DOCSLIB.ORG

Nº De Arquivo

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Nº De Arquivo Maria João Narciso Furtado de Melo Pereira Licenciada em Conservação e Restauro CHINESE COINS IN COPPER BASED ALLOYS: ELEMENTAL AND MICROSTRUCTURAL CHARACTERIZATION Dissertação para obtenção do Grau de Doutor em Conservação e Restauro, especialidade Ciências da Conservação Orientador: Maria de Fátima Araújo, Investigadora Principal, IST/ITN, Instituto Superior Técnico Universidade Técnica de Lisboa Co-orientador: Rui Jorge Cordeiro Silva, Professor Auxiliar, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa Júri: Presidente: Prof. Doutor Fernando Jorge da Silva Pina Arguentes: Prof. Doutor Luís Filipe Malheiros de Freitas Ferreira Prof. Doutor António José Estevão Grande Candeias Vogais: Profª Doutora Márcia Vilarigues Prof. Doutor António Manuel Monge Soares Março 2013 Chinese Coins In Copper Based Alloys: Elemental And Microstructural Characterization Copyright: Maria João Narciso Furtado, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa A Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia e a Universidade Nova de Lisboa têm o direito, perpétuo e sem limites geográficos, de arquivar e publicar esta dissertação através de exemplares impressos reproduzidos em papel ou de forma digital, ou por qualquer outro meio conhecido ou que venha a ser inventado, e de a divulgar através de repositórios científicos e de admitir a sua cópia e distribuição com objectivos educacionais ou de investigação, não comerciais, desde que seja dado crédito ao autor e editor. Lisboa, Setembro de 2012 ii Dedication & Acknowledgements To my family, especially my parents, who have always motivated me to work hard and pursue an education; and to my husband that also always supported and encouraged me. To my daughter, so she can one day read about the work that accompanied her mother during her first childhood and understand what was shown and discussed in the many conferences that she attended since such a young age. I would like to especially thank my supervisors, Maria de Fátima Araújo (IST/ITN, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade Técnica de Lisboa) and Rui Silva (Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa: FCT-UNL), for believing in me, for giving me the opportunity to develop this work and for the valuable and intense brainstorming sessions. My gratitude also goes to the Museum of the Macao Scientific and Cultural Centre, represented by its Director, Luis Filipe Sousa Barreto, that not only allowed the study of the numismatic collection held by the Centre, but also encouraged and promoted the developed work, among other things, through partial funding to attend the BUMA VII Conference in 2009; and by inviting me to perform a public lecture on the subject at the CCCM in 2011. I also would like to thank several individuals that positively contributed to the completion of the work this dissertation contains: My colleagues, Pedro Valério and Elin Figueiredo, for the initial training they patiently gave me, for the interesting work discussions and for their moral support. For their support towards the end of the work, I could not forget to mention the colleagues Filipa Pereira and Filipa Lopes. And also to the rest of my IST-ITN colleagues, that shared this academic and also personal walk with me: my marriage, pregnancy and raising of my daughter. My colleagues at the Structural Materials Group of CENIMAT/I3N (FCT-UNL), in the person of Francisco Manuel Braz Fernandes, for the dedication in preparing practical work, in paper reviewing and in results discussions. To the rest of the colleagues at CENIMAT/I3N, I am grateful for having felt welcome in spite we come from different areas of interest. My colleagues at the Conservation and Restoration Department (FCT-UNL), especially to Márcia Vilarigues and Ana Maria Martins, for the technical and logistic support given. To António Candeias, Isabel Ribeiro and Mª José Oliveira from IMC laboratories, for the use of their equipment and technical support given throughout this research. To Luís Filipe F. R. Thomaz (Instituto de Estudo Orientais, Universidade Católica Portuguesa) and to Augusto Mouta (private collector), for the interesting discussions and ideas relatively to the History of the Chinese numismatics. I also am in debt to the following persons for their support: Helen Wang (British Museum, U.K.), Quanyu Wang (British Museum, U.K.), Han Rubin (Institute of Historical Metallurgy & Materials – UST, China), Elisabetta Colla (CCCM, Portugal), R.M.Pillai (NIIST, India), Weirong Zhou (Beijing Numismatic Museum, China), Michael Wayman (Univ. Alberta, Canada) and João André Carriço. Finally, I am thankful for the following financial supports: - PhD grant (ref. SFRH/BD/29736/2006) awarded by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT-MCTES) during the period of 2007-2011; - International Conference Attending grant awarded by Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian