To Outsmart an Alien Study of Comics As a Narrational Medium

Faculty of New Media Arts Graphic Design

2D Visualisation

Inga Siek S17419

Bachelor diploma work To Outsmart An Alien Matt Subieta Chief Supervisor Marcin Wichrowski Technical Supervisor

Study of Comics as a Narrational Medium Anna Machwic Theoretical Supervisor Klaudiusz Ślusarczyk Language Supervisor

Warsaw, July, 2020

Wydział Nowych Mediów Grafika Komputerowa

Wizualizacja 2D

Inga Siek S17419

Praca Licencjacka Przechytrzyć Kosmitę Matt Subieta Główny Promotor Marcin Wichrowski Techniczny Promotor

Badanie Komiksów jako Medium Narracji Anna Machwic Teoretyczny Promotor Klaudiusz Ślusarczyk Promotor Językowy

Warszawa, Lipiec, 2020

This thesis is dedicated to the study and analysis of comics, both in terms of history and practice, as well as it is an attempt to change the common view of the practice as immature and primitive. In order to develop a good understanding of what comics are and their origins, this work starts by giving the reader a quick historical overview of the genre and its predecessor, sequential art. The reader will learn not only about the roots of comic illustration design but also its modern influences. The paper will refer to major names in the industry, and well as identify important historical events, both of which helped steer comics into the direction they are today. Additionally, descriptions of the main elements of comics will be provided. The last chapter will supply a number of examples in the utilizations of comic design components that include story, characters, panels and text by different artists who helped shape the craft of comics, and hopefully this will inspire the reader as well as provoke them to start viewing comics in a different, or perhaps even more positive light.

Keywords: Sequential art, Comics, Character Design, Writing

Praca jest zadedykowana badaniu historii oraz sztuce komiksu. Jest również próbą zmiany pospolitego poglądu na komiks jako sztuka dziecinna i prymitywna. Aby stworzyć dobre zrozumienie czym jest komiks, oraz skąd pochodzi, zaczynam pracę od szybkiej lekcji historii gatunku, oraz jego przodka - sztuki sekwencyjnej. Czytelnik nauczy się nie tylko o korzeniach ilustracji komiksowej, lecz również co na nią wpłynęło w czasach nowoczesnych. Praca odnosi się do znanych osób w przemyśle, oraz identyfikuje ważne historyczne zdarzenia, które pomogły nakierować komiks w stronę tego, czym jest dziś. Dodatkowo praca zapewnia opisy oraz wyjaśnienia głównych elementów komiksu. Ostatni rozdział dostarczy kilka przykładów wykorzystania komponentów komiksu poprzez znanych artystów, którzy pomogli nadać kształt tej sztuce. W komponenty wlicza się fabuła, postacie, panele komiksowe i tekst. Mam nadzieję że to zainspiruje i sprowokuje czytelnika do postrzeżenia komiksu w innym, być może bardziej pozytywnym świetle.

Słowa kluczowe: Sztuka Sekwencyjna, Komiks, Projektowanie Postaci, Pismo

INDEX

• Introduction, p. 5 • History and usage of sequential art, p. 7 • History of Comics, p. 10

o First Steps, p. 10 o Growing up, p. 14 • Narrational Elements, p. 21

o The Story, p. 21 o Characters, p. 25 o Panels, p. 30 o Text, p. 35 • Conclusion, p. 38 • Bibliography, p. 39

STUDY OF COMICS AS A NARRATIONAL MEDIUM

Introduction

Comics are a form of visual communication that has existed for millennia. As one era turned into another, comics also evolved and went through several phases. During this process, certain elements of narration were always present, and these perhaps make up the rules that define what comics truly are. A more accurate term for a comic would be sequential art, and although this definition is much more precise, although it still leaves a lot of room for misinterpretation.

The term sequential art is self-explanatory, but it could potentially include other forms of communication that we normally would not consider a comic. Music is also considered a form of art and it can only exist within a sequence. Therefore, it could also be described with the term “sequential art”. To avoid confusion an American cartoonist, Scott McCloud, came up with a term that would ensure comics would not be put in the same category as music, poetry, or other forms of sequential art. McCloud defined comics as:

“Juxtaposed pictorial and other images in deliberate sequence, intended to convey information and/or produce an aesthetic response in the viewer.” 1

Most of us think of one thing when they hear the word “comic”; a sequence of panels featuring backgrounds, characters and speech bubbles with dialogue, forgetting that there is possibly more to this term. With McCloud’s definition, we can start to distinguish what counts as a comic, and what does not. For example, when looking at an illustrated instruction of what to do when an airplane is crashing, would you think of it as a comic or perhaps just an instruction? This is an important question to ask ourselves to challenge our perception of comics.

Western society mostly considers comics a cheap and childish form of entertainment rather than a form of art. It is worth mentioning that another definition of the word comic or

1 Scott McCloud, Understanding Comics (New York, HarperPerennial, 1993), 9.

comical is that of something related to comedy2. Perhaps this is because most people are introduced to comics during their childhood, and as adults, we only start noticing the genre again in the newspaper funnies. However, this colloquialism is unjust to sequential art, as it is much more than just a way of telling a funny story.

Comics are first and foremost a craft. They require not only great skill and premeditation but also harmonious collaboration from both artists and storytellers alike for their comics to be not only functional but also engaging. A comic does not need to be comical. It can be as serious and thought-provoking as any other medium; all that it needs is the right approach.

To prove this point, one only needs to scrutinise sequential art and see where it refutes the common expectations. To do so, we need to analyse its origin and usage, as well as how it evolved in terms of technique. It will also be crucial to distinguish some of the greatest artists who helped influence the directions sequential art took during its never-ending lifetime.

