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Home , Humani generis, Magisterium of Pius XII, Raimondo Spiazzi, Red Rabbit, Silvio Antoniano

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Study Guide for Pius XI’s Divini illius Magistri

Why did Pope Pius XI write this ?

What does he propose to teach in this encyclical?

What cautions toward modern education contributed to writing this encyclical?

Explain the connection between education and man’s last end.

What are the essential aspects of Christian education? Explain each.

Describe the three necessary societies.

To whom does education belong pre-eminently? Explain why and how this is so.

Discuss the rights of the family and the state regarding education.

To what are parents’ rights to educate subordinate?

Explain education vis a vis the Church’s mission to all mankind.

What are the state’s rights and responsibility toward education?

What principles that were outlined by Leo XIII in Immortale Dei and Sapientiae Christianae contribute to our understanding of the relationship between Church and state?

Explain the relationship and harmony between Faith and .

What is “false naturalism”?

Is sex instruction a moral possibility for schools and classrooms?

What is co-education? Is it a true option?

What are the obligations and responsibilities of families and parents?

What is the Christian educational environment?

Trace the historical origin of the school. To whom is it subsidiary and complementary?

What does distributive justice require for schools?

What makes a school, properly speaking, a school?

Describe the good teacher.

What challenges are posed by the world to education?

What is the true Christian?

What are the fruits of Christian education? Divini illius Magistri

Outline

I Preamble: [1]

Christ, the Divine Master; the Pope, his representative on earth; they love children and will treat of the Christian education of youth (1)

II Introduction: [2-10]

A The Problem in Brief (2-6)

B The Solution in Brief (7-10)

III Those Who Must Educate [11-57]

A Social Activity of Education; Three Necessary Societies: Family, State, Church (11-14)

B Pre-eminence of the Church, Her Titles: and Mother (15-17)

C Rights of the Church (18-24)

D The Church’s Mission in Education (25-27)

E The Harmony Between the Church, the Family and the State (28-29)

F The Family (30-40)

G The State (41-50)

H Church and State Relations: Doctrine of Christian Constitution of States (51-54)

I Faith and Reason (55-57)

IV Those Who Are to Be Educated [58-69]

A The Subject of Education: Man, Defects of Man Are Corrected (58-59)

B Pedagogy Opposed to this Subject and His State: Naturalism (60-69)

V Necessary Accompanying Circumstances in Education: Environment [70-92]

A The Environment of Education Must Correspond to the End of Education (70) B The Christian Family (71-74)

C The Church (75-76)

D The School (77-79)

E The (80)

F Mixed Faith Nations (81-83)

G (84-85)

H Catholic Program of Studies (86-87)

I Good Teachers (88)

J Necessary Vigilance Over Recreation, Social Intercourse, Books, Media and Ideas (89-92)

VI End and Object of Christian Education According to ’s Established Order In the Economy of His Divine Providence [93-99]

A The True Nature of Christian Education as Deduced from Its End, Pre-Eminent Mission of Church

B Cooperate with in Forming the True and Perfect Christian (94-96)

C By Our Fruits We Will Be Known/Judged by the World; Succeed Only if Follow All This (97)

D Coordinate Actions of This Life with the Supernatural (98)

E Proved in and Its Institution which = True Civilization and Progress Are greatest Benefactors of Society and Models for all Classes and Professions (99)

VII Conclusion [100-102]

A These Fruits of Christian Education Derive from Supernatural Virtue and Life in Christ which Is Formed and Developed in Man

B Christ is Source and Dispenser Thereof, He the Model of Labor and Obedience with Virtues Personal, Domestic and Social, Before God and Men (100)

C O Church, True Mother and Teacher (101)

D O Divine King, May the Fruits of Christian Education Be Gathered in Ever Greater Abundance (102) Divini illius Magistri

Detailed Outline

I Preamble: [1]

Christ, the Divine Master; the Pope, his representative on earth; they love children and will treat of the Christian education of youth (1)

II Introduction: [2-10]

A The Problem in Brief 1 The Magisterium will be insistent and consistent at all times (2) 2 The problems today that occasioned the encyclical (2) 3 Statement of what will be treated herein (3) 4 Man is directed to a higher perfection, but his new educational methods are misguided (5-6)

B The Solution in Brief 1 Christian Education Defined; the whole work of education is intimately and necessarily connected to man’s last end (7) 2 Education and the Common Good; Formation of the – and habits (8) 3 Educators receive Christ (9) 4 A Clear and Definite Idea of Christian Education (10)

III Those Who Must Educate [11-57]

A Social Activity of Education; Three Necessary Societies (11) 1 Family: Generation and Formation of Offspring; Priority of Nature; Rights Over Civil Society 2 Civil Society: Perfect Society, Possessing All Means for Its End, Community’s Well Being Pre-eminence Over the Family (12) 3 Church: Supernatural Order, Universal Extent, Perfect Society: All Means for (13) 4 Education Belongs Proportionately to All Three Societies (14)

B Pre-eminence of the Church, Her Titles (15) 1 Title One: Magisterium, Infallible Teacher (16) 2 Title Two: Mother, Supernatural Maternity –Generates, Nurtures, Educates (17)

C Rights of the Church 1 Shares in Divine Magisterium, Immunity from Error 2 Independent of Earthly Powers in End/Object and Means; Use and Judge Natural Tools (18) 3 Natural Must Remain Ordered to the Supernatural (19) 4 belongs “Wholly” to the Church: Omnem Veritatem (20) 5 Promotes Letters, , Art, Runs Schools and Institutions of Culture (21) 6 Families and States are Improved, Perfected and Saved, Yet Respected (22) 7 All Institutions, Learning and Regulations are Supervised by Church re: Faith and Morals (23) 8 Motherly Protection (24)

D The Church’s Mission in Education 1 Embrace Every Nation 2 Medieval Model Continuing Today: Houses of Paired with House of Study (25-27)

E The Harmony Between the Church, the Family and the State (28-29)

F The Family 1 From God the Principles Fecundity of Life, and Education to Life; of Authority and Order (30) 2 Father: Participate God’s Principles of Generation, Education, Discipline, Perfecting Life (31) 3 Inalienable Right to Educate Offspring, Anterior to Civil Society’s Rights (32) 4 Child is Naturally Something of the Father, and Has Dominion Until Perfection/Reason (33) 5 Canon Law (34) 6 Not True: Man is Born a Citizen and Belongs Primarily to the State 7 Duty of Parents to Safeguard Against Impiety of Such State Schools (35) 8 Family’s Obligation in Religious, Moral, Physical and Civic Education (36) 9 US Supreme Court, Oregon School case, 6/1/1925; State Uphold (37) 10 Church Defends the Family Against State Violations (38) 11 Church Respects Children of Infidels and Doesn’t Impose of Children (II-II X 12) (39) 12 Church and Family by natural and divine law cannot be slighted, evaded or supplanted (40)

G The State 1 Civil Society is Improved by the Rights of the Church and Family in Education (41) 2 Rights of State Accords to Its Purpose of Existence: Common Good’s Temporal Welfare (42-43) 3 State’s Duty to Legislate Protections of Families and Individuals (44-45) 4 Duty to Protect and Promote Prudently Moral and Religious Education (46) 5 State 1st Right to Educate Civic and Political Duties, 2nd Physical, Intellectual, Moral Ed. (47) 6 Distributive Justice Protects Against Educational Monopolies Forcing Government Schools (48) 7 Run Civic Schools for Furthering Public Affairs and Peace Re: Military Arts/Civic Duty (49-50)

H Church and State Relations 1 State’s Activity in Education Rests on Doctrine of Christian Constitution of States Leo XIII Immortale Dei and Sapietiae Christianae (51-52) 2 The More Spiritual a Nation, the More It Promotes the Commonwealth (53-54)

I Faith and Reason, 1 Not at Variance, but a Mutual Help (55-56) 2 Just Freedom in Science Translates to Just Freedom in Things Didactic Teacher Has No Absolute Right of His Own (57)

IV Those Who Are to Be Educated [58-69]

A The Subject of Education 1 Man: a Whole and Entire, Soul United to Body in Unity of Nature, All Natural and Supernatural Faculties b As Reason and Revelation Show c Fallen from Original Estate, Redeemed by Christ, Restored Supernatural Condition of Adopted Sonship d Without Preternatural Privileges of Bodily Immortality and Perfect Control of Appetite e Suffering Effects of , Chiefly Weakness of Will and Disorderly Inclinations (58) 2 Defects of Man Are Corrected by: a Rod of Correction Drive Away Disorderly Inclinations b Good Tendencies Encourages and Regulated (Virtue) c Mind Enlightened and Will Strengthened by Doctrine and Sacraments (59)

B Pedagogy Opposed to this Subject and His State: Naturalism 1 Weakens Supernatural Formation; Denies or Forgets Original Sin, Grace; Human Reliance (60) 2 Dishonest Claim to Get Pupil More Responsible for Own Education/Freed from Despotism (61) 3 Separation of Education from the Divine Law Upon which It Depends: a Decalogue, b Law c Natural Law (62) 4 An Emancipation Equaling Slavery to Blind Pride and Disorderly affections (63) 5 Natural and Profane Research, Experimentation and Conclusion of Things Supernatural (64) 6 Sex Education of That Most Delicate Matter of Morals a Foolhardy Initiation and Precautionary Instruction for All, Exposition to Occasions in Order to Harden b Ignoring Inborn Weakness, Flesh Fights the Mind (Rom 8:23), c Wrong: Ignorance of Intellect is the Cause of Evil. d Right: Weakness of Will Exposed to Dangerous Occasions, Unsupported by Grace e Father to Son, Mother to Daughter; yet even there Risk of Sin (65-67) 7 Co-education a Error: Naturalism/Denial Original Sin and Leveling Promiscuity/Equality of Association of Sexes b Creator Ordained Perfect Union of Sexes only in Matrimony, and Less So in Family and Society c Nature Fashions the Sexes Different in Organism, Temperament and Abilities d Differences are Complemented in Family and Society through the Development of the Differences e Prudence to Govern Age/Circumstance, Time/Place, Especially in Delicate/Decisive Period of Formation f Gymnastics for Females Guard Christian Modesty, Especially in Public Exhibition (68) g “Woe to the World Because of Scandals!” (69)

V Necessary Accompanying Circumstances in Education: Environment [70-92]

A The Environment of Education Must Correspond to the End of Education (70)

B The Christian Family 1 Well-ordered, Well-discipline Christian Family Giving Good Example (71-72) 2 Present-Day Lamentable Decline in Family Education, Economics Sending Children Away from Home Deformed and Depraved in Godless Schools to the Irreligion and Hatred of Socialism (73) 3 Priests Warn Parents of Grave Obligation in Religious, Moral and Civil Formation, and Means 4 Problem of Relaxed Parental Discipline and Implanting Holy Filial Fear of God (74)

C The Church 1 Grace and Means to Meet Weakness of Man’s Fallen Nature (75) 2 Environment: Sacraments, Ritual, Liturgy and Architecture Instructive (76)

D The School 1 Task of Training in Arts and for Civil Society is Beyond the Competency of the Family 2 School Owes Its Initiation to Family and Church, not State (77-78) 3 Neutral or “Lay” School Devoid of Religion is Contrary to the Principles of Education 4 Attending Such Schools is Forbidden, Except by Permission of Ordinary (79)

E The Catholic School 1 Neutral School with a glazing of Religion is not Permitted 2 Christian Spirit to Regulate Everything and Everyone at School; Religion Foundation and Crown (80)

F Mixed Faith Nations 1 Duty of State to Leave Free Scope to Initiative of Church and Family, Give Just Assistance 2 Distributive Justice Demands Support for Catholic Schools from State (81-83)

G Catholic Action 1 Laity taking Responsibility in the World to Promote the Proper Duty of the State 2 Not Party Politics, but Religious Enterprise Demanded by Conscience (84-85)

H Catholic Program of Studies 1 False Doctrine May Be Studied for the Purpose of Refuting It; Pagan Classics –Find (86-87)

I Good Teachers 1 Perfect Schools Depend on Good Teachers more than Good Methods (88)

J Necessary Vigilance Over Recreation, Social Intercourse, Books, Media and Ideas 1 Young Souls Soft as Wax Mold into Vice Easily (89) 2 Augustine’s Story of Alipius (Conf. VI, 8) (90) 3 Good: Associations Promoting and Creating Good Books, Magazines, Movies (91) 4 Vigilance Does not Mean Removing Children from Society, but Forewarned/Forearmed 5 : “Sharers in the Possession of the World, not of Its Errors” (92)

VI End and Object of Christian Education According to God’s Established Order In the Economy of His Divine Providence [93-99]

A The True Nature of Christian Education as Deduced from Its End, Pre-Eminent Mission of Church

B Cooperate with Divine Grace in Forming the True and Perfect Christian 1 Form Christ in Those Regenerated in Baptism (94) 2 Whole of Human Life: Physical, Spiritual, Intellectual, Moral, Individual, Domestic, Social In Order to Elevate, Regulate and Perfect According to Example and Teaching of Christ (95) 3 Hence the true Christian, product of Christian education, is the supernatural man who thinks, judges and acts constantly and consistently in accordance with right reason illumined by the supernatural light of the example and teaching of Christ; in other words, … the true and finished man of character. For, it is not every kind of consistency and firmness of conduct based on subjective principles that makes true character, but only constancy in following the eternal principles of justice, as is admitted even by the pagan poet when he praises as one and the same "the man who is just and firm of purpose." And on the other hand, there cannot be full justice except in giving to God what is due to God, as the true Christian does. (96) C By Our Fruits We Will Be Known/Judged by the World; Succeed Only if Follow All This (97) D Coordinate Actions of This Life with the Supernatural (98) E Proved in History of Christianity and Its Institution which = True Civilization and Progress Saints Are greatest Benefactors of Society and Models for all Classes and Professions (99)

VII Conclusion [100-102]

A These Fruits of Christian Education Derive from Supernatural Virtue and Life in Christ which Is Formed and Developed in Man

B Christ is Source and Dispenser Thereof, He the Model of Labor and Obedience with Virtues Personal, Domestic and Social, Before God and Men (100)

C O Church, True Mother and Teacher (101)

D O Divine King, May the Fruits of Christian Education Be Gathered in Ever Greater Abundance (102) DIVINI ILLIUS MAGISTRI ENCYCLICAL OF POPE PIUS XI ON CHRISTIAN EDUCATION TO THE PATRIARCHS, PRIMATES, , , AND OTHER ORDINARIES IN PEACE AND COMMUNION WITH THE APOSTOLIC SEE AND TO ALL THE FAITHFUL OF THE CATHOLIC WORLD.

December 31, 1931

Venerable Brethren and Beloved Children, Health and Apostolic Benediction.

Representative on earth of that divine Master who while embracing in the immensity of His love all mankind, even unworthy sinners, showed nevertheless a special tenderness and affection for children, and expressed Himself in those singularly touching words: "Suffer the little children to come unto Me,"[1] We also on every occasion have endeavored to show the predilection wholly paternal which We bear towards them, particularly by our assiduous care and timely instructions with reference to the Christian education of youth.

2. And so, in the spirit of the Divine Master, We have directed a helpful word, now of admonition, now of exhortation, now of direction, to youths and to their educators, to fathers and mothers, on various points of Christian education, with that solicitude which becomes the common Father of all the Faithful, with an insistence in season and out of season, demanded by our pastoral office and inculcated by the Apostle: "Be instant in season, out of season; reprove, entreat, rebuke in all patience and doctrine."[2] Such insistence is called for in these our times, when, alas, there is so great and deplorable an absence of clear and sound principles, even regarding problems the most fundamental.

3. Now this same general condition of the times, this ceaseless agitation in various ways of the problem of educational rights and systems in different countries, the desire expressed to Us with filial confidence by not a few of yourselves, Venerable Brethren, and by members of your flocks, as well as Our deep affection towards youth above referred to, move Us to turn more directly to this subject, if not to treat it in all its well-nigh inexhaustible range of theory and practice, at least to summarize its main principles, throw full light on its important conclusions, and point out its practical applications.

4. Let this be the record of Our Sacerdotal Jubilee which, with altogether special affection, We wish to dedicate to our beloved youth, and to commend to all those whose office and duty is the work of education.

5. Indeed never has there been so much discussion about education as nowadays; never have exponents of new pedagogical theories been so numerous, or so many methods and means devised, proposed and debated, not merely to facilitate education, but to create a new system infallibly efficacious, and capable of preparing the present generations for that earthly happiness which they so ardently desire. 1

6. The reason is that men, created by God to His image and likeness and destined for Him Who is infinite perfection realize today more than ever amid the most exuberant material progress, the insufficiency of earthly goods to produce true happiness either for the individual or for the nations. And hence they feel more keenly in themselves the impulse towards a perfection that is higher, which impulse is implanted in their rational nature by the Creator Himself. This perfection they seek to acquire by means of education. But many of them with, it would seem, too great insistence on the etymological meaning of the word, pretend to draw education out of human nature itself and evolve it by its own unaided powers. Such easily fall into error, because, instead of fixing their gaze on God, first principle and last end of the whole universe, they fall back upon themselves, becoming attached exclusively to passing things of earth; and thus their restlessness will never cease till they direct their attention and their efforts to God, the goal of all perfection, according to the profound saying of Augustine: "Thou didst create us, O Lord, for Thyself, and our heart is restless till it rest in Thee."[3]

7. It is therefore as important to make no mistake in education, as it is to make no mistake in the pursuit of the last end, with which the whole work of education is intimately and necessarily connected. In fact, since education consists essentially in preparing man for what he must be and for what he must do here below, in order to attain the sublime end for which he was created, it is clear that there can be no true education which is not wholly directed to man's last end, and that in the present order of Providence, since God has revealed Himself to us in the Person of His Only Begotten Son, who alone is "the way, the truth and the life," there can be no ideally perfect education which is not Christian education.

8. From this we see the supreme importance of Christian education, not merely for each individual, but for families and for the whole of human society, whose perfection comes from the perfection of the elements that compose it. From these same principles, the excellence, we may well call it the unsurpassed excellence, of the work of Christian education becomes manifest and clear; for after all it aims at securing the Supreme Good, that is, God, for the souls of those who are being educated, and the maximum of well-being possible here below for human society. And this it does as efficaciously as man is capable of doing it, namely by cooperating with God in the perfecting of individuals and of society, in as much as education makes upon the soul the first, the most powerful and lasting impression for life according to the well-known saying of the Wise Man, "A young man according to his way, even when he is old, he will not depart from it."[4] With good reason therefore did St. John Chrysostom say, "What greater work is there than training the mind and forming the habits of the young?"[5]

9. But nothing discloses to us the supernatural beauty and excellence of the work of Christian education better than the sublime expression of love of our Blessed Lord, identifying Himself with children, "Whosoever shall receive one such child as this in my name, receiveth me."[6]

10. Now in order that no mistake be made in this work of utmost importance, and in order to conduct it in the best manner possible with the help of God's grace, it is necessary to have a clear and definite idea of Christian education in its essential aspects, viz., who has the mission to educate, who are the subjects to be educated, what are the necessary accompanying

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circumstances, what is the end and object proper to Christian education according to God's established order in the economy of His Divine Providence.

11. Education is essentially a social and not a mere individual activity. Now there are three necessary societies, distinct from one another and yet harmoniously combined by God, into which man is born: two, namely the family and civil society, belong to the natural order; the third, the Church, to the supernatural order.

12. In the first place comes the family, instituted directly by God for its peculiar purpose, the generation and formation of offspring; for this reason it has priority of nature and therefore of rights over civil society. Nevertheless, the family is an imperfect society, since it has not in itself all the means for its own complete development; whereas civil society is a perfect society, having in itself all the means for its peculiar end, which is the temporal well-being of the community; and so, in this respect, that is, in view of the common good, it has pre-eminence over the family, which finds its own suitable temporal perfection precisely in civil society.

13. The third society, into which man is born when through Baptism he reaches the divine life of grace, is the Church; a society of the supernatural order and of universal extent; a perfect society, because it has in itself all the means required for its own end, which is the eternal salvation of mankind; hence it is supreme in its own domain.

14. Consequently, education which is concerned with man as a whole, individually and socially, in the order of nature and in the order of grace, necessarily belongs to all these three societies, in due proportion, corresponding, according to the disposition of Divine Providence, to the co- ordination of their respecting ends.

15. And first of all education belongs preeminently to the Church, by reason of a double title in the supernatural order, conferred exclusively upon her by God Himself; absolutely therefore to any other title in the natural order.

16. The first title is founded upon the express mission and supreme authority to teach, given her by her divine Founder: "All power is given to me in heaven and in earth. Going therefore teach ye all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, teaching them to observe all things whatsoever I have commanded you, and behold I am with you all days, even to the consummation of the world."[7] Upon this magisterial office Christ conferred infallibility, together with the command to teach His doctrine. Hence the Church "was set by her divine Author as the pillar and ground of truth, in order to teach the divine Faith to men, and keep whole and inviolate the deposit confided to her; to direct and fashion men, in all their actions individually and socially, to purity of morals and integrity of life, in accordance with revealed doctrine."[8]

17. The second title is the supernatural motherhood, in virtue of which the Church, spotless spouse of Christ, generates, nurtures and educates souls in the divine life of grace, with her Sacraments and her doctrine. With good reason then does St. Augustine maintain: "He has not God for father who refuses to have the Church as mother."[9] 3

18. Hence it is that in this proper object of her mission, that is, "in faith and morals, God Himself has made the Church sharer in the divine magisterium and, by a special privilege, granted her immunity from error; hence she is the mistress of men, supreme and absolutely sure, and she has inherent in herself an inviolable right to freedom in teaching.'[10] By necessary consequence the Church is independent of any sort of earthly power as well in the origin as in the exercise of her mission as educator, not merely in regard to her proper end and object, but also in regard to the means necessary and suitable to attain that end. Hence with regard to every other kind of human learning and instruction, which is the common patrimony of individuals and society, the Church has an independent right to make use of it, and above all to decide what may help or harm Christian education. And this must be so, because the Church as a perfect society has an independent right to the means conducive to its end, and because every form of instruction, no less than every human action, has a necessary connection with man's last end, and therefore cannot be withdrawn from the dictates of the divine law, of which the Church is guardian, interpreter and infallible mistress.

19. This truth is clearly set forth by Pius X of saintly memory: Whatever a Christian does even in the order of things of earth, he may not overlook the supernatural; indeed he must, according to the teaching of Christian wisdom, direct all things towards the supreme good as to his last end; all his actions, besides, in so far as good or evil in the order of morality, that is, in keeping or not with natural and divine law, fall under the judgment and jurisdiction of the Church.[11]

20. It is worthy of note how a layman, an excellent writer and at the same time a profound and conscientious thinker, has been able to understand well and express exactly this fundamental Catholic doctrine: The Church does not say that morality belongs purely, in the sense of exclusively, to her; but that it belongs wholly to her. She has never maintained that outside her fold and apart from her teaching, man cannot arrive at any moral truth; she has on the contrary more than once condemned this opinion because it has appeared under more forms than one. She does however say, has said, and will ever say, that because of her institution by Jesus Christ, because of the Holy Ghost sent her in His name by the Father, she alone possesses what she has had immediately from God and can never lose, the whole of moral truth, omnem veritatem, in which all individual moral are included, as well those which man may learn by the help of reason, as those which form part of revelation or which may be deduced from it.[12]

21. Therefore with full right the Church promotes letters, science, art in so far as necessary or helpful to Christian education, in addition to her work for the salvation of souls: founding and maintaining schools and institutions adapted to every branch of learning and degree of culture.[13] Nor may even physical culture, as it is called, be considered outside the range of her maternal supervision, for the reason that it also is a means which may help or harm Christian education.

22. And this work of the Church in every branch of culture is of immense benefit to families and nations which without Christ are lost, as St. Hilary points out correctly: "What can be more fraught with danger for the world than the rejection of Christ?"[14] Nor does it interfere in the 4

least with the regulations of the State, because the Church in her motherly prudence is not unwilling that her schools and institutions for the education of the laity be in keeping with the legitimate dispositions of civil authority; she is in every way ready to cooperate with this authority and to make provision for a mutual understanding, should difficulties arise.

23. Again it is the inalienable right as well as the indispensable duty of the Church, to watch over the entire education of her children, in all institutions, public or private, not merely in regard to the religious instruction there given, but in regard to every other branch of learning and every regulation in so far as religion and morality are concerned.[15]

24. Nor should the exercise of this right be considered undue interference, but rather maternal care on the part of the Church in protecting her children from the grave danger of all kinds of doctrinal and moral evil. Moreover this watchfulness of the Church not merely can create no real inconvenience, but must on the contrary confer valuable assistance in the right ordering and well-being of families and of civil society; for it keeps far away from youth the moral poison which at that inexperienced and changeable age more easily penetrates the mind and more rapidly spreads its baneful effects. For it is true, as Leo XIII has wisely pointed out, that without proper religious and moral instruction "every form of intellectual culture will be injurious; for young people not accustomed to respect God, will be unable to bear the restraint of a virtuous life, and never having learned to deny themselves anything. they will easily be incited to disturb the public order."[16]

25. The extent of the Church's mission in the field of education is such as to embrace every nation, without exception, according to the command of Christ: "Teach ye all nations;"[17] and there is no power on earth that may lawfully oppose her or stand in her way. In the first place, it extends over all the Faithful, of whom she has anxious care as a tender mother. For these she has throughout the centuries created and conducted an immense number of schools and institutions in every branch of learning. As We said on a recent occasion: Right back in the far-off middle ages when there were so many (some have even said too many) monasteries, convents, churches, collegiate churches, cathedral chapters, etc., there was attached to each a home of study, of teaching, of Christian education. To these we must add all the universities, spread over every country and always by the initiative an under the protection of the and the Church. That grand spectacle, which today we see better, as it is nearer to us and more imposing because of the conditions of the age, was the spectacle of all times; and they who study and compare historical events remain astounded at what the Church has been able to do in this matter, and marvel at the manner in which she had succeeded in fulfilling her God- given mission to educate generations of men to a Christian life, producing everywhere a magnificent harvest of fruitful results. But if we wonder that the Church in all times has been able to gather about her and educate hundreds, thousands, millions of students, no less wonderful is it to bear in mind what she has done not only in the field of education, but in that also of true and genuine erudition. For, if so many treasures of culture, civilization and literature have escaped destruction, this is due to the action by which the Church, even in times long past and uncivilized, has shed so bright a light in the domain of letters, of , of art and in a special manner of architecture.[18]

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26. All this the Church has been able to do because her mission to educate extends equally to those outside the Fold, seeing that all men are called to enter the kingdom of God and reach eternal salvation. Just as today when her missions scatter schools by the thousand in districts and countries not yet Christian, from the banks of the Ganges to the Yellow river and the great islands and archipelagos of the Pacific ocean, from the Dark Continent to the Land of Fire and to frozen Alaska, so in every age the Church by her missionaries has educated to Christian life and to civilization the various peoples which now constitute the Christian nations of the civilized world.

27. Hence it is evident that both by right and in fact the mission to educate belongs preeminently to the Church, and that no one free from prejudice can have a reasonable motive for opposing or impeding the Church in this her work, of which the world today enjoys the precious advantages.

28. This is the more true because the rights of the family and of the State, even the rights of individuals regarding a just liberty in the pursuit of science, of methods of science and all sorts of profane culture, not only are not opposed to this pre-eminence of the Church, but are in complete harmony with it. The fundamental reason for this harmony is that the supernatural order, to which the Church owes her rights, not only does not in the least destroy the natural order, to which pertain the other rights mentioned, but elevates the natural and perfects it, each affording mutual aid to the other, and completing it in a manner proportioned to its respective nature and dignity. The reason is because both come from God, who cannot contradict Himself: "The works of God are perfect and all His ways are judgments."[19]

29. This becomes clearer when we consider more closely and in detail the mission of education proper to the family and to the State.

30. In the first place the Church's mission of education is in wonderful agreement with that of the family, for both proceed from God, and in a remarkably similar manner. God directly communicates to the family, in the natural order, fecundity, which is the principle of life, and hence also the principle of education to life, together with authority, the principle of order.

31. The Angelic Doctor with his wonted clearness of thought and precision of style, says: "The father according to the flesh has in a particular way a share in that principle which in a manner universal is found in God.... The father is the principle of generation, of education and discipline and of everything that bears upon the perfecting of human life."[20]

32. The family therefore holds directly from the Creator the mission and hence the right to educate the offspring, a right inalienable because inseparably joined to the strict obligation, a right anterior to any right whatever of civil society and of the State, and therefore inviolable on the part of any power on earth.

33. That this right is inviolable St. Thomas proves as follows:The child is naturally something of the father . . . so by natural right the child, before reaching the use of reason, is under the father's care. Hence it would be contrary to natural justice if the child, before the use of reason, were removed from the care of its parents, or if any disposition were made concerning him against the 6

will of the parents.[21] And as this duty on the part of the parents continues up to the time when the child is in a position to provide for itself, this same inviolable parental right of education also endures. "Nature intends not merely the generation of the offspring, but also its development and advance to the perfection of man considered as man, that is, to the state of virtue"[22] says the same St. Thomas.

34. The wisdom of the Church in this matter is expressed with precision and clearness in the Codex of Canon Law, can. 1113: "Parents are under a grave obligation to see to the religious and moral education of their children, as well as to their physical and civic training, as far as they can, and moreover to provide for their temporal well-being."[23]

35. On this point the common sense of mankind is in such complete accord, that they would be in open contradiction with it who dared maintain that the children belong to the State before they belong to the family, and that the State has an absolute right over their education. Untenable is the reason they adduce, namely that man is born a citizen and hence belongs primarily to the State, not bearing in mind that before being a citizen man must exist; and existence does not come from the State, but from the parents, as Leo XIII wisely declared: "The children are something of the father, and as it were an extension of the person of the father; and, to be perfectly accurate, they enter into and become part of civil society, not directly by themselves, but through the family in which they were born."[24] "And therefore," says the same Leo XIII, "the father's power is of such a nature that it cannot be destroyed or absorbed by the State; for it has the same origin as human life itself."[25] It does not however follow from this that the parents' right to educate their children is absolute and despotic; for it is necessarily subordinated to the last end and to natural and divine law, as Leo XIII declares in another memorable encyclical, where He thus sums up the rights and duties of parents: "By nature parents have a right to the training of their children, but with this added duty that the education and instruction of the child be in accord with the end for which by God's blessing it was begotten. Therefore it is the duty of parents to make every effort to prevent any invasion of their rights in this matter, and to make absolutely sure that the education of their children remain under their own control in keeping with their Christian duty, and above all to refuse to send them to those schools in which there is danger of imbibing the deadly poison of impiety."[26]

36. It must be borne in mind also that the obligation of the family to bring up children, includes not only religious and moral education, but physical and civic education as well,[27] principally in so far as it touches upon religion and moralit.