to attend the conference Eurocorr in 2010; - CENIMAT/I3N funding by FCT-MCTES to attend the conference TOFA in 2010. iii iv Sumário A colecção de moedas chinesas vazadas pertencentes ao Museu do CCCM em Lisboa (Portugal) foi disponibilizada para estudos analíticos e metalográficos. Tal investigação no Ocidente não é frequente neste tipo de artefacto, conquanto o número considerável de objectos semelhantes que integram museus e colecções privadas, na Europa e América do Norte. Primeiramente foi feita uma caracterização elementar por espectrometria FRXDE em 380 moedas em liga de cobre, que revelou diferentes tipos de ligas (cobres, bronzes e latões) com teores variáveis de elementos de liga e elementos vestigiais. Nas moedas de bronze, um dos principais constituintes foi o chumbo, que por vezes apresentava um teor consideravelmente variável entre os dois lados da mesma moeda. As moedas de latão apresentavam consideráveis teores de zinco (<63 %p), e frequentemente foi detectada a presença de chumbo, estanho, antimónio, ferro e arsénio. A observação microestrutural do interior das 109 moedas através de técnicas metalográficas permitiu confirmar a coerência da tecnologia de produção (vazamento em moldes de areia), e estabelecer um paralelo entre os teores elementares (obtidos por micro-FRX) e as fases metálicas (observadas por MO e MEV, e analisadas por EDS-MEV e micro-DRX), recorrendo ao estudo de diagramas de fases em condições de equilíbrio. A comparação entre a susceptibilidade à corrosão de fases metálicas nas moedas de bronze mostrou uma corrosão transglobular preferencial de glóbulos ricos em chumbo; e também que os produtos resultantes da corrosão do chumbo e/ou do estanho são frequentemente depositados na superfície destas moedas. Quanto às moedas em latão, verificou-se que o processo de corrosão mais comum era a deszincificação, e também que a presença de alguns elementos menores influenciava em grande medida a susceptibilidade à corrosão, prejudicando (p.e., o Fe) ou melhorando (p.e. o Sn, o Sb e o As) a resistência à corrosão das fases em que estes elementos mais se concentram. Os resultados obtidos são uma mais valia para a caracterização de ligas semelhantes, nomeadamente através da correlação entre os seus teores elementares e os micro-constituintes observados. O conhecimento das susceptibilidades à corrosão nas fases metálicas do bronze e do latão pode contribuir para um melhorado diagnóstico macroscópico de peças semelhantes ao nível da conservação dos objectos. Por último, todos os resultados obtidos durante este estudo suportam a autenticidade das peças. Termos-chave Arqueometalurgia, moedas, China, ligas de cobre, microestruturas multifásicas v vi Abstract The Chinese cast coin collection from the CCCM’s Museum in Lisbon (Portugal) was accessible for analytical and metallographic characterization. In spite of the considerable number of similar items that populate museums and private collectors in Europe and North America, studies carried out in the western world are very scarce. Firstly, elemental characterization by EDXRF spectrometry was performed on 380 copper-based coins, revealing different types of alloys (coppers, bronzes and brasses) with variable alloy elemental composition. In bronze coins one of the main constituents was lead, which sometimes presented considerable content variations between the obverse and reverse of the same coin. Brass coins were found to be rich in zinc (<63 wt.%), but often presented traces or small contents of lead, tin, antimony, iron and arsenic. Metallographic techniques used in the study of 109 coins microstructures could confirm the production process consistency (sand casting), and establish a parallel between the elemental contents (obtained by micro-EDXRF) and the present metallic phases (observed by OM and SEM, and analyzed by SEM- EDS and micro-XRD), resorting to equilibrium phase diagrams. A comparison between the corrosion susceptibility of metallic phases in bronze coins showed preferential transglobular corrosion of lead-rich globules, and also that lead and/or tin corrosion by- products are often deposited at the surface of these coins. When considering brass coins, the most common corrosion process was dezincification. Also, the presence of some minor elements was found to greatly influence the corrosion susceptibility, demoting (e.g., Fe) or promoting (e.g., Sn, Sb and As) the corrosion resistance of the phases in which these elements are in higher concentration. The obtained results are an added value to the characterization of similar alloys, namely through the co-relation between their elemental contents and the current micro-constituents.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • European and Chinese Coinage Before the Age of Steam*
