited to immigrants from those two states, the largest sources of emigration to Israel.[133] Widely publicized arrests have led to a call to reform the to permit the revocation of Israeli citizenship for – and the subsequent of – neo-Nazis.[131]

Mongolia From 2008, Mongolian neo-Nazi groups have defaced buildings in Ulaanbaatar, smashed Chinese shopkeepers' windows, and killed Chinese immigrants. The neo- Nazi Mongols' targets for violence are Chinese, Koreans,[134] Mongol women who have sex with Chinese men, and LGBT people.[135] They wear Nazi uniforms and revere the Mongol Empire and Genghis Khan. Though Tsagaan Khass leaders say they do not support violence, they are self-proclaimed Nazis. "Adolf Hitler was Flag of the Dayar Mongol, a neo- someone we respect. He taught us how to preserve national identity," said the 41- Nazi party in Mongolia year-old co-founder, who calls himself Big Brother. "We don't agree with his extremism and starting the Second World War. We are against all those killings, but we support his ideology. We support nationalism rather than fascism." Some have ascribed it to poorhistorical education.[134]

Taiwan The National Socialism Association (NSA) is a neo-Nazi political organisation founded in Taiwan in September 2006 by Hsu Na-chi (Chinese: 許娜琦), at that time a 22-year-old female political science graduate of Soochow University. The NSA has an explicit stated goal of obtaining the power to govern the state. The Simon Wiesenthal Centre condemned the National Socialism Association on 13 March 2007 for championing the formerNazi dictator and blaming democracy forsocial unrest in Taiwan.[136]

Iran Several neo-Nazi groups were active in Iran, although they are now defunct. Advocates of Nazism continue to exist in Iran and are mainly based on the internet.[137][138] Americas

Brazil Several Brazilian neo-Nazi gangs appeared in the 1990s in Southern and Southeastern Brazil, regions with mostly white people, with their acts gaining more media coverage and public notoriety in the 2010s.[139][140][141][142][143][144][145] Some members of Brazilian neo-Nazi groups have been associated with football Flag of the SUMKA hooliganism.[146] Their targets have included African, South American and Asian immigrants; Jews, Muslims, Catholics and Atheists; Afro-Brazilians and internal migrants with origins in the northern regions of Brazil (who are mostly brown-skinned or Afro-Brazilian);[144][147] homeless people, prostitutes; recreational drug users; feminists and—more frequently reported in the media—homosexuals, bisexuals, and and third-gender people.[143][148][149] News of their attacks has played a role in debates about anti- laws in Brazil (including to some extenthate speech laws) and the issues of sexual orientation and .[150][151][152]

Canada Neo-Nazism in Canada began with the formation of the in 1965. In the 1970s and 1980s, neo-Nazism continued to spread in the country as organizations including the and Church of the Creator (later renamed Creativity) promoted white supremacist ideals.[153] Founded in the United States in 1973, Creativity calls for white people to wage racial holy war (Rahowa) against Jews and other perceived enemies.[154]

Don Andrews founded the Nationalist Party of Canada in 1977. The purported goals of the unregistered party are "the promotion and maintenance of European Heritage and Culture in Canada," but the party is known for anti-Semitism and racism. Many influential neo-Nazi Leaders, such as Wolfgang Droege, were affiliated with the party, but many of its members left to join the , which was founded in 1989.[155]

Droege founded the Heritage Front in Toronto at a time when leaders of the white supremacist movement were "disgruntled about the state of the radical right" and wanted to unite unorganized groups of white supremacists into an influential and efficient group with common objectives.[155] Plans for the organization began in September 1989, and the formation of the Heritage Front was formally announced a couple of months later in November. In the 1990s, of and the band Rahowa popularized the Creativity movement and thewhite power music scene.[156]

Controversy and dissention has left many Canadian neo-Nazi organizations dissolved or weakened.[155]

Chile After the dissolution of the National Socialist Movement of Chile (MNSCH) in 1938, notable former members of MNSCH migrated into Partido Agrario Laborista (PAL), obtaining high positions.[157] Not all former MNSCH members joined the PAL; some continued to form parties that followed the MNSCH model until 1952.[157] A new old-school Nazi party was formed in 1964 by school teacher Franz Pfeiffer.[157] Among the activities of this group were the organization of a Miss Nazi beauty contest and the formation of a Chilean branch of the Ku Klux Klan.[157] The party disbanded in 1970. Pfeiffer attempted to restart it in 1983 in the Flag of the National Socialist Movement of Chile wake of a wave of protests against theAugusto Pinochet regime.[157]