Subsequently, we can start examining the different narrational elements that make up a comic, mainly the story, illustrations, characters, and layout. It is important to understand not only the history, but also the inner workings of sequential art before we can start speculating how it will evolve in the future.

2 Merriam Webster, definition of the word “comic”, retrieved 22.11.2019 (https://www.merriam- webster.com/dictionary/comic)

Chapter 1 – History and Usage of Sequential Art

Every art movement and technique had its starting point, and comics are no exception. Although ‘traditional’ comic was not developed until the 19th century, it would be insufficient and unfair not to talk about its predecessors in sequential art. Art itself has existed for at least 73 000 years3, and it should not be too difficult to believe sequential art has been around for a similar amount of time.

Cave paintings are the earliest example we have of sequential art. With the help of dirt and charcoal, humans of the Palaeolithic period would draw and paint figures in different poses as a way of conveying movement. These paintings could be used to portray and preserve a story or legend that people would primarily share through the spoken word long before written language was developed. Subsequently, this helped to create the fundaments of art expression in human culture.

As one period passed and another began, humans discovered that sounds could be written down as symbols, and then they could be read. This distinct writing system was practical for everyday use, as it was much more accurate in terms of recording events than actual images. Despite its many practical uses, writing found its followers among artists as well. They now could record their tales in the form of poems, letters, or perhaps even songs, which were carved in stone, painted on walls or written on paper. This was the birth of literature.

Nowadays literature is considered a completely separate form of art, and as a narrational medium it is seldom compared to paintings or drawings; and, people rarely think about the fact that at one point in time, they were both one and the same. The hieroglyphs of ancient Egypt are a great example showcasing how most letters had the form of pictograms rather than abstract symbols that we use today. Different sounds could be symbolised by animals, body parts or tools drawn with ink on a piece of papyrus. As time passed the hieratic and

3 Nicholas St. Fleur, “Oldest Known Drawing by Human Hands Discovered in South African Cave”, The New York Times, 2018), retrieved 02.12.2019 (https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/12/science/oldest-drawing-ever- found.html)

demotic scripts were developed, which often simplified images derived from the hieroglyphic script, possibly making the process of writing faster and easier.

Hieroglyphs on the Temple of Kom Ombo (https://www.britannica.com/topic/hieroglyph), retrieved 13.12.2019

Although writing was superior to painting in terms of recording information, ancient Egyptians did not neglect sequential art. Scientists report many instances in which the people of ancient Egypt chose to tell a story through paintings in sequence rather than through written words. The paintings found in the tomb of Menna are a great example of this. When read in the correct order, they reveal a scene from the late official’s everyday life. 4

Many other ancient artefacts present sequential art not only as a lively decoration but possibly also as a spiritual connection to the unseen. For instance, Greeks and Romans would embellish their pottery with segments of myths and legends. Perhaps this was a way to pay respect to and commemorate acts of valour by glorious heroes and deities back in the ancient world. Other religions also took part in this tradition, with one of the oldest and

4 Scott McCloud, op. cit., 14.

most common examples of sequential art in Christianity being the many illustrated Ways of the Cross hanging on the walls of Catholic churches and cathedrals alike.5

As time went on, sequential art started becoming valued not only as a method of recording but also as a newfound and enticing form of entertainment. The invention of print gave humanity an opportunity to create written monologues about politics, write art critiques, and record everyday events, as well as publish what was the predecessor of so-called ‘funnies’.

Though it is difficult to pinpoint when exactly the newspaper became a home for satirical caricatures, we can assume that artists like William Hogarth helped sequential art pioneer this uncharted territory. Hogarth created printed art pieces with written descriptions underneath them, pieces that often criticised the state of political and social affairs.6 One of his famous pieces, A Harlot’s Progress, tells the story of a countrywoman who moves to a big city in hopes of earning a better life as a seamstress, but instead becomes a prostitute who later dies due to a sexually transmitted disease. This could have been the first step towards tackling social issues within the comic form we are so used to today.

The history of sequential art is long and diverse, but it is important in order to understand humanity’s fascination with capturing movement. They are the roots of modern comics.

5 Ibid. 6 Jesse Bryant Wilder, “The Rococo Influence in British Art”, Dummies, retrieved 15.12.2019, (https://www.dummies.com/education/art-appreciation/the-rococo-influence-in-british-art/)

Chapter 2 – The History of Comics

Part I – First Steps

Although comics belong to a category of sequential art, they have their own rich and distinctive history. To better understand their unique function, we need to scrutinise the specific narrational elements a typical comic consists of.

Comics have become a very experimental form of art and many authors manage to break the norms without defying our definition of choice. Some of the major elements of narration in comics include:

• Story • Recurring characters • Panels • Text

One of the many strips of The Yellow Kid, written and illustrated by Richard Felton Outcault, published 27.12.1896 (https://cartoons.osu.edu/digital_albums/yellowkid/1896/1896.htm)

All four elements can be scrutinised in what is considered as the first comic; The Yellow Kid, drawn by Richard Felton Outcault from the year 1894 and onward7. First published in a newspaper called The World and two years later moved to The New York Journal, The Yellow Kid was the first comic that checked off every point of our list. 8 It was a crude example by today’s standards, but who knows how comics would have evolved without the Sunday strip which was loved by so many.

Outcault’s work did not have a plot; instead, it presented a different short story each day, and the recurring character was the titular Yellow Kid. The story was presented in a few geometrical panels, all of them usually made up of the same dimensions, while the dialogue of the characters was kept within small speech bubbles. Very often there was also a piece of text, which was related to the story, written on the Yellow Kid’s shirt.

The stories of The Yellow Kid consisted of short gags that were meant to evoke amusement or laughter from the reader. The daily strip quickly became popular and soon enough inspired many other artists and newspapers to create their own ‘funnies’. It was the birth of a new tradition, one that continues to this day. Unfortunately, it was perhaps also the beginning of comics’ laughable reputation.