    《中國文化研究所學報》 Journal of Chinese Studies No. 55 - July 2012 The Great Money Divergence: European and Chinese Coinage before the Age of Steam* Niv Horesh University of Western Sydney 1. Introduction Economic historians have of late been preoccupied with mapping out and dating the “Great Divergence” between north-western Europe and China. However, relatively few studies have examined the path dependencies of either region insofar as the dynamics monetiza- tion, the spread of fiduciary currency or their implications for financial factor prices and domestic-market integration before the discovery of the New World. This article is de- signed to highlight the need for such a comprehensive scholarly undertaking by tracing the varying modes of coin production and circulation across Eurasia before steam-engines came on stream, and by examining what the implications of this currency divergence might be for our understanding of the early modern English and Chinese economies. “California School” historians often challenge the entrenched notion that European technological or economic superiority over China had become evident long before the * Emeritus Professor Mark Elvin in Oxfordshire, Professor Hans Ulrich Vogel at the University of Tübingen, Professor Michael Schiltz and Professor Akinobu Kuroda 黑田明伸 at Tokyo University have all graciously facilitated the research agenda in comparative monetary his- tory, which informs this study. The author also wishes to thank the five anonymous referees. Ms Dipin Ouyang 歐陽迪頻 and Ms Mayumi Shinozaki 篠崎まゆみ of the National Library of Australia, Ms Bick-har Yeung 楊 碧 霞 of the University of Melbourne, and Mr Darrell Dorrington of the Australian National University have all extended invaluable assistance in obtaining the materials which made my foray into this field of enquiry smoother.
    [Show full text]
  • Hwang, Yin (2014) Victory Pictures in a Time of Defeat: Depicting War in the Print and Visual Culture of Late Qing China 1884 ‐ 1901
    Hwang, Yin (2014) Victory pictures in a time of defeat: depicting war in the print and visual culture of late Qing China 1884 ‐ 1901. PhD Thesis. SOAS, University of London http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/18449 Copyright © and Moral Rights for this thesis are retained by the author and/or other copyright owners. A copy can be downloaded for personal non‐commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the copyright holder/s. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. When referring to this thesis, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given e.g. AUTHOR (year of submission) "Full thesis title", name of the School or Department, PhD Thesis, pagination. VICTORY PICTURES IN A TIME OF DEFEAT Depicting War in the Print and Visual Culture of Late Qing China 1884-1901 Yin Hwang Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the History of Art 2014 Department of the History of Art and Archaeology School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 2 Declaration for PhD thesis I have read and understood regulation 17.9 of the Regulations for students of the School of Oriental and African Studies concerning plagiarism. I undertake that all the material presented for examination is my own work and has not been written for me, in whole or in part, by any other person.
    [Show full text]
  • Conceptualizing the Blue Frontier: the Great Qing and the Maritime World
    Conceptualizing the Blue Frontier: The Great Qing and the Maritime World in the Long Eighteenth Century Inauguraldissertation zur Erlangung der Doktorwürde der Philosophischen Fakultüt der Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg Vorgelegt von Chung-yam PO Erstgutachter: Prof. Dr. Harald Fuess Zweitgutachter: Prof. Dr. Joachim Kurtz Datum: 28 June 2013 Table of Contents Abstract 2 Acknowledgments 3 Emperors of the Qing Dynasty 5 Map of China Coast 6 Introduction 7 Chapter 1 Setting the Scene 43 Chapter 2 Modeling the Sea Space 62 Chapter 3 The Dragon Navy 109 Chapter 4 Maritime Customs Office 160 Chapter 5 Writing the Waves 210 Conclusion 247 Glossary 255 Bibliography 257 1 Abstract Most previous scholarship has asserted that the Qing Empire neglected the sea and underestimated the worldwide rise of Western powers in the long eighteenth century. By the time the British crushed the Chinese navy in the so-called Opium Wars, the country and its government were in a state of shock and incapable of quickly catching-up with Western Europe. In contrast with such a narrative, this dissertation shows that the Great Qing was in fact far more aware of global trends than has been commonly assumed. Against the backdrop of the long eighteenth century, the author explores the fundamental historical notions of the Chinese maritime world as a conceptual divide between an inner and an outer sea, whereby administrators, merchants, and intellectuals paid close and intense attention to coastal seawaters. Drawing on archival sources from China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, and the West, the author argues that the connection between the Great Qing and the maritime world was complex and sophisticated.