Nicolás Palacios considered the "Chilean race" to be a mix of two bellicose master races: the Visigoths of Spain and the Mapuche (Araucanians) of Chile.[158] Palacios traces the origins of the Spanish component of the "Chilean race" to the coast of the Baltic Sea, specifically to Götaland in Sweden,[158] one of the supposed homelands of the Goths. Palacios claimed that both the blonde-haired and the bronze-coloured Chilean Mestizo share a "moral physonomy" and a masculine psychology.[159] He opposed immigration from Southern Europe, and argued that Mestizos who are derived from south Europeans lack "cerebral control" and are a social burden.[160] Costa Rica Several neo-Nazi groups exist inCosta Rica, and the first to be in the spotlight was the Costa Rican National Socialist Party, which is now disbanded.[161] Others include Costa Rican National Socialist Youth, Costa Rican National Socialist Alliance, New Social Order, Costa Rican National Socialist Resistance (which is Costa Rica's member of the World Union of National Socialists)[162] and the Hiperborean Spear Society. The groups normally target Jewish-Costa Ricans, Afro-Costa Ricans, Communists, homosexuals and especially Nicaraguan and Colombian immigrants. The media has discovered the existence of an underground neo-Nazi group inside the police.[163]

United States There are several neo-Nazi groups in the United States. The National Socialist Movement (NSM), with about 400 members in 32 states,[164] is currently the largest neo-Nazi organization in the United States.[165] After World War II, new organizations formed with varying degrees of support for Nazi principles. The National States' Rights Party, founded in 1958 by Edward Reed Fields and J. B. Stoner countered racial integration in the with Nazi-inspired publications and iconography. The American Nazi Party, founded by George Lincoln Rockwell in 1959, achieved high-profile coverage in the press through its The NSM rally on the West lawn of public demonstrations.[166] the US Capitol, Washington DC, 2008 The First Amendment to the United States Constitution guarantees freedom of speech, which allows political organizations great latitude in expressing Nazi, racist, and anti-Semitic views. A First Amendment landmark case was National Socialist Party of America v. Village of Skokie, in which neo-Nazis threatened to march in a predominantly Jewish suburb of Chicago. The march never took place in Skokie, but the court ruling allowed the neo-Nazis to stage a series of demonstrations in Chicago.

The Institute for Historical Review, formed in 1978, is a Holocaust denial body associated with neo-Nazism.[167]

Organizations which report upon American neo-Nazi activities include the Anti-Defamation League and the Southern Poverty Law Center. American neo-Nazis are known to attack and harass minorities.[168]

Africa Several groups in South Africa such as Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging and Blanke Bevrydingsbeweging, have often been described as neo-Nazi.[169] Eugène Terre'Blanche was a prominent South African neo-Nazi leader who was murdered in 2010.[170]

Oceania There were a number of now-defunct Australian neo-Nazi groups, such as the Australian National Socialist Party (ANSP), which was formed in 1962 and merged into the National Socialist Party of Australia (1968-1970s), originally a splinter group, in 1968,[171] and 's Australian Nationalist Movement.[171]

Current active organisations include Antipodean Resistance, local chapters of the Aryan Nations,[172] and Blood and Honour,[173] as well as prominent individuals such asBlair Cottrell.[174]

In , historical neo-Nazi organisations include and the National Socialist Party of New Zealand.[175] Current active organisations include the local chapter of the Hammerskins,[176] while White Nationalist organisations such as the New Zealand National Front have faced accusations of neo-Nazism.[177]

See also

Alt-right The Believer Far-right subcultures List of neo-Nazi bands List of neo-Nazi organizations List of white nationalist organizations White nationalism White separatism White supremacy

References

Informational notes

1. Some of the fascistic old-guard from the pre-war ultra-nationalist movements were more skeptical of the benefits of the Rockwell-Jordan uniform scene.Oswald Mosley of the described Jordan as, "a midget trying to walk in the of giants." Meanwhile, Yockeyism leaned more to the left than the "official" fascistic Pan- Europeanism of those which would become theEuropean Social Movement. The latter associated with the likes of Mosley, Maurice Bardèche and others upheld a strictly "neither East, nor West", third position in regards to Soviet and American power. 2. While the intelligence claims in regards to the Rockwell's American costume group proved unfounded, a number of actual German National Socialists did relocate to the Middle East, some conveted to Islam and changed their names; particularly Egypt and Syria. This includesJohann von Leers, , , , Gerhard Mertins, Hans Eisele, , Artur Schmitt and others. The father of Neo-Nazism, Otto Ernst Remer, also fled to Egypt, then Syria during the 1950s.