After three decades authors started developing comics with steady plots, and the main focus of the genre shifted. Comedy was still a big part of the comic culture, but it was finally becoming apparent that the medium also held great potential for tales of action, adventure, and fantasy.9 The artistic style radically switched from cartoonish to realistic, whereas the stories changed from silly and relatable to dramatic and absurd.10

7 Krzysztof Teodor Toeplitz, Sztuka Komiksu (Czytelnik Warszawa, 1985), 34. 8 Ibid, 34. 9 Michał Traczyk, op. cit., 26. 10 Ibid, 26.

Left: Cover of Hal Forster’s Tarzan (https://www.pinterest.com/pin/485896247269641025/), retrieved 17.02.2020

Right: Cover of Nowlan and Calkins’ Buck Rogers in the 25th Century A.D. , published sometime during 1940, (http://the-wanderling.com/buck_rogers02.html), retrieved 17.02.2020 Two notable examples can be traced back to the year of 1929: Hal Foster’s adaption of Tarzan, as well as an original Sci-Fi story called Buck Rogers in the 25th Century A.D., which was written by Philip Nowlan and illustrated by Dick Calkins.11 Both of these comics looked very different from the newspaper funnies most people read at the time. The realistic line was great for capturing movement and details, but it also brought out of the reader a completely new spectrum of emotions. Rather than laughter, comics now created tension and suspense which kept people restless while waiting for the next issue of their favourite story.

Following a constant plot was similar to going on a journey, and the main character was your best friend. While the characters of the ‘funnies’ were created to be laughed at, the

11 Ibid, 27.

characters of action comics were more sympathetic, and people preferred to laugh with them instead. In those characters, you saw their hardships and you rooted for them to succeed, and once they succeeded, you felt inspired.

Comic book characters became idols that the young people of America genuinely looked up to. In a world where urbanisation and globalisation grew at a rapid speed, everyday life became more complex as well. In 1938 a completely new hero was introduced by Jerome Siegel and Joe Shuster, and his name was Superman12. The new protagonist fitted in perfectly with the themes of that era. Superman, or Clark Kent when disguised, was an immigrant from a different planet that landed on earth as an orphaned child. However, as he grew up he swore to protect his current home as best as he can. In a sense, Superman was an example of how the United States wanted their immigrants to act towards their new country.

World War II only strengthened the bond between comic book heroes and their readers. Joe Simon’s and Jack Kirby’s Captain America was a reassurance to soldiers fighting at the front, while William Moulton Marston’s Wonder Woman was the first feminist of comics that helped the women who stayed behind cope with having to take on male roles.13 All in all, these superheroes shone a ray of light on a bleak and dark world.

12 Ibid, 28. 13 Ibid, 31.

Part II – Growing Up

Unfortunately, comics could not reach out to everyone in the community. Numerous comics won the hearts of children and teenagers, but their appeal to adults was still a struggle. Authors made many attempts at writing stories meant to be read by a more mature audience. However, due to the common misbelief that all comics are targeted towards youth, their efforts were quickly labeled as devious tales meant to demoralise children.14

Fredric Wertham’s Seduction of the Innocent, published in 1954, lead to one of the biggest catastrophes in the history of sequential art. In his book, he claims that comics are a way to propagate sex, violence and unlawful acts. These brutal accusations caused a mass hysteria which would lead not only to a massive drop in comic sales but even public burning of comic books.15 As a result, the government initiated massive censorship to restrain any glorified demonstrations of earlier mentioned mature themes, once again limiting sequential art to Sunday ‘funnies’ or infantile stories. The only comics which could be sold had to be approved by the Comics Code Authority, which continued to irk authors for years to come.16

14 Ibid, 33. 15 Ibid, 33. 16 Ibid, 34.

The CCA mark of approval from 1954 (https://steppingonpoint.wordpress.com/category/comics-code- authority/), retrieved 17.02.2020

However, it would be wrong to move on to what happened in America afterward, without mentioning a word about what happened in the rest of the world.

Japan was greatly distanced from America and its culture, therefore we can safely assume that their idea of what a comic is also greatly differed. Whereas comics in the USA had to be restrictive and careful not to undermine the American values, manga was highly experimental and was not afraid of making its readers question their morality.

One of the pioneers of this genre was the proclaimed ‘God of Manga’, Osamu Tezuka. He lived in a country which did not limit in any way what he could write about, and so he wrote not only amusing works for children but also mature works that could be enjoyed by adults. He debuted in 1947 with Shin Takarajima and proceeded to revolutionise the manga industry with other works such as Astro Boy or Dororo.17 He was famous for treating the comic panel very similar to a movable camera; instead of focusing on a single point of view, Tezuka presented his scenes through many different perspectives.18 This procedure was undoubtedly effective in creating never before seen dynamics, and his comics were so influential that many manga artists follow his footsteps to this day.

17 Ibid, 34. 18 Ibid, 34.

Left: Osamu Tezuka’s Dororo, published between 1967 and 1969, (https://spikytyphoon.tumblr.com/post/183760503957)

Right: Osamu Tezuka posing with a figure of his character, Astroboy (http://www.legacy.com/news/celebrity- deaths/article/osamu-tezuka-god-of-manga), retrieved 17.02.2020 Manga never had to face the same obstacles that comics in America met, which made it possible to perfect the genre but one could say that it also halted its development somewhat. This could explain why so many Japanese comics, though distant from each other in terms of time and genre, have such a similar visual and narrational style.

After World War II, the comic market spread to Europe. Although European authors also wished to appeal to older readers, none of them managed to find a bigger audience and were usually pursued only by obstinate comic fans. The first truly successful European titles were Peyo’s The Smurfs, or Goscinny’s and Uderzo’s The Adventures of Asterix. Both works were meant for children, and like most other comics during that time, came from francophone countries.19 To put it shortly, Europe’s history of comics starts out quite similar to that of North America, possibly due to both continents being influenced by each other’s culture.