    [Show full text]
  • View / Download 7.3 Mb
    Between Shanghai and Mecca: Diaspora and Diplomacy of Chinese Muslims in the Twentieth Century by Janice Hyeju Jeong Department of History Duke University Date:_______________________ Approved: ___________________________ Engseng Ho, Advisor ___________________________ Prasenjit Duara, Advisor ___________________________ Nicole Barnes ___________________________ Adam Mestyan ___________________________ Cemil Aydin Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of History in the Graduate School of Duke University 2019 ABSTRACT Between Shanghai and Mecca: Diaspora and Diplomacy of Chinese Muslims in the Twentieth Century by Janice Hyeju Jeong Department of History Duke University Date:_______________________ Approved: ___________________________ Engseng Ho, Advisor ___________________________ Prasenjit Duara, Advisor ___________________________ Nicole Barnes ___________________________ Adam Mestyan ___________________________ Cemil Aydin An abstract of a dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, in the Department of History in the Graduate School of Duke University 2019 Copyright by Janice Hyeju Jeong 2019 Abstract While China’s recent Belt and the Road Initiative and its expansion across Eurasia is garnering public and scholarly attention, this dissertation recasts the space of Eurasia as one connected through historic Islamic networks between Mecca and China. Specifically, I show that eruptions of
    [Show full text]
  • The Jesuit Role As “Experts” in High Qing Cartography and Technology∗
    臺大歷史學報第31期 BIBLID1012-8514(2003)31p.223-250 2003年6月，頁223~250 2003.1.7收稿，2003.5.29通過刊登 The Jesuit Role as “Experts” in High Qing Cartography and Technology∗ Benjamin A. Elman∗∗ Abstract Earlier accounts have generally overvalued or undervalued the role of the Jesu- its in Ming-Qing intellectual life. In many cases the Jesuits were less relevant in the ongoing changes occurring in literati learning. In the medical field, for example, before the nineteenth century few Qing physicians (ruyi 儒醫) took early modern European “Galenic” medicine seriously as a threat to native remedies. On the other hand, the Kangxi revival of interest in mathematics was closely tied to the introduc- tion of Jesuit algebra (jiegen fang 借根方), trigonometry (sanjiao xue 三角學), and logarithyms (duishu 對數). In the midst of the relatively “closed door” policies of the Yongzheng emperor and his successors, a large-scale effort to recover and col- late the treasures of ancient Chinese mathematics were prioritized in the late eight- eenth and early nineteenth century. Despite setbacks during the early eighteenth century Rites Controversy, the Jesuits in China remained important “experts” (專家) in the Astro-Calendric Bureau (欽天監) and supervisors in the Qing dynasty’s imperial workshops. Earlier Adam Schall (1592-1666) and Ferdinand Verbiest (1623-1688) had not only championed the role of mathematics in Christianizing literati elites, but they also produced in- struments and weapons at the behest of both the Ming and Qing dynasties. The tech- nical expertise of the Jesuits in the China mission during the eighteenth century also ranged from translating Western texts and maps, introducing surveying methods to producing cannon, pulley systems, sundials, telescopes, water-pumps, musical in- struments, clocks, and other mechanical devices.