37. This incontestable right of the family has at various times been recognized by nations anxious to respect the natural law in their civil enactments. Thus, to give one recent example, the Supreme Court of the United States of America, in a decision on an important controversy, declared that it is not in the competence of the State to fix any uniform standard of education by forcing children to receive instruction exclusively in public schools, and it bases its decision on the natural law: the child is not the mere creature of the State; those who nurture him and direct his destiny have the right coupled with the high duty, to educate him and prepare him for the fulfillment of his obligations.[28] 7

38. History bears witness how, particularly in modern times, the State has violated and does violate rights conferred by God on the family. At the same time it shows magnificently how the Church has ever protected and defended these rights, a fact proved by the special confidence which parents have in Catholic schools. As We pointed out recently in Our letter to the Cardinal Secretary of State: The family has instinctively understood this to be so, and from the earliest days of Christianity down to our own times, fathers and mothers, even those of little or no faith, have been sending or bringing their children in millions to places of education under the direction of the Church.[29]

39. It is paternal instinct, given by God, that thus turns with confidence to the Church, certain of finding in her the protection of family rights, thereby illustrating that harmony with which God has ordered all things. The Church is indeed conscious of her divine mission to all mankind, and of the obligation which all men have to practice the one true religion; and therefore she never tires of defending her right, and of reminding parents of their duty, to have all Catholic-born children baptized and brought up as Christians. On the other hand so jealous is she of the family's inviolable natural right to educate the children, that she never consents, save under peculiar circumstances and with special cautions, to baptize the children of infidels, or provide for their education against the will of the parents, till such time as the children can choose for themselves and freely embrace the Faith.[30]

40. We have therefore two facts of supreme importance. As We said in Our discourse cited above: The Church placing at the disposal of families her office of mistress and educator, and the families eager to profit by the offer, and entrusting their children to the Church in hundreds and thousands. These two facts recall and proclaim a striking truth of the greatest significance in the moral and social order. They declare that the mission of education regards before all, above all, primarily the Church and the family, and this by natural and divine law, and that therefore it cannot be slighted, cannot be evaded, cannot be supplanted.[31]

41. From such priority of rights on the part of the Church and of the family in the field of education, most important advantages, as we have seen, accrue to the whole of society. Moreover in accordance with the divinely established order of things, no damage can follow from it to the true and just rights of the State in regard to the education of its citizens.

42. These rights have been conferred upon civil society by the Author of nature Himself, not by title of fatherhood, as in the case of the Church and of the family, but in virtue of the authority which it possesses to promote the common temporal welfare, which is precisely the purpose of its existence. Consequently education cannot pertain to civil society in the same way in which it pertains to the Church and to the family, but in a different way corresponding to its own particular end and object.

43. Now this end and object, the common welfare in the temporal order, consists in that peace and security in which families and individual citizens have the free exercise of their rights, and at the same time enjoy the greatest spiritual and temporal prosperity possible in this life, by the mutual union and co-ordination of the work of all. The function therefore of the civil authority

8

residing in the State is twofold, to protect and to foster, but by no means to absorb the family and the individual, or to substitute itself for them.

44. Accordingly in the matter of education, it is the right, or to speak more correctly, it is the duty of the State to protect in its legislation, the rights, already described, of the family as regards the Christian education of its offspring, and consequently also to respect the supernatural rights of the Church in this same realm of Christian education.

45. It also belongs to the State to protect the rights of the child itself when the parents are found wanting either physically or morally in this respect, whether by default, incapacity or misconduct, since, as has been shown, their right to educate is not an absolute and despotic one, but dependent on the natural and divine law, and therefore subject alike to the authority and jurisdiction of the Church, and to the vigilance and administrative care of the State in view of the common good. Besides, the family is not a perfect society, that is, it has not in itself all the means necessary for its full development. In such cases, exceptional no doubt, the State does not put itself in the place of the family, but merely supplies deficiencies, and provides suitable means, always in conformity with the natural rights of the child and the supernatural rights of the Church.

46. In general then it is the right and duty of the State to protect, according to the rules of right reason and faith, the moral and religious education of youth, by removing public impediments that stand in the way. In the first place it pertains to the State, in view of the common good, to promote in various ways the education and instruction of youth. It should begin by encouraging and assisting, of its own accord, the initiative and activity of the Church and the family, whose successes in this field have been clearly demonstrated by history and experience. It should moreover supplement their work whenever this falls short of what is necessary, even by means of its own schools and institutions. For the State more than any other society is provided with the means put at its disposal for the needs of all, and it is only right that it use these means to the advantage of those who have contributed them.[32]

47. Over and above this, the State can exact and take measures to secure that all its citizens have the necessary knowledge of their civic and political duties, and a certain degree of physical, intellectual and moral culture, which, considering the conditions of our times, is really necessary for the common good.

48. However it is clear that in all these ways of promoting education and instruction, both public and private, the State should respect the inherent rights of the Church and of the family concerning Christian education, and moreover have regard for distributive justice. Accordingly, unjust and unlawful is any monopoly, educational or scholastic, which, physically or morally, forces families to make use of government schools, contrary to the dictates of their Christian conscience, or contrary even to their legitimate preferences.

49. This does not prevent the State from making due provision for the right administration of public affairs and for the protection of its peace, within or without the realm. These are things which directly concern the public good and call for special aptitudes and special preparation. The 9

State may therefore reserve to itself the establishment and direction of schools intended to prepare for certain civic duties and especially for military service, provided it be careful not to injure the rights of the Church or of the family in what pertains to them. It is well to repeat this warning here; for in these days there is spreading a spirit of nationalism which is false and exaggerated, as well as dangerous to true peace and prosperity. Under its influence various excesses are committed in giving a military turn to the so-called physical training of boys (sometimes even of girls, contrary to the very instincts of human nature); or again in usurping unreasonably on Sunday, the time which should be devoted to religious duties and to family life at home. It is not our intention however to condemn what is good in the spirit of discipline and legitimate bravery promoted by these methods; We condemn only what is excessive, as for example violence, which must not be confounded with courage nor with the noble sentiment of military valor in defense of country and public order; or again exaltation of athleticism which even in classic pagan times marked the decline and downfall of genuine physical training.

50. In general also it belongs to civil society and the State to provide what may be called civic education, not only for its youth, but for all ages and classes. This consists in the practice of presenting publicly to groups of individuals information having an intellectual, imaginative and emotional appeal, calculated to draw their wills to what is upright and honest, and to urge its practice by a sort of moral compulsion, positively by disseminating such knowledge, and negatively by suppressing what is opposed to it.[33] This civic education, so wide and varied in itself as to include almost every activity of the State intended for the public good, ought also to be regulated by the norms of rectitude, and therefore cannot conflict with the doctrines of the Church, which is the divinely appointed teacher of these norms.

51. All that we have said so far regarding the activity of the State in educational matters, rests on the solid and immovable foundation of the Catholic doctrine of The Christian Constitution of States set forth in such masterly fashion by Our Predecessor Leo XIII, notably in the Immortale Dei and Sapientiae Christianae. He writes as follows: God has divided the government of the human race between two authorities, ecclesiastical and civil, establishing one over things divine, the other over things human. Both are supreme, each in its own domain; each has its own fixed boundaries which limit its activities. These boundaries are determined by the peculiar nature and the proximate end of each, and describe as it were a sphere within which, with exclusive right, each may develop its influence. As however the same subjects are under the two authorities, it may happen that the same matter, though from a different point of view, may come under the competence and jurisdiction of each of them. If follows that divine Providence, whence both authorities have their origin, must have traced with due order the proper line of action for each. The powers that are, are ordained of God.[34]

52. Now the education of youth is precisely one of those matters that belong both to the Church and to the State, "though in different ways," as explained above. Therefore, continues Leo XIII, between the two powers there must reign a well-ordered harmony. Not without reason may this mutual agreement be compared to the union of body and soul in man. Its nature and extent can only be determined by considering, as we have said, the nature of each of the two powers, and in particular the excellence and nobility of the respective ends. To one is committed directly and specifically the charge of what is helpful in worldly matters; while the other is to concern itself 10

with the things that pertain to heaven and eternity. Everything therefore in human affairs that is in any way sacred, or has reference to the salvation of souls and the worship of God, whether by its nature or by its end, is subject to the jurisdiction and discipline of the Church. Whatever else is comprised in the civil and political order, rightly comes under the authority of the State; for Christ commanded us to give to Caesar the things that are Caesar's, and to God the things that are God's.[35]

53. Whoever refuses to admit these principles, and hence to apply them to education, must necessarily deny that Christ has founded His Church for the eternal salvation of mankind, and maintain instead that civil society and the State are not subject to God and to His law, natural and divine. Such a doctrine is manifestly impious, contrary to right reason, and, especially in this matter of education, extremely harmful to the proper training of youth, and disastrous as well for civil society as for the well-being of all mankind. On the other hand from the application of these principles, there inevitably result immense advantages for the right formation of citizens. This is abundantly proved by the history of every age. Tertullian in his Apologeticus could throw down a challenge to the enemies of the Church in the early days of Christianity, just as St. Augustine did in his; and we today can repeat with him: Let those who declare the teaching of Christ to be opposed to the welfare of the State, furnish us with an army of soldiers such as Christ says soldiers ought to be; let them give us subjects, husbands, wives, parents, children, masters, servants, kings, judges, taxpayers and tax gatherers who live up to the teachings of Christ; and then let them dare assert that Christian doctrine is harmful to the State. Rather let them not hesitate one moment to acclaim that doctrine, rightly observed, the greatest safeguard of the State.[36]

54. While treating of education, it is not out of place to show here how an ecclesiastical writer, who flourished in more recent times, during the Renaissance, the holy and learned Cardinal Silvio Antoniano, to whom the cause of Christian education is greatly indebted, has set forth most clearly this well established point of Catholic doctrine. He had been a of that wonderful educator of youth, St. ; he was teacher and Latin secretary to St. , and it was at the latter's suggestion and under his inspiration that he wrote his splendid treatise on The Christian Education of Youth. In it he argues as follows: The more closely the temporal power of a nation aligns itself with the spiritual, and the more it fosters and promotes the latter, by so much the more it contributes to the conservation of the commonwealth. For it is the aim of the ecclesiastical authority by the use of spiritual means, to form good Christians in accordance with its own particular end and object; and in doing this it helps at the same time to form good citizens, and prepares them to meet their obligations as members of a civil society. This follows of necessity because in the City of God, the Holy Church, a good citizen and an upright man are absolutely one and the same thing. How grave therefore is the error of those who separate things so closely united, and who think that they can produce good citizens by ways and methods other than those which make for the formation of good Christians. For, let human prudence say what it likes and reason as it pleases, it is impossible to produce true temporal peace and tranquillity by things repugnant or opposed to the peace and happiness of eternity.[37]

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55. What is true of the State, is true also of science, scientific methods and scientific research; they have nothing to fear from the full and perfect mandate which the Church holds in the field of education. Our Catholic institutions, whatever their grade in the educational and scientific world, have no need of apology. The esteem they enjoy, the praise they receive, the learned works which they promote and produce in such abundance, and above all, the men, fully and splendidly equipped, whom they provide for the magistracy, for the professions, for the teaching career, in fact for every walk of life, more than sufficiently testify in their favour.[38]

56. These facts moreover present a most striking confirmation of the Catholic doctrine defined by the Vatican Council: Not only is it impossible for faith and reason to be at variance with each other, they are on the contrary of mutual help. For while right reason establishes the foundations of Faith, and, by the help of its light, develops a knowledge of the things of God, Faith on the other hand frees and preserves reason from error and enriches it with varied knowledge. The Church therefore, far from hindering the pursuit of the arts and sciences, fosters and promotes them in many ways. For she is neither ignorant nor unappreciative of the many advantages which flow from them to mankind. On the contrary she admits that just as they come from God, Lord of all knowledge, so too if rightly used, with the help of His grace they lead to God. Nor does she prevent the sciences, each in its own sphere, from making use of principles and methods of their own. Only while acknowledging the freedom due to them, she takes every precaution to prevent them from falling into error by opposition to divine doctrine, or from overstepping their proper limits, and thus invading and disturbing the domain of Faith.[39]

57. This norm of a just freedom in things scientific, serves also as an inviolable norm of a just freedom in things didactic, or for rightly understood liberty in teaching; it should be observed therefore in whatever instruction is imparted to others. Its obligation is all the more binding in justice when there is question of instructing youth. For in this work the teacher, whether public or private, has no absolute right of his own, but only such as has been communicated to him by others. Besides every Christian child or youth has a strict right to instruction in harmony with the teaching of the Church, the pillar and ground of truth. And whoever disturbs the pupil's Faith in any way, does him grave wrong, inasmuch as he abuses the trust which children place in their teachers, and takes unfair advantage of their inexperience and of their natural craving for unrestrained liberty, at once illusory and false.

58. In fact it must never be forgotten that the subject of Christian education is man whole and entire, soul united to body in unity of nature, with all his faculties natural and supernatural, such as right reason and revelation show him to be; man, therefore, fallen from his original estate, but redeemed by Christ and restored to the supernatural condition of adopted son of God, though without the preternatural privileges of bodily immortality or perfect control of appetite. There remain therefore, in human nature the effects of original sin, the chief of which are weakness of will and disorderly inclinations.

59. "Folly is bound up in the heart of a child and the rod of correction shall drive it away."[40] Disorderly inclinations then must be corrected, good tendencies encouraged and regulated from tender childhood, and above all the mind must be enlightened and the will strengthened by 12

supernatural truth and by the means of grace, without which it is impossible to control evil impulses, impossible to attain to the full and complete perfection of education intended by the Church, which Christ has endowed so richly with divine doctrine and with the Sacraments, the efficacious means of grace.

60. Hence every form of pedagogic naturalism which in any way excludes or weakens supernatural Christian formation in the teaching of youth, is false. Every method of education founded, wholly or in part, on the denial or forgetfulness of original sin and of grace, and relying on the sole powers of human nature, is unsound. Such, generally speaking, are those modern systems bearing various names which appeal to a pretended self-government and unrestrained freedom on the part of the child, and which diminish or even suppress the teacher's authority and action, attributing to the child an exclusive primacy of initiative, and an activity independent of any higher law, natural or divine, in the work of his education.

61. If any of these terms are used, less properly, to denote the necessity of a gradually more active cooperation on the part of the pupil in his own education; if the intention is to banish from education despotism and violence, which, by the way, just punishment is not, this would be correct, but in no way new. It would mean only what has been taught and reduced to practice by the Church in traditional Christian education, in imitation of the method employed by God Himself towards His creatures, of whom He demands active cooperation according to the nature of each; for His Wisdom "reacheth from end to end mightily and ordereth all things sweetly."[41]

62. But alas! it is clear from the obvious meaning of the words and from experience, that what is intended by not a few, is the withdrawal of education from every sort of dependence on the divine law. So today we see, strange sight indeed, educators and philosophers who spend their lives in searching for a universal moral code of education, as if there existed no decalogue, no gospel law, no law even of nature stamped by God on the heart of man, promulgated by right reason, and codified in positive revelation by God Himself in the ten commandments. These innovators are wont to refer contemptuously to Christian education as "heteronomous," "passive","obsolete," because founded upon the authority of God and His holy law.

63. Such men are miserably deluded in their claim to emancipate, as they say, the child, while in reality they are making him the slave of his own blind pride and of his disorderly affections, which, as a logical consequence of this false system, come to be justified as legitimate demands of a so-called autonomous nature.

64. But what is worse is the claim, not only vain but false, irreverent and dangerous, to submit to research, experiment and conclusions of a purely natural and profane order, those matters of education which belong to the supernatural order; as for example questions of priestly or religious vocation, and in general the secret workings of grace which indeed elevate the natural powers, but are infinitely superior to them, and may nowise be subjected to physical laws, for "the Spirit breatheth where He will."[42]

13

65. Another very grave danger is that naturalism which nowadays invades the field of education in that most delicate matter of purity of morals. Far too common is the error of those who with dangerous assurance and under an ugly term propagate a so-called sex-education, falsely imagining they can forearm youths against the dangers of sensuality by means purely natural, such as a foolhardy initiation and precautionary instruction for all indiscriminately, even in public; and, worse still, by exposing them at an early age to the occasions, in order to accustom them, so it is argued, and as it were to harden them against such dangers.

66. Such persons grievously err in refusing to recognize the inborn weakness of human nature, and the law of which the Apostle speaks, fighting against the law of the mind;[43] and also in ignoring the experience of facts, from which it is clear that, particularly in young people, evil practices are the effect not so much of ignorance of intellect as of weakness of a will exposed to dangerous occasions, and unsupported by the means of grace.

67. In this extremely delicate matter, if, all things considered, some private instruction is found necessary and opportune, from those who hold from God the commission to teach and who have the grace of state, every precaution must be taken. Such precautions are well known in traditional Christian education, and are adequately described by Antoniano cited above, when he says: Such is our misery and inclination to sin, that often in the very things considered to be remedies against sin, we find occasions for and inducements to sin itself. Hence it is of the highest importance that a good father, while discussing with his son a matter so delicate, should be well on his guard and not descend to details, nor refer to the various ways in which this infernal hydra destroys with its poison so large a portion of the world; otherwise it may happen that instead of extinguishing this fire, he unwittingly stirs or kindles it in the simple and tender heart of the child. Speaking generally, during the period of childhood it suffices to employ those remedies which produce the double effect of opening the door to the virtue of purity and closing the door upon vice.[44]

68. False also and harmful to Christian education is the so-called method of "coeducation." This too, by many of its supporters, is founded upon naturalism and the denial of original sin; but by all, upon a deplorable confusion of ideas that mistakes a leveling promiscuity and equality, for the legitimate association of the sexes. The Creator has ordained and disposed perfect union of the sexes only in matrimony, and, with varying degrees of contact, in the family and in society. Besides there is not in nature itself, which fashions the two quite different in organism, in temperament, in abilities, anything to suggest that there can be or ought to be promiscuity, and much less equality, in the training of the two sexes. These, in keeping with the wonderful designs of the Creator, are destined to complement each other in the family and in society, precisely because of their differences, which therefore ought to be maintained and encouraged during their years of formation, with the necessary distinction and corresponding separation, according to age and circumstances. These principles, with due regard to time and place, must, in accordance with Christian prudence, be applied to all schools, particularly in the most delicate and decisive period of formation, that, namely, of adolescence; and in gymnastic exercises and deportment, special care must be had of Christian modesty in young women and girls, which is so gravely impaired by any kind of exhibition in public.

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69. Recalling the terrible words of the Divine Master: "Woe to the world because of scandals!"[45] We most earnestly appeal to your solicitude and your watchfulness, Venerable Brethren, against these pernicious errors, which, to the immense harm of youth, are spreading far and wide among Christian peoples.

70. In order to obtain perfect education, it is of the utmost importance to see that all those conditions which surround the child during the period of his formation, in other words that the combination of circumstances which we call environment, correspond exactly to the end proposed.

71. The first natural and necessary element in this environment, as regards education, is the family, and this precisely because so ordained by the Creator Himself. Accordingly that education, as a rule, will be more effective and lasting which is received in a well-ordered and well-disciplined Christian family; and more efficacious in proportion to the clear and constant good example set, first by the parents, and then by the other members of the household.

72. It is not our intention to treat formally the question of domestic education, nor even to touch upon its principal points. The subject is too vast. Besides there are not lacking special treatises on this topic by authors, both ancient and modern, well known for their solid Catholic doctrine. One which seems deserving of special mention is the golden treatise already referred to, of Antoniano, On the Christian Education of Youth, which St. Charles Borromeo ordered to be read in public to parents assembled in their churches.

73. Nevertheless, Venerable Brethren and beloved children, We wish to call your attention in a special manner to the present-day lamentable decline in family education. The offices and professions of a transitory and earthly life, which are certainly of far less importance, are prepared for by long and careful study; whereas for the fundamental duty and obligation of educating their children, many parents have little or no preparation, immersed as they are in temporal cares. The declining influence of domestic environment is further weakened by another tendency, prevalent almost everywhere today, which, under one pretext or another, for economic , or for reasons of industry, trade or politics, causes children to be more and more frequently sent away from home even in their tenderest years. And there is a country where the children are actually being torn from the bosom of the family, to be formed (or, to speak more accurately, to be deformed and depraved) in godless schools and associations, to irreligion and hatred, according to the theories of advanced socialism; and thus is renewed in a real and more terrible manner the slaughter of the Innocents.

74. For the love of Our Savior .Jesus Christ, therefore, we implore pastors of souls, by every means in their power, by instructions and catechisms, by word of mouth and written articles widely distributed, to warn Christian parents of their grave obligations. And this should be done not in a merely theoretical and general way, but with practical and specific application to the various responsibilities of parents touching the religious, moral and civil training of their children, and with indication of the methods best adapted to make their training effective, supposing always the influence of their own exemplary lives. The Apostle of the Gentiles did not hesitate to descend to such details of practical instruction in his epistles, especially in the Epistle 15

to the Ephesians, where among other things he gives this advice: "And you, fathers, provoke not your children to anger."[46] This fault is the result not so much of excessive severity, as of impatience and of ignorance of means best calculated to effect a desired correction; it is also due to the all too common relaxation of parental discipline which fails to check the growth of evil passions in the hearts of the younger generation. Parents therefore, and all who take their place in the work of education, should be careful to make right use of the authority given them by God, whose vicars in a true sense they are. This authority is not given for their own advantage, but for the proper up-bringing of their children in a holy and filial "fear of God, the beginning of wisdom," on which foundation alone all respect for authority can rest securely; and without which, order, tranquillity and prosperity, whether in the family or in society, will be impossible.

75. To meet the weakness of man's fallen nature, God in His Goodness has provided the abundant helps of His grace and the countless means with which He has endowed the Church, the great family of Christ. The Church therefore is the educational environment most intimately and harmoniously associated with the Christian family.

76. This educational environment of the Church embraces the Sacraments, divinely efficacious means of grace, the sacred ritual, so wonderfully instructive, and the material fabric of her churches, whose liturgy and art have an immense educational value; but it also includes the great number and variety of schools, associations and institutions of all kinds, established for the training of youth in Christian piety, together with literature and the sciences, not omitting recreation and physical culture. And in this inexhaustible fecundity of educational works, how marvelous, how incomparable is the Church's maternal providence! So admirable too is the harmony which she maintains with the Christian family, that the Church and the family may be said to constitute together one and the same temple of Christian education.

77. Since however the younger generations must be trained in the arts and sciences for the advantage and prosperity of civil society, and since the family of itself is unequal to this task, it was necessary to create that social institution, the school. But let it be borne in mind that this institution owes its existence to the initiative of the family and of the Church, long before it was undertaken by the State. Hence considered in its historical origin, the school is by its very nature an institution subsidiary and complementary to the family and to the Church. It follows logically and necessarily that it must not be in opposition to, but in positive accord with those other two elements, and form with them a perfect moral union, constituting one sanctuary of education, as it were, with the family and the Church. Otherwise it is doomed to fail of its purpose, and to become instead an agent of destruction.

78. This principle we find recognized by a layman, famous for his pedagogical writings, though these because of their liberalism cannot be unreservedly praised. "The school," he writes, "if not a temple, is a den." And again: "When literary, social, domestic and religious education do not go hand in hand, man is unhappy and helpless."[47]

79. From this it follows that the so-called "neutral" or "lay" school, from which religion is excluded, is contrary to the fundamental principles of education. Such a school moreover cannot exist in practice; it is bound to become irreligious. There is no need to repeat what Our 16

Predecessors have declared on this point, especially Pius IX and Leo XIII, at times when laicism was beginning in a special manner to infest the public school. We renew and confirm their declarations,[48] as well as the Sacred Canons in which the frequenting of non-Catholic schools, whether neutral or mixed, those namely which are open to Catholics and non-Catholics alike, is forbidden for Catholic children, and can be at most tolerated, on the approval of the Ordinary alone, under determined circumstances of place and time, and with special precautions.[49] Neither can Catholics admit that other type of mixed school, (least of all the so-called "école unique," obligatory on all), in which the students are provided with separate religious instruction, but receive other lessons in common with non-Catholic pupils from non-Catholic teachers.

80. For the mere fact that a school gives some religious instruction (often extremely stinted), does not bring it into accord with the rights of the Church and of the Christian family, or make it a fit place for Catholic students. To be this, it is necessary that all the teaching and the whole organization of the school, and its teachers, syllabus and text-books in every branch, be regulated by the Christian spirit, under the direction and maternal supervision of the Church; so that Religion may be in very truth the foundation and crown of the youth's entire training; and this in every grade of school, not only the elementary, but the intermediate and the higher institutions of learning as well. To use the words of Leo XIII: It is necessary not only that religious instruction be given to the young at certain fixed times, but also that every other subject taught, be permeated with Christian piety. If this is wanting, if this sacred atmosphere does not pervade and warm the hearts of masters and scholars alike, little good can be expected from any kind of learning, and considerable harm will often be the consequence.[50]

81. And let no one say that in a nation where there are different religious beliefs, it is impossible to provide for public instruction otherwise than by neutral or mixed schools. In such a case it becomes the duty of the State, indeed it is the easier and more reasonable method of procedure, to leave free scope to the initiative of the Church and the family, while giving them such assistance as justice demands. That this can be done to the full satisfaction of families, and to the advantage of education and of public peace and tranquillity, is clear from the actual experience of some countries comprising different religious denominations. There the school legislation respects the rights of the family, and Catholics are free to follow their own system of teaching in schools that are entirely Catholic. Nor is distributive justice lost sight of, as is evidenced by the financial aid granted by the State to the several schools demanded by the families.

82. In other countries of mixed creeds, things are otherwise, and a heavy burden weighs upon Catholics, who under the guidance of their Bishops and with the indefatigable cooperation of the clergy, secular and regular, support Catholic schools for their children entirely at their own expense; to this they feel obliged in conscience, and with a generosity and constancy worthy of all praise, they are firmly determined to make adequate provision for what they openly profess as their motto: "Catholic education in Catholic schools for all the Catholic youth." If such education is not aided from public funds, as distributive justice requires, certainly it may not be opposed by any civil authority ready to recognize the rights of the family, and the irreducible claims of legitimate liberty.

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83. Where this fundamental liberty is thwarted or interfered with, Catholics will never feel, whatever may have been the sacrifices already made, that they have done enough, for the support and defense of their schools and for the securing of laws that will do them justice.

84. For whatever Catholics do in promoting and defending the Catholic school for their children, is a genuinely religious work and therefore an important task of "Catholic Action." For this reason the associations which in various countries are so zealously engaged in this work of prime necessity, are especially dear to Our paternal heart and are deserving of every commendation.

85. Let it be loudly proclaimed and well understood and recognized by all, that Catholics, no matter what their nationality, in agitating for Catholic schools for their children, are not mixing in party politics, but are engaged in a religious enterprise demanded by conscience. They do not intend to separate their children either from the body of the nation or its spirit, but to educate them in a perfect manner, most conducive to the prosperity of the nation. Indeed a good Catholic, precisely because of his Catholic principles, makes the better citizen, attached to his country, and loyally submissive to constituted civil authority in every legitimate form of government.

86. In such a school, in harmony with the Church and the Christian family, the various branches of secular learning will not enter into conflict with religious instruction to the manifest detriment of education. And if, when occasion arises, it be deemed necessary to have the students read authors propounding false doctrine, for the purpose of refuting it, this will be done after due preparation and with such an antidote of sound doctrine, that it will not only do no harm, but will an aid to the Christian formation of youth.

87. In such a school moreover, the study of the vernacular and of classical literature will do no damage to moral virtue. There the Christian teacher will imitate the bee, which takes the choicest part of the flower and leaves the rest, as St. Basil teaches in his discourse to youths on the study of the classics.[51] Nor will this necessary caution, suggested also by the pagan Quintilian,[52] in any way hinder the Christian teacher from gathering and turning to profit, whatever there is of real worth in the systems and methods of our modern times, mindful of the Apostle's advice: "Prove all things: hold fast that which is good."[53] Hence in accepting the new, he will not hastily abandon the old, which the experience of centuries has found expedient and profitable. This is particularly true in the teaching of Latin, which in our days is falling more and more into disuse, because of the unreasonable rejection of methods so successfully used by that sane humanism, whose highest development was reached in the schools of the Church. These noble traditions of the past require that the youth committed to Catholic schools be fully instructed in the letters and sciences in accordance with the exigencies of the times. They also demand that the doctrine imparted be deep and solid, especially in sound philosophy, avoiding the muddled superficiality of those "who perhaps would have found the necessary, had they not gone in search of the superfluous."[54] In this connection Christian teachers should keep in mind what Leo XIII says in a pithy sentence: Greater stress must be laid on the employment of apt and solid methods of teaching, and, what is still more important, on bringing into full conformity with the Catholic faith, what is taught in literature, in the sciences, and above all in philosophy, on which depends in great part the right orientation of the other branches of knowledge.[55] 18

88. Perfect schools are the result not so much of good methods as of good teachers, teachers who are thoroughly prepared and well-grounded in the matter they have to teach; who possess the intellectual and moral qualifications required by their important office; who cherish a pure and holy love for the youths confided to them, because they love Jesus Christ and His Church, of which these are the children of predilection; and who have therefore sincerely at heart the true good of family and country. Indeed it fills Our soul with consolation and gratitude towards the divine Goodness to see, side by side with religious men and women engaged in teaching, such a large number of excellent lay teachers, who, for their greater spiritual advancement, are often grouped in special sodalities and associations, which are worthy of praise and encouragement as most excellent and powerful auxiliaries of "Catholic Action." All these labor unselfishly with zeal and perseverance in what St. Gregory Nazianzen calls "the art of arts and the science of sciences,"[56] the direction and formation of youth. Of them also it may be said in the words of the divine Master: "The harvest indeed is great, but the laborers few."[57] Let us then pray the Lord of the harvest to send more such workers into the field of Christian education; and let their formation be one of the principal concerns of the pastors of souls and of the superiors of Religious Orders.

89. It is no less necessary to direct and watch the education of the adolescent, "soft as wax to be moulded into vice,"[58] in whatever other environment he may happen to be, removing occasions of evil and providing occasions for good in his recreations and social intercourse; for "evil communications corrupt good manners."[59]

90. More than ever nowadays an extended and careful vigilance is necessary, inasmuch as the dangers of moral and religious shipwreck are greater for inexperienced youth. Especially is this true of impious and immoral books, often diabolically circulated at low prices; of the cinema, which multiplies every kind of exhibition; and now also of the radio, which facilitates every kind of communications. These most powerful means of publicity, which can be of great utility for instruction and education when directed by sound principles, are only too often used as an incentive to evil passions and greed for gain. St. Augustine deplored the passion for the shows of the circus which possessed even some Christians of his time, and he dramatically narrates the infatuation for them, fortunately only temporary, of his disciple and friend Alipius.[60] How often today must parents and educators bewail the corruption of youth brought about by the modern theater and the vile book!

91. Worthy of all praise and encouragement therefore are those educational associations which have for their object to point out to parents and educators, by means of suitable books and periodicals, the dangers to morals and religion that are often cunningly disguised in books and theatrical representations. In their spirit of zeal for the souls of the young, they endeavor at the same time to circulate good literature and to promote plays that are really instructive, going so far as to put up at the cost of great sacrifices, theaters and cinemas, in which virtue will have nothing to suffer and much to gain.

92. This necessary vigilance does not demand that young people be removed from the society in which they must live and save their souls; but that today more than ever they should be forewarned and forearmed as Christians against the seductions and the errors of the world, 19

which, as Holy Writ admonishes us, is all "concupiscence of the flesh, concupiscence of the eyes and pride of life."[61] Let them be what Tertullian wrote of the first Christians, and what Christians of all times ought to be, "sharers in the possession of the world, not of its error."[62]

93. This saying of Tertullian brings us to the topic which we propose to treat in the last place, and which is of the greatest importance, that is, the true nature of Christian education, as deduced from its proper end. Its consideration reveals with noonday clearness the pre-eminent educational mission of the Church.

94. The proper and immediate end of Christian education is to cooperate with divine grace in forming the true and perfect Christian, that is, to form Christ Himself in those regenerated by Baptism, according to the emphatic expression of the Apostle: "My little children, of whom I am in labor again, until Christ be formed in you."[63] For the true Christian must live a supernatural life in Christ: "Christ who is your life,"[64] and display it in all his actions: "That the life also of Jesus may be made manifest in our mortal flesh."[65]

95. For precisely this reason, Christian education takes in the whole aggregate of human life, physical and spiritual, intellectual and moral, individual, domestic and social, not with a view of reducing it in any way, but in order to elevate, regulate and perfect it, in accordance with the example and teaching of Christ.