Meanwhile, the 60s brought a big change to the United States, both in terms of society and comics. Teenagers and young adults of that decade were rebels who were sick of how the government operated, and who wished to be independent and freed from any restrains their country had put on them. During this time an already existing, but lesser-known genre of comics became a big hit. Known as “underground comix”, they were seen as ugly and vile by the orthodox masses. However, their authors did not care, as their target audience was the rebellious youth. Underground comix celebrated drugs, violence, and sex, and demonised people in power, as well as the rest of society who disagreed with the aforementioned values of the 60s underground scene20.

Perhaps the most famous cartoonist at the time was Robert Crumb, who published his very own magazine dedicated to the underground genre. The magazine was titled Zap Comix.21

19 Ibid, 46. 20 Ibid, 43. 21 Ibid, 43.

The kind of careless attitude he presented was very common back in the 60s, and perhaps can be summed up best with this quote:

“Well, listen, you dumb-assed broads, I’m gonna fucking well draw what I please to draw and if you don’t like it, fuck you!”22

Although highly misogynous and vulgar, Crumb’s quote showcases an important piece of the general mentality of comic authors back in the 60s. They were heavily restrained by the censors of the Comics Code Authority, which often made it difficult to write about and draw any adult themes. If artists wanted to keep creating comics for adults, they had to do it without relying on any big publishing company.

Left: Robert Crumb’s Fritz the Cat, published 29.05.2017 (https://newatlas.com/most-expensive-american- comic-art-robert-crumb-fritz-the-cat/49734/)

Right: Robert Crumb, photo by Niccolò Caranti, 2014 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Crumb) Crumb’s most popular work, Fritz the Cat, is a story of an anthropomorphic cat who enjoys drugs, sex, and violence, all while cursing like a sailor. Needless to say, the comic violated every rule that censors had set, but Crumb did not struggle against censorship as much as

22 Susan Kirtley, ““A Word to You Feminist Women”: The Parallel Legacies of Feminism and Underground Comics”, Cambridge Core, retrieved 15.02.2020(https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-history- of-the-graphic-novel/word-to-you-feminist-women-the-parallel-legacies-of-feminism-and-underground- comics/A89F976609EDF36DAED1CBDE9EFDFE76/core-reader)

other publishers did. He and other underground artists published their works independently. It meant that they would not get much recognition in official media, but they were not restrained by the Comics Code Authority.

The 60s were perhaps the first decade during which comics gained a larger adult audience, and towards the end of the decade comics in Europe also brought a few iconic titles to the table: such as Jean-Claude Mézières’ and Pierre Christin’s science fiction story Valerian, Jean-Michel Charlier’s and Jean Giraud’s western called Blueberry, or Hugo Pratt’s Corto Maltese.23

Guido Crepax, Valentina, published in 1977 (https://pt.slideshare.net/nokides/guido-crepax-valentina-no- metro/38?smtNoRedir=1)

The 70s, 80s, and 90s on the other hand pushed the idea of mature themes a lot further. Eroticism in comics became widely popular, largely thanks to two Italian illustrators by the name of Guido Crepax and Milo Manara.24 Known as ‘erotocomics’, they presented women the way men interpreted them; stunningly beautiful and seductive, but at times also cruel

23 Michał Traczyk, op. cit., 46-50. 24 Ibid, 50-52.

and sadistic.25 Most ‘erotocomics’ were drawn to appeal to the male gaze, not only because most of their readers were men, but also because of relationships becoming more complicated after women became more independent, therefore needing men less.

The next few decades were rather calm in terms of development. By the 90s, adult themes became a standard, children’s classics were still thriving, and newspapers still featured their daily or weekly funnies.

However, there was one element that changed how and by who comics were published. This element was the internet.

The 90s and 2000s started a boom in what became widely known as ‘webcomics’. The term is quite self-explanatory; they are comics published on the worldwide web. This was, and still is, an opportunity for anyone with a love for drawing and a story to tell, to post their own comic on either a website they had set up themselves or on a hosting portal provided by a company. In a lot of cases, this was a free service, and since the creators did not have to worry about printing and publishing costs anymore, the risk of losing your money was nonexistent.

25 Krzysztof Teodor Toeplitz, op. cit., 72.

Left: Iconic page from Tim Buckley’s webcomic, Ctrl+Alt+Del, published 02.06.2008 (https://cad- comic.com/comic/loss/)

Right: Andrew Hussie, Homestuck, retrieved 01.04.2020 (https://www.swiatksiazki.pl/homestuck-book-4-act- 5-act-1-6508901-ksiazka.html) This was arguably a double-edged sword, however. Of course, there were a lot of artists who created splendid comics that otherwise would not see the light of day due to financial or publishing issues. Some of them, such as Mike Krahulik’s and Jerry Holkin’s Penny Arcade or Andrew Hussie’s Homestuck, gained an online cult following, and even earned their creators some money from either readers’ donation or sold merchandise. Unfortunately, there were also some very poorly made examples, which not only exposed their creators to a lot of hate and cyber-bullying, but also served as a lesson to those who wanted to take up the craft without understanding much of its inner workings.

The history of comics is vast and diverse, and so far we have only scraped at its surface. However, I believe this amount of knowledge is enough to develop an understanding of what comics were, are, and could be in the future. Without further ado, let us move on to the analysis of each element of the narrational elements of comics.

Chapter 3 – Narrational Elements

As I mentioned in the previous chapter, that which creates the narration of a traditional comic can be broken up into four elements: story, characters, panels, and text. We could call them the ingredients that define the style of a comic. However, that does not mean that these components cannot be bent or broken. In this chapter, I would like to analyse the four narrational elements and their purpose, as well as give examples of some of my favourite adaptations of those with the comic structure.