    [Show full text]
  • Dressing for the Times: Fashion in Tang Dynasty China (618-907)
    Dressing for the Times: Fashion in Tang Dynasty China (618-907) BuYun Chen Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 2013 © 2013 BuYun Chen All rights reserved ABSTRACT Dressing for the Times: Fashion in Tang Dynasty China (618-907) BuYun Chen During the Tang dynasty, an increased capacity for change created a new value system predicated on the accumulation of wealth and the obsolescence of things that is best understood as fashion. Increased wealth among Tang elites was paralleled by a greater investment in clothes, which imbued clothes with new meaning. Intellectuals, who viewed heightened commercial activity and social mobility as symptomatic of an unstable society, found such profound changes in the vestimentary landscape unsettling. For them, a range of troubling developments, including crisis in the central government, deep suspicion of the newly empowered military and professional class, and anxiety about waste and obsolescence were all subsumed under the trope of fashionable dressing. The clamor of these intellectuals about the widespread desire to be “current” reveals the significant space fashion inhabited in the empire – a space that was repeatedly gendered female. This dissertation considers fashion as a system of social practices that is governed by material relations – a system that is also embroiled in the politics of the gendered self and the body. I demonstrate that this notion of fashion is the best way to understand the process through which competition for status and self-identification among elites gradually broke away from the imperial court and its system of official ranks.
    [Show full text]
  • Introduction
    Notes Introduction 1. Hobsbawm 1990, 66. 2. Diamond 1998, 322–33. 3. Fairbank 1992, 44–45. 4. Fei Xiaotong 1989, 1–2. 5. Diamond 1998, 323, original emphasis. 6. Crossley 1999; Di Cosmo 1998; Purdue 2005a; Lavely and Wong 1998, 717. 7. Richards 2003, 112–47; Lattimore 1937; Pan Chia-lin and Taeuber 1952. 8. My usage of the term “geo-body” follows Thongchai 1994. 9. B. Anderson 1991, 86. 10. Purdue 2001, 304. 11. Dreyer 2006, 279–80; Fei Xiaotong 1981, 23–25. 12. Jiang Ping 1994, 16. 13. Morris-Suzuki 1998, 4; Duara 2003; Handler 1988, 6–9. 14. Duara 1995; Duara 2003. 15. Turner 1962, 3. 16. Adelman and Aron 1999, 816. 17. M. Anderson 1996, 4, Anderson’s italics. 18. Fitzgerald 1996a: 136. 19. Ibid., 107. 20. Tsu Jing 2005. 21. R. Wong 2006, 95. 22. Chatterjee (1986) was the first to theorize colonial nationalism as a “derivative discourse” of Western Orientalism. 23. Gladney 1994, 92–95; Harrell 1995a; Schein 2000. 24. Fei Xiaotong 1989, 1. 25. Cohen 1991, 114–25; Schwarcz 1986; Tu Wei-ming 1994. 26. Harrison 2000, 240–43, 83–85; Harrison 2001. 27. Harrison 2000, 83–85; Cohen 1991, 126. 186 • Notes 28. Duara 2003, 9–40. 29. See, for example, Lattimore 1940 and 1962; Forbes 1986; Goldstein 1989; Benson 1990; Lipman 1998; Millward 1998; Purdue 2005a; Mitter 2000; Atwood 2002; Tighe 2005; Reardon-Anderson 2005; Giersch 2006; Crossley, Siu, and Sutton 2006; Gladney 1991, 1994, and 1996; Harrell 1995a and 2001; Brown 1996 and 2004; Cheung Siu-woo 1995 and 2003; Schein 2000; Kulp 2000; Bulag 2002 and 2006; Rossabi 2004.