96. Hence the true Christian, product of Christian education, is the supernatural man who thinks, judges and acts constantly and consistently in accordance with right reason illumined by the supernatural light of the example and teaching of Christ; in other words, to use the current term, the true and finished man of character. For, it is not every kind of consistency and firmness of conduct based on subjective principles that makes true character, but only constancy in following the eternal principles of justice, as is admitted even by the pagan poet when he praises as one and the same "the man who is just and firm of purpose."[66] And on the other hand, there cannot be full justice except in giving to God what is due to God, as the true Christian does.

97. The scope and aim of Christian education as here described, appears to the worldly as an abstraction, or rather as something that cannot be attained without the suppression or dwarfing of the natural faculties, and without a renunciation of the activities of the present life, and hence inimical to social life and temporal prosperity, and contrary to all progress in letters, arts and sciences, and all the other elements of civilization. To a like objection raised by the ignorance and the prejudice of even cultured pagans of a former day, and repeated with greater frequency and insistence in modern times, Tertullian has replied as follows: We are not strangers to life.We are fully aware of the gratitude we owe to God, our Lord and Creator. We reject none of the fruits of His handiwork; we only abstain from their immoderate or unlawful use. We are living in the world with you; we do not shun your forum, your markets, your baths, your shops, your factories, your stables, your places of business and traffic. We take shop with you and we serve in your armies; we are farmers and merchants with you; we interchange skilled labor and display our works in public for your service. How we can seem unprofitable to you with whom we live and of whom we are, I know not.[67]

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98. The true Christian does not renounce the activities of this life, he does not stunt his natural faculties; but he develops and perfects them, by coordinating them with the supernatural. He thus ennobles what is merely natural in life and secures for it new strength in the material and temporal order, no less then in the spiritual and eternal.

99. This fact is proved by the whole history of Christianity and its institutions, which is nothing else but the history of true civilization and progress up to the present day. It stands out conspicuously in the lives of the numerous Saints, whom the Church, and she alone, produces, in whom is perfectly realized the purpose of Christian education, and who have in every way ennobled and benefited human society. Indeed, the Saints have ever been, are, and ever will be the greatest benefactors of society, and perfect models for every class and profession, for every state and condition of life, from the simple and uncultured peasant to the master of sciences and letters, from the humble artisan to the commander of armies, from the father of a family to the ruler of peoples and nations, from simple maidens and matrons of the domestic hearth to queens and empresses. What shall we say of the immense work which has been accomplished even for the temporal well-being of men by missionaries of the Gospel, who have brought and still bring to barbarous tribes the benefits of civilization together with the light of the Faith? What of the founders of so many social and charitable institutions, of the vast numbers of saintly educators, men and women, who have perpetuated and multiplied their life work, by leaving after them prolific institutions of Christian education, in aid of families and for the inestimable advantage of nations?

100. Such are the fruits of Christian education. Their price and value is derived from the supernatural virtue and life in Christ which Christian education forms and develops in man. Of this life and virtue Christ our Lord and Master is the source and dispenser. By His example He is at the same time the universal model accessible to all, especially to the young in the period of His hidden life, a life of labor and obedience, adorned with all virtues, personal, domestic and social, before God and men.

101. Now all this array of priceless educational treasures which We have barely touched upon, is so truly a property of the Church as to form her very substance, since she is the mystical body of Christ, the immaculate spouse of Christ, and consequently a most admirable mother and an incomparable and perfect teacher. This thought inspired St. Augustine, the great genius of whose blessed death we are about to celebrate the fifteenth centenary, with accents of tenderest love for so glorious a mother: O , true Mother of Christians! Not only doest thou preach to us, as is meet, how purely and chastely we are to worship God Himself, Whom to possess is life most blessed; thou does moreover so cherish neighborly love and charity, that all the infirmities to which sinful souls are subject, find their most potent remedy in thee. Childlike thou are in molding the child, strong with the young man, gentle with the aged, dealing with each according to his needs of mind of body. Thou does subject child to parent in a sort of free servitude, and settest parent over child in a jurisdiction of love. Thou bindest brethren to brethren by the bond of religion, stronger and closer then the bond of blood .... Thou unitest citizen to citizen, nation to nation, yea, all men, in a union not of companionship only, but of brotherhood, reminding them of their common origin. Thou teachest kings to care for their people, and biddest people to be subject to their 21

kings. Thou teachest assiduously to whom honor is due, to whom love, to whom reverence, to whom fear, to whom comfort, to whom rebuke, to whom punishment; showing us that whilst not all things nor the same things are due to all, charity is due to all and offense to none.[68]

102. Let us then, Venerable Brethren, raise our hands and our hearts in supplication to heaven, "to the Shepherd and of our Souls,"[69] to the divine King "who gives laws to rulers," that in His almighty power He may cause these splendid fruits of Christian education to be gathered in ever greater abundance "in the whole world," for the lasting benefit of individuals and of nations.

As a pledge of these heavenly favors, with paternal affection We impart to you, Venerable Brethren, to your clergy and your people, the Apostolic Benediction.

Given at , at St. Peter's, the thirty-first day of December, in the year 1929, the eighth of Our Pontificate.

PIUS XI

1. Marc., X, 14: Sinite parvulos venir ad me.

2. II Tim., IV, 2: Insta opportune importune: argue, obsecra increpa in omni patientia et doctrina.

3. Confess., I, I: Fecisti nos, Domine, ad Te. et inquietum est cor nostrum donec requiescat in Te.

4. Prov. XXII, 6: Adolescens iuxta viam suam etiam cum senuerit non recedet ab ea.

5. Hom. 60, in c. 18 Matth.: Ouid maius quam animis moderari, quam adolescentulorum fingere mores?

6. Marc., IX, 36: Quisquis unum ex huiusmodi pueris receperit in nomine meo, me recipit.

7. Matth., XXVIII, 18-20: Data est mihi omnis potestas in caelo et in terra. Euntes ergo docete omnes gentes, baptizantes eos in nomine Patris, et Filii, et Spiritus Sancti: docentes eos servare omnia quaecumque mandavi vobis. Et ecce ego vobiscum sum omnibus diebus usque ad consummationem saeculi.

8. Pius IX, Ep. Quum non sine, 14 Iul, 1864: Columna et firmamentum viritatis a Divino suo Auctore fuit constituta, ut omnes homines divinam edoceat fidem, eiusque depositum sibi traditum integrum inviolatumque custodiat, ac homines eotumque consortia et actiones ad morum honestatem vitaeque integritatem, iuxta revelatae doctrinae normam, dirigat et fingat.

9. De Symbolo ad catech., XIII: Non habebit Deum patrem, qui Ecclesiam noluerit habere matrem.

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10. Ep. enc. Libertas, 20 Iun. 1888: in fide atque in institutione morum, divini magisterii Ecclesiam fecit Deus ipse participem, eamdemque divino eius beneficio falli nesciam: quare magistra mortalium est maxima ac tutissima, in eaque inest non violabile ius ad magisterii libertatem.

11. Ep. enc. Singulari quadam. 24 Sept. 1912: Quidquid homo christianus agat, etiam in ordine rerum terrenarum, non ei licet bona negligere quae sunt supra naturam, immo oportet ad summum bonum, tamquam ad ultimum finem, ex christianae sapientiae praescriptis omnia dirigat: omnes autem actiones eius, quatenus bonae aut malae sunt in genere morum, id est cum iure naturali et divino congruunt aut discrepant, indicio et iurisdictioni Ecclesiae subsunt.

12. A. Manzoni, Osservazioni sulla Morale Cattolica, c. III.

13. Codex luris Canonici, c. 1375.

14. Commentar. in Matth., cap. 18: Quid mundo tam periculosum quam non recepisse Christum?

15. Cod. I.C., cc. 1381, 1382.

16. Ep. enc. Nobilissima Gallorum Gens, 8 Febr. 1884: male sana omnis futura est animarum cultura: insueti ad verecundiam Dei adolescentes nullam ferre poterunt honeste vivendi disciplinam, suisque cupiditatibus nihil unquam negare ausi, facile ad miscendas civitates pertrahentur.

17. Matth., XXVIII, 19: docete omnes gentes.

18. Discourse to the students of Mondragone College, May 14,1929.

19. Deut., XXXII, 4: Dei perfecta sunt opera, et omnes viae eius indicia.

20. S. Th., 2-2, Q. CII, a. I: Carnalis pater particulariter participat rationem principii quae universaliter invenitur in Deo. . . . Pater est principium et generationis et educatonis et disciplinae, et omnium quae ad perfectionem humanae vitae pertinent.

21. S. Th., 2-2, Q. X, a. 12: Filius enim naturaliter est aliquid patris . . .; ita de iure naturali est quod filius, antequam habeat usum rationis, sit sub cura patris. Unde contra iustitiam naturalem esset, si puer, antequam habeat usum rationis, a cura parentum subtrahatur, vel de eo aliquid ordinetur invitis parentibus.

22. Suppl. S. Th. 3; p. Q. 41, a. 1: Non enim intendit natura solum generationem prolis, sed etiam traductionem et promotionem usque ad perfectum statum hominis in quantum homo est, qui est virtutis status.

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23. Cod. I. C. , c. 1113: Parentes gravissima obligatione tenentur prolis educationem tum religiosam et moralem, tum physicam et civilem pro viribus curandi, et etiam temporali eorum bono providendi.

24. Ep. enc. , 15 Maii 1891: Filii sunt aliquid patris, et velut paternae amplificatio quaedam personae proprieque loqui si volumus, non ipsi per se, sed per communitatem domesticam, in qua generati sunt, civilem ineunt ac participant societatem.

25. Ep. enc. Rerum novarum, 15 Maii 1891: Patria potestas est eiusmodi, ut nec extingui, neque absorberi a republica possit, quia idem et commune habet cum ipsa hominum vita principium .

26. Ep. enc. Sapientiae christianae, 10 Ian. 1890: Natura parentes habent ius suum instituendi, quos procrearint, hoc adiuncto officio, ut cum fine, cuius gratia sobolem Dei beneficio susceperunt, ipsa educatio conveniat et doctrina puerilis. Igitur parentibus est necessanum eniti et contendere, ut omnem in hoc genere propulsent iniuriam, omninoque pervincant ut sua in potestate sit educere liberos, uti par est, more christiano, maximeque prohibere scholis iis, a quibus periculum est ne malum venenum imbibant impietatis.

27. Cod I. C.,c.1113.

28. "The fundamental theory of liberty upon which all governments in this Union repose excludes any general power of the State to standardize its children by forcing them to accept instruction from public teachers only. The child is not the mere creature of the State; those who nurture him and direct his destiny have the right coupled with the high duty, to recognize, and prepare him for additional duties." U.S. Supreme Court Decision in the Oregon School Case, June 1, 1925.

29. Letter to the Cardinal Secretary of State, May 30, 1929.

30. Cod. I. C., c. 750, & 2. S. Th., 2, 2. Q. X., a. 12.

31. Discourse to the students of Mondragone College, May 14,1929.

32. Discourse to the students of Mondragone College, May 14,1929.

33. P. L. Taparelli, Saggio teor. di Diritto Naturale, n. 922; a work never sufficiently praised and recommended to university students (Cfr. Our Discourse of Dec. 18, 1927).

34. Ep. enc. Immortale Dei, 1 Nov. 1885: Deus procurationem inter duos potestates partitus est, scilicet eccesiasticam et civilem, alteram quidem divinis, alteram humanis rebus praepositam. Utraque est in suo genere maxima: habet utraque certos, quibus contineatur, terminos, eosque sua cuiusque natura causaque proxime definitos; unde aliquis velut orbis circumscribitur, in quo sua cuiusque actio iure proprio versetur. Sed quia utriusque imperium est in eosdem, cum usuvenire possit, ut res una atque eadem quamquam aliter atque aliter, sed tamen eadem res, ad utriusque ius iudiciumque pertineat, debet providentissimus Deus, a quo 24

sunt ambae constitutae, utriusque itinera recte atque ordine composiusse. Quae autem sunt, a Deo ordinatae sunt (Rom., XIII, 1).

35. Ep. enc. Immortale Dei, 1 Nov. 1885: Itaque inter utramque potestatem quaedam intercedat necesse est ordinata colligatio: quae quidem coniunctioni non immerito comparatur, per quam anima et corpus in homine copulantur. Qualis autem et quanta ea sit, aliter iudicari non potest, nisi respiciendo, uti diximus, ad utriusque naturam, habendaque ratione excellentiae et nobilitatis causarum; cum alteri proxime maximeque propositum sit rerum mortalium curare commoda, alteri caelestia ac sempiterna bona comparare. Quidquid igitur est in rebus humanis quoquo modo sacrum, quidquid ad salutem animorum cultumve Dei pertinet, sive tale illud sit natura sua, sive rursus tale intelligatur propter caussam ad quam refertur, id est omne in potestate arbitrioque Ecclesiae: cetera vero, quae civile et politicum genus complectitur, rectum est civili auctoritati esse subiecta, cum lesus Christus iusserit, quae Caesaris sint, reddi Caesari, quae Dei, Deo.

36. Ep. 138: Proinde qui doctrinam Christi adversam dicunt esse reipublicae, dent exercitum talem, quales doctrinas Christi esse milites iussit; dent tales provinciales, tales maritos, tales coniuges, tales parentes, tales filios, tales dominos, tales servos, tales reges, tales iudices, tales denique debitorum ipsius fisci redditores et exactores, quales esse praecipit doctrina christiana, et audeant eam dicere adversam esse reipublicae, ima vero non dubitent eam confiteri magnam, si obtemperetur, salutem esse reiublicae.

37. Dell 'educaz. crist., lib. I, c. 43.

38. Letter to the Cardinal Secretary of State, May 30, 1929.

39. Conc. Vat., Sess. 3, cap. 4. Neque solum inter se dissidere nunquam possunt, sed opem quoque sibi mutuam ferunt, cum recta ratio fidei fundamenta demonstret eiusque lumine illustrata rerum divinarum scientiam excolat, fides vero rationem ab erroribus liberet ac tueatur eamque multiplici cognitione instruat. Quapropter tantum abest. ut Ecclesia humanarum artium et disciplinarium culturae obsistat, ut hanc multis modis invet atque promoveat. Non enim commoda ab iis ad hominum vitam dimanantia aut ignorat aut dispicit; fatetur immo, eas, a Deo scientiarum Domino profectae sunt, ita, si rite pertractentur, ad Deum iuvante eius gratia perducere. Nec sane ipsa vetat, ne huiusmodi disciplinae in suo quaeque ambitu propriis utantur principiis et propria methodo; sed iustam hanc libertatem agnoscens, id sedulo cavet, ne divinae doctrinae repugnando errores in se suscipiant, aut fines proprios transgressae ea, quae sunt fidei, occupent et perturbent.

40. Prov., XXII, 15: Stultitia colligata est in corde pueri: et virga disciplinae fugabit eam.

41. Sap., VIII, 1: attingit a fine usque ad finem fortiter, et disponit omnia suaviter.

42. Io., III, 8: Spiritus ubi vult spirat.

43. Rom., VII, 23. 25

44. Silvio Antonio, Dell 'educazione cristiana dei figliuoli, lib. II, e. 88.

45. Matth., XVIII, 7: Vae mundo a scandalis!

46. Eph., VI, 4: Patres, nolite ad iracundiam provocare filios vestros.

47. Nic. Tommaseo, Pensieri sull 'educazione, Parte I, 3, 6.

48. Pius IX, Ep. Quum non sine, 14 Jul. 1864. - Syllabus, Prop. 48. - Leo XIII, alloc. , 20 Aug. 1880, Ep. enc. Nobilissima, 8 Febr. 1884, Ep. enc. Quod multum, 22 Aug. 1886, Ep. Officio sanctissimo, 22 Dec. 1887, Ep. enc. Caritatis, 19 Mart. 1894, etc. (cfr. Cod. I.C. cum. Fontium Annot., c. 1374).

49. Cod. I.C., c. 1374.

50. Ep. enc. Militantis Ecclesiae, 1 Aug. 1897: Necesse est non modo certis horis doceri iuvenes religionem, sed reliquam institutionem omnem christianae pietatis sensus redolere. Id si desit, si sacer hic halitus non doctorum animos ac discentum pervadat foveatque, exiguae capientur ex qualibet doctrina utilitates; damna saepe consequentur haud exigua.

51. P.G., t. 31, 570.

52. Inst. Or., I, 8.

53. I Thess., V, 21: omnia probate; quod bonum est tenete.

54. Seneca, Epist. 45: invenissent forsitan necessaria nisi et superflua quaesiissent.

55. Leo XII, Ep. enc., Insrutabli 21 Apr. 1878: . . .alacrius adnitendum est, ut non solum apta ac solida institutionis methodus, sed maxime institutio ipsa catholicae fidei omnino confommis in litteris et disciplinis vigeat, praesertim autem in philosophia, ex qua recta aliarum scientiarum ratio magna ex parte dependet.

56. Oratio II, P.G., t. 35, 426: ars artium et scientia scientiarvum.

57. Matth., IX, 37: Messis quidem multa, operarii autem pauci.

58. Horat., Art. poet., v. 163: cereus in vitium flecti.

59. I Cor. XV, 33: corrumpunt mores bonos colloquia mala.

60. Conf., VI, 8.

61. I lo., II, 16: concupiscentia carnis, concupiscentia oculorum et superbia vitae.

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62. De Idololatria, 14: compossessores mundi, non erroris.

63. Gal., IV, 19: Filioli mei, quos iterum parturio, donec formetur Christus in vobis.

64. Col., III, 4: Christus, vita vestra.

65. II Cor., IV, II: ut et vita lesu manifestetur in carne nostra mortali.

66. Horat., Od., 1,III, od. 3, v. 1: lustum et tenacem propositi virum.

67. Apol., 42: Non sumus exules vitae. Meminimus gratiam nos debere Deo Domino Creatori; nullum fructum operum eius repudiamus; plane temperamus, ne ultra modum aut perperam utamur. Itaque non sine foro, non sine macello, non sine balneis, tabernis, officinis, stabulis, nundinis vestris, caeterisque commerciis cohabitamus in hoc saeculo. Navigamus et nos vobiscum et militamus et rusticamur, et mercamur, proinde miscemus artes, operas nostras publicamus usui vestro. Quomodo infructuosi videamur negotiis vestris, cum quibus et de quibus vivimus, non scio.

68. De moribus Eccleslae catholicae, lib. 1, c. 30: Merito Ecclesia catholica Mater christianorum verissima, non solum ipsum Deum, cuius adeptio Vita est beatissima, purissime atque castissime colendum praedicas; sed etiam proximi dilectionem atque charitatem ita complecteris, ut variorum morborum, quibus pro peccatis suis animae aegrotant, omnis apud te medicina praepolleat. Tu pueriliter, pueros, fortiter iuvenes, quiete senes prout cuiusque non corporis tantum, sed et animi aetas est, exerces ac doces. Tu parentibus filios libera quadam servitute subiungis, parentes filiis pia dominatione praeponis. Tu fratribus fratres religionis vinculo firmiore atque arctiore quam sanguinis nectis . . . Tu cives civibus, gentes gentibus, et prorsus homines primorum parentum recordatione, non societate tantum, sed quadam etiam fraternitate coniungis. Doces Reges prospicere populis; mones populos se subdere Regibus. Quibus honor debeatur, quibus affectus, quibus reverentia, quibus timor, quibus consolatio, quibus admonitio, quibus cohortatio, quibus disciplina, quibus obiurgatio, quibus supplicium, sedulo doces; ostendens quemadmodum et non omnibus omnia, et omnibus charitas, et nulli debeatur iniuria.

69. Cfr. I Petr., II, 25: ad Pastorem et Episcopum animarum vrotrarum.

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27

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the that unwittingly the whether in

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To At 0 0.

None Dare Call It Education: ChAPTER 3 The documented account ofhow education “reformers are underminmg academics and traditional values. USING AMERICA’S SCHOOLS TO CREATE “A NEW SOCIAL ORDER”

John A. Storrner . . Thephilosophy ofthe classroom in this generation © 1999 Liberty Bell Press, Florissant, MO will be the philosophy ofpolitics, government and life in the newt. —Abraham Lincoln Excerpt Printed by Permission of the Author UNDERSTANDING what is happening today in America’s schools would be impossible without a knowledge of what radical educators proposed over Copies of this book may be purchased by sending $8.95 to sixty years ago. Without a comprehensive overview of Liberty Bell Press, P0 Box 32, Florissant, MO 63032 how they planned to change the nation’s way oflife and culture, few will believe that the “horrible examples” described and documented in this book could actually be happening. The goal, which the radical educators spelled out in their writings and speeches, was using the schools to create “a new social order.” By 1934, they had enough clout and influence to control most teacher training institutions, the rewriting of many textbooks and the largest organization of teachers, the National Educa tion Association. Implementation of their plans in the 60 years since has dramatically changed America’s culture and ways of living and the lives of several generations of young Americans, many of whom are not now so young. Known as “progressivists,” or “Frontier Thinkers,” the reformers were disciples ofJohn Dewey, head ofthe prestigious Teachers College at Columbia University in New York. He was the nation’s most influential educator in the first half of the 20th Century. By the 1950s fully 20% ofall American school superintendents and 40% of all teacher college heads had received 4 NOIJE DA1?E çALLIT EDUCATION Using Schools To Create A New Social Orr”r 41

advanced degrees iiridèf ‘Dewey at Columbia. As an transformed and expanded. This could be ac atheist and socialist, Dewey co-authored the revolu complished, he said, in three ways: tionary, anti-God, Humanist Manifesto I in 1934. First andforemost, the development of a new philosophy of In the forefront ofDewey’s “Frontier Thinkers,” as the life and education which will be fully appropriate to the new group called themselves, were Dr. George Counts, social order; second, the building of an adequate plan for the professor of education at Columbia, and Dr. Harold production of a new race of educational workers; third, the Rugg. Dewey’s theories had been concerned chiefly making of new activities and materials for the curriculum.3 with teaching methods. Counts and Rugg, known as’ He cooperated’ with George Counts on the first and “hard progressivists” added the concept of using the second phases of the program while he played a major schools as an instrument for “building a new social role in the rewriting of textbooks Wand curriculum order.” materials to produce the “new philosophy of life and Harold Rugg concentrated on training teachers and education.” writing teaching materials and books. In his’ book, The A CONTROLLED ECONOMY Great Technology, written for teachers in 1933, Rugg made clear that the changes he envisioned said: Dr. Counts would result in: A new public mind isto be created. How? Only by creating tens of millions of new individual and welding them a coordinated, planned and socialized economy.8 into a new social mind. Old stereotypes must be broken up and Accomplishing such a drastic remaking of America new “climates of opinion” formed in the neighborhoods of would involve many changes, Counts admitted. He America.1 said: Later in his book, Rugg defined how the schools were Changes in our economic system will, of course, require to be used to transform American political and changes in our ideals.9 economic institutions and create the new “public niind” Counts saw no wrong in abandoning even the tradi which would accept complete government control ofthe tional concepts of morality to achieve his goals. He individual: pointed out in his book, The Soviet Challenge ,To .through the schools of the world we shall disseminate a new America that even in Russia... conce tion of government—one that will embrace all of the co ective activities of men; one that will postulate the need ...new principles’of right and’wrong are being forged.’° for scientific control and operation of economic activities in TEACHERS CHALLENGED TO SEIZE POWER the interest of all people.2 To achieve the “new social order,” Counts, in 1932, Note that Rugg did not say “a new type of govern called for teachers ofthe nation to provide the impetus. ment” but a “new conception of government.” Rugg was In his monograph, Dare the School Build a New Social troposing that while the outward forms of government Order? Counts wrote: would stay the same its functions and powers would be That the teachers should deliberately reach for power and then 0 make the most of their conquest is my firm convi’’n. To the Using Schools To Create A1ew Social Or4r 43 C) NONE DARE CALL IT EDUCATION destroyed, and all of us, including the owners, must be sub extent that they are permitted to fashion the curriculum and jected to a large degree of social control.’5 procedures of the school they will definitely and positively influence the social attitudes, ieals and behavior of the com A year after delivering this call for destruction of free ing generation.13. enterprise and individual freedom (laissez-faire), secretary of the NEA, a Counts published his Dare the School Build a New Givens was named executive until his retirement in Social Order? in 1932. Some would say, “That’s an position he held for 17 years 11, the NEA has interesting bit of ancient history. We’re living over 65 . 1952. As will be detailed in Chapter powerful lobbying years later.” That’s true, of course, but Counts’ become possibly the nation’s most for more money for monograph is still used in training teachers and ad organization. It doesn’t just lobby NEA conventions annual ministrators today. For exainpie, the widely used education. In the past decade philosophy of education text, Philosophical Founda ly pass a host of non-education, culture-transforming homosexuality, radi tions Of Education, by Howard Ozrnan and Samuel resolutions supporting abortion, world govern Craver reprints key parts.of Counts’ monograph includ- cal feminism, nuclear disarmament, in.g the call for teachers to reach for power quoted ment, etc.16 schools to create “a above.14 In the process of using America’s new social order,” John Dewey’s progressivist “Frontier GET CONTROL OF TIlE NEA TEACHERS UNION Thinkers” also significantly dumbed down the basic Thinkers” In “reaching for power” the “Frontier education given to America’s young people—the fruits advocated. moved in two directions as Rugg and Counts of which were seen in Chapter 1. By the late 1950s, call for teachers They rewrote the textbooks and in his many voices of alarm were beingheard. One ofthe most to grab for power, Counts said: influential was Admiral Hyman Rickover, the father of Through powerful organizations they might at last reach the the nuclear and our modern nuclear Navy. public conscience and come to exercise a larger measure of. In the late 1950s, just 25 years after the Dewey’s the schools than hitherto. control over “Frontier Thinker” disciples moved to take control of Counts and his fellow “Frontier Thinkers” in their 1 America’s schools, Rickover spoke out, saying: grab for power gained the prestige ofthe largest profes America is reaping the consequences of the destruction of sional teachers organization. They captured the top traditional education by the Dewey-Kilpatrick experimen elimination of jobs and control of the National Education Association. .1 talist philosophy. eashveidl3 led to the around that the would not At the 72nd annual meeting ofthe NEA in Washington, many academic subects on i3sefulini e...The student thus receives neither intellectual D.C. in July 1934, Dr. Willard Givens, then a California training nor the factual knowledge which will help him under in a report entitled, Education school superintendent, stand the world he lives in, or to make well-reasoned decisions for a New America, said: in his private life or as a responsible citizen.’7 We are convinced that we stand today at the verge of a great culture. ..But to achieve these things many drastic changes must be made. A dying laissez-faire must be completely 44 2VONE DARE CALL IT EDUCATION Using Schools To Create A New Social Order 45

WHAT DID JOHN DEWEY REALLY BELIEVE? pragmatic, evolutionist, relativisoncets as his Who was this man, Dewey, who is so roundly criticized by the renowned Hyman Rickover, the environment is constantly changing, man also changes “father” of the nuclear submarine? Dewey was iden constantly. Therefore, Dewey concluded, teaching or tified briefly in the introduction to this chapter. The children any ofthe absolutes ofmorals, government, detrimental impact he had on American education war ethics was a waste of time. rants a further examination of the man and his He saw the destruction of a child’s individualistic was . traits as the primary goal of education. Once this or to John Dewey was an educational philosopher. His accomplished the youngster would conform adjust Ability to experimental philosophies of education were first tried whatever society in which he found himself. r in a model school at the University of Chicago before “get along with the group” became the prime measuring sum 1900. They were dismal failures. Children learned stick of a child’s educational “progress.”20 Dewey nothing. Undismayed, Dewey left Chicago in 1904 and marized his theories, saying: went to Teachers College, Columbia University, where Education, therefore, is a process for living and not a prepara with the support of major “charitable foundations,” he tion for future living.2’ became the dominant figure and the most influential THE END OF TRADITIONAL EDUCATION man in American education. Dewey laid the foundation for the future “destruction the pretext of improving “}l : \ Dewey’s disciples, under ‘of traditional education” decried by Admiral Rickover was taught to \ teaching methods, changed what when he said: merican children. We violate the child’s nature and render difficult the best A CONFIRMED ATHEIST AND SOCIALIST ethical results by introducing the child too abruptly to a reading, writing, geography, etc. What did Dewey believe? As an atheist and a socialist, number of special studies, of to his social life. ..the true center of correlation Dewey co-authored the revolutionary Humanist out of relation of the school subjects is not Manifesto I in 1934. Key points included: own social activities.22 Religious humanists regard the universe as self-existing and TEXTBOOKS not created... .Humanism believes that man is a part of nature INTO THE and that he has emerged as a result of a continuous [evolution The introduction ofa 1960s first grade “social studies” aryl process... .We are convinced that the time has passed for curriculum guide prepared by the Contra Costa Coun theism, deism, modernism, and the several varieties of “new ty, California schools shows how Dewey’s theories were uniquely religious thought”....It follows that there will be no implemented. It told teachers: and attitudes of the kind hitherto associated with emotions and civics taught separately belief in the supernatural.’8 No longer can history, geography as in the recent past, be considered adequate preparation for Implementing the anti-God principles of humanism effective citizenship.23 in his writing and teaching, Dewey re’ected fixed mora Some would ask, “Why not?” aws and eternal truths an . . . Headopt’4 ;‘ 0 NNE DARE CELL IT ED UCA?’IO 0 Using Schools To Create A New Social Ocler 47 Dewey was a socialist.28 At the climax of his career LEVELING DOWN TO TFIE GROUP’S L1L in 1950, he became honorary national chairman of the the The group is the nucleus of the progressive system. League for Industrial Democracy, American The long-established Washington newsletter, Human counterpart of the socialist British Fabian Society.29 Fabians believed socialism could be achieved a Events, revealed that to elevate and promote the by process of gradualism rather than Karl Marx’s call for “group,” Dewey had to destroy individtialism and the violent revolution. thinking which encourages it. The publication quoted a Dewey as saying: CUTTING A CULTURE’S TIES TO THE PAST Children who know how to think for themselves spoil the Dewey and his disciples wanted to create “a new harmony of the collective society which is coming, where social order.” The first step in doing so wwr1ig everyone is interdependent.25 textbooks to prevent an upcoming generation from No child is permitted to forge ahead of another. This leãiif the traditions, values, heroes and glorious would hurt the group. Automatic “social pronwtions” ‘I accomplishments of their nation. The next chapter become the norm. Nobody left ii shows how it has been done. is behind because ofpoor Ii work. This would disrupt the group. Grading and Ill It was in the area of new materials, textbooks, and graded report cards showing actual percentages earned teaching aids, that Dewey disciple Harold Rugg are frowned upon. Grading promotes competition. achieved greatest influence. He concentrated on the job Competition breeds rivalry and encourages students to of indoctrinating teachers and preparing teaching excel and rise above the group. The soaiattitiTdes, In the 1990s, Dewey’s emphasis on the group has ideals, and behavior of coming generations. resulted in schools adopting the practice of“cooperative wrote learning.” them. They were called “social studies.” All traditional Rosalie Gordon wrote What’s Happened to Our presentations of subject matter was scrapped, and a Schools? It was widely circulated in the early 1960s variety of economic, political, historical, sociological, and said of Dewey’s progressive education: and geographical data was lumped into one textbook. With such a conglomeration ofmaterial in one book, the The progressive system has reached all the way down to the lowest grades to prepare the children of America for their role deletion or slanted presentation of key events, basic as the collectivists of the future..Jh grpip—noLtj,n truths, facts and theories was not so evident. dividual child—is the uintessenceof ro ressiism. The MILLIONS DEPRIVED OF THEIR HERITAGE c i mus a ways be made to feel part of the group. He must indulge in group thinking, in group activity:6 Five million school children “learned” American political and economic history and structure in the She explains Dewey’s obsession with the group and 1930s from 14 social studies textbooks Rugg group activity by saying: 4 authored.30 He also produced the corresponding You can’t make socialists out of individualists.27 48 NONE DARE CALL IT EDUCATION Using Schools To Create A New Social Orrier 49

teachers’ guides, course outlines, and student War. Prepared for his superior in Beijing, it fell into workbooks. American hands. It said: So blatant was the downgrading of American heroes The American soldier has weak loyalty to his family, his and the U.S. Constitution, so pronounced was the anti- community, his country, his religion, and to his fellow soldier. religious bias, so open was the propaganda for socialis His concepts of right and wrong are hazy and ill-formed. tic control of men’s lives in Rugg’s textbooks that the Opportunism is easy for him. By himself he feels frightened public rebelled.3’ and insecure. He underestimates his own worth, his own strength, and his ability to survive. Rugg’s textbooks went too far, too fast for complete public acceptance. Thus, in 1940, the National Educa There is little understanding of American political history and tion Association began promoting a set of “social philosophy, the federal, state, and community organizations, studies” texts known as the Building Americci series.33 state and civil rights, freedom safeguards, checks and balances and how these things allegedly operate within his own system. They were replacements for the discredited Rugg series. They were widely adopted but a few years later He fails to appreciate the meaning of and the necessity for the Senate Investigating Committee on Education of military or any other form of organization.36 the California legislature condemned the NEA-spon It would be easy and reassuring to pass this capsule sored series for subtly playin4g up Marxism and destroy indictment off as Communist propaganda. However, ing American traditions.3 The Senate committee without use of physical torture, drugs, intensive report... psychological treatment, coercion, or any of the other ...found among other things that 113 Communist-front or tactics usually associated with brainwashing, the ganizations had to do with some of the material in the books Chinese Communists made collaborators of one-third and that 50 Communist-front authors were connected with it. of all American POW’s who fell into their hands during Among the authors are Beatrice and Sidney Webb, identified the Korean War.37 with the Fabian Socialist movement in Great Britain.35 This shocking record so astonishe4 and concerned Rugg’s efforts and the efforts of others who followed military authorities that a full-scale inquiry was con his lead had an effect. A dozen years later young ducted. The report of the Presidential Commission Americans went to Korea to fight. They had grown up which made the study said pointedly: on the books produced by Rugg and others with similar The uninformed POW’s were up against it. They couldn’t goals. Thousands of them became POW’s. Unlike wars answer arguments in favor of communism with arguments in before or since, nearly one-third collaborated with the favor of Americanism because they knew so little about communist enemy. In their early months of captivity America. nearly four out of every ten died from a new disease Fifteen years after Korea many from another genera Army psychiatrists called, “Give-Up-Itis.” tion of poorly schooled young Americans, including a A very unflattering professional evaluation of the future President ofthe United States, ran offto Canada typical American was written by the Chief of the or used other methods for avoiding service in the U.S. cdinese Peoples Volunteer Army during the Koreap.. iTh 50 NdNE L IT EDUCATION C C

Armed Force. They refused td fight communism in Viet Nam. A NEW GENERATION WORKS IN EVERY AREA Dewey, Counts, Rugg and most of the other “progres sivist” culture-changers are long gone. But now, 65 years later, students shaped and influenced by the “new education” of Dewey and his “progressivists” con trol most of the basic culture-shaping institutions in our society. The press, the radio and TV and the enter tainment industry and the government and its bureaucracy with trillion dollar budgets no longer promote and uphold traditional American values. Even many mainline churches, which should be defending traditional Bible-based values, have broken their ties to an authoritative Bible and support abortion, radical feminism, ordination of homosexuals, world govern ment, etc. Dewey is history, but a new generation of “reformers” is carrying on the war for a new society—a new way of life. (Their identity, words, and work will be discussed in Chapters 6-9.) These so-called “reformers” are using Goals 2000, School-to-Work and Outcome-Based Education to create a new way of living—a new culture for the upcoming generation. They are building on the “new foundations” Dewey and his followers laid as they used schools and textbooks to destroy the solid founda tions on which America grew great. The next chapter documents how Dewey and his followers used the schools and textbooks in the transforming ofAmerica— in the creation of”a new social order.”