Part I – The Story

All sequential art is a sequence, therefore comics are no exception. If there is a sequence, there is a story to tell.

Comics have a very unique storytelling structure that should not be treated like that of a book or movie, but something similar to a mashup of the two. The panels can be interpreted as film frames. Out of the whole movie tape, we only cut out the most important frames, leaving the leftovers between them to the reader’s imagination. However, the great thing about still frames is that they are not limited by time; a comic is patient, it lets its reader decide for how long the frame should last. In that sense, it is more similar to a book, as the reader picks up a tempo of their own.

The most important part of a comic’s visuals is the imagery. Without drawings, a comic would be just a jumble of squares and text. However, a comic can exist without text and will remain understandable. If a picture says more than a thousand words, then sometimes words are unnecessary altogether.

That does not mean that a comic lacks a story, however.

Deciding what the story will be and how it will play out is the first task we need to solve when writing a comic. The idea helps an artist decide what kind of style they want to go for, which in turn largely affects the other elements of narration. This is because those elements are usually there to enhance the story, rather than work on their own. For example, if we

want to create an intense thriller, we should probably go for a more realistic and darker style rather than using something pastel-colored and cartoony.

This is not to say that mature themes cannot be visualised by cartoons. Anything is possible as long as there is a good reason behind it. Following a formula will often evoke monotony in a reader due to repetitiveness. If breaking a rule will make the story a more interesting read, then the creator should definitely go for it.

To prove this statement, I would like to present a couple of works by artists I have mentioned in the previous chapter:

Guido Crepax, Valentina Assasina, published in 1977 (https://pt.slideshare.net/nokides/guido-crepax- valentina-no-metro/38?smtNoRedir=1)

Robert Crumb, Cave Wimp, published somewhere between 1988 and 1992 (https://comics.ha.com/itm/original-comic-art/complete-story/robert-crumb-original-art-for-zap-12- complete-11-page-story-cave-wimp-apex-novelties-1988-this-is-crumb-at-his-be/a/805-6428.s)

First, let us analyse what is the common theme Crepax’s and Crumb’s works share. As we can see, both artworks are heavily centred around the sex-appeal of a woman. Aside from covering up the most private parts of a woman’s body, neither work leaves a lot to the imagination. When the silhouette is this strongly underlined, everything else seems like a decoration left as an afterthought.

However, despite sharing a common theme both works seem vastly different from one another. Crepax’s art style is smooth and subtle, whereas Crumb’s is protruding and harsh, almost offensively so. While one could argue that the gentlemen simply have different art styles, it should also be noted that there is a good reason why Crumb’s style is such a huge contrast to Crepax’s work.

Whereas Crepax’s art is a stereotypical representation of the female form in advertising and appeals to the general public, Crumb’s fascination with thick women is not as common. He packages this comic within layers of irony and humour as if he wants to say ‘I know I am eccentric, but at least maybe you will find this funny’. His work is not meant to be sexually arousing to anyone except the select few who share his interest.

There is also a strong difference in how both artists narrate the story. Crepax is a man of few words and prefers to tell the story through visuals. We can see this from seeing the protagonist Valentina’s movements and how the environment around her reacts to her presence. Crumb, on the other hand, uses a lot of text to explain what is happening. Perhaps his preference for telling rather than showing stems from an awareness of his eccentricity. Sometimes it is easier to explain certain matters through words, rather than have the reader interpret it through raw imagery alone.

This goes to show that comics, just like any form of art, are not always supposed to be pretty; their appearance is heavily altered by the message they are supposed to bear. At times reading a comic can be like deciphering the artist’s efforts and feelings during the process of creation.

Usually, those feelings are completely out in the open, however. This is because artists follow their intuition when it comes to picking a style that fits the storyline. They need to

question what creates a particular plot’s atmosphere. When and where does the action take place? Who are the characters we follow? What exactly will happen, and why? Once they have the answers, they will probably pick the most common and sensible stylistic solutions. After all, why fix something that is not broken?

In short, the story plays a major part in the creation of a comic. If the artist lacks the main idea of what the plot will be, they cannot illustrate it properly. That is why writing the story is, in most cases, the first step one must take before moving on to the other elements that make up the foundations of a comic.

Part II – Characters

In most cases we remember the main characters of a story better than we remember the story itself. Even when we do not remember their adventures, we remember their appearance and personality. Some characters have become so widely used, that they lose their initial meaning, and become a symbol for something completely different. However, a part of them always remains, and that part is what makes them recognisable.

Walt Disney’s Mickey Mouse, retrieved 01.04.2020 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mickey_Mouse.png)

Let us take Walt Disney’s Mickey Mouse as an example. The character itself was designed with very round, curvy shapes that made it easy to animate its wacky movement. Mickey

became the most memorable character of the silent era of animation and helped create the biggest animation company to ever exist, which today is worth billions of dollars. However, in the past, Disney was also known to exploit their characters to promote certain political views to their young audience, such as nationalist propaganda during World War II.26 Although to most people Mickey is used as a symbol of happiness and friendliness, on certain occasions the character has instead been used as a symbol of capitalism and propaganda.27 Whatever the message, even when simplified to three circles, most people recognise straight away that the design is referring to the Disney character.

In comics this reference by association works very similarly; you should design the character to fit the style that becomes easily recognisable. As I mentioned in the previous part, the style is decided by the story you want to tell. If you want to illustrate a story meant to be read by young children, it is probably not a good idea to make the characters creepy, for instance. Instead, you should try to make the characters somehow appeal to your audience. Designers often use the symbolism of shapes and colours to create meaningful and memorable characters. For example, children pay more attention to bright and vibrant colours, so having colourful characters or backgrounds would definitely make them more attentive to the story. Additionally, we can base most designs on circular shapes, as the circle is commonly associated with friendliness and openness.