    [Show full text]
  • Revisiting the Relationship Between Indigenous Agency and Museum Inventories
    Revisiting the Relationship between Indigenous Agency and Museum Inventories: An Object-Centered Study of the Formation of Lübeck's Jacobsen Collection (1884/1885) from the Northwest Coast of America By Angela Hess Cover: Objects from Lübeck’s Jacobsen collection. Photo: Angela Hess, July 2019 Revisiting the Relationship between Indigenous Agency and Museum Inventories: An Object-Centered Study of the Formation of Lübeck's Jacobsen Collection (1884/1885) from the Northwest Coast of America Author: Angela Hess Student number: s2080087 MA Thesis Archaeology (4ARX-0910ARCH) Supervisor: Dr. M. De Campos Françozo Specialization: Heritage and Museum Studies University of Leiden, Faculty of Archaeology Leiden, June 5, 2020, final version 1 2 Table of Contents Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................. 5 Chapter One: Introduction .................................................................................................. 6 Defining the Research Scope: Aims and Objectives, Hypotheses, Limitations ............. 10 Methodology and Theoretical Frameworks .................................................................. 12 Working Definitions ...................................................................................................... 14 Outline of Chapters ....................................................................................................... 17 Chapter Two: Contexts and Concepts for the Study of the 1884/85 Jacobsen Collection19 2.1
    [Show full text]
  • Ming China As a Gunpowder Empire: Military Technology, Politics, and Fiscal Administration, 1350-1620 Weicong Duan Washington University in St
    Washington University in St. Louis Washington University Open Scholarship Arts & Sciences Electronic Theses and Dissertations Arts & Sciences Winter 12-15-2018 Ming China As A Gunpowder Empire: Military Technology, Politics, And Fiscal Administration, 1350-1620 Weicong Duan Washington University in St. Louis Follow this and additional works at: https://openscholarship.wustl.edu/art_sci_etds Part of the Asian History Commons, and the Asian Studies Commons Recommended Citation Duan, Weicong, "Ming China As A Gunpowder Empire: Military Technology, Politics, And Fiscal Administration, 1350-1620" (2018). Arts & Sciences Electronic Theses and Dissertations. 1719. https://openscholarship.wustl.edu/art_sci_etds/1719 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Arts & Sciences at Washington University Open Scholarship. It has been accepted for inclusion in Arts & Sciences Electronic Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Washington University Open Scholarship. For more information, please contact [email protected]. WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY IN ST. LOUIS DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY Dissertation Examination Committee: Steven B. Miles, Chair Christine Johnson Peter Kastor Zhao Ma Hayrettin Yücesoy Ming China as a Gunpowder Empire: Military Technology, Politics, and Fiscal Administration, 1350-1620 by Weicong Duan A dissertation presented to The Graduate School of of Washington University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy December 2018 St. Louis, Missouri © 2018,
    [Show full text]
  • Münzen Aus Dem Reich Der Mitte – Von Der Kaurischnecke Zum Käsch
    Münzen aus dem Reich der Mitte – von der Kaurischnecke zum Käsch Um 1500 v. Chr. benutzte man in China Schneckengehäuse als Münzen; später wurden die Schnecken aus Knochen oder Kupfer nachgeahmt. Daneben zirkulierte Gerätegeld, zum Beispiel in Form von Messer- oder Spatenmünzen, aber auch runde Münzen waren in Gebrauch. 211 v. Chr. begann der erste chinesische Kaiser mit der Ausgabe von einheitlichen Reichsmünzen, aus denen sich schliesslich die Käschmünze entwickelte: eine runde Kupfermünze mit viereckigem Loch, die bis zum Ende der chinesischen Kaiserzeit im Jahr 1911 ausgegeben wurde. 1 von 21 www.sunflower.ch China, Shang-Dynastie, durchbohrte Cypraea moneta (Kauri) Denomination: Cypraea Moneta (Kauri) Prägeautorität: Prägeort: Prägejahr: -1500 Gewicht in Gramm: 0.9 Durchmesser in mm: 21.0 Material: Andere Eigentümer: Sunflower Foundation Kaurischnecken waren die langlebigste Währung aller Zeiten. In China wurden sie schon vor über 3000 Jahren als Geld benutzt und liefen, zusammen mit anderen Zahlungsmitteln, bis 1578 um. Die chinesische Schrift, die im 2. Jahrtausend v. Chr. entwickelt wurde, verwendet das Zeichen für Kauri noch heute in Wörtern wie Münze, Geld, Kaufen, Wert und ähnlichen. Das Zeichen ist auch Bestandteil der Inschrift auf vielen chinesischen Käschmünzen. Der venezianische Händler Marco Polo, der im späten 13. Jahrhundert während mehrerer Jahre in China lebte, überlieferte in seinen Reisebeschreibungen (Il Milione) einige Preise. Demnach bezahlte man damals in China für ein Huhn 5 Kauri, für vier Kilogramm Getreide 8 Kauri und für eine Kuh 320 Kauri. 2 von 21 www.sunflower.ch China, Zhou-Dynastie, Kauriimitation aus Knochen, ca. 700 v. Chr. Denomination: Kauriimitation Prägeautorität: Zhou-Dynastie Prägeort: Unbestimmt Prägejahr: -700 Gewicht in Gramm: 2.84 Durchmesser in mm: 28.0 Material: Andere Eigentümer: Sunflower Foundation Um dem Handel und dem täglichen Gebrauch zu genügen, brauchte man eine grosse Menge Kauris.