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The Frenchman, Alfred Epinas, pointed out that certain species (e.g., ants and wasps) can only face the horrors of life and death in association.

I do not know what the Frenchman actually did say: what the Englishman says he said is patently meaningless. We cannot know whether life holds any horror for the ant, nor in what sense the isolated wasp which you kill upon the window-pane can be said to “face” or not to “face” the horrors of death. The subject of the article is mass behavior in man; and the human motives have been unobtrusively transferred from the main proposition to the supporting instance. Thus the argunent. in effect, assumes what it set out to prove—a fact which would become immediately ap parent if it were presented in a formal syllogism. This is only a small and haphazard example of a vice which per vades whole books—particularly books written by men of science on metaphysical subjects. 0 JANUARY 19. 1979 91 right end, will start off by doodling about on an odd piece mar” belongs especially to the “subject” of foreign lan of material, in order to “give himself the feel of the tool.” guages. and essay-writing to the “subject” called “English”; Let us now look at the mediaeval scheme of education— while Dialectic has become almost entirely divorced from the syllabus of the Schools. It does not matter, for the the rest of the curriculum, and is frequently practiced un ( moment, whether it was devised for small children or for systematically and out of school hours as a separate exer older students, or how long people were supposed to take cise, only very loosely related to the main business of learn over it. What matters is the light it throws upon what the ing. Taken by and large, the great difference of emphasis men of the Middle Ages supposed to be the object and the between the two conceptions holds good: modern education right order of the educative process. concentrates on teaching subjects, leaving the method of The syllabus was divided into two parts: the Trivium thinking, arguing, and expressing one’s conclusions to be and Quadrivium. The second part—the Quadrivium—con picked up by the scholar as he goes along; mediaeval edu sisted of “subjects.” and need not for the moment concern cation concentrated on first forging and learning to handle us. The interesting thing for us is the composition of th’ the tools of learning, using whatever subject came handy Trivium, which preceded the Quadrivium and was the pre as a piece of material on which to doodle until the use of liminary discipline for it. It consisted of three parts: Gram the tool became second nature. mar, Dialectic, and Rhetoric, in that order. “Subjects” of some kind there must be, of course. One cannot learn the theory of grammar without learning an actual language, or learn to argue and orate without speak the first thing we notice is that two at any rate ing about something in particular. The debating subjects of these “subjects” are not what we should call “subjects” of the Middle Ages were drawn largely from , or at all: they are only methods of dealing with subjects. from the ethics and history of antiquity. Often, indeed, Grammar, indeed, is a “subject” in the sense that it does they became stereotyped, especially towards the end of the mean definitely learning a language—at that period it meant learning Latin. But language itself is simply the me dium in which thought is expressed. The whole of the Tri We who were scandalized when men were sent vium was, in fact, intended to teach the pupil the proper to fight armored tanks with rifles, are use of the tools of learning, before he began to apply them riot scandalized when young men and women to “subjects” at all. First, he learned a language: not just are sent into the world to fight massed how to order a meal in a foreign language, but the struc propaganda with a smattering of ‘subjects’ ture of a language, and hence of language itself—what it was, how it was put together. and how it worked. Second ly, he learned how to use language: how to define his terms ( and make accurate statements: how to construct an argu period, and the far-fetched and wire-drawn absurdities of ment and how to detect fallacies in argument. Dialectic. Scholastic argument fretted Milton and provide food for that is to say, embraced Logic and Disputation. Thirdly, he merriment even to this day. Whether they were in them learned to express himself in language—how to say what he selves any more hackneyed and trivial than the usual sub had to say elegantly and persuasively. jects set nowadays for “essay-writing” I should not like At the end of his course, he was required to compose a to say: we may ourselves grow a little weary of “A Day in thesis upon some theme set by his masters or chosen by My Holidays” and all the rest of it. But most of the mer himself, and afterwards to defend his thesis against the riment is misplaced, because the aim and object of the de criticism of the faculty. By this time he would have learned bating thesis has by now been lost sight of. —or woe betide him—not merely to write an essay on pa A glib speaker in the Brains Trust once entertained his per, but to speak audibly and intelligibly from a platform. audience (and reduced the late Charles Williams to helpless and to use his wits quickly when heckled. There would rage) by asserting that in the Middle Ages it was a matter also be questions, cogent and shrewd, from those who had of faith to know how many archangels could dance on the already run the gauntlet of debate. point of a needle. I need not say, I hope, that it never was It is, of course, quite true that bits and pieces of the a “matter of faith”: it was simply a debating exercise, whose mediaeval tradition still linger, or have been revived. in set subject was the nature of angelic substance: were angels the ordinary school syllabus of today. Some knowledge of material, and if so. did they occupy space? The answer grammar is still required when learning a foreign language— usually adjudged correct is, I believe, that angels are pure perhaps I should say, “is again required”: for during my intelligences; not material, but limited, so that they may own lifetime we passed through a phase when the teaching have location in space but not extension. An analogy might of declensions and conjugations was considered rather rep be drawn from human thought. which is similarly non-ma rehensible, and it was considered better to pick these things terial and similarly limited. Thus, if your thought is con up as we went along. School debating societies flourish: centrated upon one thing—say, the point of a needle—it essays are written: the necessity for “self-expression” is is located there in the sense that it is not elsewhere; but stressed, and perhaps even over-stressed. But these activities although it is “there,” it occupies no space there, and there are cultivated more or less in detachment, as belonging to is nothing to prevent an infinite number of different people’s the special subjects in which they are pigeon-holed rather thoughts being concentrated upon the same needle-point mental training to at the same time. The proper subject of the argument is ( than as forming one coherent scheme of which all “subjects” stand in a subordinate relation. “Gram- thus seen to be the distinction between location and cx-

92 NATIONAL REVIEW tension in space; the matter on which the argument is mentally equip for the intellectual conflict along lines exercised happens to be the nature of angels (although, as chosen by ourselves. We will endow them with excepn we have seen, it might equally well have been something ally docile parents; we will staff our school with teachers else); the practical lesson to be drawn from the argument who are themselves perfectly familiar with the aims and is not to use words like “there” in a loose and unscientific methods of the Trivium; we will have our buildings and way, without specifying whether you mean “located there” staff large enough to allow our classes to be small enough or “occupying space there.” for adequate handling; and we will postulate a Board of Scorn in plenty has been poured out upon the mediaeval Examiners willing and qualified to test the products we passion for hair-splitting: but when we look at the shame turn out. Thus prepared, we will attempt to sketch out a less abuse made, in print and on the platform, of contro syllabus—a modern Trivium “with modifications”; and we versial expressions with shifting and ambiguous conno will see where we get to. tations, we may feel it in our hearts to wish that every But first: what age shall the children be? Well, if one reader and hearer had been so defensively armored by his is to educate them on novel lines, it will be better that education as to be able to cry: Distinguo. they should have nothing to unlearn; besides, one cannot For we let our young men and women go out unarmed, begin a good thing too early, and the Trivium is by its in a day when armor was never so necessary. By teaching nature not learning, but a preparation for learning. We them all to read, we have left them at the mercy of the will, therefore, “catch ‘em young,” requiring of our pupils printed word. By the invention of the film and the radio, only that they shall be able to read, write, and cipher. we have made certain that no aversion to reading shall My views about child-psychology are, I admit, neither secure them from the incessant battery of words, words, orthodox nor enlightened. Looking back upon myself (since •words. They do not know what the words mean; they do I am the child I know best and the only child I can pre not know how to ward them off or blunt their edge or tend to know from inside) I recognize three states of devel. fling them back; they are a prey to words in their emotions opment.. These, in a rough-and-ready fashion, I will call instead of being the masters of them in their intellects. We the Poll-Parrot, the Pert, and the Poetic-—the latter coin who were scandalized in 1940 when men were sent to fight ciding, approximately, with the onset of puberty. The Poll- armored tanks with rifles, are not scandalized when young Parrot stage is the one in which learning by heart is easy men and women are sent into the world to fight massed and, on the whole, pleasurable; whereas reasoning is dif propaganda with a smattering of “subjects”; and when ficult and, on the whole, little relished. At this age, one whole classes and whole nations become hypnotized by the readily memorizes the shapes and appearances of things; arts of the spellbinder, we have the impudence to be aston one likes to recite the number-plates of cars; one rejoices ished. We dole out lip-service to the importance of edu in the chanting of rhymes and the rumble and thunder of cation—lip-service and, just occasionally, a little grant unintelligible polysyllables; one - enjoys the mere accumu of money; we postpone the school-leaving age, and plan to lation of things. The Pert age, .‘hich follows upon this build bigger and better schools; the teachers slave consci (and, naturally, overlaps it to some extent), is 0 character entiously in and out of school hours; and yet, as I believe, ized by contradicting, answering back, liking to “catch all this devoted effort is largely frustrated, because we have people out” (especially one’s elders); and by the pro lost the tools of learning, and in their absence can only pounding of conundrums. Its nuisance-value is extremely make a botched and piecemeal job of it. high. It usually sets in about the Fourth Form. The Poetic What, then, are we to do? We cannot go back to the age is popularly known as the “difficult” age. It is self- Middle Ages. That is a cry to which we have become ac centered; it yearns to express itself; it rather specializes in customed. We cannot go back—or can we? Distinguo. I being misunderstood; it is restless and tries to achieve in- should like every term in that proposition defined. Does “go back” mean a retrogression in time, or the revision of an error? The first is clearly impossible per se; the second is a thing which wise men do every day. “Cannot”—does this mean that our behavior is determined irreversibly, or merely that such an action would be very difficult in view of the opposition it would provoke? Obviously the twentieth century is not and cannot be the fourteenth; but if “the Middle Ages” is, in this context, simply a pictur esque phrase denoting a particular educational theory, there seems to be no a priori reason why we should not “go back” to it—with modification.s—as we have already “gone back,” with modifications, to, let us say, the idea of playing Shakespeare’s plays as he wrote them, and not in th,- “n1” ,‘,f C),k ,nd fl,rri,4’ once seemed to be the latest thing in theatrical progress. Let us amuse ourselves by imagining that such progres sive retrogression is possible. Let us make a clean sweep of all educational authorities, and furnish ourselves with a nice little school of boys and girls whom we may experi— 0

JANUARY 19, 1979 93 dependence; and, with good luck and go’x guidance, it should show the beginnings of creativenes” reaching-out towards a synthesis of what it already knows, and a delib erate eagerness to know and do some one thing in pref me that the layout ( :rence to all others. Now it seems to of the Trivium adapts itself with a singular appropriate ness to these three ages: Grammar to the Poll-Parrot, Dialectic to the Pert, and Rhetoric to the Poetic age. Let us begin, then, with Grammar. This, in practice, means the grammar of some language in particular; and it must be an inflected language. The grammatical struc ture of an uninflected language is far too analytical to be tackled by any one without previous practice in Dialectic. Moreover, the inflected languages interpret the uninflected. whereas the uninflected are of little use in interpreting the inflected. I will say at once, quite firmly, that the best grounding for education is the Latin grammar. I say this. not because Latin is traditional and mediaeval, but simply because even a rudimentary knowledge of Latin cuts down the labor and pains of learning almost any other subject was a fault of mediaeval education which we need, not per by at least 50 per cent. It is the key to the vocabulary and petuate. The stories can be enjoyed and remembered in structure of all the Romance languages and to the structure English. and related to their origin at a subsequent stage. of all the Teutonic languages, as well as to the technical Recitation aloud should be practiced, individually os in vocabulary of all the sciences and to the literature of the chorus; for we must not forget that we are laying the entire Mediterranean civilization, together with all its his groundwork for Disputation and Rhetoric. torical documents. The grammar of History should consist, I think, of dates, Those whose pedantic preference for a living language events, anecdotes, and personalities. A set of dates to which persuades them to deprive their pupils of all these advan one can peg all later historical knowledge is of enormous tages might substitute Russian, whose grammar is still help later on in establishing the perspective of history. more primitive. Russian is, of course, helpful with the It does not greatly matter which dates: those of the Kings other Slav dialects. There is something also to be said for of England will do very nicely, provided that they are ac costumes, architecture, -and other f’ Classical Greek. But my own choice is Latin. Having thus companied by pictures of pleased the Classicists among you, I will proceed to horrify •everyday things, so that the mere mention of a date calls them by adding that I do not think it either wise or neces up a strong visual presentment of the whole period. sary to cramp the ordinary pupil upon the Procrustean bed Geography will similarly be presented in its factual as of the Augustan Age, with its highly elaborate and artificial pect, with maps, natural features, and visual presentment verse forms and oratory. Post-classical and rnediaeval Latin, of customs, costumes, flora, fauna, and so on; and I believe which was a living language down to the end of the Ren myself that the discredited and old-fashioned memorizing aissance, is easier and in some ways livelier; and a study of of a few capital cities, rivers, mountain ranges, etc., does it helps to dispel the widespread notion that learning and no harm. Stamp-collecting may be encouraged. literature came to a full-stop when Christ was born and Science, in the Poll-Parrot period, arranges itself natu only woke up again at the Dissolution of the Monasteries. rally and easily round collections—the identifying and Latin should be begun as early as possible—at a time naming of specimens and, in general, the kind of thing that when inflected speech seems no more astonishing than any used to be called “natural history,” or, still more charming other phenomenon in an astonishing world; and when the ly, “natural philosophy.” To know the names and properties chanting of “Amo, Amos, Amar” is as ritually agreeable to of things is, at this age, a satisfaction in itself; to recognize the feelings as the chanting of “eeny, meeny, miney, mo.” a devil’s coach-horse at sight, and assure one’s foolish elders During this age we must, of course, exercise the mind on that, in spite of its appearance, it does not sting; to be able other things besides Latin grammar. Observation and mem to pick out Cassiopeia and the Piciades, and perhaps even ory are the faculties most lively at this period: and if we to know who Cassiopeia and the Pleiades were; to be are to learn a contemporary foreign language we should aware that a whale is not a fish, and a bat not a bird—au begin now, before the facial and mental muscles become these things give a pleasant sensation of superiority; while rebellious to strange intonations. Spoken French or German to know a ring-snake from an adder or a poisonous from can be practiced alongside the grammatical discipline of an edible toadstool is a kind of knowledge that• has also a the Latin. - practical value. In English, meanw)iile, verse and prose can be learned The grammar of Mathematics begins, of course, with by heart, and the pupil’s memory should be stored with the multiplication table, which, if not learnt now, will never stories of every kind—classical myth. European legend, be learnt with pleasure; and with the recognition of geo and so forth. I do not think that the classical stories and metrical shapes and the grouping of numbers. These exer masterpieces of ancient literature should be made the vile cises lead naturally to the doing of simple sums in arithme O bodies on which to practice the technics of Grammar—that tic. More complicated mathematical processes may, and 94 NATIONAL REVIEW

to

tirely

constitution.

have

gence

Formal

symptoms

It cursive

mar

neglect of

the disposed

Memory,

speaking,

from than

cation

they have about

much

science,

also necessarily

mandments. the

narrative

quainted add

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and “Kubla

matter memory-rhymes things

ogy

that

pose

diate

spontaneously

child’s

tendency

committed

whether

well

material

material

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teachers,

tice. contains

ently

perhaps

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is

argue

the

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the HIS

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is

first

should

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for

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material

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still

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mind

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to

felt

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probably

we God

grammar

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the part

part

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(like discredited, the

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for

age, presented

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of

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very

be

it

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be

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rational

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will

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to

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enjoy it

jingle

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as

exercise

in

age.

all that

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the

course,

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memorized

educational

the

appeal

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theology

fully

importance;

be

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leave

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reasons

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we

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to

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the

attitude

at

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pupils’

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ernment?

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speech

analysis

history shall

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method correct, arc

children

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eTsons

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number

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to

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much

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his

a prompt

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form

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of

grammar

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the

the

to

in

extended

argument,

and

now

special

of

sub-department

by

history—a

be

universal

us

is

as

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other

this

arguments

of

own

absorbing

itself

the

relations

of

place which

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for

is

make

(i.e..

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be

them

rule

the

instances rational

place

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whatever

we in about

at

“All

and

dramatic

now

related

aided

debate.

being,

and

since

not

henceforward

of

language

have

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kind.

discussion:

practical

hand the

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objected

the

part

do

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revelation,

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to

shall

as

of

the

an

that

it

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argue

by

of

quickly

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invalidated

measurement,

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of

assumptions

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conduct

in

every

establishment

by

what

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fallen

the between

true. that

our

subject

of

for

of

argument

is.

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is

to

for

structure

a

interest

at

logical

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training

theology,

order

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individual

performances.

the

thus

proceed

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simplified

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age not

knowledge.

arguing

and

criticism,

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writing

syllogism

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of

simple

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even

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syllogism

application

it

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review

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and

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to

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how of

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the

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to

stated

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belief

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course

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in Christian

illuminating

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recast

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take

whose

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should

introduction

choral positive

kind

reason

this

with narrative

hypothetical

JANUARY

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and

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the

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1979

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0 0 raphy and the Sciences will likewise provide material for Dialectic. But above all, we must not neglect the material which is so abundant in the pupils’ own daily life. I) There is a delightful passage in Leslie Paul’s The Living Hedge which tells how a number of small boys enjoyed themselves for days arguing about an extraordinary shower of rain which had fallen in their town—a shower so local ized that it left one half of the main street wet and the other dry. Could one, they argued, properly say that it had rained that day on or over the town or only in the town? How many drops of water were - required to con stitute rain?—and so on. Argument about this led on to a host of similar problems about rest and motion, sleep and waking, es: and non esi, and the infinitesimal division of time. The whole passage is an admirable example of the spontaneous development of the ratiocinative faculty and the natural and proper thirst of the awakening reason for shown how to tell which sources are authoritative and definition of terms and exactness of statement. All events which are not. are food for such an appetite. Towards the close of this stage, the pupils will probably An umpire’s decision; the degree -to which one may trans be beginning to discover for themselves that their knowledge gress the spirit of a regulation without being trapped by and experience are insufficient, and that their trained in the letter: on such questions as these, children are born telligences need a great deal more material to chew upon. casuists, and their natural propensity only needs to be de The imagination—usually dormant during the Pert age— veloped and trained—and, especially, brought into an in will reawaken, and prompt them to suspect the limitations telligible relationship with events in the grown-up world. of logic and reason. This means that they are passing into The newspapers are full of good material for such exercises: the Poetic age and are ready to embark on the study of legal decisions, on the one hand, in cases where the cause Rhetoric. The doors of the storehouse of knowledge should at issue is not too abstruse; on the other, fallacious reason now be thrown open for them to browse about as they will. ing and muddleheaded arguments, with which the corre The things once learned by rote will be seen in new con spondence columns of certain papers one could name are texts: the things once coldly analyzed can now be brought abundantly stocked. together to form a new synthesis; here and there a sudden insight will bring about that most exciting of all discoveries: the realization that a truism is true. HEREVER the matter for Dialectic is found, it s, of It is difficult to map out any general syllabus for the course, highly important that attention should be focused study of Rhetoric: a certain freedom is demanded. In litera upon the beauty and economy of a fine demonstration or ture, appreciation should be again allowed to take the lead a well-turned argument, lest veneration should wholly die. over destructive criticism: and self-expression in writing Criticism must not be merely destructive: though at the can go forward, with its tools now sharpened to cut clean same time both teacher and pupils must be reads’ to detect and observe proportion. Any child who already shows a fallacy, slipshod reasoning, ambiguity, irrelevance, and re disposition to specialize should be given his head: for, when dundancy, and to pounce upon them like rats. This is the the use of the tools has been well and truly learned, it is moment when précis-writing may be usefully undertaken; to available for any study whatever. It would be well, I think, gether with such exercises as the writing of an essay, and that eath pupil should learn to do one, or two, subjects the reduction of it, when written, by 25 or 50 per cent. really well, while taking a few classes in subsidiary subjects It will, doubtless, be objected that to encourage young so as to keep his mind open to the inter-relations of all persons at the Pert age to browbeat, correct, and argue knowledge. Indeed, at this stage, our difficulty will be to with their elders will render them perfectly intolerable. My keep “subjects” apart; for as Dialectic will have shown all answer is that children of that age are intolerable anyhow; branches of learning to be inter-related, so Rhetoric will and that their natural argumentativeness may just as well tend to show that, all knowledge is one. To show this, and be canalized to good purpose as allowed to run away into show why it is so, is pre-eminently the task of the mistress- the sands. It may, indeed, be rather less obtrusive at home science. But whether theology is studied or not, we should if it is disciplined in school; and, anyhow. elders who have at least insist that children who seem inclined to specialize abandoned the wholesome principle that children should he on the mathematical and scientific side should be obliged seen and not heard have no one to blame but themselves. to attend some lessons in the humanities and vice versa. Once again: the contents of the syllabus at this stage At this stage also, the Latin grammar, having done its may be anything you like. The “subjects” supply material: work, may be dropped for those who prefer to carry on but they are all to be regarded as mere grist for the mental their language studies on the modern side: while those who mill to work upon. The pupils should be encouraged to go are likely never to have any great use or aptitude for math and forage for their own information, and so guided towards ematics might also be allowed to rest, more or less, upon the proper use of libraries and books of reference, and their oars. Generally speaking: whatsoever is mere appa

98 NATtONAL REVIEW ratus may now be allowed to fall into the background. person who has not the tools at his command. To learn six while the trained mind is gradually prepared for special subjects without remembering how they were learnt does ization in the “subjects” which, when the Trivium is com nothing to ease the approach to a seventh; to have learnt pleted, it should be perfectly well equipped to tackle on and remembered the art of learning makes the approach its own. The final synthesis of the Trivium—the presen to every subject an open door. and C tation public defense of the thesis—should be restored Before concluding these necessarily very sketchy sug in some form; perhaps as a kind of leaving examination” gestions, I ought to say why I think it necessary, in these during the last term at school. days. to go back to a discipline which we had discarded. The scope of Rhetoric depends also on whether the pupil The truth is that for the last three hundred years or so we is to be turned out into the world at the age of 16 or have been living upon our educational capital. The post- whether he is to proceed to the university. Since, really, Renaissance world, bewildered and excited by the profusion Rhetoric should be taken at about 14, the first category of of new ‘subjects” offered to it, broke away from the old pupil should study Grammar from about 9 to 11, and discipline (which had, indeed, become sadly dull and stereo Dialectic from 12 to 14; his last two school years would typed in its practical application) and imagined that hence- then be devoted to Rhetoric, which, in his case, would be forward it could, as it were, disport itself happily in its new of a fairly specialized and vocational kind, suiting him to and extended Quadrivium without passing through the enter immediately upon some practical career. A pupil of Trivium. But the Scholastic tradition, though broken and the second category would finish his Dialectical course maimed, still lingered in the public schools and universities: in his preparatory school, and take Rhetoric during his Milton. however much he protested against it, was formed first two years at his public school. At 16. he would be by it—the debate of the Fallen Angels and the disputation ready to start upon those “subjects” which are proposed of Abdiel with Satan have the toot-marks of the Schools upon them, and might, incidentally, profitably figure as set passages for our Dialectical studies. Right down to the We have lost the tools of learning that nineteenth century, our public affairs were mostly managed, were so adaptable to all tasks. We have and our books and journals were for the most part written, merely a set of complicated jigs, each of by people brought up in homes, and trained in places, which will do but one task and no more, where that tradition was still alive in the memory and almost in the so that no man ever sees the work as a whole blood. Just so. many people today who are atheist or agnostic in religion, are governed in their conduct by a code of Christian ethics which is so rooted in their unconscious assumptions that it never occurs to them to for his later study at the university: and this part of his question it. education will correspond to the mediaeval Quadrivium. But one cannot live on capital forever. However firmly 0 What this amounts to is that the ordinary pupil, whose a tradition is rooted, if it is never watered, though it dies formal education ends at 16, will take the Trivium only: hard, yet in the end it dies. And today a great number— whereas scholars will take both the Trivium and the perhaps the majority—of the men and women who handle Quadrivium. our affairs, write our books and our newspapers, carry Is the Trivium, then, a sufficient education for life? out our research, present our plays and our films, speak Properly taught. I believe that it should be. At the end of from our platforms and pulpits—yes, and who educate the Dialectic, the children will probably seem to be far our young people—have never, even in a lingering tradi behind their coevals brought up on old-fashioned “modern” tional memory, undergone the Scholastic discipline. Less methods, so far as detailed knowledge of specific subjects and less do the children who come to be educated bring is concerned. But after the age of 14 they should be able any of that tradition ,with them. We have lost the tools to overhaul the others hand over fist. Indeed. I am not at of learning—the axe and the wedge, the hammer and the all sure that a pupil thoroughly proficient in the Trivium saw, the chisel and the plane—that were so adaptable to would not be fit to proceed immediately to the university at all tasks. Instead of them, we have merely a set of com the age of 16, thus proving himself the equal of his mcdi plicated jigs, each of which will do but one task and no aeval counterpart, whose precocity astonished us at the more, and in using which eye and hand receive no training, beginning of this discussion. This, to be sure, would make so that no man ever sees the work as a whole or “looks to hay of the English public-school system, and disconcert the end of the work.” the universities very much. It would, for example, make What use is it to pile task on task and prolong the days quite a different thing of the Oxford and Cambridge boat- of labor, if at the close the chief object is left unattaineci? race. It is not the fault of the teachers—they work only too hard But I am not here to consider the feelings of academic already. The combined folly of a civilization that has for bodies: I am concerned only with the proper training of gotten its own roots is forcing them to shore up the tot LI CHL.U UIILCa dilL’ UCdI WILII LLIC ILIl ,illugvlc ijiass tering weight of an educational structure that is built upon of undigested problems presented to it by the modern sand. They are doing for their pupils the work which the world. For the tools of learning are the same, in any and pupils themselves ought to do. For the sole true end of every subject; and the person who knows how to use them education is simply this: to teach men how to learn for will, at any age, get the mastery of a new subject in half themselves; and whatever instruction fails to do this is the time and with a quarter of the effort expended by the effort spent in vain. D 0

JANUARY 19. 1979 99 0 0 0

SAINT SUMMA Chapteri. THD1VIAS CONTRA THE OFFICE OF THE WISE MAN “My mouth shall meditate truth, and my JkQLJI}NJJ\.S ENTILES lips shall hate impiety” (Prov. 8:7). to the [1] The usage of the multitude, which according Philosopher is to be followed in giving names to things,’ B has commonly held that they are to be called wise who order things rightly and govern them well. Hence, among other things that men have conceived about the wise man, JNJE: the Philosopher includes the notion that “it belongs to thc wise man to order.”2 Now, the rule of government and coi:: order for all things directed to an end must be taken from the end. For, since the end of each thing is its good, a thing is then best disposed when it is fittingly ordered to its end. And so we see among the arts that one functions as the its governor and the ruler of another because it controls art of end. Thus, the art of medicine rules and orders the the chemist because health, with which medicine is con the cerned, is the end of all the medications prepared by of art of the chemist. A similar situation obtains in the art miii ship navigation in relation to shipbuilding, and in the equip tary art with respect to the equestrian art and the called Trans1aed ment of war. The arts that rule other arts are the architectonic, as being the ruling arts. That is why University with an lntroduction artisans, artisans.devoted to these arts, who are called master and Notes, But, since of appropriate to themselves the name of wise men. ends of Noh-e Dame Press by these artisans are concerned, in each case, with the universal ANTON C. PEGIS, certain particular things, they do not reach to the Nohe Dame with end of all things. They are therefore said to be wise London ER.S.C. is said that respect to this or that thing; in which sense it (loza 30). 1. Aristotle, Topics, II, i 2. Aristotle, Metaphysics, I, z (982a i8). Summa Contra Gentiles BOOK ONE )D 6o 0. HE TRUTH OF THE CATHOLIC FAITH ing words: to meditate and speak forth of the divine truth, I have laid the foundation” (I Cor. “as a wise architect, which is truth in person (Wisdom touches on this in the absolutely wiseman, however, is 3:10). The name of the words my mouth shall meditate truth), and to refute the consideration is directed to the end reserved for him whose opposing error (which Wisdom touches on in the words also the origin of the universe. of the universe, which is and my lips shall hate impiety). By impiety is here meant the Philosopher, it belongs to the That is why, according to falsehood against the divine truth. This falsehood is con highest causes.3 wise man to consider the trary to religion, which is likewise named piety. Hence, the contrary to it is called impiety.° [21 Now, the end of each thing is that which is intended falsehood by its first author or mover. But the first author and mover of the universe is an intellect, as will be later shown.4 The ultimate end of the universe must, therefore, be the good of an intellect. This good is truth. Truth must consequently Chapter 2. of the whole universe, and the con be the ultimate end THE AUTHOR’S INTENTION IN of the wise man aims principally at truth. So it sideration THE PRESENT WORK is that, according to His own statement, divine ‘Wisdom testifies that He has assumed flesh and come into the world [i] Among all human pursuits, the pursuit of wisdom in order to make the truth known: “For this was I born, is more perfect, more noble, more useful, and more full of and for this came I into the world, that I should give testi joy. mony to the truth” (John 18:37). The Philosopher him of truth, self establishes that first philosophy is the science It is more perfect because, in so far as a man gives origin of all not of any truth, but of that truth which is the himself to the pursuit of wisdom, so far does he even now whereby truth, namely, which belongs to the first principle have some share in true beatitude. And so a wise man has principle is, all things are. The truth belonging to such a said: “Blessed is the man that shall continue in wisdom” things have the same clearly, the source of all truth; for (Ecclus. 14:22). disposition in truth as in being.5 It is more noble because through this pursuit man science, however, both [31 It belongs to one and the same especially approaches to a likeness to God Who “made all and to oppose the other. to pursue one of two contraries things in wisdom” (Ps. 103:24). And since likeness is the effect health and to elim r’Iedicine, for example, seeks to cause of love, the pursuit of wisdom especially joins man to to the wise man to inate illness. Hence, just as it belongs God in friendship. That is why it is said of wisdom that to the first prin meditate especially on the truth belonging “she is an infinite treasure to meni which they that use belongs to him to refute ciple and to teach it to others, so it become the friends of God” (Wis. 7:14). the opposing falsehood. It is more useful because through wisdom we arrive Appropriately, therefore, is the twofold office of the [4] at the kingdom of immortality. For “the desire of wisdom shown from the mouth of Wisdom in our open- wjse man bringeth to the everlasting kingdom” (Wis. 6:21). Aristotle, Metaphysics, 1, i (98th 28). the 3. 6. In the present chapter, I have changed wickedness in See below, ch. 44; also SCG, II, ch. 24 this is demanded b the sense. . Douay text to impiety, since 5. Aristo Metaphysics, Ia, 1 (993b 30). C C C)

HF\VE THE ARTS ou OF LEARNING AND COMMUNICATI(

A Handbook of the Liberal Arts

NE Benedict M. Ashley, 0.?.