Note this example of Janusz Christa’s characters. As we can see, all three characters are built up mainly by circular shapes and bright colours. However, the two human characters also have their own individual traits to differentiate between them; Kajko is short and slender with spiky hair, whereas Kokosz is tall, broad, and wears a pointed helmet. Nonetheless, when standing next to each other in a lineup, we can see a unity that insinuates the characters belong to a single story.

26 Doobie Moseley, “Pearl Harbor Changed Everything, Even the Disney Studio”, Laughing Place, published 07.12.2015. (https://www.laughingplace.com/w/featured/2015/12/07/pearl-harbor-changed-everything- even-disney-studio/) 27 Trey Parker, Matt Stone, South Park, season 13, episode 1, 2009

Designs of Janusz Christa’s characters from Kajko i Kokosz, retrieved 01.04.2020 (https://www.gdansk.pl/wiadomosci/kajko-i-kokosz-bohaterami-serialu-animowanego-prace-nad-filmem-juz- trwaja,a,126687) They cannot be too similar, however. There is a so-called ‘condition’ amongst artists which is jokingly referred to as ‘same face syndrome’, which means that the facial structure of most, if not all characters, is so similar that when stripped of their individual attributes, such as hairstyle or skin colour, they become difficult to tell apart. It is somewhat excusable to an extent when used among characters that are family members or doppelgangers, but when every character looks the same as every other character, it becomes a problem.

Additionally, unless going through some severe physical trauma, the characters should all be recognisable throughout the story as the same character. Even if the character of our story ages several decades or goes through an extreme makeover, there should be design elements that will subtly hint that the character we see now is the same character we saw when they first appeared. If there is no continuity, we may never develop a feeling of familiarity with the character that is essential in making them notorious.

Characters like Hello Kitty or Rilakkuma are memorable just for their looks because that is their purpose. They were intentionally designed by San-X to ornament accessories and merchandise. Their individual character traits, aside from being cute and good-natured, are rarely explored.

With comics, it is not as easy, however. Since the characters are meant to work within a timeline of events, they need to have their own personality and possess a set of

27 characteristics that will indicate what kind of actions they will take when faced with a given situation. The role the character plays is crucial before deciding what traits they should possess. For example, a protagonist that we are going to follow through most of the story should be much more fleshed out than a side character that we are going to see once or twice in the entire comic.

Characters can be split into many different categories, with some of the most common and general being protagonists, antagonists, love interests, supporting characters, or foils. There are also lesser-known categories that require fulfilling certain criteria, such as a symbolic character, or a tragic hero.

In a similar manner to the visual style of the comic, characters are also heavily influenced by the story. The actions of a character are typically what pushes the plot forward. Therefore, if you want to have an engaging story, you will also need characters that are good at playing their part. If we compare the comic as a whole to a movie, we can imagine the characters of a comic within the fictional world similar to those represented by actors in the film medium.

To illustrate my point better, I would like you to imagine the plot of a classic superhero comic. The usual conflict of any tale about a superhero is that there is a villain or force that endangers the wellbeing of humanity. The superhero must defeat this force, even at the risk of being in jeopardy. Therefore they must be strong and brave. In a very traditional superhero comic, the protagonist would have those virtues from the get-go, and would probably remain the same person past the dangerous incident as they were prior to it. In this way, our hero would be a static character.

The site Literary Devices provides a good definition of a static character:

“A static character is one that does not undergo inner changes, or undergoes a little change. It is a character that does not develop or grow, such as Sherlock Holmes and James Bond.”28

28 “Static Character”, Literary Devices, retrieved 16.03.2020 (https://literarydevices.net/static-character/)

Static characters are usually found in stories that do not follow a singular plot but instead focus on several different stories revolving around the protagonist. Superman and Corto Maltese are great examples of static characters in comics.

This is one of the two main categories all characters fall into with the other category being dynamic characters.

Let us use the same scenario as in the previous example. This time there is one small, but important difference; our superhero is strong, but they lack bravery. Let us say, they are too afraid to face the task, and instead, they hesitate or perhaps even run away. There is now an additional conflict within the story. While the external conflict consists of saving humanity from grave danger, the internal conflict consists of our superhero finding the bravery to do so.

The character now has to change in order for the story to progress. They become a dynamic character.

According to Literary Devices this type of character is described as:

“A dynamic character [who] faces trials and tribulations, and takes time to learn from his encounters, his experiences, and his mistakes, as well as from other characters. Sometimes a character learns a lesson, and gains maturity, such as Prince Hal in Shakespeare’s Henry IV.”29

Dynamic characters are more popular in situations that revolve around a single main plot that is present throughout the whole comic. In that case, following a protagonist that does not undergo any internal changes would definitely be less interesting. Cassidy of Garth Ennis’ and Steve Dillon’s Preacher could be used as an example of a dynamic character where the character starts out as a great ally and supports his best friend almost unconditionally. However, after a while, he starts showing his true colours and turns into a villain, but again redeems himself by saving our protagonist. The whole change is

29 “Dynamic Character”, Literary Devices, retrieved 16.03.2020 (https://literarydevices.net/dynamic- character/)

symbolised by Cassidy starting out as a blood-sucking vampire who lives off of other people, yet by the end some who regains his humanity both physically and symbolically.

But what would happen if we were presented with another small change in the scenario? What if our superhero never finds the courage they need to face their challenge?

The short answer is that they remain a static character. However, how will this simple alteration of a character change the entire tale?