Citations

1. Gay, Kathlyn (1997) Neo-Nazis: A Growing Threat (https://books.google.com/books?id=NWYLkF5NHVsC&q=%22N eo-nazis%22+goals&dq=%22Neo-nazis%22+goals&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi3pYzk05raAhXjT98KHehxDawQ6 AEINTAC). Enslow. p.114. ISBN 9780894909016. Quote: "Neo-Nazis ... use fear and violence in their efforts to destroy minorities. Their goal is toestablish a "superior" society."(emphasis added) 2. Staff (ndg) "Ideologies: Neo Nazi" (https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/ideology/neo-nazi) Southern Poverty Law Center. Quote: "While some neo-Nazi groups emphasize simple hatred, others are more focused on the revolutionary creation of a fascist political state." (emphasis added)

3. Werner Bergmann; Rainer Erb (1997).Anti-Semitism in Germany: The Post-Nazi Epoch Since 1945 (https://book s.google.com/books?id=5Mc9wZPAky8C&printsec=frontcover#PPA91,M1). Transaction Publishers. p. 91. ISBN 1-56000-270-0. OCLC 35318351 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/35318351). "In contrast to today, in which rigid authoritarianism and neo-Nazism are characteristic of marginal groups, open or latent leanings toward Nazi ideology in the 1940s and 1950s" Martin Polley (200). A-Z of Modern Europe Since 1789 (https://books.google.com/books?id=1m8gILidU1gC&print sec=frontcover#PRA1-PA103,M1). Routledge. p. 103. ISBN 0-415-18597-1. OCLC 49569961 (https://www.world cat.org/oclc/49569961). "Neo-Nazism, drawing heavily both on the ideology and aesthetics of the NSDAP, emerged in many parts of Europe and elsewhere in the economic crises of the 1970s, and has continued to influence a number of small political groups." "Neo-Nazism" (http://www.apologeticsindex.org/26-neo-nazism). ApologeticsIndex. "The term Neo-Nazism refers to any social, political and/or (quasi) religious movement seeking to revive Nazism. Neo-Nazi groups are racist hate groups that pattern themselves after Hitler’s philosophies. Examples include: Aryan Nations, National Alliance" 4. Lee McGowan (2002). The Radical Right in Germany: 1870 to the Present (https://books.google.com/books?id= EkInaWFrki4C&printsec=frontcover#PPA9,M1). Pearson Education. pp. 9, 178.ISBN 0-582-29193-3. OCLC 49785551 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/49785551). Brigitte Bailer-Galanda; Wolfgang Neugebauer. "Right-Wing Extremism in Austria: History, Organisations, Ideology" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120117201946/http://www.xn--dw-fka.at/english/right/englre.html). Archived from the original (http://www.döw.at/english/right/englre.html) on 17 January 2012. "Right-wing extremism can be equated neither with Nazism nor with neo-Fascism or neo-Nazism. Neo-Nazism, a legal term, is understood as the attempt to propagate, in direct defiance of the law (Verbotsgesetz), Nazi ideology or measures such as the denial, playing-down, approval or justification of Nazi mass murder, especially the Holocaust." Martin Frost. "Neo Nazism" (https://web.archive.org/web/20071027053134/http://www.martinfrost.ws/htmlfiles/ne onazism1.html). Archived from the original (http://www.martinfrost.ws/htmlfiles/neonazism1.html) on 27 October 2007. "The term neo-Nazism refers to any social or seeking to revive National Socialism, and which postdates the Second World War. Often, especially internationally, those who are part of such movements do not use the term to describe themselves." Lee, Martin A. 1997. . Boston: Little, Brown and Co, pp. 85–118, 214–234, 277–281, 287– 330, 333–378. On Volk concept, and a discussion of ethnonationalist , see pp. 215–218

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External links

Neo-Nazism at Jewish Virtual Library

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