ONLY with the collaboration of the staffs of the ST. XAVXEB COLLEGE SchooL SYSTEM and the

ALBERTUS MAGNUS LYCEUM

CHRIST THE rrrrrnIn ii PRIORY PRESS Dubuque—1958 INTRODUCTION

The Story of the Liberal Arts

ADAM

made for him. \\‘ Adam looked around at the world God had a place to work wi it just a place to eat and sleep? Was it just first did not even thu strength of body and skill of hand? Adam at of working. He on about eating or sleeping, and he had no need are all mine, h thought, “What strange things I see and hear! They what are they?” down he felt t Reaching up he touched the leaves. Bending In the sky grass and smelled the warm earth and the flowers. descend again. [0 1 saw the sun move to the zenith and begin to and in the bong shadow of the woods he saw the animals playing, lie heard the song of birds. to ii, As lie examined each strange thing, touched it, listened from t began to understand its nature. The lion was different other rabbit, a rabbit; yet every rabbit was the same as every his mind Ad every lion was the same as every other lion. In a mental w’u formed a name for each thing he saw and understood, all time call that stood for the nature of the thing. “The man named field, but he found all the birds of the air, and all the beasts of the helper like himself” (Gen. 2:20). AD/\M 3 0 n C 0 THE STORY OF TIlE LIJ3ERAL ARTS AND COMMUNICATION 4 11IE ARTS OF LEARNING Around them he heard the animals calling, some with squeak surprised that he was the only one of his whmic] At first Adam was not and growls and some in song. Adam understood these signs a human nature. He knew that he was tiier kind, the only thing with the animals made by instinct. They were natural signs because animals about him. He understood that it stood ha very different from the was a natural connection between the sign and the thing in food and their families. Adam was in was tIm they were interested only When Adam saw the footprint of a lion, he knew that this looking at the universe and trying to terested in all things, in just natural sign that a lion had passed by. When he heard the lion’s roam he could never tire of exploring A understand it. It seemed to him that he knew that this was the natural sign that the lion was hungry. because he had begun to realize the world about him, particularly first themselves may have used only such natur world, must be still more great. Sea a diat Cod, who made so great a signs. They smiled at each other to show their love; they pointed there was no boundary to the ever and sky had their limits, but cried out to call each other’s attention. This natural language wa he ever finish exploring the mys lasting wonder of God. How could enough for the animals who had only their feelings to talk aboma a day when God would finally let tim tery of God? Would there be Adam and Eve, however, wanted to talk over all the things There was only one God, and Adam eye Adam see him face to face? interested them. Eve saw a lion and turned with questioning that he had been made. Why then it knew that it was in God’s image to Adam. “AJhat is it?” her eyes said. Adam wanted to explain just as there was only one God, so there was nature of the lime was it so strange that her, to tell her what he had learned about the lii only one man? He longed to tell her about all the things he had explored; about the world about him, he who Ion Adam realized that in being king over plans for the future; above all about God their Father, of all things. How day see fac jiiust imitate Cod, who is the King and Father made this world and whom he hoped they might some He could not create it and Adan could Adam be king and father to his world? to face. Natural signs were not enough to say all this, order. He could tend to stand for th nncw, but at least he could keep it in perfect with Eve’s agreement, began to invent new sounds could he share the not natmirn the garden, watch over the animals; but how natures of everything he knew. These spoken words were him, namely, wisdom greatest of all gifts which Cod had shared with signs, but signs whose meaning came from agreement, conventioiu: share this wisdom and md understanding? The animals could not signs. If only Adam had children of his own kind understanding with Adam. new language taught Eve all that he knew abomi was Father t ;im, chiiLcn Adam in this to whom he might be a father as God listened in delight. Adam explained i the world, and the world and God, and she might teach to understand the wonder of that puzzled iwi whom lie all so clearly! Still there was one thing he said wonder of God! world to know and USL the infinite lIe said that Cod had given them the whole problem, Adam awoke to find a corn tree of the knowledg After sleeping on this but had forbidden them to taste the fruit of the God had made for him to be his helper that he di pamon at his side whom of good and evil. When she asked why, Adam explained own. Adam understood that this was Eve, but that he wa in raising a family of his not know why God had given them this command, (Gen. 3:20). Adam and Eve were to Coi “the mother of all the living” sure that it must be for a good reason. In fact, it was because queen. How could they time world together, to be its king and He wanted to give them soon the greates shire his wished to test them. thoughts? Adam had named all things in He wanted to let then ilso share each other’s knowledge of all, the most wonderful secret. or concepts. Some of these were proper sine mimind with niental words see him face to face so that their happiness might be complete, each belonging to a single thing. Others names, like time name of Eve, of the world is only a sign of God’s perfect beauty as the name all the beauty mon names, representing a universal concept, to give them as the reward of their obedienc w<’re coin did This gift he intended “bird.” These were in Adam’s mind, but he woiiian, or “lion,” or and trust. teach them to Eve. mint know at first how to ThE STORY OF THE LIBERAL ARTS COMMUNICATION 6 TIlE AUTS OF LEAflNINC AND Yet even such savage people have discovered many arts of making to another who invented They did not earn their reward. Eve one day listened a living and recreation. They honor as heroes those the evil one, “who is a In the book of Genesis teacher, not to Adam, and that teacher was these arts and taught them to their tribes. devil suggested to Eve two of the sons of Adam and Eve, liar and the father of lies” (Jn. 8:45). The it is recalled that Cain and Abel, them to eat of the tree of life by their skill. “Abel the wicked idea that Cod had forbidden soon learned to earn the necessities lest they become his of the soil” (Cen. 4:2). Soon they because he wished to keep men in ignorance was a keeper of flocks and Cain a tiller have explained how im— for we read that among the equals. If Eve had asked Adam, he woiihl were not content with bare necessities envious of his children. a man named Jabel who “was the possiI)le it was for their heavenly Father to be descendants of Cain there was what the serpent said. dwell in tents and have flocks. His ’s Bitt Eve did not wait to ask Adam about forerunner of those who persuaded Adam that, since the forerunner of all who play the harp and Curiously she ate of the fruit, and then name was Jubal; he was there were not only useful arts for the situ bet already eaten, lie must join her. the flute” (4:20-21). Thus into the wilderness, they that men require for life itself, but also Alter they were cast out of their garden feud, shelter and clothing to work all day to keep his family like music, which men needed to enjoy life and found life very hard. Adam had arts of recreation, to explore the wonders of the alive, lie had little time any longer to live well. and the children. Eve too was animals world and little time to give to Eve At times these savages seemed as poor and ignorant as the clothed and fed; she was often develop kept busy all day keeping the children about them, and yet it took great intelligence to discover and minds filled with a thousand Eve to tired and Impatient with them. Their any of these arts. It had been easy enough for Adam and hunger and anger, Adam and in worries and their hearts with restless pluck fruit from trees in the garden of Eden, but to earn a living and quarreled. Their children To Eve often misunderstood each other the wilderness was difficult, and that is why arts were required. might have taught them, if he bad to figure grew up missing much that Adam discover even so simple an art as making a tent, a savage had more peace at home. The had more time and if there had been out four things: grew up without that clear and wonderful children of Adam and Eve He had to fix clearly before him his purpose or end, exactly once possessed. To these boys and 1. vision of the world their parents what be was trying to accomplish; to make something that would and often very dull, girls life seemed rather puzzling keep out the rain, yet let out the smoke from the fire, and which children of Eve” also find the world Today we “poor banished could be easily moved. Often we give up trying to understand would pretty hard to understand. 2. He had to picture what the form or pattern of such a tent and bored. Who is there to teach it and arc content to be ignorant like. in tclcv:sjon movies, l)OOkS, and be answers? Many false teachers material It would be suitable to its the the truth. To get 3. He had to decide out of what give us lying answers when we look for newspapers Cod gave to make It. vision of truth and reality which and back the beautiful 4. He had to find the power and Instruments to cut, shape will have to study very hard. Adam and Eve w’e fasten this material. difficult As time went by, men discovered how to use even very S A V A C E S vessels materials. “Tubalcain was the forerunner of those who forge Eve and all their iron” (4:22). the wilderness the family of A1itin and of bronze and I king in and in mere work to recover their lost heritage of knowledge Nor were the savages content to live their lives dc,,ce:idants struggled things Their life was probably a great deal occasional recreation. Men cannot be content with the their test control over nature. and the jungle people of Africa, the satisfy mere animals. Adam and Eve had found their greatest like that of savage peoples of today, that of our own American Indians. dcserVNple of Australia, or some fl C C C OF TILE LIIIEIIAL ABTS 9 AND COMMUNICATION THE STORY 8 rilE ARTS OF LEABNING along the Nile liver. Somewhat later world, and in friendship with each other phrates Rivers, and in Egypt happiness in exploring the finally in Central he was jealous of Abel’s they were built in India, in Crete, in China, and and with God. Cain killed Abel because Cain himself had not deserved. Seth, America. friendship with God which cities they named Enos, who taught Today as scientists dig about in the ruins of these the third son of Adam and Eve, had a son the true God men who built them were experts in many arts. pray rightly to God. When men pray to find proof that the men how to With a more ample food so that they can serve him perfectly, they also Irrigation improved the art of agriculture. and scek to do his will could specialize world which God has given them. supply men could live in large groups, nd each want to know the truth about the on the law of God art, exchanging what he made for the other things lie Throughout ancient times some men pondered in a particular Adam had possessed. Tools and weapons were no longer made of stone but of and recovered something of the wisdom which needed. those living copper, bronze, and finally of iron. human race Was scattered over the world, Yet as the became very colorful as the arts of wiser men to teach them sometimes became The life of these cities also in small groups without of the physical games of living. Others developed many recreation flourished. In the ruins are evidences almost like animals in their way boa the practice of magic people: their ball—games, wrestling matches, chariot and also tried to gain still more power by of [lie arts, but be mental games as puzzles and checkers. The line the evil spirits. Gradually their ideas of God races—as well as such and the worship of and sculpture iii cruelties, lusts, and ambi arts made their buildings beautiful with paintings came clouded and colored by their own their Father in heaven, see also portrayed musicians, dancers, and actors. tunis. Some of them worshipped not God, which we their mother who had given only such arts, they would hut [lie earth, which they thought of as Yet if these city—dwellers had known return at death. As they for their discovery of writing that proves birth to them and to whom they would still have been savages. It was conduct and the world shows that they had l)egnn to got the true Cod, so their ideas about human they were truly civilized, because it and strange. They wrote clown business of nature in which they lived became twisted appreciate the value of human thought. have left their traces: because they saw the importance of living ac All over the world these savage people contracts and city laws the pictures they painted in the fixed principles. Thus their social thought was recorded the stone tools which they made, cording to backwoods and corneis also wrote down records of [he ntovcmrnls of t)u. caves, even their living descendants In the In writing. They these tri. which remain calendar. This was their thought about nature. Above the world. The simplest and oldest of stars and kept a many have ideas ;..i c.us the prayers and ceremonies by which they today still remember the true God, but all they recorded cruelty, and impurity. To all these thoughts they began to try to give clear tows which seem like a nightmare of fear, shipped God. God brought disasters LI id beautiful language and expression. When the human race had stink very low, in Genesis, to warn them the value of thought, they upon men, such as the great flood recorded Nevertheless, although they appreciated or be extinguished. After this of truth. The true ideas they that they must turn back to seek him did not always appreciate the value human race develop once imaginings that grew out warning he promised that he would let the recorded were also mixed with all kinds of had lost. In Genesis we read ho’ iiiore and strive to rise again to the glory it of their pride, ambition, rivalry, and hatred. useful piiipose, men l)ni]t the Tower of Babel (11:1-9), not for any to display their nor in order to worship the true God, but merely ANCIENT CITIES undertaking flue pride. As a punishment God made this ambitious rebuild paradise quarreling, confusion, and social division. As society men began to struggle and work to occasion of Outce more The into rival groups, each city tried to outdo the next years ago men began to build great cities. became divided on earth. Some 6000 skill, and finally each came to war with call Iraq, along the Tigris and Eu- in a display of power and first ‘erc in the coimtry we now ARTS 11 THE STORY OF THE LIBERAL OF LEARNING AND COMMUNICATION 10 THE ARTS to slaves who had 110 was common, and tile useful arts were left (Gen. 10:9) built up huge only in those arts which were the other. Great conquerors like Nemrod ambition to make new inventions. It was on cruel slavery. fitting for free men that the Greeks showed unique genius. empires based of thought the right idea of human life and an art. As men de Only a few men kept Ju the Olympic games athletics became them was Abraham, who lived near proportion, and control man’s relation to God; among veloped a keen appreciation for the strength, command he took his family they also learned to Babylon in the city of Ur. At Cod’s of the human body displayed in these games, home for them in Palestine, where and paintings that were out of these evil cities and found a make and appreciate buildings, statues, freed by Moses from the power The same sense of bal later, after his descendants had been strong, well-proportioned, and yet graceful. city of Jerusalem with a temple them to write stories and play’s, such of Egypt, they built their own holy ance and symmetry helped they kept the Sacred Scriptures of Sophocles, more dramatical dedicated to the one true Cod. Here as the epics of Homer and the tragedies did other peoples—their laws, their times. in which they wrote down—just us 1>’ told than those of former in beautiful and exact language. in all that they did led science, their prayers to God, all Finally, this search for clarity and order of books, seemed much like the the art of clear and orderly This sacred book, or rather library the Creeks to discover the art of arts, But while other ancient arts, because clear of tile other people of that period. which is called logic. It is the art of libraries destroyed, the Bible thinking for pitiful fragments, have been of every art and science. books, except it was in thinking is the basis of all books today. This is because reason or proof for what remains the best-seller To think clearly is to give the precise his Church. In Greece spired by God and preserved by to be true. There were many clever men man of ancient times, King ever we claim Bible we read about the wisest who were constantly arguing and talking In this “God gave to called sophists (wise men) wisdom which he taught his people. ideas. What one man said was Solomon, and the large and proposing new and surprising understanding exceeding much, and to doubt that it was Solomon wisdom and another claimed was false. Men began that Is on the sea shore. And the wisdom true, ness of heart as the sand be sure what was really true. of all the Orientals, and of the possible to of Solomon surpassed the wisdom who was truly wise but refused to be called three thousand parables: and Then appeared a man . also spoke that Egyptians. . . Solomon of wisdom” or a philosopher. He showed five. And he treated about trees anything but a “lover his 1oetns were a thousand and argument about what is true and what Is the hyssop that groweth out tile only way to settle an the cedar that is in Libanus unto terms. He was named Socrates, from fowls, and of creep false is to begin by defining your and he discoursed of beasts, and of men when he of the wall: to hear finally put to death because he angered And they came from all the nations and was what ing things, and of fishes. they were always talking without knowing all the kings of the earth who pointed out that the wisdom of Solomon, and from 4:29-34). It seemed that Solomon they were saying. heard of his wisdom” (HI Kings showed that in his old age he was led by Plato continued the work of Socrates and regained the wisdom of Adam. Yet His pupil had he began to not only define his terms, but must also into foolishness, and to please them to think clearly one must his pagan wives truths on which knowledge state his principles, that is, the basic worship idols. and he knew that to rests. In youth Plato excelled as a wrestler, must plant one’s feet firmly on throw an opponent in wrestling one that he established the first GREEKS. the ground. It was in a gymnasium here he made mathematics university called the Academy, and great wrestling of lands that the arts and sciences because it is by the hard intellectual it was not in thc’s most ancient the basic study, more youthful country, in mind is developed in tile art of logic. full flower, hut in Europe in a mathematics that the cairn to there slavery cities of Greece. Unhappily, even the ‘“ and busy’ 0 C THE STORY OF TIlE LIBEflAL ARTS 13 AND COMMUNiCATION 12 ‘IiIE ARTS OF LEARNING THE ONE TRUE TEACHER (or algebra) and its ap in the Academy were taught arithmetic invented by another These had already been earth by plication to music. The attempts of savage people to restore paradise on Also geometry was taught, although philosopher named Pythagoras. had ended in such disasters as [he flood. The at brought to perfection by Euclid, their corrupt arts it was only somewhat later that it was to restore paradise eu earth had by Ptolemy. tempts of the great ancient cities to astronomy fully developed search and its application ended in warfare and vaii-j schemes like the Tower of Babel, The Aristotle, who realized that succeed, but It too came It was the greatest of Plato’s pupils, of the Greeks after wisdom seemed at first to not only to mathematics but to all empire in which logic should be strictly applied to an end when the Romans established a world school, the Lyceum, with in Rome the of learning. He founded his own wisdom became only a tool to gain power and wealth, branches the firstcomp1ete laboratories, and there established made a god, and Rome began to go down to time sauuue a museum and is not emperor was showed that the chief task of logic all the foolish pride of previous civil curriculum of studies. lie destruction that had followed principles, but to make proofs or merely to define terms and to state izations. that there are four kinds of proof the ti-ne demonstrations. He discovered Of all the people in the world only the Jews had kept but they’ and hence four kinds of logic; idea of God, of his law, of the relation of man to nature; we can prove that a state The fate of their 1. Sometimes in studying the sciences kept themselves pure only by remaining narrow. This is demonstrative logic. of mixing with ment is certainly and exactly true. great wise man Solomon had shown them the danger we cannot prove a statement nnd they knew no way to couribine the wisdom of 2. Soum’times in studying the sciences foreign nations, proofs and keep searching. contained in their own l3ible, This truth exactly, but we can give probable the Creeks with the truth needed was stored up iii Jerusalem, and, like This is dialectical logic. that the whole world are reasons that is kept too long in storage, it had begun to mildew, ‘hmo is needed to convince people grain 3. Sometimes what and feed the famished nations? their emotions so that they will would open the granaries of truth which persuade them by moving had proved that by itself it could not restore para [lie truth and act on it. This is rhetoric. Mankind ac(ej)t unlikely place the true toucher of mankind, exitertain poopic by helping dise. Then from a most what Is needed Is to appeared. lIe seemed to be .1. Somelluuucs is poetics. the second Adam of the human race, and enjoy the truth. This nation. lie them to appreciate only a poor young workman, a carpenter of [lie Jewish a still grcatc’r school . ‘Jcx— Nor was lie a kini lime followers of Aristotle founded was not a student of the philosophy of the Greeks. (after it all our museums become a man like in Egypt, called the Museum like Solomon. He was the Son of God, who had ;nI(lna education spread to From there Aristotle’s system of save us and to teach all men by his example and his preaching. arc ulamnu’(l ), mind education us to and became [lie basis of all our the I ic Wi ioic western world not a student of the philosophers. He was has four main subjects Jesus Christ was system of education a student no one to teach him. today. Iii this supreme philosopher and teacher who required practice the useful arts by himself to master; just He gave an example to those who and the four types of mathematics also of fitting I. The four types of logic working for years as a carpenter. lie gave an example called the liberal arts. to [lie bame1umets of the listc(l. These are recreation, for lie did imot hesitate to come the world of the nature of man and teaching lie used stories which arc uumasterpieces of 2. Natural science, the study people. In his He corrected our understanding of nature in which he lives. poetics and of rhetoric. in the world follow the law of Cod’s man’s life. when he showed how all things scicncc, the study of all other visible crea :3. Social providence and how man has a dignity above of God. 4. Theology, [he study 15 AN]) COMMUNICATION THE STORY OF THE LIHEIIAL. AWlS 14 TUE ARTS OF LEARNING of life and society by this threat by showing how much greater was the tnres. He also corrected our understanding —defeated of God and neighbor. of Christ than that of the philosophers, although whatever teaching that all law is summed up in the love teaching about Cod himself, that was true in philosophy might be used in Christian education. Finally, he revealed to us the supreme secret truth hidden (except in period of disorder called the he is one God in three divine Persons, a The second great threat was the weakened by its failure to ac shadowy outlines) from all ancient thinkers. Dark Ages. The Roman government, true way we need never wholeheartedly, collapsed under the onrush of Ger Now that Jesus Christ has shown us the cept Christianity truth. He taught us all the barbarians from the north and Mohammedan barbarians from be in any doubt as to where to find the manic comes again, we have only south. During this dark time of war and confusion the Church great truths we will ever need. Until he the to understand it better, and kept patiently at work building the foundations of a new civilization. to remain faithful to that truth, strive will complete schools, especially those of the Order of in our search for the lesser truths that It was in the monastery use it s a guide not only kept alive, but even provided the Church and the help St. Benedict, that the ancient education was tlic 1tctiire. Our Lord has on faithful to his teaching. When purified of its paganism and given a new and truer form based of his grace to guide us in remaining Church, headed by his apostles the study of the Sacred Scriptures. he ascended Into heaven he left this educate the whole human race. restored in Europe; many of the barbarians and their successors, the bishops, to Gradually peace was that this work of educating the others were driven back. The Church at last was He warned his apostles, however, were converted, would not be completed before great schools called the universities. Here the world would be a difficult task which able to establish the understand what the Church was and the Museum was restored, except that he comes again. Many would not wisdom of the Lyceum the bishops were trying to sup wisdom sat a new queen, no longer natural trying to do and would claim that now on the throne of teachings which were based on the teaching of Christ. in press the truth, because they were correcting theology, but Sacred Theology of the Middle Ages we see Sacred Theology only partly true. the beautiful cathedrals Church would go on gathering in stone, surrounded by all the arts and sciences which Jesus promised that gradually the portrayed they were to be found, up medieval education. They are symbolized as follows: together the fragments of truth wherever made fitting them into the broad framework deansing them of error, and I. Tim LIBETIAL Awrs: of his own teaching. A. The Trivium or three ways to knowledge: 1. Grammar (and with it poetics), symbolized by the figure of Donatus, a Roman teacher who wrote the Latin grammar- CHRISTIAN EDUCATION book used in all medieval schools. 2. Rhetoric, symbolized by the figure of Cicero, the great Roman the world, the Church had In order to bring the truth of Christ to orator. forces of darkness to put out logic), to overcome three great efforts of the 3. Logic (including both demonstrative and dialectical the libt which she held so high. symbolized by the figure of Aristotle. absorb the was the effort of pagan Rome to Tie first threat B. The Quadrivium or four wags to knowledge: that it could not destroy them by persecu Clirislians, when it Found algebra, symbolized by the figure of Pythagoras. to water down the truth of Christ’s 1. Arithmetic or tion. ‘lhe pagan philosophers tried of Euclid. philosophy. The 2. Geometry, symbolized by the figure turn it into a mere form of pagan teaching and Music, symbolized by the figure of Tubalcain (rather than Church—teachers like St. Ignatlus of Antioch, 3. Fathers of the iii Ages bells were 1 great Augustine, and St. his brother Jubal, because the Middle St. Basil, St. Gregory Nazianzen, St. St. Irenis, n ,Th C) n c5 THE ZIHEHAL AWl’S TilE STOHY OF COMMUNICATION 16 ‘rilE AHTS OF LEABNING AND The resuit was the decay of religious unity which we cafl Protes and Tubalcain was the inventor favorite musical instrument tantism, and the growth of indifference to spiritual things which we of metal work). call Secularism. The progress in art, in science, iii iuivention, and in had their 4. Astronomy, symbolized by the figure of Ptolemy. geographical exploration were all achievements which by the Church, but men forgot woman with her - roots in the education given Europe 11. Piin.osornn’ (science), symbolized by a noble Church as the enemy of progress. The and her feet on the earth: this and began to attack the head in tile clouds deprived symbolized Church, in spite of these persecutions which for a long time A. Natural science and with it medicine, sometimes disciple her of much of her educational influence in Europe, continued the figure of Galen, the great Greek doctor and by patiently to spread her missions into other lands. of Aristotle. symbolized B. Social or moral science and with it law, sometimes codi by the figure of Justinian, the Christian Emperor who CJIRJSTIAN EDUCATION TODAY fied the Roman law. by Plato, who C. Metaphysics or natural theology, represented has finally become pagan We are living in a time when the Church regarded by the earlier Middle Ages as the great was world-wide and is teaching all nations. Yet the world is full of wars theologian. and quarrels that make it difficult for the voice of the Church to by a queen holding the Sacred Ill. SACDnED lticoi,ocv, symbolized be heard. In our own country we have two systems of schools. There Aquinas, the Common Doctor Scriptures, or later by St. Thomas are the Catholic schools which teach the wisdom of Christ in a of the Church. complete way. Most of our young citizens, however, attend non- Doctors of ‘iThis system of education was perfected by the great Catholic schools. was the chief, along with [lie Church (of whom St. These non-Catholic schools (which are excellent in many ways) St. Albert the Great, and St. flonaventtirc and St. Anthony of Padua, actually had their origin in the schools of the Church but are now Canisius) and by educators latci St. Robert I3cllarmine and St. Peter separated from her Influence. They still teach much of what they de ha Salle. and St. Angela like St. Ignatius Loyola, St. John Baptist learned from the Church and from the civilization which she [we- of all educatie.i t;.!y, even of that Merici. It remains the foundation served and developed, but they are required to leave out the teaching given in non-Catholic schools. of many truths, because there is so much disagreement about basic not wholly overcome. The third great threat to the Church is still principles among non-Catholics. beyond the borders of The reign of Christ had to be extended Your own school is not perfect, because it has been hindered expansion brought dangerous Europe to the whole world. Yet this very from developing perfectly by all the confusion and troubles Ira the East with its romantic temptations. The opened up the world. Nevertheless it has a sound Catholic foundation and is striving of the New World luxuries and its mysterious cults. The discovery to give you the best possible education, to give you the whole teach and power. The opened up the West as a source of enormous riches ing of Christ, and to show you how all the other knowledge which the with the growth of the interest and life (II Europe became very colorful human race has discovered can be fitted into this framework the Renaissance. Dazzled in literature and fine arts which we call developed still further. and glory, the rulers of Europe began to struggle with worldly riches Because of outside pressures and influences on Catholic schools, the in supremacy. They even sought to make from our with each other for the names and arrangement of courses are often different their own purposes rather than those stitiulions of the Church serve traditional curriculum, although the subjects taught are still essential- of Christ. AND COMMUNICATION THE STORY OF THE LIBERAL ARTS 19 18 TIlE ARTS OF LEARNING “English” we include all the 3. Rhetoric. ly the same. Thus under the term called “algebra.” The term branches of logic. Arithmetic is today 4. Poetics. “moral science” or “ethics.” involves these four “social science” has replaced the older term Everything you say or read, even a comic-book, general science, biology, demon Natural science is split into many branches; types of logic. You will learn all four together, emphasizing of chemistry, physics, psychology. strative logic, then seeing how its rules apply to other kinds logic. Catholic schools began when to do three things, the three processes which The special work of improving This means learning all Catholic teaching be placed Plato, and Aristotle showed are needed for c]ear thinking: Leo XIII In 1879 recommended that Socrates, and theology of St. Thomas I and II). under the guidance of the philosophy 1) To define your terms (Chapters Pius XII, has repeated this advice (Chapter 11). Aquinas. The present Holy Father, 2) To state your principles framework with all the new (Chapter III). and urged us also to fill in the Thomistic 3) To prove your conclusions discoveries of our age. in this great story of the In your lifetime you will play a part women since Adam, you will find advance of truth. Like all men and the four great fields of that living involves problems concerning human knowledge; and expression, because it 1. Liberal arts, or arts of thinking for you to think clearly, is these arts that will make it possible to study well, to teach and persuade others. of the world and of 2. Natural science, because our knowledge think and do, and human nature is the basis of everything we of all human progress. guide in living with 3. Social sciences, because they are our others. God and ‘the pur 4. Christian doctrine, because it tells us about pose of human life, of all be mastered, since to Of these the liberal arts must first using the arts of study would be try to study other subjects without in elementary school you to try to fight without weapons. Already these subjects, but now you are have been preparing to study all you will complete your liberal entering a new phase of education when arts studies. find a guide to this work of In the rest of this book you will liberal arts. You will learn to think completing your knowledge of the by mastering four types of clearly and to read and speak effectively, logic: 1. Demonstrative logic. 2. Dialectical logic. 0 0 0 AIITS COMMUNICATION THE STORY OF THE LIBERAL 21 20 THE ARTS OF LEARNING AND 2. Logic is a liberal art by which our reason is enabled to give a QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION right mental order to the things it knows, so that it may pro clear thinking? ceed in an efficient and safe manner to attain truth. 1. ITow do our emotions interfere with frequently misunderstand each 1) Demonstrative logic guides us in attaining scientific, that 2. Why do parents and children is, certain and exact, truth. other? Why do friends sometimes quarrel? women, besides those listed in 2) Dialectical logic guides us in choosing the more probable 3. Can you name some other men or and sciences? If you were opinion, when we do not yet know enough to have scientific this chapter, famous for each of the arts sciences in a modern truth. going to symbolize each of the arts and each art and science? guides us in persuading others to right opinion cathedral, whom would you pick to represent 3) Rhetoric school, rather and action, when their emotions might incline them to the are the advantages of attending a Catholic 4. What opposite way. than a non-Catholic school? Is taught In your school in its 4) Poetics guides us in recreating others with the contempla 5. Can you place every course hlch 22? tion of beautiful deeds and the quieting of restless emotions. proper place in the outline on page 3. A sign is something which leads to the knowledge of some thing other than itself. 1) A natural sign is something which leads to the knowledge DEFINITIONS of something other than itself because of a natural similar ity or natural connection between them. task. There is no use 2) corwentional sign is something which leads to the knowl Memorizing may seem to be a very tedious A facts, but to memorize defini edge of something other than itself because of human custom in memorizing a great many random concepts in a science and usage. tions tind classifications of the fundamental Such definitions and universal sign or concept is one which signifies or art is the most efficient way of studying. 3) A distributive orderly wformation in a each and every one of many things. classifications summarize a great deal of a nature possessed by If you have Lrouble in .wdy very short and easily remembered form. 4) A singular sign or concept is one which signifies one single because you waste much of your jug for examinations, it is prOl)ably thing. the important terms in the time on unimportant points. If you list and their classification, you subject and memorize their definitions prepared. It is important, however, to will be quickly and thoroughly word in a good definition memorize a definition exactly, since every is chosen with care. acquired by practice of making 1. An art is an intellectual ability something in a reasonable way. ability, acquired by practice, 1) A servile art is an intellectual mind in a reasonable way. of making something outside the ability, acquired by practice, 2) A liberal art is an intellectual mind in a reasonable way. of making something within the AND COMMUNICATION 22 THE ARTS OF LEARNING