Let us consider that a story of a superhero usually follows a simple formula, at the end of which the hero comes out victorious. Unfortunately, our hero lacks the bravery to overcome the external conflict. Therefore, the conflict is never resolved. At this point, it is difficult to say if the story still counts in the superhero genre, because it stops following the basic principle. Instead we could argue that it becomes a deconstruction or a parody, as it takes parts of the traditional genre and rearranges them to create a new equation. Nonetheless, it could be even more interesting than the original story, as it introduces the reader to a different direction in the narrative.

Let us consider, Go Nagai’s Devilman that tells the story of Akira Fudo, a character whose origin story is similar to that of Spiderman or Deadpool; the protagonist gains superhuman powers due to unfortunate circumstances. His mission is to protect humanity from the growing wave of demons who wish to take back their planet, but unfortunately, Akira never possessed the means necessary to fulfil his purpose. Devilman can be considered a traditional superhero story in the first few chapters, but afterward, it spirals into a tale of gray morality, bearing an important message that war has no winners.

To conclude, characters greatly affect the course of the story, and are usually what we remember best. And with a mixture of great visuals and a unique personality, they can create a legacy of almost symbolic nature. What’s more, even when twisted in appropriation, there is always a piece of a character that will remain recognisable.

Part III – Panels

The panel of a comic can be summed up as a composition of visuals and text. The visuals are the drawings of characters, scenery or special effects meant to represent movement or atmosphere. The text is meant to mimic sound in the form of dialogue or onomatopoeia.

Panels are composed very similarly to movie scenes. The artist has to be aware of the effect that the distribution of focus causes. They need to know when to move the focus between characters and backgrounds, but also how much space should be given to speech bubbles, without having the shape overwhelm the other elements. Additionally, the artist needs to be able to smoothly compose all the panels within the page, so that they do not disturb the reading order or flow. When working with a writer this can be especially hard, as the artist must be able to convey someone else’s story and emotions onto the page.

Moebius, Arzach, retrieved 01.04.2020 (http://www.tcj.com/jean-moebius-giraud-1938- 2012/9782908766585-p-10g1/) An artist must also be able to decide how to plan the entire layout. They have limited space to work with, so deciding how to split the page is not always an easy task. Most ‘funnies’

31 and classical American comics have a layout that fits each scene into the same shape. It was a very convenient solution, both easy to understand and compose.

Bill Watterson, Calvin and Hobbes, retrieved 01.04.2020 (https://sites.tufts.edu/phil4chil/2018/06/05/teaching-philosophy-with-calvin-and-hobbes/) There is also a very subtle type of panel layout, which consists of seemingly no panels at all. We can see that the scenes are somewhat divided, but there are no visible lines that insinuate where the scene begins or ends. The lack of panels sometimes causes the line between comic and illustration to blur, especially if there is no text present.

Anna Sommer, Damskie Dramaty, 2005 (https://www.kultura.com.pl/komiks/197/damskie-dramaty.html)

Panels also serve a very important purpose of dictating how time flows. The space where the action takes place is shown through visuals, but the transition between panels is what shows us how long a moment lasts. The moment between the panels, or in the “gutter”, is called closure and is decided by our understanding of what goes on between the scenes.30 According to McCloud, there are six types of transitions between panels in comics that vary depending on the amount of closure they need.31 These consist of:

1. Moment-to-moment: require little or no closure and usually bring minimal change to the same scene, 2. Action-to-action: feature a single subject that follows an action that has a cause and an effect, 3. Subject-to-subject: change focus between two or more subjects within a similar time and space, 4. Scene-to-scene: switch focus between two or more scenes, which are far apart in terms of time, space, or both, 5. Aspect-to-aspect: switch focus between two or more aspects of a scene, and are used to establish an atmosphere, 6. Non-sequitur: transitions that do not offer any indication of the relation between panels, and therefore require a lot of closure.

30 Scott McCloud, op.cit., p. 63. 31 Ibid, p. 70-74.

Scott McCloud, Understanding Comics, 74.

With the exception of non-sequitur, most comics are a mixture of all the panel transitions. Depending on the genre and culture, some comics have more of a specific type of transition than others. For example, American comics have been observed to utilise scene-to-scene transitions much more often than comics in Japan, which frequently add moment-to- moment and aspect-to-aspect to the mix.32 This is said to stem from the fact that Americans

32 Ibid, p. 74-80.

are fast-paced, action-driven and goal-oriented, whereas the Japanese are more prone to take things slow while perfecting a craft. 33

Subtle alterations to the panel layout can also cause a shift in perspective. At first glance there is seemingly not much one can change about panels, aside from perhaps changing their colour from white to black. After all, most scenes require little more than to be held within a straight rectangle. However, if we were to tilt the said rectangle, the scene would suddenly become more dynamic. A lot of readers do not notice these kinds of interventions, and a lot of comics do not even bring them into play, as they require a lot of finesse, and if done improperly can damage the entire reading flow of a comic.

Panels are a vital part of a comic that balances the importance of scenes through the maintaining focus, the flow of time, and perspective. Even when invisible, panels are always present as a division between different scenes. Though at first glance panels may seem like a primitive tool of visual storytelling, at times they can be surprisingly difficult to operate, especially when composing several of them on one page.

Part IV – Text

The text within a comic usually comes in the form of dialogue or onomatopoeia. It is the least important element of the comic world, as a comic still works as sequential art without words, but not without illustrations. Without images, a text would become a jumbled mess of sentences placed at seemingly random spots on a page. Nonetheless, it is important to mention.

The first variant in the use of text within a comic is called a ‘speech bubbles’, despite the fact that it is not always a bubble. The most common form is indeed a smooth bubble, meant to indicate that the character speaking does so in a nonchalant manner.

33 Ibid, p. 74-80.

There is also a less common form meant to indicate whispers, which is shown as a bubble drawn with intermittent lines, as well as one that indicates when a character is shouting, which is shown as a bursting bubble.