    [Show full text]
  • Copyrighted Material
    INDEX Aodayixike Qingzhensi Baisha, 683–684 Abacus Museum (Linhai), (Ordaisnki Mosque; Baishui Tai (White Water 507 Kashgar), 334 Terraces), 692–693 Abakh Hoja Mosque (Xiang- Aolinpike Gongyuan (Olym- Baita (Chowan), 775 fei Mu; Kashgar), 333 pic Park; Beijing), 133–134 Bai Ta (White Dagoba) Abercrombie & Kent, 70 Apricot Altar (Xing Tan; Beijing, 134 Academic Travel Abroad, 67 Qufu), 380 Yangzhou, 414 Access America, 51 Aqua Spirit (Hong Kong), 601 Baiyang Gou (White Poplar Accommodations, 75–77 Arch Angel Antiques (Hong Gully), 325 best, 10–11 Kong), 596 Baiyun Guan (White Cloud Acrobatics Architecture, 27–29 Temple; Beijing), 132 Beijing, 144–145 Area and country codes, 806 Bama, 10, 632–638 Guilin, 622 The arts, 25–27 Bama Chang Shou Bo Wu Shanghai, 478 ATMs (automated teller Guan (Longevity Museum), Adventure and Wellness machines), 60, 74 634 Trips, 68 Bamboo Museum and Adventure Center, 70 Gardens (Anji), 491 AIDS, 63 ack Lakes, The (Shicha Hai; Bamboo Temple (Qiongzhu Air pollution, 31 B Beijing), 91 Si; Kunming), 658 Air travel, 51–54 accommodations, 106–108 Bangchui Dao (Dalian), 190 Aitiga’er Qingzhen Si (Idkah bars, 147 Banpo Bowuguan (Banpo Mosque; Kashgar), 333 restaurants, 117–120 Neolithic Village; Xi’an), Ali (Shiquan He), 331 walking tour, 137–140 279 Alien Travel Permit (ATP), 780 Ba Da Guan (Eight Passes; Baoding Shan (Dazu), 727, Altitude sickness, 63, 761 Qingdao), 389 728 Amchog (A’muquhu), 297 Bagua Ting (Pavilion of the Baofeng Hu (Baofeng Lake), American Express, emergency Eight Trigrams; Chengdu), 754 check
    [Show full text]
  • Violence and Predation, Mainly in the Form of Piracy, Were Two Of
    violence and predation robert j. antony Violence and Predation on the Sino-Vietnamese Maritime Frontier, 1450–1850 iolence and predation, mainly in the form of piracy, were two of V the most persistent and pervasive features of the Sino-Vietnamese maritime frontier between the mid-fifteenth and mid-nineteenth cen- turies.1 In the Gulf of Tonkin, which is the focus of this article, piracy was, in fact, an intrinsic feature of this sea frontier and a dynamic and significant force in the region’s economic, social, and cultural devel- opment. My approach, what scholars call history from the bottom up, places pirates, not the state, at center stage, recognizing their impor- tance and agency as historical actors. My research is based on various types of written history, including Qing archives, the Veritable Records of Vietnam and China, local Chinese gazetteers, and travel accounts; I also bring in my own fieldwork in the gulf region conducted over the past six years. The article is divided into three sections: first, I discuss the geopolitical characteristics of this maritime frontier as a background to our understanding of piracy in the region; second, I consider the socio-cultural aspects of the gulf region, especially the underclass who engaged in clandestine activities as a part of their daily lives; and third, I analyze five specific episodes of piracy in the Gulf of Tonkin. The Gulf of Tonkin (often referred to here simply as the gulf), which is tucked away in the northwestern corner of the South China Sea, borders on Vietnam in the west and China in the north and east.
    [Show full text]