CHRISTIAN EDUCATION

(A classification to be memorized)

Sacred Theology Theology Mth hilosophy) Principal subjects: Social Sciences and related The Sciences servile arts PART ONE

Natural Science

Algebra (or arithmetic, the science of numbers) Christian pure Education (the Art Mathematics Geometry 140g1c as an science of magniftd (in which scientific logic is best exercised)

applied, in the other Tool subjects: sciences and arts The Liberal Arts by demonstrating: resolving Logic intellectual ( Scientific difficulties by investigating: Logic Logic Dialectical by removing Ltoric emotional ( by recreating: difficulties Poetics (with Grammar of all languages) 0 .ci. J

A CATHOLIC SCHOOL c By THEODORE BRAUER, Pi.D

AND OTHERS 4

B. HERDER BOOK CO. BROADWAY, ST. LOUIS, MO. • 15 & 17 SOUTH AND W. C. 33 QUEEN SQUARE, LONDON, 3943

ASSU1’IPT!ON COLLEGE LWRAR a

ST. THOMAS ON STUDY 15 CoLLflkJ MA c7 ceaselessly.. Desire to kee to ourseif, if you wish to reach 7 intimacy wit ci 2B i’ntirteinis to all. yj tn , th affairs oLntheL.peQple. Do not bfan ii r...wi1bnpne, c. J2canse too mJ1C1LfaJTiiliari breeds contempt and is an abundant source of distraction from Nyer, under anjr circumstancesjnvoive yourself with theaviiJies and talk II of the..ouisicle world. Above all, avoid all useless visits Strive I rather to walk constaUV]i otstepsogoo5nd holy.... ;i; ST. THOMAS ON STUDY mçp. Py no attention to the source of a lesson, but memorize nny tici’fnl atlvfr.e you may hear. Besure that you understand what you read and hear. Never leave a doubt unsolved. Take N; writings of pains to lay up all you can in the storehouse of memory, as he y MA of us, looking over the numerous dis does who desires to fill a vase. Do not try to know things that I 6 St. Thomas, wonder at the tremendous energy seri are above you. played, as well as the great learning. The more By following these ways, you will all your life send forth to ous will be prompted to ask: “How should I study and bear both branches and fruit In the vineyard of the Lord The attain what become as nearly as possible like this saint?” of hosts. If you take these words to heart, you will desire. God be with you. Angelic Doctor himself has answered this question you One of the brothers for us in one of his many works. As usual in the saint’s writings, we find ourselves moved by St. in the , probably with more material than we can easily digest. This to him, asking the Thomas’ great learning, wrote letter was obviously written for a student, but that in the following same question. St. Thomas replied is no guaranty that it is simple. In his introduction to letter: the Summa theologica, St. Thomas says he is treat the subject “in a manner fitted to the instruction have asked me, John, my clear brother in Christ, how ing You spite of this, our theologians today you ought to study to amass the treasures of knowledge. of beginners.” In matter is the fol The advice that I would give you on this have the greatest difficulty in understanding all that into the deep lowing: B n1.irniiniic tn plunge immediately is contained in this great work. Let us, then, at lead to IL .sea of wisdom. but advance by the streams that tempt to analyze these words in order to apply them nrrivn t theprofnnn& Be” hy simpiP things you in our daily lives. In doing so, we shall find the help of mine be your rule. Hence, let this counsel valuable and indispensable. In the seven to be slow to.speak,. and slower still in j.. of others 1_7 I advise you Paul Nazarius, O.P., wrote an guçnUngplaQc9f talk. Cherish the purity of your heart. Pry teenth century John V

0 0 0 ST. THOMAS ON STUDY 17 16 THOMISTIC PRINCIPLES C excellent commentary on this work for his fellow true because imm inliIyi tli root QficflOWledge. religious.1 Father Sertillanges, O.P., also comments For us, however, .tKos. igsre more knwable on this letter in parts of his work, La vie intellec which are more eoncret anisensibie, becatte man, le.ct of through tuelle. Both of these writers throw much light on • the inte&ctua1sreatures, rnuim whose proper ohjerl- is the concrete singular. the writings of their illustrious fellow Dominican. senses The first advice given by St. Thomas is: “Be not For example, it is easier to show a man that this • particular thing, a certain tree, exists, than it is to anxious to plunge immediately into the deep sea ol show him that God exists. Still, considered in them wisdom, hut advance by the streams that lead to. selves, the existence of God, which is necessary, is ôrJ lit it. Here St. Thomas advises the student to follow more knowable than the tree’s existence, which is ‘ertain order in attaining knowledge. No one limited matter. In the light of what has been said, should attempt_to—undcr’tand things oTa higher. by the first maxim of St. Thomas means that, since wis nature until he has mastered the more elementgy. dom the highest science which man can attain,. Aristotle says that “wisdom is knowledge of cer, is we must approach WLhrough the lower scknces, (first) principlesan4 causes!” Furtherhe. says that are more knowable for u,In another of his wisdoms the most absolute and most exact of alL which he sets forth the order of learning. He the sciences, and that the wise man not only knows AWorks theconclusions drawn from principles but also sees f,khaL1he_studen should rt .larr! Jogic and then and thus prepared for the physical the trnli of tleprinciples themselvesIn his com f( maihematics, be disciplines.imely. the natural sciences. Hav.ing mentary on this latter passage the saint says that Il mastered these, theicady for the study of the wise man-att ins to the first principles of being • philosophy, which Aristotle cjied_wjsdm.. For St. // whiich_re more knciwable in themselves but less . V ThQmas, however, the science of theology was the! known hy us. By this he means thatjhe more irn-. J \highest science ..andmoreproprical.leclyisdom. material and abstract things, as the more remote Thus the student, afçphilosopy, will study theol are moreicriowable in themselves. This is. causes, ogy. It_wasia sucKaTheginner” in theolog]li..’ 1 Father Nazarius will be found in D. Thomae Aqulnatis \ The text of \the saiii wrote his Sumnia theologica. Monita et Preces. lam tertio eddit R. P. Fr. Thomas Esser, O.P., Fader bornae, 1890. No further reference will be made to it specifically, but • The fundamental notion that he stresses in the a large part of this chapter is an interpretation of this commentary, as this latter work and the first advice of will be evident to any who will consult the original. prologue of 2 Metaphysics, Bk. I, chap. 1, 982a. Commentary on the Dc Trinitate of Boethius, q.5, a. 1, ad3. ‘Ethics, Bk. vi, chap. 7, 1141k, 16—20. ST. THOMAS ON STUDY 19 18 THOMISTIC PRINCIPLES conversation also the saint advises restraint. Stud is order. The proper order in intellectual his letter is- a full-time tislçanLiny diversion of thisiind. a pgression from a principle which) know1egcJs should be in the nature of mental relaxation. ind iinclerstandablJor us to .a cmiusioii( is clP1r much..wi]Lweak,en hhit of thought by exsive,, 8 i tn he understooi. Then, having arrived at which development of the imagination, thereby makingi!c.-” we in him lice it as a princir” thic concliisinn, latter hard to control in the orderly process of think conclusion. However, — ieach a further ingjn the Summa theotogica where he is discussing , Jliabits, St. Thomas says:Hence when man cease 4o make use of his intellectual habits, strange fan -01\ 1J des1, sometimes in opposWito them, arise in his fancies be, as it S C’ imaginath,n; so that unless those R. erecutff or kept J,ack by frequent use of his in tellectual habits man becomes less fit to judge arighf L11Lb*t the con Idle Talk and Its Relation to Study arid’ &ometimes is even wholly disposed to ‘27 diminished to speak. and., trary,, and thus the intellectual habit is Next St. Thomas says: “Be slow frcm act± places of talk’ He is not or.even wholly destroyed by,vessattQn slUwer still in frequenting also makes this point. He says hero as oondemning ordinary Father Sertillanges to be understood worker has no time for such things as re advises the student to restrain that the speech. Rather he visits which bring new obligations, neigh is such a facile organ that many ceptions, his tilk.Jhe tongue borhood affairs, and the whole complicated ritual it excessively. It is a common are tempted to use life which so many worldly men curse men who attempt to cover the of an artificial thing to observe Later we shall see that a certain amount of their minds with voluminous, in secret.6 naked ignorance of this activity is required, but the intellectual ought words. Evidently they hope to impress ill-fitting to remember that this should be reduced to a mini quantity where quality is lacking. Such others by mum. men would do well to remember the saying, “It to be silent and be thought a fool, than to 1 is better ‘Summa theol , Ta ITae, q.53, a.3. speak and remove all doubt.” Then, too, some seek ‘A. D. Sertillanges, O.P., La vie intellectuelle (Paris: Desclée, \ p.56. refuge from thought in prattle. In this matter of 1934),

0 0 C C ST. THOMAS ON STUDY 21 PRINCIPLES 20 THOMISTIC case of drunkards, hi whom the use of reason is fettered or hifldereLT Prayer and the Life of Study are other places where he takes up this “Cherish the purity of your There The next advice is: Incornparing the various pleasures. thQjnfluence of sin on> •same question.8 Here .he adverts to Ii ayg that thoci of touch, food, and sex are th hrt” the oE rCSQP.-. Sfte. Of these thr, the most violent is the thJifc it is clear, from the most violent. forces in the life of the sinner, sex. In the spme place he shpw thatall Thomas, that the student pleasur&of following words of St. vices weaken man’s intellectua!_pration if he is to think clearly. For. carnal musticeen himself pure both in theileld of science and in theiin1erstanding c±pracJples. Thus the man striving for intellectual 5of teason in three.ways. Bixlily pleasures Pti0iIi_stri_parLkII]a1lyakidbese istraction ecause we a a reat-deal vice. eason o atten w Ic p eases us. Now, when the Since sin Ic cnclLajljndrance In the life-of--reason, of attention to that in, fixed on one thing, it is either weakened ells_usto “prny ceacelessly,” For tion is firmly from them; the ext_precept , €1’ to other, things qJtJs cntir?Jyithdrawn Je..conf1dnt...of respect either It entirely hin-. only &Ith hhelp_oLQacLcan.we ...nncLthusiithe bodily pleasure is great. The difficulty of the sinless concentrating the mind’s ittcj& ycrcommgtenipjatiQn. ders the use of reason, by to in all the lives of the saints, where 4 (5o?J itliinders it a greatdeal. life is attested onitself or else thgt. Annther some pleasures, esperilIy thngp their struggles with temptation are told. of reason. In this con we get from it in in excess, arecopttai:y to the order aspect of prayer is the assistance ari bodily pleasures destroy t the. Philosophersay&Ibat i1-tp lif nf nection of pnidencc. althougb the power of ju.dgrpt characteristic say that he always spent time praying before he which theyartppc&;. not destroy4udgment to thiiiLjprayer I they-do .aIriangi are began swdying.. Further, instance, that the three angles_of Foxipyerjbe for impedes both kinds of suckas to encourage knowledge. If.’ eqito two ri btagIes.Pistraction bodily and the this nf GodJt is irdi hy hinceringIhe_re’con; since mind is raised to God judgment. ai:tàzn alteraii1n the jçcy of the body and other sensir pleasure is fo1Iowd by takenawayfrmniJg the other passion, inas us greater even than in the case of ble thingc, 1-ims making mGrcxeceptiy.QJcpow ejmentIy affected toward a much as the_appett thing. Now such bodily dis “Ia IIae, q.33, a.3. present than toward an absent 811a IIae, q.l5, a.3. reason, as may be seen in the turbances hinder the use of

cl -‘t5”

45c 22 THOMISTIC PRINCIPLES ST. THOMAS ON STUDY 23 edge. On this question Father Sertillanges says’ all things, would never have told the student to re that seiencjjcnowIedgc...through cauucLthat frain from all other activity. It is true, however, that Ic calls for most of us there is abundant opportunity for this other activity, but we experience difficulty in or ganizing our lives so that we have time to ourselves for study. Father Sertillan es has a bgfl pas- giLppint “Sec usion is the workshfX— Ihe rnind, interior solitude and silence are its twç nooks. All great things, redemption included, have heeiips.cp.ared in the desert (i.e., in solitude). . . . Toward Others The Student’s Attitude Wlc’ the calm of silence comes upon you and the The next part of the letter contains elements that, aciecljire bums alone, far from the noise of the at first, seem to yntradict one another, for St. streets, and when peace which is the tranquillity of Thomas says: “Desire toi pjurse1f if ypp_wsh , orIle.r establishes order in your thoughts and re to reach intimacy with God. jk courteous to afl,p searches, then at last are you ready to learn, and j te nn_nth Do not be fimiliarwithanyone-hecaiise4oomuch familiar The next sentence seems to be out of context since ity breeds contempt and is an abundant source it advises us in respect to others, and the one just distraction from study. Nevpr. irn(lPr any cirdum- .7 above advised us to keep to ourselves. However, we 5t.9nrPc involve voiirselfig.itli the activitieandiaL must realize that we are men and have obligations of—the niikirlpwOrlcL. O}) avoid all useless (c>7 which are not intellectual. These must be fulfilled if we are to live as human beings. We have all ex perienced that exigent courtesy which seems to draw us into the world and away from study. Here Thomas is not advising such courtesy for its ow sake. Rather. he Is referring—to an aspect of dis every day devoted to study will assure one of an in courtesy that will hinder the intellectual life more F-... tellectual destiny. St. Thomas, who was moderate in than this other courtesy could. For if we are dis Op. cU., p. 44. ° IbId., pp. 61 f.

)EIi?riq,f .‘owt(f i4 ‘ w’#h G ..cj ? estft 4 QU4€ILL5 4c I1 I3?- .ç 4c. 1k -l4cifr ,Uut’ qto ctHevctlc.1 4144 ‘.tt Jdr01ck-ii êfc.n ,—. C,,1 bi 1 q cif’ 4cJ,v -iB (M(CWIQ ... +IWct1 1,12 A,1kk( LA,OrIJ i-k 4hiIl1 10’,j 4.1 oL’sJe Ijv..1de yoI1r.e I-is 1-k (Th C 24 THOMISTIC PRINCIPLES ST. THOMAS ON STUDY 25 courteous, we are likely to make enemies and breeds contempt, but rather because of the kip&f others against us. In so doing we can make the ma_ iDontempt that iLgives rise to,.There is p k[ulof lenal conditions of life so difficult_thai- we wilL. c_ontempt that should be endured because it is a ever find time to study. In this respect Father. source of merit for us if we accept the grace to bear Sertillanges advises us to “buy our solitude” with it. On the ni-her hand, contempt arising from fa courtesies and favors_-to- those around iis,_. Further, miliarity is destructive of our good name, which we courtesy, or the consideration of others, is com are commanded to preserve. Then the second rea tnanded by the natural law, and the student striv son given by St. Thomas is in accord with what he, ingJor perfection must-cultivate this virtue alo!.g.. has said before; namely. that familiarity also ghes with the others.., rise to habits and acts that diminish the intellectual Next St. Thomas says: ‘:PayittefnntoJhe. vji:til. affairs of others.” Comm as it does after the ad- isof the same c1tegn7 asth vie ourtesy,ihiscaaonly.-inean.-that--we-are Jea1ing with curiosity about the affairs of oihrs,. f1 nLto be unduly.occupied with the affairs of others. onJhjjne is more specific. It warns us especially We are all curious about the things that other peo to old the many fruitless contacts with the pjde

ple nre doing. Witness the prevalence of gossip, no world. Unless there are works of mercy which duty - oniy among women, with whom it is proverbial, but and charity command, it were better that we refrain

also among men. Such curiosity is a distraction to - from ordinary sccular life. There are some necessary serious thinking. It is often manifested in an inor relations and, p_ccjheyire.neeessary, theyioim part dinate preoccupation with the daily papers. Most oL of fur livec even ic intelJegtuflls )Z.We0.flOt sepa th sQcalIed newJçjr.ppers is merely printed rate the intellectual from the man. ILisouriask to gsip. The saint warns against such curiosity for bring them into harmony with intellectuality in such.. two reasons. First, it takes a great deal of good time a way that they not only do not hinder it. but serve could better be used for tudy; and secondly. it iL[his is always possible. The.1giyen_txa1 gives rise to fancies as does idle talk.. or tluity is never lost: rither the cure that_is— In the next statement St. Thomas advises against devoted to them is a part of the intellectual oc familiarity, and this for two reasons’t breeds tion nnd could be inimical, to it only if we werelo.. contempt; and it distracts us. We are not consider,.that vo,cptio_n abstractly. as separated from advised to avoiF1miliarity precisely because iL providence. Neither_ithJm.tQfgQj I

l.,Ii 27 ST. THOMAS ON STUDY 26 THOMISTIC PRINCIPLES holy Men gifimate recreation and amusementJiQweyr, W The Example of Good and not to becomebusybodies. Worldli co Y” must take care Here St. Thomas says:StIthteratheL.to—waik ( guarded against, will de hply ‘u.’ As ness, urss itis carefully shrntly in the 1ontstep&fgoQd an who is searching for truth will arrive atIhe_Lw stroy the life of stuy. :He has .4rl hefnre, the chirlent words of ChristLIv1y he Thus this rule should always renernkr.-the truth only by knowing Truth itself. of this wor1d.’ life of virtue., kingdom is not means that we should strive for the asJücrnphasize what he ha We learn Then Si_Thomas, Now virtue is not taug_.s sciencej. the student to avoid useless. example. There saliL before, advises virtue from others byj ngiii 47 it well to remember the words of the those who hayQ. visits. Here is fore the best tepcher,j,f virtue are ion of Christ. who said that he us a mul- author of the linitat led virtuous lives. TheJhureh hasgiven never went out among men that be did not return every occupation. It i unless. titude of saints representing less a man. A person becomes lost in a crowd those fitting to our particular task because in the for us to choose by he keeps a firm hold onhimself, 1ifi nncl try to acguirp th virtues exemplified ‘himself, being lost in that ,zltm. in inikctuaL. yrowd no man knows these nien,Jhe particular virtue ofjJe the multitude. Thus the mind Is dis-. neggence and vain ego which Is is studiousness. Its extremes are persed in the extejor life. SffliJcpjmwK..s,olitude these exfreme$huiinQt fr you must curiosity. Thi1rstpf.. will impoverish you. Because of your work if he only rerncrnker&..thatintel of life, fect the student preserve the feeling of the commosoul, is his very being seçpnçl was off from corn lectual operation This is impossikie if you cut yourself when St. Thomas spoke of the neces if you know only a condemned qf th miinit-itinn with human beings. of arriving at the sea of wisdom bywy man becomes timi& sity last par,t dream humanity. An isolated str’amc. lie deals with it again in the he staggers about in the real - things.. abstracted, bizarre: the letter, where he says: “Donot try.tuicnow has just come off hispJç thaLmatter all world like a sailor who that are above you.” Study,, and for upon everyone sa’pppsition”_to - worship, prayc, seems to look life, must alkiw a proper place for a syllogism, or a case for his note-book. Father Ser be put into and meditation on the things of God. infinite riches of the real should be a fool’s play to. Always the tillanges says: “It is an abuse and no longer , visited in a spirit of contemplation.’ so much that you no longer pray, study ward orihe._ 11 Cf. thid., pp. 71 if. meditate, no longer read the sacred ,n ‘c4 ty57vt -hn€ r’t 0 0 i’) C C, 28 THOMISTIC PRINCIPLES ST. THOMAS ON STUDY 29 of the cainN or great men to shiny so muk.. writings The Student and the Teacher that you forget yourself andjnyour cih. i.he object of your study,neglect the guest who is St. Thomas says: “iy no attention to the source ‘ within you. To suppose ihat you will make greatçr of a lesson, but memorize any useful advice yau.. progress in this way orproduce more would be th. may hear.” This does not mean that we should not ( smeas to suppose that the brook would flow better choose our teachers as well as possible, but it does 12 who if the so” were dammed.” St. Jerome, gave mean that, with our small capacity for judgiflg the (7Qis the-Latin-- edition of the Bible, is said to 1 good_and_the poor teachers, we should attend to lj hve.prepared himself for study by long hours o4 what they say rather than to the way they say it. It sprayer and meditatim. Then, when he was fatigued is difficult for thetudentif the acher is one who - \bystudyThe-woulcL-return-to his meditathm&and _çloes not inspire confidence. The student, who of 0’ Ifrom4hemobt1 ent inul renewed energy course does not p9ssess the knowledge, must at first go hack to his work. St. Thomas indicates in manZ accept the words of the teacher. Thus it is natural - pIacesis own epen ence on e spirztua 1 e. Her 0p for a student to learn better from one whom ha said pnce_thaLheJearned-more before the crucifix c mires and respects, than from onejn whom he has - than 1e..d1diu all the books he read. These are thea r$w’’s less confidence. However. if the student makes 1iIs. goodand holy men PP the student is• advised-. to fol hkonly criterion, he will miss many opportunities low. Father Sertillanges advises the student to start fnr knowledge. For it happens, at times, that a every day by attendance at holy Mass if it is at all teacher who is unprepossessing in appearance and possible. In this way he places himself in the pres- manner will have an abundant store of wisdom. ence of the source of all truth and by so doing is Therefore the prudent man will learn to evaluate, - enabled, with the help of grace, to tLi the par as much as possible. what the teachersays, nQtwhat. ticular truths which he is seeking. Further than this, _he is. Often cljssgtjcfaefjpn with a teacher aris, as was said before, such a life makes one more apt from a failure to understand the process of]çirn for knowledge by purifying the mind and inhibiting ing. Teaching involves an active partipatipn on the passions which make study difficult. thepart ot the shirlent, so thai- the tewherisanjn strument by which the student. applyingjLmseff Ibid., p. 43. tq. the material presented, actuallyJc1trns. Eliii óEikDe ma,Ltro, St. Thomas further

c ;:s’ 4Lf0 4axMr2?? ST. THOMAS ON STUDY 30 THOMIST1C PRINCIPLES askiig_qiestions tq_piake considers the role of the teacher in the learning ne. He is repeatedly Here he says that while no man can teac sure that the meaning hegive t_QhLw_PfclLi_tle. - process.13 many in teinhing, the teacher can only pte as that of the teacjic, Today sdea himsef,still, andisjzjg;. in. senLsigiic that indicate the process. ofieasoning,and ,/are..-accustomerl tomuch.xcading fact, too much. No mind. especialiy.pne_thatis_un itis necessary for the student himself togo through_ _4j trained, can be expected to digest such a mass the same_process of reasoning if he is to acquire,1 material. As a result the student rather expects thaj Thus it is by the immanent activiy of - knQwlecIge. he reads and hears will be unintjjj:_ the student’s mind that he acquires any knQwiedge.. much of what He feels he must cover a certain amount of Tjiis_considcration should destroy any ilhision that.j gible. some of this is not clear to chiclent might have about learning..He_cannot material. The fact that him, while this may cause some misgivings at flr.st, ..sit in..a cia s.paccivcly and tn acquireknowl1 is soon accepted as the normal thingJt would be - edge. His. nthaust be,active at all times, attempt far better for such a_stuilcnLto_spend this timejn. \ fpg to follow the reasoning indiiediiyihe...teachexL. recreation. He is learning nothing; rather_he istc The Understanding of What Is Read and Heard quiring vicious habits of study. The mind is para-. Jyzed instead of being nourished. Little by littJ iL.. The next rule of St. Thomas Is one of great im of reflection and concentratioa_ the student. He says: “Be sure that you becomes incapable 32 ortance to it becomes exter_ Knowledge in ai&consequently of production; nalized, in a way, and enslaved to mental images. science progresses in an orderly way from prem y Ideas are presented iss to conclusions. Each conclusion depends upçn.. r so that even a genius, workig with such ma th previous one as an effect on a cause. If_at .any term I r’nnhl not evfrartJcnow1edg&or frnm... time the student fails to understand.1he..rneaning or jtWhat chance, then, has the poor student?”First farce of a conclusion, all that follows will bei]elcl things first” is a maxim that is applicable to the only as opinion. We often characterize the good stu quisition of knowledge. The student should aIway dent, by øying that he has an inquiring mind. By place quality before quantity. Even if, at first, he - we mean that he refuses to go pn to a ew idea this thus spend days, even weeks, on_one..book, still certai thaLlieuncWstands flprYicli.is.. will untiLhe_is he should follow this rule. AftellJpir- 15 Mary Helen Mayer, The Philosophy of Teaching of St. Thomas e of reading or listening is to understand. (Milwaukee; Bruce, 1929), pp. 89 if.

n 0 ______a C ST. THOMAS ON STUDY 33 32 THOMISTIC PRINCIPLES for storing knowledge by means of books St Thomas says: ‘Never. facilities Along with the last rule notes that the place of memory is not as im fits in quite well with and leave a flnlIbt nnsn1vetL This was. They would do well to read In a chain of rea portant as it once what has been said about study. exact words: “Take pains to certainty of the. carefully St. Thomas’ the - soning, one dnnht may destroy up nii can in the storehouse oTemor,r, student is to have lai you Conclusion which is needed if the would fill a vase.”,There are profound to knowledge. the he does who science or knowledge. As opposed in this statement.cI &]iiZ’1ie, he who states: can be insights mind can be in one of three that modern mechanical aids such as nótes.. know nothing of the par-. thinks in ignorince which i to systems, and the like, can take the place of be in error, which filing ticular science secondly it can does not adequately understand the pi istle;J3nd memory is to assert astruHifvhfch of memory in the pros of thinking. He5hould is tobe uncertain about pose it ean he in rloiihf-, which fact that man, the lowest intellectual of a failure to consider the the truth of a conclusion, because must reason from premises to conclusions. see the cogency oL creature, the premises or to who ctn at a glance. see -. understand To allow Man is not ike the angels the reasoning that results In the conclusion. am1 au the conclusions of an entire the mind the principles doubts to remain unsolved is to burden angels have no need of memory mind is search selence. ThuswhuIe with probable knowled whritlt in the process of thought. man cannot think without is is a ertile source oTfli\ in for certain tru it. He must, at this instant, remember what he has.,. is continually impressed’\ raHon for t Thc olar. He considered in the past. In this way he must, as best knowledge and it often by the probability of his he can, build up his knowledge of a science. Then, to follow any chain of that he is unable when a new conclusion in that science is presented happens conclusion. He lacks con 5pc- reasoning to a certain for his coideration. he must attempt to consider to reason. Thus we see why it is fidence in his ability ( it in the light of what he knows of the whole sci make every effort to) so necessary that the student ence, by the use of his memory. Thus a poor memory his mind of doubts. is one of the accidental causes of error. In the con sideration of a new conclusion, we fail to remember The Place of Memory in the Life of Study all that we have learned about other conclusions iii. will think that the next Perhaps many students science. Obviously notes will not enable us to. should be disregarded. that 157 advice given by St. Thomas sufflcienty all the knowledge we have of a have such excellent review ci’ They would say that now we ___