The last common form of a speech bubble is a rectangle usually put in one of the corners of the panel. This speech “bubble” is used to describe the ongoing situation or surroundings, mention skips between time or space, or as informational boxes for any other trivial information.

Different types of speech bubbles, retrieved 01.04.2020 (https://www.pinterest.ch/pin/574842339919226237/)

Another important thing to note when analysing speech bubbles are typefaces. Though perhaps the first thing that comes to mind would be the infamous Comic Sans, most artists actually stray away from the idea of friendly asymmetry and prefer to use straighter fonts, such as Laffayette Comic Pro for regular text, or the thick Badaboom for titles, as a way to provide a little more impact to the typeset. The fonts can also vary depending on a situation or character, such as using a very rectangular font when a robot character is speaking.

As we can see, speech bubbles are quite invasive elements. They have to be visible and easy to read, so most artists choose to present them with black text on a white background. Although they are a very nifty tool, artists have to be careful not to have the speech bubbles overwhelm the rest of the comic elements.

Jim Davis, Garfield, strip from 31.03.1998 (https://garfield.com/comic/1998/03/31)

Onomatopoeia, on the other hand, is not as invasive; in fact, it is part of the composition of an illustration, with the letters usually being set as a background prop to the other subjects. They do not hold much contextual value, so they fall onto the backseat and serve more as decoration helping the reader imagine a sound, much like adjectives in literature help us imagine a setting.

The use of text in comics is not always necessary but can be very helpful in conveying information that is difficult to tell through visuals alone. Sometimes text can even help us add a little flavour to the story by aiding our imagination in creating noises in our heads that would accompany the landscapes and characters we see. In short, the text serves the important purpose of bringing us the sensation of sound where there is none.

Conclusion

Over the years, we have seen many forms of sequential art, and comics have become part of the oeuvre that make up the spectrum of different forms of visual narration.

Although some may say that comic did not give us any cultural input, history proves what a great effect they have had on humanity since its early days. Comics made us laugh, gave us courage, and shone a different light on ideas. They gave us classics such as Superman, Asterix or Garfield, which have been adapted as animations and movies, and reached an even wider audience. They gave us artists like Mœbius or Osamu Tezuka, which perfected the craft and stood as an example of greatness for future generations of comic creators. Most importantly, comics had to stand against mass opposition but managed to prevail. This proves that they will never be just a fad.

Comics prove on their own that there is much more to them than the untrained eye could see. It is an art of intuition, which has come as far as it has only thanks to trial and error. The genre consists of many elements that can be altered in any way imaginable, as long as it works and is legible. It is a complicated technique of visual storytelling, but this intricacy is what makes it beautiful. One can easily see how much thought was put into the panel composition and style of the comic just by scrutinising the structure of images before them.

Five years ago, Harvard University Press published, for the first time in history, a Ph.D. written and drawn entirely as a comic. Written by Nick Sousanis, Unflattening is a comic about challenging how we understand books and uses visual metaphors to prove its ideas.34 It is also a great example of innovative thinking within comics and proves that they can be helpful when explaining difficult topics, as they consist of both text and visuals.

In addition, after the boom of webcomics and technology, it is only a matter of time before we have a boom of other innovative ways to present or utilise comics. Interactive comics are now fairly easy to create, as they do not require as much knowledge of coding as they

34 Peter Wilkins, Damon Herd, “Unpacking Unflattening: A Conversation”, The Comics Grid, published 14.08.2015 (https://www.comicsgrid.com/articles/10.5334/cg.bi/)

would have 30 years ago. Games such as Framed take advantage of visual storytelling in comics and use it to give the user a sense of freedom of choice, all while following a story that will optimally lead to a satisfactory ending. All in all, I would say we are heading in an interesting direction.

I would like to somehow give a hopeful thought that would convince everyone who has always considered comics to be childish or primitive to give them another chance, but I realize that may be rather inefficient. After all, people have their own tastes; some prefer reading books, others would rather watch a movie. I think it is distinctiveness that brought us so many different forms of art, and comics are just part of the spectrum of creative expression. All in all, I would like to challenge the common conviction and ask everyone to ponder for a bit if comics are really that different from other forms of storytelling. Perhaps they will find at least a little bit of appreciation for this creative activity and the people behind it.

Bibliography

Bryant Wilder, Jesse. “The Rococo Influence in British Art”. Dummies. https://www.dummies.com/education/art-appreciation/the-rococo-influence-in-british-art/

Kirtley, Susan. ““A Word to You Feminist Women”: The Parallel Legacies of Feminism and Underground Comics”. Cambridge Core. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-history-of-the-graphic- novel/word-to-you-feminist-women-the-parallel-legacies-of-feminism-and-underground- comics/A89F976609EDF36DAED1CBDE9EFDFE76/core-reader

Literary Devices. https://literarydevices.net/

McCloud, Scott. Understanding Comics. New York, HarperPerennial, 1993.

Moseley, Doobie. “Pearl Harbor Changed Everything, Even the Disney Studio”. Laughing Place. https://www.laughingplace.com/w/featured/2015/12/07/pearl-harbor-changed-everything-even- disney-studio/

South Park. “The Ring”. Season 13, episode 1. Written and directed by Trey Parker and Matt Stone. Comedy Central, March 11, 2009.

St. Fleur, Nicholas. “Oldest Known Drawing by Human Hands Discovered in South African Cave”. The New York Times, 2018. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/12/science/oldest-drawing-ever- found.html

Toeplitz, Krzysztof Teodor. Sztuka Komiksu. Warsaw: Czytelnik Warszawa, 1985.

Traczyk, Michał. Komiks na świecie i w Polsce. Bielsko-Biała, Wydawnictwo Dragon, 2016.

Wilkins, Peter and Damon Herd. “Unpacking Unflattening: A Conversation”. The Comics Grid https://www.comicsgrid.com/articles/10.5334/cg.bi/