ST. THOMAS ON STUDY 35 34 THOMISTIC PRINCIPLES should freque.tlythiijk about them in the order science. Therefore we must train ourselves to re flxd upou;iinzthl, hou1dxecfltbem from-the member. beg ig Qjjhe order_flxQ&upon. In the Summa. IQainin the memory there are four rules toh. theologica 14 he mentions the first rule which we cj1ered iP tliingc In hP mAmflri7&l chn!lfl hQ gave. Of those things which (man) wishes to - vivid by attaching to them some striking ifln nacIe remembër1i should take some customary ill!asfra for in this way the mind will more readily tration. tifrns. still won This is particularly true where ah recail the idea. der more at thoce things which are unaccutod; stractions are concerneç dij’ things to he, anti t-lins the coni is more sfrogjydvehementFy menlori7Prl chonid he well ordntl mind. With lwltihy these; thic is the reason we remember bet intelligible things this is riot so difficult becauseall I-’ the things which we saw in childhood.M pf contain an intrinsic order which willj ter them er. the invention of such similitudes or images is v 1v manifest if the things are understood. When ideas nereccary because the simple and spiritual inten fl1L have an orderly arrangement in the mind. reference tions easily sup from the soul unless they are tied aS.. one will recall those connected with it in that o to it_were. to certain bodily similitudes; becanse hu der it—is necesssry that- theinind consider is1a ian knowle1ge is moje eIlIcajious abut ensihie.... thigc; whent’i memory is also placed in the sensF.. i11Iar with the._pçsistençe of th2e experiences tivepart (of the souj which were qigreat concern. These leave a deeper is, “. . .______on the mind and are less likely to be lost. The latter part of this advice impss fill a vase.” Now when ayerson fills a vase, it ic iieces’wiry tç. reflect often i the things _would he chooses the flowers carefully so that they yfll wish to remember. Thus they are periodically we a beautiful appearance. Beauty depmds oi brought before the present 1 order. Thus of all the flowers avjibJe UJ.,e - Or’ Ii uijron AristoilesJ2&mmnoria Ct reminisceiitia “So, from all that has bein_sakL rejected because of this _particular arrangement (1ect...5),say which is intended. This is also true of rnemojy. Do above w can gaefour hints that will help us tç \ tk4lrcf but rather - cyil. memorize and remembrthingsFita niaahmild.. \ not waste time memorizing_useless_iings, carefully what you would retain. Many take care to put what he wishes to remember into. \ choose things are not worth remembering, while others it some he should thoroug4yn&2L \ fixed purpose ..seLhisjpznd on them; e \ ‘4UaIIae,q.49,a.I,ad2. o -i?€ cv’. ‘i e4 ee+

peVed0n1 C9oCIZ€l 0 C) C 0 36 THOMISTIC PRINCIPLES ST. THOMAS ON STUDY 37 pdless-to--aeniezñber because notes and the lç plication of the human mind give a breadth of vision’ will answer the purpose, as wçll. A we11-disc’iplined. which, if the, mind is not sufficiently aware of its mind should be able to forget as well as remembei1, limitations, may lead to attempts which are as futile as they are blasphemous. God in His wisdom has re-,, The Dangers of the Intellectual Life vealed certain truths to man. These we accept on— The last precept of St. Thomas, “Do not try to faith and attempt. by the application of human wis-. know things that are above you” is taken from the dom. to get as much as we can from them. This is i1InJhe iiik of E’lesiactfriic (22—26), we. as Coiwishes.But the conclusions reached by such find “Seek not the things that are too high for thee._ a process necessarily end with mystery. The mind and search notinto.thlngshQve thy abiltty but th dislikes a mysteryJtis-a-challenge to. be accepted, things that God-hath commanded the_thinkirn. a secret or problem to be solved. Being conscioiis them always, and in many of His works be not curb of its power in another order, it desires to find a solu oii For it is not necessary for thee to see with tljy tion of this problem as it does of any other. Here is eyes_those 1-hings that are hid. In unnecessary mat where discipline is necessary, We must at all times ters be not over curious, and in many of His works, realize that what we are considering Is for us un thou shalt not be inquisitive. For many things are knowable, even though it is in itself supremely shown to thee above the understanding of men. And_ knowable. It is Divinity itself, which can be com the suspicion of them hath deceived many. and hath prehended only by God. In this respect St. Augus det’inpd their minds in vanity.” Here in this latter tine once said, “If you understand, tell yourself that passage the meaning of the admonition is more obvi it is not true.” ous. We are not warned against searching for knowl-. On this point Father Sertillanges says that a, C edge absolutely. but rather knowledge of certain superior character realizes that our insights are noth tjiings; namely, those that surpass human under ing more than degrees of shadow by whichwe use

s.tanclipg. In the history of though.Uuiereiiave been toward the inaccessible Clarity!, We c.anonly.stam- - lilcc’ Ahthrd who would use the puny mind. mer, and the enigma of the world is perfect. By of man to unlock the ecrets.ofthe.inAniteAtis un. study we can define a few conditions, classify a few necessary to say that they failed. However, this al facts; real study consists in placing this little under wyc remains one of the serious iemptations.of th& the guidance of what we still do not know. This does intellectual, The reaches attainable by careful ap “Op. cit., pp. 153 f. 38 THOMISTIC PRINCIPLES not mean that they are placed in obscurity, for the light which is not seen is the one that best retains the reflections of our ni . n all thin s the in e e t o e krown •ust as uni e y.Y SQlIr1e of rnimher,asimmobflity_is_thesecret of-mo tThus the true student will feel that mystery is III us t. T omas himself tells us how we are to RELIGION AND THE RESEARCH OF learn. This brief commentary does not exhaust the FIRST PRINCIPLES full teaching of the saint. But at least it guides the student along the right path and may help hhn to wwwww make his hours of study more fruitful. I would add IT is proposed In this chapter to show the necessity one maxim for the student: Always be guided by the of religion in the research of first principles. There wisdom of St. Thomas. fore at the outset we explain in what sense we use the terms “religion” and “first principles.” Definitions Whatever definitions may be given, and rightly given, of religion in other respects do not interest us here, for in relation to the study of first principles we limit the scope of religion to two things. Looked at jom j1e point of view of God, for us religion means. revelation: from the point of view of the student I-i’ c engaged in the research of first principles, it means faith and all that follows from this viri-n in way—. of disposing the mind to the study, love, and proper. application of the primary truths of revelation to

i1es mean the tlit the

0 0 C C C

COPYRIGHT 1953 Truth HENRY REGNERY COMPANY CHICAGO, ILLINOiS

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG CARD NUM1IER 52—12511 St. Thomas Aquinas

Translated from the definitive Leonine text Imprimi potest by James V. Mc Glynn, S.J. Very Rev. Joseph M. Egan, S.J, West Baden College Proepositus Provir1cicilis Provi’nciqe Chicagiensis 15 January 1952

Nihil obstat Rev. Robert J. Wilimes, S.J. Censor deputatus 21 January 1952 VOLUME II Imprimatur X-XX QUESTIONS + Samuel Cardinal Stritch Archiepiscoptis Chicagkrisis 23 January 5952

HENRY REGNERY COMPANY

CHICAGO 1953

Typography and jacket design by Joseph Trautwein Manufactw’ed in the United States of Ilmerica QUESTION ELEVEN

The Teacher

ARTICLE I

The Question Treats of the Teacher, and in the First Article We Ask: CAN A MAN OR ONLY GOD TEACH AND BE CALLED TEACHER?

Difficulties: It seems that only God teaches and should be called a teacher, for i. In St. Macchew (23:8) we read: “One is your master”; and just before that: “Be not you called Rabbi.” On this passage the Gloss comments: “Lest you give divine honor to men, or usurp for your selves what belongs to God.” Therefore, it seems that only God is a teacher, or teaches. 2. If a man teaches, he does so only through certain signs. For, even if one seems to teach by means of things, as, when aslced what walk ing is, he walks, this is not sufficient to teach the one who asks, unless some sign be added, as Augustine proves.2 He does this by showing that there are many factors involved in the same action; hence, one will not know to what factor the demonstration was due, whether to the substance of the action or to some accident of it. Furthermore, one cannot come to a knowledge of things through a sign, for the knowledge of things is more excellent than the knowledge of signs, since the knowledge of signs is directed to knowledge of things as a means to an end. But the effect is not more excellent than its cause.

im, 1; Parallel readings: 11 Sent., , z, ad ; 8, 5, ad 3; C. G., II, 75; S. T., I, De nnit. inteIl., 5, an. 50—5 1. ‘76 77 Q :fl Truth QUESTION ELEVEN: ARTICLE N Truth Q1JEs’lLON ElEVEN: ARTICLE I teaches the truth enlightens the mind, for truth is the light t Lile mind. Therefore, no one can impart knowledge of anything to another, and a If, therefore, man does teach, he enlightens the mind. But this is false so cannot teach him. for in the Gospel according to St. John (1:9) we see that it is God If signs of certain things are proposed to someone by a man, the . who “enlighteneth every man that cometh into this world.” either knows the things which the There one to whom they are proposed fore, one man cannot really teach another. signs represent or he does not. If he knows the things, he is not taught 10. If one roan teaches another, lie roust make a potential lcnowej them. But if he does not know them, he cannot know the meanings of into an actual knower. Therefore, his knowledge must be raised from not know the things. For a man who does not the signs, since he does potency to act. But what is raised from potency to actuality must be cannot know what the word stone means. But know what a stone is changed. Therefore, knowledge or wisdom will be changed. How meaning of the terms, he cannot learn any if he does not know the ever, this is contrary to Augustine, who says: “In coming to a man, Therefore, if a man does nothing else to teach thing through the signs. wisdom is not itself changed, but changes the man.”6 that one man cannot be taught by an than propose signs, it seems Knowledge is nothing else hut the representation of things in other. the soul, since knowledge is called the assimilation of the knower to To teach is nothing else than to cause knowledge in another in . the thing known. But one man cannot imprint the likeness of things is the subject of knowledge. Now, some way. But our understanding in the soul of another. For, thus, he would work interiorly in that man, it would seem, man can be taught, do sensible signs, by which alone, which God alone can do. Therefore, one man cannot teach another. intellective part, but affect the senses only. Therefore, not reach the 32. Boethius says1 that teaching does no more than stimulate the man cannot be taught by a roan. mind to lcnow. But he who stimulates the understanding to know does If the knowledge is caused by one person in another, the learner . not make it know, just as one who incites someone to see with the eyes If he did not have it already and either had it already or he did not. of the body does not make him see. Therefore, one man does not make then one man creates knowledge in it was caused in him by another, another know. And so it cannot properly be said that he teaches him. However, if he had it already, it was another, which is impossible. 53. There is no scientific knowledge without certitude. Otherwise, and thus it cannot be caused, for present either in complete actuality, it is not scientific knowledge but opinion or belief, as Augustine says.8 being, or it was present semi what already exists does not come into But one man cannot produce certitude in another by means of the such seminal principles can nally (secundum rationes seminoles). But sensible signs which he proposes. For that which is in the sense faculty but are implanted in nature not be actualized by any created power, is less direct than that which is in the understanding, while certainty remains true that one man by God alone, as Augustine says.3 So, it is always effected by the more direct. Therefore, one man cannot can in no way teach another. teach another. But an accident does not change the 6. Knowledge is an accident. 14. The intelligible light and a species are all that are needed for since teaching seems to be subject in which it inheres. Therefore, knowledge. But neither of these can be caused in one man by an from teacher to pupil, one nothing else but the transfer of knowledge other. For it would be necessary for a man to create something, since cannot teach another. it seems that simple forms like these can be produced only by crea then cometh by hearing,” 7. The Gloss, on Romans (io: 37), “Faith tion. Therefore, one man cannot cause knowledge in another and, so, the preacher proclaims says: “Although God teaches man interiorly, cannot teach. knowledge is caused interiorly in the mind, not it exteriorly.”4 But 15. As Augustine says,5 nothing except God alone can give the mind Therefore, man is taught only by God, not exteriorly in the senses. of man its form. But knowledge is a form of the mind. Therefore, only by another man. God can cause knowledge in the soul. teaches truth on earth, holds 8. Augustine says: “God alone, who i6. just as guilt is in the mind, so is ignorance. But only God cleanses teacher’s chair in heaven, but to this chair another man has the the the mind of guilt, according to Isaias ( :25): “1 urn he that blots out has to a tree.”5 But the farmer does not make relation which a farmer thy iniquities for my own sake.” Therefore, God alone cleanses the it. And by the same token no man can he said the tree; he cultivates mind of ignorance. And, so, only God teaches. only prepare the mind for it. to teach knowledge, but 57. Since science is certain knowledge, one receives science from If roan is a real teacher, he must teach the truth. But whoever . 79 78 Truth • QUESTION ELEVEN: ARTICLE I I Truth • QUESTION ELEVEN: ARTICLE sin, but after its coming it needs the teaching of others as rain coming However, hearing a man speak him whose words give him certainty. down from the clouds. Therefore, at least since sin came into the anything that one person does not give anyone certainty. Otherwise, world, man is taught by man. one reaches says to another would of necessity be clearly certain. Now, within him. And to be certitude only when he hears the truth speaking REPLY: interior voice even about those certain, he takes counsel with this There is the same sort of difference of opinion on three issues: on men. Therefore, not man but the truth things which he hears from the bringing of forms into existence, on the acquiring of virtues, and speaking within, which is God, teaches. on the acquiring of scientific knowledge. words of another those things, which, i 8. No one learns through the For some’4 have said that all sensible forms come from an external before the other spoke. But if asked, he would have answered, even agent, a separated substance or form, which they call the giver of upon being questioned, even before the teacher speaks, the pupil, forms or agent intelligence, and that all that lower natural agents do the teacher proposes. For he would answer about the matters which is prepare the matter to receive the form. Similarly, Avicenna says’5 only in so far as he knew would be taught by the words of the teacher that our activity is not the cause of a good habit, but only keeps out its Therefore, one man is that matters were such as the teacher claimed. opposite and prepares us for the habit so that it may come from the not taught by the words of another. substance which perfects the souls of men. This is the agent intelli gence or some similar substance. They also hold that knowledge is caused in us only by an agent free To the Contrary: of matter. For this reason Avicenna holds” that the intelligible forms (i:ii) we read: “Wherein I i’. In the second Epistle to Timothy flow into our mind from the agent intelligence. . of the gentiles.” Therefore, am appointed a preacher . . and teacher Some17 have held the opposite opinion, namely, that all three of man can be a teacher and can be called one. those are embodied in things and have no external cause, but are only (3: 34) it is said: “But continue 2’. In the second Epistle to Timothy brought to light by external activity. For some have held that all and which have been thou in those things which thou has learned, natural forms are in act, lying hidden in matter, and that a natural “From me as from a true committed to thee.” Of this the Gloss says: agent does nothing but draw tliem from concealment out into the teacher.”1° We conclude as before. open. In like manner, some’s hold that all the habits of the virtues are “One is your Father” In one place in Matthew (23:8, ) we find: implanted in us by nature. And the practice of their actions removes ‘. our Father does not and “One is your master.” But the fact that God is the obstructions which, as it were, hid these habits, just as rust is re Likewise, the make it impossible for man truly to be called father. moved by filing so that the brightness of the iron is brought to light. for man truly fact that God is our teacher does not make it impossible Similarly, some1° also have said that the lcnowledge of all things is to be called teacher. con-created with the soul and that through teaching and the external over the moun The Gloss on Rornans (io: ii), “How beautiful helps of this type of knowledge all that happens is that the soul is ‘. enlighten the Church.” ,“ are the feet who tains . . . reads: “They prompted to recall or consider those things which it knew previously. to enlighten is Now, it is speaking about the Apostles. Since, then, Hence, they say that learning is nothing but remembering. to teach. the act of a teacher, it seems that men are competent But both of these positions lack a reasonable basis. For the first opin perfect when it can As is said in the Meteorology ,‘ each thing is ion excludes proximate causes, attributing solely to first causes all ef ‘. kind of perfect generate things like itself. But scientific knowledge is a fects which happen in lower natures. In this it derogates from the order can teach knowledge. Therefore, a man who has scientific lcnowledge of the universe, which is made up of the order and connection of another. causes, since the first cause, by the pre-eminence of its goodness, gives by a fountain 6’. Augustine says13 that just as the earth was watered other beings not only their existence, but also their existence as causes. rain from the before the coming of sin, and after its coming needed The second position, too, falls into practically the same difficulty. For, represented by the clouds above, so also the human mind, which is since a thing which removes an obstruction is a mover only accident the coming of earth, was made fruitful by the fountain of truth before 8i 8o 0 Truth • QUESTION ELEVEN: ARTICLE I I (- QUESTION ELEVEN: ARTLCLE ruth • cause of the transition from potency to act. Thus, fire nalc&. tual lower agents do nothing but bring ally, as is said in the Physics,20 if tire of air, which is potentially fire. taking away the obstructions things from concealment into the open, Knowledge, therefore, pre-exists in the learner potentially, not, of the virtues and the sciences, active, sense, which concealed the forms and habits however, in the purely passive, but in the Otherwise, agents act only accidentally. man would not be able to acquire knowledge independently. There it follows that all lower posi been said we ought to hold a middle as there are two ways of being cured, that is, either through the Therefore, in all that has For fore, to the teaching of Aristotle.2t of unaided nature or by nature with the aid of medicine, so t.ion between these two, according but activity matter not actually, as some have said, are two ways of acquiring knowledge. In one way, natural natural forms pre_exist in po also there to actuality from this state of of unknown things, and this way only in potency. They are brought reason by itself reaches knowledge and not through the first someone else aids the learn through a proximate external agent, is called discovery; in the other way, when tency Similarly, according to as one of the opinions maintains. er’s natural reason, and this is called learning by instruction. agent alone, virtue are completely Aristotle,22 before the habits of In effects which are produced by nature and by art, art operates in this opinion of which are the in certain natural inclinations, the same way and through the same means as nature. For, as nature formed, they exist in us their afterwards, through practice in is from cold by warming him, so also does the beginnings of the virtues. But heals one who suffering to their proper completion. doctor. Hence, art is said to imitate nature. A similar thing takes place actions, they are brought knowl explanation of the acquisition of knowledge. For the teacher leads the pupil to knowledge W’e must give a similar first in acquiring pre-exist in us, namely, the not know in the same way that one directs himself edge. For certain seeds of lcnowledge of things he does by the light of the agent intellect of discovering something he does not know. concepts of understanding, which through the process the species abstracted from sensible the procedure of anyone who arrives at the are immediately known through Now, in discovery, axioms, or simple, as the notions is to apply general self-evident These are either complex, as knowledge of something unknown things. understanding grasps im to proceed to par the one, and so on, which the principles to certain definite matters, from these of being, of the consequences general principles, however, all ticular conclusions, and from these to others. Consequently, one per mediately. In these therefore, the certain seminal principles. vVhen, son is said to teach another inasmuch as, by signs, he manifests to that are included as in of the par notions to actual knowledge the reasoning process which he himself goes through by his own mind is led from these general were, other previously in general and, as it And thus, through the instrumentality, as it were, of ticular things, which it knew natural reason. is said to acquire knowledge. what is told him, the natural reason of the pupil arrives at a knowledge potentially, then one something nevertheless, that in natural things of the things which he did not know. Therefore, just as the doctor is V/e must bear in mind, active and in two ways. In one, it is in an said to heal a patient through the activity of nature, so a man is said can pre-exist in potency power an intrinsic principle has sufficient to in another through the activity of the learner’s completed potency, as when the cause knowledge is an obvious example of this, for and this is teaching. So, one is said to teach an to flow into perfect act. Healing own natural reason, by the natural power within him. This is what the Philosopher means when sick person is restored to health other and be his teacher. potency, as happens when the internal is a syllogism which makes someone lcnow.”23 The other appears in a passive is he says: “Demonstration power to bring it into act. This to another things which are not included principle does not have sufficient But, if someone proposes cannot result from any power does not make it clear that they are in when air becomes fire, for this in self-evident principles, or clear in the other but, perhaps, opinion existing in the air. cluded, he will not cause knowledge in active completed potency, is in some way caused by inborn first prin Therefore, when something pre-exists or faith, although even this the internal agent and provid principles he realizes that what. the external agent acts only by helping ciples, for from these self-evident can enter into act. Thus, in healing them is to be held with certitude, and that ing it with the means by which it necessarily follows from the principal agent, by strengthen is to be rejected completely, and that assent the doctor assists nature, which is what is contrary to them medicines, which nature uses as instruments to or withheld from whatever neither follows neces ing nature and prescribing in may be given when something pre-exists only to principles. Now, the light for healing. On the other hand, sarily from nor is contrary self-evident external agent which is the principal passive potency, then it is the 83 8z ARTICLE I Truth • QUESTION Truth QUESTION ELEVEN: ELEVEN: ARTICLE I are evident to us is implanted in actuality, but, as it were, in seminal principles, in the sense of reason by which such principles that the in us of the uncreated truth. universal concepts which we know naturally are, as it were, the us by God as a kind of reflected likeness seeds only in virtue of that of all the knowledge which follows. But, although these So, since all human teaching can be effective Seminal prin interiorly and principally, ciples are not developed to actuality by any created power, as light, it is obvious that God alone teaches though principally. Nevertheless, both they were infused by a created power, that which they have in a primi. just as nature alone heals interiorly and in a proper sense in the way we tive way and virtually can develop into actuality by means of the to heal and to teach can still be used activity of a created power. have explained. 6. We do not say that a teacher communicates knowledge to the pupil, as though the knowledge which is in the teacher is numerically the same as that which arises in tile pupil, it is rather that the knowl_ Answers to Difficulties: disciples not to be called teachers, edge which arises in the pupil through teaching is similar to that which i.Since our Lord had ordered the is to be understood, lest it be is in the teacher, and this was raised from potency into act, as has been the Gloss24 explains how this prohibition to call man a teacher in this said.* taken absolutely. For we are forbidden pre-eminence of teaching, which As the doctor is said to cause healing, although he works exter sense, that we attribute to him the 7. put our hope in the wisdom of iorly, while nature alone works interiorly, so man is said to teach the belongs to God. It would be as if we truth about those things which truth, although he declares it exteriorly, while God teaches interiorly. men, and did not rather consult divine truth speaks in us through the im 8. When Augustine proves that only God teaches, he does not in we hear from man. And this divine of which we can judge of all things. tend to exclude man from teaching exteriorly, but intends to say that pression of its likeness, by means not produced in us through knowledge God alone teaches interiorly. 2. Knowledge of things is things more certain, namely, prin Man can truly be called a true teacher inasmuch as he teaches tile of signs, but through lcnowledge of 9. us through signs and are applied to truth and enlightens the mind. This does not mean, however, that he ciples. The latter are proposed to unlcnown to us simply, although endows the mind with light, but that, as it were, he co-operates with other things which were heretofore as has been said.* For knowl the light of reason by supplying external help to itto reach the perfec they were known to us in some respect, knowledge of conclusions; knowl tion of knowledge. This is in accordance with Ephesians (3:8—9): “To edge of principles produces in us me, the least of all the saints, is given this grace . . . to enlighten all edge of signs does not. we are taught through signs, men,.. To some extent we lcnow the things 3. them. Thus, if we are taught what 10. Wisdom is twofold, created and uncreated. Man is said to be and to some extent we do not know about him beforehand, namely, the endowed with both and to improve himself by advancing in them. man is, we must know something or at least of being itself, which Uncreated wisdom, however, cannot be changed in any way, whereas meaning of animal, or of substance, Similarly, if we are taught a certain in us created wisdom can be changed for some extrinsic reason, though last concept cannot escape us. what tile subject and predicate not by reason of anything intrinsic to it. We can consider this capac conclusion, we must know beforehand of the principles through ity for change in two ways. In one way, according to the relation are. We must also have previous knowledge “all teaching comes from pre_exist which it has to eternal things, and in this way it is entirely nnchange- which the conclusion is taught, for Analytics.25 Hence, the able. In the other, according to the existence which it has in the subject, ing knowledge,” as is said in the Posterior It is changed for some extrinsic reason when tile subject which has argument does not follow. from sensible signs Wisdom in potency is changed into a subject having it in act. For the Our intellect derives intelligible likenesses 4. and it uses these intelligible intelligible forms in which wisdom consists are both likenesses of which are received in the sensitive faculty, knowledge. For the signs are not things and forms perfecting the understanding. forms to produce in itself scientific but reason is, in its passage II. In the pupil, the intelligible forms of which knowledge received the proximate efficient cause of knowledge, been said.* through teaching is constituted arc caused directly by the agent intel from principles to conclusions, as has the knowledge did not exist in complete lect and mediately by the one who teaches. For the teacher sets be- 5. In one who is taught, 8.j. 85 C QUEST10 ELEVEN: A1erIcLI; 2 ARTICLE I Truth QUESTION ELEVEN: } agent tific knowledge from this unless there were within us the certainty of things, and from these the fore the pupil signs of intelligible to exist in the principles to which the conclusions are reduced, likenesses and causes them intellect derives the intelligible or seen 14. Man, teaching from without, does not infuse the intelligible words of the teacher, heard intellect. Hence, the things light, but he is in a certain sense a cause of the intelligible species, in the possible in causing knowledge as have the same efficacy so far as he offers us certain signs of intelligible hlcenesses, which our in writing, the agent intellect receives the soul. For from both understanding receives from those signs and keeps within itself. which are outside of the teacher are more although the words i. When it is said that nothing’ but God can form the mind, this is intelligible likenesses, outside the soul, cause knowledge than things mind would be consid proximately disposed to understood of its basic form, without which intelligible forms. it had. is the form by so far as they are signs of is not ered formless, no matter what other forms This in are not alike, for bodily sight Intellectual and bodily sight from which it turns toward the Word and clings to Him. It is through this its objects it can proceed 27 compares, so that among alone that rational nature is called formed, as is clear from Augustine a power which this sight can be seen as soon Rather, all the objects of m6. Guilt is in the affections, on which only God can make an im one to another. has the power of sight anyone who as will appear later.28 But ignorance is in the understanding, as it turns to them. Consequently, of knowledge pression, as one who has a habit an For the look at all visible things, just There on which even a created power can make imprint. agent can which he knows habitually. attention to the things intellect impresses the intelligible species on the possible intellect, and can turn his from another to see some subject needs no stimulus through the mediation of this latter, scientific knowledge is caused fore, the seeing the subject’s attention to perhaps, someone else directs in our soul by sensible things and by the teaching of man, as has been thing, unless, something of the sort. by pointing it out or doing said.* some object compare, it proceeds from intellective power can 17. One has the certainty of scientific knowledge, as has been said,20 But, since the have the same relation to As a result, it does not from God alone, who has given us the light of reason, through which some things to others. the mind sees certain of consideration. Rather, we know principles. It is from these that the certainty of scientific all intelligible objects in which are con those which are self-evident, knowledge arises. Nevertheless, scientific lcnowledge can in a certain things immediately, understand only by using rea other things which it can sense be caused in us by man, as has been saicl.* tained certain implicitly contained in prin those things which are i8. Before the teacher speaks, the pupil would, if asked, answer son to unfold is not only in accidental the mind has the habit, it about the principles through which he is taught, but not about the ciples. Thus, before potency. For the things, but also essential someone is teaching him. Hence, he does not learn potency to know these is said in the conclusions which it through teaching, as only the needs a mover to actualize would the principles from the teacher, but conclusions. mind knew something habitually But a man who already intellect Physics.25 teacher furnishes the pupil’s need this. Therefore, the as an TBoethius, De consolatjoize philoso not things which he teaches, irnerlftzraris, super Matt. 23:8 to knowledge of the 1Qlossa phiae, V, prosa 5 (PL 63:854). with a stimulus potentiality to ac (V:711). bringing the intellect from 3St. Augustine, Do nrngistro, XII (FL indispensable mover, prompts it to 2St. Augustine, De Vlagistro, III (FL thing to bodily sight 3Z 12 i6). who shows some 32:1198); X (PL 32:1214-15). tuality. But one has the habit of knowl °Sc. Augustine, Do libe’ro arbitria, H, mover. And one who 3St. Augustine, De genesi ad litteram, action as a nonessential to consider 17 (FL 32:1265). stimulus from someone VII, (FL 34367). in this way receive a 10Glossa interlinearly, super 2 Tim. sedge can ordinaria, super Rom. 10:17 “Glossa 3:14 (VI:iaóv); see also Col/ectanea something. arises from the cer (VI: 247). of scientific knowledge Lombardi, ibid. (FL 192:377), 13. The whole certainty when 5Sr. Augustine, De disciplinci christinna, are known with certainty 11Glossa ordinarja and Glos’, inter principles. For conclusions XIV (FL 40:678); IX (FL 40:674). tainty of something is known linearly, super Rom. io:j (VI:z3y). Therefore, that De magistro, XII (FL 32:1216- they are reduced to the principles. within Cf. The quotation from Scripture is not reason divinely implanted (PL 32:1219-20). is due to the light of 17);XJV exactly the same as our Vulgate, with certainty from man, teaching from Octog. tri’u’m qua est., speaks within us. It comes 5Sc. Augustine, which has nothing corresponding to us, by which God to the (FL4o:38), teaching us, he reduces conclusions LIV “over the mountains.” without, only in so far as, of scien we would not attain the certainty principles. Nevertheless, 87 86 ARTICLE 12Aristotle, Meteorologicct, IV, (38a iOlbjd. Truth ‘ QUESTION ELEVEN: 4 (io49b 14) 2oAristotle, Physica, VIII, (a56a 4 if., 14) cf also iWetapb., 0, 8 if.). who have no bodies, teach, as has been said.2 Therefore, it seems that llSt. Augustine, De genesi contra z56b lIbid., 1, 8 (igth 10 if). to the contemplative life. Manicl,aeos, II, (FL 34:198). teaching pertains 2CArjstotje, Ethica Nicornachea, II, i active life in order to arrive l4Alexander, etc.; cf. above, q. 10, a. 8, 2. Gregory says: “One engages in the (IIo3a 24). Cf. ibid., VI, ii (ii43b n, at the contemplative later.”8 But teaching does not precede contem 34. 6), VI, 13 (it44b5). lx, (ioc). does not pertain to the l5Avicenna, Metaph., 7 2lAristotle, Analytica posteriora, 1, 2 plation, hut follows it. Therefore, teaching V, 6 (25r). itiAvicenna, De anima, (7ib i8). active life, the Stoics. On the 17Anaugoras and 24See n. i (above). also says that the active life “sees less while it is engaged Physica, 1, 3. Gregory former, see Aristotle, 2aAristotle, /lnalytica posteriora, I, i must of necessity see more than one latter, see Chal— in work.”4 But one who teaches (i87a ag); on the (via 1). 247). simply contemplates. Therefore, teaching pertains more to the cidius, In Timaeum, (DD 28Aristotle, Physica, VII, 3 (,47b ). who laThis opinion and the following Co. 27St, Augustine, Dc genesi ad litteram, contemplative than to the active life. to Plato. See S. T., 34:292); Octog. triuni which makes each thing perfect in itself 19) are attributed III, 20 (FL 4. It is the same perfection and D. de 1, 48, i; I, 84, 3, obj. ; Q. quaest., V (FL 40:1:1). it give others a perfection like its own. Thus it is by of this and enables to DOt., 8. For an explanation IL, a. 2. and gives , 281n q. reason of one and the same wainith that fire itself is warm the Great, In Jo, a. 6. position see St. Albert 201n q. warmth to other things. But one’s own perfection in meditation on C. (BO VII: 112). Plato Eth., I, tr. , teaching, 8zB; things of God belongs to the contemplative life. Therefore, his position in Memo, gives gzA. this same perfection to another, be Tfrnaens, 41A; Phaedo, 67D; which is the communication of See Cicero, Disp. Tnscsd., 1, 31. longs to the contemplative life. temporal things. But teaching is 5. The active life is occupied with occupied mainly with things eternal, for the teaching of these latter per is more excellent and more perfect. Therefore, teaching does not tain to the active, but to the contemplative life.

To the Contrary: bread to the i’. Gregory says: “The active life consists in giving hungry, and in teaching the ignorant the word of wisdom.”5 life. But teaching is 2’. The works of mercy are part of the active counted among the spiritual works of mercy. Therefore, it is part of the active life. ARTICLE IV RE PLY: AN from each Article We Ask: Is TEACHING The contemplative and the active life are distinguished In the Fourth other by their subject matter and that to which they are ordained. CONTEMPLATIVE OR temporal affairs, with which ACTIVITY OF THE For the subject matter of the active life is human are concerned. But the intelligible natures of things, on LIFE? acts THE ACTIVE which the one contemplating meditates, are the subject matter of the Contemplative life. This diversity of subject matter arises from a di versity of the end to be attained, just as in all other things the require Difficulties: life, for prescribe certain conditions in the an activity of the contemplative ments of the end to be attained It seems to be no body,” as Gregory active life where there is subject matter. i. “There is no for even angels, now where there is no body, For the end toward which the contemplative life, as we are says.’ But there is teaching I lI-H, 181, 3; Contra recTa examining is ordained is the consideration of truth, of that truth, i, sol. r, ad ; S. T,, it, Parallel readings: 111 Sent., 35, , c. ad 7. hentes a religionir ingressu, 7, 99 98 c j n Truth QUESTION ELEVEN: ARTiCLE 4 i’ruth QUESTION ELEVEN: ARTICLE 4 3. The insight of the teacher is a source of teaching, but teaching in the manner possible to the one say, which is uncreated, considered itself consists more in the communication of the things seen than in truth imperfectly in this life, but per— contemplating it. VVe see this the vision of them. Hence, the insight of the teacher belongs more to Gregory says8 that the contempla fectly in the life to come. Hence, action than to contemplation. to be made perfect in the life to come. tive life begins here in order 4. This argument proves that the contemplative life is a source of life is directed is the activity But the end toward which the active teaching just as heat is the source of the act of warming, and is not our neighbor. which is directed to the help of itself that activity. For we see that the contemplative life is the source we find a twofold subject matter, Moreover, in the act of teaching of the active life in so far as im directs it, just as, conversely, the active are used as objects of the as an indication of this, two accusatives life disposes for the .iternplative. and is so because the subject expresses the act of teaching. This The solution is clear from what has been said, for teaching and verb which of teaching, and the . is one kind of subject matter life have the first type of subject matter in com which one teaches of sub the contemplative is communicated is another type one to whom the knowledge per mon, as has been said above. reason of the former, teaching of teaching. Accordingly, by ject of the latter it is part of contemplative life, but by reason tains to the which it is directed, if we consider the end toward the active life, But, its last sub only of the active life, because teaching seems to be a part with the end proposed to it, is a subject ject matter, in which it reaches Therefore, although it is in some which the active life is concerned. life, as is clear from what has sense a function of the contemplative work of the active than of the contem been said, it is more properly a plative life. to Difficulties: Answers body, inasmuch as toil active life where there is no i. There is no the infirmi exercise, and inasmuch as it relieves is connected with its active sense that Gregory says: “The ties of our neighbors. It is in this in the sweat of its brow; two things life is laborious because it works life.”T Nevertheless, there is still hier which will not be in the future spirits, as Dionysius says,8 and activity among the heavenly archical active life which we activity is different from the ‘Sc, Gregory, in Ezech., 1, (FL 76: the manner of the there is far teaching which will exist 809); II, 2 (PL 76:954). now lead in this life, Hence, the 2In Ii, a. . from the teaching here, q. different of our life leads us 3St. Gregory, in Ezech., II, (PL 76: says: “Just as the good disposal 2. As Gregory manner 954). life to the contemplative, in like to try to pass from the active to 1lbid. turn back from the contemplative the minds of many can usefully 5ibid., II, a (FL 76:953), the contemplative life has en life so that the flame which 1bid., II, 2 (FL 76:954), the active active life more per minds may lead them to live the ‘lbid,, II, z (FL 76:954). kindled in their precedes the in mind that the active life De cac/esti fectly.”° Still, we must bear in 8Pseudo-Dionysius, perhaps acts which have a subject matter hierarchia, IV (PG 3:179-82). contemplative in regard to those part at all, but the active life must °St. Gregory, In Ezech,, II, a (P1. 76: which the contemplative life has no which receive their subject mat 954-55). follow the contemplative in those acts contemplative life. ter from the Jo’ I00 AN IGNATIAN PAIDEIA

General Characteristics of Ignatian Paideia

The curriculum of an Ignatian Paideia:

A. stresses formation;

B. is intensive;

C. is humanistic and traditional; and

D. is organized, based on the following principles:

1. an organic philosophy of education, 2. a hierarchy of values, 3. a balance of values, 4. the psychological development of the student, 5. a carefully graded progression, and 6. a methodology based on the mastery formula.

Specific Characteristics of Ignatian Paideia

The two main threads that run through the work of St. Ignatius and the men who brought his Ratio Studiorum to fruition are simplicity and practicality. As you read through this section, which details the general characteristics of Ignatian Paideia, you will begin to perceive and appreciate these threads as they appear again and again.

A. Formation

The Ignatian Paideia stresses formation, not information - the development of intellectual and moral habits, rather than the accumulation of information. Factual knowledge is not unimportant, in fact, it is essential material for formation; but it is a means to achieve the end: formation.

The formative function of education is to develop, discipline, and direct the capacities of human personality. This happens when the mind assimilates, with and through subject matter, definite ideas, attitudes, methods, habits, and ideals. All of the main branches of learning: religion, language, literature, history, math, and science have their own particular disciplines and complex of ideas, attitudes, methods, habits, and ideals.

B. Intensive Study

Stress is placed on intensive study of a relatively small body of subject matter rather than extensive study of a large amount of content. This principle follows from the choice of formation as the objective. The content of the subject fields is vast and the capacities of the students are limited. Hence, if the field of exercise were not restricted, the training would be shallow and superficial. Conversely, too narrow a scope would shut off a broad view of the field and would depress student interest.

Therefore, selection is needed. The principle of selectivity should be the immediate aim of the subject study. Important aspects should be treated intensively while lesser elements are summarized in their proper order to produce a sound perspective of the whole.

C. Humanistic and Traditional

Emphasis is placed on the humanistic and traditional norms, not modernistic nor scientific norms, still less, materialis tic.

The Latin and Greek classics are considered constants because they offer abiding and universal values for human training. Close and inspiring contact with the classics will offer students high human values and standards, will "humanize" them and start them on their way to becoming spiritualized.

D. Organized

The organization, which is neither random or elective, is complex and is based on the following principles:

1. Organic Philosophy of Education

An organic philosophy of education and life takes a unified view of the nature and destiny of man and of his obligations to God, to his fellow man and to himself. This establishes the basis for formation.

2. Hierarchy of Values

Some subjects are more formative than others and contribute more directly to the objectives of the system. This is true partly because of the nature of the subject's content and partly because of the approach to problems, the method, or the comprehensive discipline of the subject.

These formative subjects: religion, languages, literature, history, math and science, should make up the core of the curriculum.

Modern subjects, such as economics, sociology, psychology, sex education, and other similar anti-formational subjects, are to be assiduously purged from any classical system of primary or secondary education.

Thus, in subjects of factual content, the teacher will stress the mental processes which form in the student:

- methods and habits of interrelating and unifying facts, - the seeking of cause and effect, - the derivation of principles, and - the application of principles in the evaluation of facts and in the solution of problems.

3. Balance of Values

Each of the subject fields mentioned above offers something unique in the formative value of its content and in the attitudes and techniques of its particular discipline. Each of these values complements the others and all together are fused into an instrument of formation.

The integrating agent in this fusion is the classroom teacher who teaches several subjects to the same group of students. There is unity in the prescribed curriculum, which does permit electives. There is uniformity and continuity in the methods of teaching, because the teachers themselves have been trained in the same system. And, there is unity of purpose, as all teachers are guided by a philosophy of life that is the same as the philosophy of the school.

4. Psychological Development of The Student

The sequence of courses and of emphasis in a given field is based on the psychological growth of the human capacities:

- When memory is sharpest, emphasis is placed on language and factual knowledge in history, math, and science; - When imagination is unfolding, emphasis is placed on literature and its appreciation and expression; - When reasoning is maturing, emphasis is placed on inductive and deductive reasoning in math, science, and certain forms of literature, and, of course, an introduction to philosophy in high school.

5. Graded Progression

A carefully graded progression toward clearly conceived objectives is one of the goals and standards of each subject field of the curriculum.

Content, methodology, and progression are all means and are planned so that they contribute directly toward achieving the maximum contribution of the subject toward the total and partial aims of the whole curriculum.

6. Methodology Based On The Mastery Formula

The mastery formula consists of:

- the self-activity on the part of the student, - leading to the mastery of progressively more difficult subject matter, and - both self-activity and mastery leading to the formation of intellectual and moral habits.

The characteristic techniques of this methodology are:

a. Personal Interest in the Student: the personal guidance of the student by the classroom teacher. This is the most important characteristic of the Ignatian Paideia. In the ultimate and ulterior aim of Ignatian education, the teacher must be more concerned with the student's soul than with his intellect. The close relationship between the teacher and the student is a means of inspiring the student, of showing high ideals, and of teaching example in both the spiritual and intellectual orders. b. The Prelection: a preview, conducted by the teacher, with the active participation of the student or the class, of every type of assignment. c. Repetition: the organization and synthesis in the student's mind of the knowledge he has thus far acquired through rapid review of the prelections, recitations, or weekly, monthly and annual repetitions. d. Memory Work: filling the storehouse of facts and knowledge, which are the materials for thought. The exercise of memory increases the faculty. e. Emulation: the competition among equals and among groups to stimulate activity and to provide motivation. f. Provision for a Variety of Class Exercises: providing for interesting and stimulating activity. g. Stimulating the Power of Written and Oral Expression: the teacher's careful guidance of the student's efforts, particularly by the painstaking correction of written composition. This is a feature of every stage of development within the Ignatian Paideia, in keeping with the aim of eloquentia perfecta. h. Measuring Achievement by Comprehensive Examinations: the public proof of mastery demanded of students. Accomplishment is measured by demonstrated ability, not by time or by the number of courses taken. The system of promotion is suited to the ability and progress of the individual student. The standard is set forth in the content and objectives of the syllabi and tested by comprehensive examination. Acceleration of the more able and industrious is a regular practice. i. Extra-Curricular Activity: the activities designed to complement and supplement the course of studies. Activities are chosen, not primarily on the basis of the student's interest, but on the suitability to produce the desired spiritual, moral, and intellectual outcomes. The chief extra-curricular activities fall into three classes: writing, speaking and dramatics.

KOLBE ACADEMY HOME SCHOOL

A SYNOPSIS OF THF OBJECTIVES AND METHODS OF

IGNATIAN EDUCATION ______

I. OBJECTIVES OF IGNATIAN EDUCATION

The objectives of Ignatian education as derived from the Constitutions are:

1. A special loyalty to the Holy See; 2. The direction of all the student's efforts and accomplishments toward the supernatural ideal epitomized by the phrase, Ad Majorem Dei Gloriam, or simply AMDG; 3. To prepare leaders in order to become effective agents of Catholic action; 4. An intelligent obedience to all duly constituted authority; 5. A respect for the significant contributions of the past; 6. The production of Christian humanists; 7. To produce in the student the habit of orderly thinking, trained first by the analytic/synthetic method of studying languages and then by study in a literature-based curriculum; and 8. Competency in the arts of expression.

II. BASIC METHODS

1. SELF ACTIVITY: Insistence on self~activity should be directed toward forming in the student the habit of independent study and reading directed toward interest in scholarly pursuits. 2. MAS TER Y: The most effective motivation for the student is the growing sense of mastery that is acquired in completing progressively more difficult material. 3. FORMATION : The final objective is "formation" not "information"! Myriad levels of unre lated information can never stand against the education that "forms" the mind to think, reason, express and convince.

III. PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING IN THE IGNATIAN CONTEXT

The basic methods used to achieve the objectives stated above are as follows:

A. Aim of teaching; B. Teacher / parent / student relationships; C. Student self-activity; D. Training of memory; E. Repetition; F. Active teaching techniques; G. Mastery formula; H. Expres s ion.

Synopsis of Implementation - Page 2

A. AIM OF TEACHING:

1. To impart not only intellectual content but also method; 2. To require the teacher to train the student how to a. grapple, b. explore, and c. grasp significant details; 3. To control the means of testing progressive advancement.

B. TEACHER / PARENT / STUDENT RELATIONS HIP :

1. Prevent: a. discipline from becoming law without influence, b. a system without personality; 2. The informal agencies are more effective than the formal; 3. Student problems should be brought to the attention of the student first with the objec tive of obtaining the cooperation of the student, then as problems persist, the parent must always be brought in; 4. Cooperation, and mutual support between parent and teacher must be a primary objective of administration; 5. Teacher's influence should be a stimulus in forming religious as well as intellectual habits; 6. Through association with staff, the abilities and talents of the student should be fostered and guided toward the vocation God has in mind for the student in order to bring about superior Catholic life.

C. STUDENT SELF-ACTIVITY - Aim of stimulating self-activity:

This is the first, and most important, of the three significant and logically connected elements

1. Self-activity results in co-operative effort between student and teacher; 2. Active methods that foster "masterv" are a. prelection (preview), b. class recitation, and c. repetition; 3. Self-activity forms habits of independent study, reading and scholarly pursuits; 4. Ignatian teaching is an art rather than a science.

D. TRAINING OF MEMORY:

1. Sharpens faculty itself; 2. Basis for oral and spontaneous written expression; 3. Gradually imparts rhythm and style for literary expression; 4. Furnishes other faculties (imagination, intellect) with material on which to work.

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E. REPETITION:

1. Five types of repetition: a. brief review immediately after the prelection, b. thorough testing of home study next day, c. weekly review of class material, d. comprehensive review at the end of the month, e. quarter and semester review; 2. Is broader than drill. It takes in new relationships, and meanings and gives depth, organization and perspective; 3. Should be diversified by a variety of techniques and exercises motivated by emulation (especially at the high school level; 4. Demands careful preparation on the part of the teacher; 5. To omit periodic repetition with the idea of "covering more material" is to confuse the very idea of repetition; 6. Quarterly / semester repetition is of critical importance in high school; 7. Repetition is necessary for formation of habits.

F. ACTIVE TEACHING TECHNIQUES:

The use of discussion and objection and, within limits, emulation is an essential part of education. This prevents an attitude o passivity or mere absorption of information. Discussion, objection, emulation were the scholastic techniques of historical liberal education.

1. Discussion I objection are distinct aspects of the teaching art: a. They demand careful study and practice; b. Student participation in them is a valuable experience because of the precision and close reasoning required. 2. Emulation is valuable because of its universal appeal: a. It is based on the natural desire to excel; b. It centers the young mind on the class matter; c. It energizes effort in mastering it.

G. MAS TER Y FORMULA:

This is the second of the three significant and logically connected elements: self-activity, mastery, and formation.

1. The most effective motivation for the student in study is the growing sense of mastery; 2. Pertinence of class techniques: repetition, discussion, objection, etc.; 3. Need for constant and varied class exercises, written and oral, centering on the same material; 4. Testing of mastery to measure student achievement, diagnose weakness and guide the teacher in adapting procedures; 5. The teacher can never rest until he has brought students to their individual capacity. His initial procedures will be slow and thorough. A thorough grasp of fundamentals will make possible progression in the amount of matter than can be covered.

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H. EXP RES S ION :

1. A student's ability to express himself is a test of the quality of his education, a. hence the need of constant exercises of written expression, b. hence, too, the value of the essentially active teaching techniques - discussion, objection, emulation and recitation - in the development of competent oral expression. 2. Similarly, the aim of traditional Ignatian extra-curricular activities is to develop the twofold power of expression: a. dramatics, b. debating, c. publications, d. literary academics, e. intra-school literary competition. 3. Teacher's prime task is the cultivation of this power in the student by: a. first, painstaking and constant guidance and correction of the student's effort in expression, and b. encouraging the more talented to persevere in seeking worthy and scholarly achievement in this field. 4. Emphasis should be on expression in high school. Expression is proof of "masterv"! The ability -to express oneself is the test of an educated person and the quality of his education. Emphasis should be placed on expression from the fifth grade through to the senior year in high school: a. correct grammar and idiom; b. on practice in typical forms of expression, i.e. description, exposition, narration, and argumentation. 5. The responsibility of the Ignatian trained student is to exert a Catholic influence on the academic and social sphere in which he lives.

Ad Majoren Dei Gloriam

The Twelve Virtues of a Good Teacher

by Brother Agathon, fifth Superior General of the Brothers of the Christian Schools from 1777 1795

My very dear Brothers, It would not be enough for us to know the duties imposed on us by our vows if we remain ignorant of the means we need, so as to correspond, as we should, with the end of our Institute, which is the instruction of children. This is why we intend, in the following pages, to discuss the virtues characteristic of a good teacher. You will certainly, very dear Brothers, eagerly welcome a work which is of such great importance for you. We have followed the plan given us by M. de La Salle, our venerable Founder. We have composed this treatise in accordance with his principles and maxims; and what we have drawn from others was taken from the most reliable authors. The virtues, or, what comes to the same thing, the qualities and characteristics of a good teacher are: Gravity, Silence, Humility, Prudence, Wisdom, Patience, Reserve, Gentleness, Zeal, Vigilance, Piety, and Generosity. We do not intend to speak of these virtues in theory; we are satisfied, and must be satisfied, with simply making an application of these virtues to the end we propose to attain; and it is in this perspective that we shall consider them in the pages that follow. Here is the order to which we shall conform. We shall explain the true character of each virtue, the particular traits proper to it, and the defects opposed to it. Thus, we are going to offer you a series of tableaux, as many as there are virtues to consider. In beholding these, an intelligent and attentive teacher will easily perceive what he needs to do and to avoid, so as to make his teaching more effective. Before beginning, we might observe that it would perhaps be easy to find a link concerning all these many virtues. Thus, we might list Wisdom first, because it presents the main objective, the total objective that a teacher should propose to himself. Prudence might be placed second, because it makes a teacher know how he should act so as to fulfill his role properly. Then the other virtues should follow, each in its place, and the work might end with Gentleness, the crowning virtue of a good teacher, thanks to the value given it by Charity, the queen and mistress of all virtues. But such an arrangement seemed to us a merely artificial one, of no real utility. We felt that we should follow the order that M. de La Salle himself considered proper to indicate to us. We have added, as a sort of post script, some reflections on the conditions which he calls for so that correction may be salutary both to the one who inflicts it, and to the one who receives it.

V. Wisdom Wisdom is a virtue which gives us knowledge of the most exalted things through the most excellent principles so that we may act accordingly. It differs from prudence for the latter merely presupposes a praiseworthy end, whatever it may be. Whereas, wisdom considers directly its object, and does so not only as good and praiseworthy but also as being very great and important. It can even happen that one of these two virtues may be present while the other is not. Let us give an example in general terms. We wish to have the last sacraments administered to someone suffering from a malady said to be serious and life-threatening. This is obviously an act of wisdom. But is it always an act of prudence also? No, doubtless; for we need to be morally sure, or to have at least a reasonable suspicion, that the illness is real and dangerous. In such a case, it is possible to be mistaken and to fail against prudence if, to inform oneself about the facts, one fails to fulfill the dictates of prudence, namely, by not carefully examining the circumstances, by judging of them too hastily, and in consequence, by acting in a manner lacking in consideration. Let us take another example, referring to the subject which we are discussing at present. A teacher wishes to give his students a lesson on the subject he teaches them, let us say, catechism. This is obviously an act of wisdom by which he seeks to fulfill his duty. But if he speaks to the children in too high-flown a manner, so that they do not grasp what he tells them, or if he makes use of vulgar expressions inappropriate for dealing with the dignity of the truths he must teach them, he certainly sins against prudence. There is, then, an essential difference between the two virtues we are here considering. In what, then, does the wisdom of the good teacher consist? It consists in making him know, love, and fulfill the exalted and infinitely precious object which he is responsible for; from this it follows that a good teacher must begin by imitating the example of Solomon who spoke humbly to the Author of all good, the God of reject me not from the number of Thy children. Send her forth from Thy sanctuary in heaven, and from the throne of Thy grandeur, so that she may be with me and work with me, and that I may know what is agreeable to Thee; for she is the knowledge and intelligence of all things; she will guide me in all my works with circumspection, and will protect me by her might; and thus my acts However, it is not enough for a good teacher to pray; he would act imprudently if, while teaching the students, he did not seek to instruct himself concerning what he wishes to teach them. Thus, he will apply himself to study, as we mentioned in speaking of prudence, but wisdom will also show him, and make him deeply cognizant not only of the truths he is obliged to teach, but of the principles of these subjects. Otherwise, he would be a reciter of formulas, and the students would only learn names, which they would promptly forget. Moreover, while imparting to them what he knows, he should take great care in particular not to tell them anything offensive or disdainful, or that might lead them to become ill-disposed towards himself or the school. He should never be led by hazardous opinions, nor by false prejudices, but always by Christian principles, by divine and human laws, and also by those of his nation. To teach children with greater benefit, wisdom requires that he himself should practice the virtues which he must cultivate in voice of power; the voice of action is much more impressive than Songs). Thus he will teach his students how to direct their actions in conformity with the true rules of behavior; to moderate and correct their passions; to become truly and genuinely happy. He will, therefore, make sure to give them the example of what he wishes to teach them; he will strive for his own sake and for the sake of instructing them, to distinguish what is truly good from what is such only in appearance; he will lead them to choose rightly and to persevere in every enlightened choice; to arrange all things with order and measure; in a word, to fulfill exactly their duties toward God, toward themselves, and toward others. In this way he will acquire this sublime wisdom which includes the most excellent science of all, without which all others are nothing in comparison: the science of salvation, which makes the soul relish the things of heaven, because it show to us all the sweetness and suavity of these things. It teaches us to follow what religion urges us to do; for example, to find our wealth in poverty, joy in those which men hold in slight esteem; to make good use of the blessings and the ills of this life; not to take any resolution save with upright and worthy views; not to pursue our aims except by legitimate means; to unite, in dealing with children, a just firmness with a praiseworthy mildness; example with practice; always to seek the spiritual advantages which enrich us for eternity rather than the temporal benefits which are only fleeting, being firmly persuaded that it is of no use for a man to gain the entire world if he then loses his soul; that earth and all its goods will pass away, but that whoever does the will of God will abide forever. Such, in fact, is true wisdom, which St. James exhorts us (James 1:5) to beg of God, and which above all will be the glory and crown of a good teacher. The defects contrary to this kind of admirable wisdom are: first, to prefer a merely human satisfaction to an act of supernatural virtue, show oneself more eager to acquire external talents and profane science rather than the necessary knowledge of religion. Second, to - love rather than to what can form Jesus Christ in the hearts of the students, to seek their friendship rather than to correct them of their defects, etc. There is another kind of wisdom which does not come down from on high, but on the contrary is earthly, animal, diabolical, as St. James says (James 3:19:62). This is a false wisdom blinded by passion: it follows only the suggestions of the malignant spirit; it adopts exclusively the maxims of the world, while rejecting those of the Gospel. It takes more pains about acquiring the virtues which may be agreeable to men rather than those which can please God. It acts only according to interested motives, seeking only what can be of benefit to itself. Moreover, in order to deceive and lead others astray more easily, it strives to disguise itself by appearing affable, mild, friendly, and polite; but it does not hesitate to make use of intrigue, ruse, fraud, artifice, subtlety, and trickery to achieve its ends. This is therefore nothing but true folly, as its unfortunate consequences - contention and jealousy - only too clearly show. uty never fades; those who love the friends of God, remarkable by the gifts of knowledge. Wisdom opens the lips of the dumb, and makes eloquent the tongues of little VIII. Gentleness

(French = douceur. One-third of the original French text is devoted to this virtue.) Gentleness is a virtue which inspires us with goodness, sensitivity, and tenderness. Jesus Christ is the most accomplished model of this virtue. He according to the Bishop of Geneva, as it were, the flower of charity. He adds, following St. Bernard, that gentleness is the perfection of charity, when it is not only patient but, over and above, meek and good natured. (Introduction to the Devout Life, 3rd part, c. 8). In general, we can distinguish four kinds of gentleness. The first is that of the mind, which consists in judging heart, which makes us want things without being stubborn about it, and seeks them in a righteous manner. The third is that of manner, which consists in behaving according to good principles, without wanting to reform others over whom we have no authority, or in things that do not concern us. The fourth is that of our conduct which makes us act with simplicity and uprightness, not contradicting others without reasonable cause, and without any obligation to do so; and observing, in this case, a reasonable degree of moderation. All these different forms of gentleness, in order to be genuine, must be very sincere; for says make people amuse themselves with words and conversations about gentleness and humility, without paying much attention to their inward affections. They think they are humble and gentle, but are really not such at all. This is recognized because, in spite of their ceremonious gentleness and humility, at the slightest cross word one may address to them, at the least injury proffered to them, What we have just said gives us to understand how singularly admirable is this virtue of gentleness, since it has humility as its companion, and because, when it is patient, it is in truth the perfection of charity. It follows, therefore, that under its first aspect, it restrains our fits of anger, smothers our desires for vengeance, and makes us face the misfortunes, disappointments, and other evils that can happen to us with entire equality of soul. Under its second aspect, which is its most distinctive mark, it wins the friendship of the students. It is a general principle that love wins love; a teacher should then, above and before all, cultivate the feelings of a father toward his pupils, and look upon himself as holding the place of those who entrusted them to him. He should borrow from the parents the sentiments of tenderness and goodness which are natural for them. He does this by showing gentleness; it inspires him, in regard to the students, with affection, tenderness, good will, winning and persuasive manners. It removes from his commands whatever might be abrupt and austere, and blunts their sting. Thus, it makes the children happy and attaches them to the teacher; and if they are reasonable, will they not always willingly yield to his insinuations and his gentleness, rather than to constraint and force? Let us give further consideration to the means by which a teacher can make himself loved by his students, thanks to gentleness. 1) He will begin by avoiding the defects that he must correct in them, for example, rough and shocking manners. 2) He will require good order and discipline that are neither harsh nor forbidding. 3) He will be simple, patient, precise in his manner of teaching; he will count more on his own consistency in having the rules followed, than on an excess of application on the part of the pupils. 4) He shall show equal kindness toward all, without any partiality, preference, or particular attention to anyone. 5) He should not overlook the mistakes which need to be pointed out, but it should be done gently and carefully. When he corrects, he should not be either bitter or offensive or insulting; and immediately after he has punished anyone he shall take care to dissipate the fear that the punishment may have caused the child, by making him acknowledge his fault, and the rightness of the punishment, and by recommending to him not to put himself in the same situation again. 6) He will be consistent in his dealings; this is all the more essential since if each day found the teacher in a different mood, by a change in his humor or his manner of speaking, the children would never know precisely what to count on, and would not fail to lose respect for him, and to find his constant changes ridiculous, unbearable, and very apt to make them lose interest in school or even to inspire them with aversion for it. 7) He shall give them the liberty of making known their difficulties, and he shall answer them willingly and with kindness in so far as it is necessary. 8) He praises them appropriately when they deserve it. Although this praise may be feared because of the vanity that it might arouse, it is necessary to make use of it in order to encourage them without elating them too much; for of all the motives capable of touching a rational soul, there is none more powerful than honor and shame; and when one has been able to make children susceptible to them, one has gained a victory. They derive pleasure from praise and esteem, especially from their parents and from those on whom they depend. 9. He shall often speak to them of virtue, but always appropriately and in praise of it, as being the most precious of possessions, in order to inspire them to love it and to model their behavior by it. 10) Every day he shall tell them something edifying which may help them toward leading a Christian and virtuous life. 11) He shall teach them the politeness which they need and the proprieties which they must observe in order to be esteemed in society and live there honorably; thus he shall take pains to make them respectful, gentle, honest, considerate, obliging toward their superiors, their companions, and to everyone. It is very important, indeed, to oppose certain tendencies in young people which are directly opposed to the common duties of society and of civil converse: a rough and unrestrained uncouthness which prevents them from thinking about what may please or displease those with whom they live; a self-love which pays attention only to their own comfort and advantage; an overbearing and haughty attitude which makes them think that everything is due to them, while they owe nothing to anyone; a spirit of contradiction, of criticism, of mockery, which condemns everything and seeks only to wound others. Such are the defects against which open war must be declared. Young people who have been brought up to be considerate for their companions, to give them pleasure, to yield to them on occasion, never to say anything outrageous about them, and not to take offense easily at what others say - such young people will soon learn, when they take their place in the world, the value of politeness and of civilized behavior. 12) A good teacher educates the heart, the mind, and the judgment of his pupils by the following means: A) to educate the heart he will forestall the passions and vices; this is done by inspiring the children with aversion and horror for the occasions of sin, by combating the evil inclinations which they display; by leading them to love Christian virtue; by teaching them the necessity of practicing these virtues and indicating to them the occasions when they should do so; by helping them acquire good habits, making them understand, for instance, the difference between a boy who is honest and sincere, on whose word one can rely, and whom one can trust implicitly, who is considered incapable not only of lying or deceit, but even of the slightest dissembling; and another boy who always gives rise to suspicion, whom nobody feels safe in trusting, and whose word one cannot believe, even when he happens to tell the truth. B) To educate their minds, a teacher will instruct his students zealously and with affection in the and duties of religion, and in whatever can make them men capable of directing themselves by right reason, and so becoming citizens useful to society. This further requires that he should always think of and speak with them correctly, with reason, with good sense, and should accustom them to do likewise in all the occasions which come up. He points out errors to them and calls them to order when they fail in this; he catches their mistakes when they judge badly or talk nonsense, or take things the wrong way. He accustoms them to act with so much discernment that they may always have a praiseworthy end in view, and may always be prepared to give valid reasons for what they want, do, and say. C) To educate their judgment, he will point out to them the relationships things have with one another, and the properties which distinguish them from each other. He shall make them speak of these things according to the understanding which they should have at first gained of them themselves, and do so always with correctness and precision; he shall present to them the comparison of what is reprehensible in their conduct with what they should have thought, said, done or not done. Even so, when striving thus to educate the heart, the mind, and the judgment of his students, a teacher still cannot expect to succeed unless he avoids whatever smacks of harshness. A teacher fails by harshness when he demands of his students what is beyond their capacity, requiring them, for instance, to recite lessons of catechism or of other more difficult matters which their memory does not allow them to retain; or by imposing penances on them out of proportion to their faults; he should consider that he himself would be as culpable, by giving excessive punishments, even if merited, as though he had punished someone who had not deserved it at all. He would fail again if he demanded things with so much over- bearingness and pride that the students would obviously not be disposed to conform; if he exacted such things when they are ill- disposed, without paying attention to the fact that they are not ready to profit by the efforts of his zeal, so long as they listen only to passion, resentment, and their ill will. He would also fail when he shows equal insistence on things of trifling importance and on those which are more essential; when he never listens to the pleas or the excuses of the students, thereby depriving himself of a means of correcting his own mistakes; or by never pardoning them their faults, even though he should forgive a good many in which there is neither malice nor evil consequences to fear, such as failures arising from ignorance, distraction, forgetfulness, frivolity, heedlessness, and other defects which are normal at such an age; when he shows himself perpetually dissatisfied with the behavior of his pupils, whatever it may be, never appearing to them save in a grouchy mood or with a freezing air; never opening his mouth except to say cutting, disagreeable, improper, injurious remarks; when he shows continual bias against them, interpreting badly everything they do; when he exaggerates their faults; when he acts toward them as though they were irrational beings, without any feelings: for instance, by jerking them, pulling on them, striking them violently in anger. (Such behavior can only be the result of a fit of temper, of which a teacher, more than anyone else, should be incapable); when he does not inform the children why he is punishing them; when he punishes doubtful infractions just as he does the ones he is sure of; pardons anything even when they have committed only minor faults such as having accidentally written a page badly, or having come late to school once, or having been caught not following the lesson; when their faults are neither against religion nor good morals, such as words or actions contrary to purity, swearing, fighting, disobedience, stealing, lying, lack of reverence in church the pupils lose their love of work, their liking for what is good. It disheartens them and makes them complain of injustice.

A teacher should convince himself: 1) that punishment itself does less to correct faults than the manner of imposing it; 2) that if the teacher inspires excessive fear by inflexibility and noble sentiments, makes them lose all worthy sentiments, and gives them a hatred for the school and for learning; 3) that by wanting to spare no fault, he will prevent his corrections from being useful; 4) that by wise moderation he can win over those whom he would only irritate by indiscreet harshness. 5) that he will never succeed in making the pupils fear him save by inspiring them with attention to these, or if these things make no impression on them, all his authority will remain powerless to make them fear him. Moreover, it must not be forgotten that if gentleness is full of charity, it must still be firm. Charity can indeed for a time attract the hearts of the students, but it does not suffice; when they begin to take things easy, as they do from time to time, then firmness must take over to keep them within the bounds of duty, or to bring them back when they have departed therefrom. My sonlet your deeds be done in gentleness and you will draw down on yourself not only the esteem but the love of menThe Wise Man wishes to see gentleness employed; and at the same time he wishes us to do perfectly what we are about; this is to show that he wants this gentleness to be firm Firmness, therefore, according to the words of Scripture which we have just quoted, consists in complete faithfulness in observing everything that can lead to the end proposed; thus, it requires of a teacher strength, courage, and constancy: a) Strength to oppose whatever might be contrary to good order, not letting the difficulties and pains found in teaching dishearten him. This is necessary, for instance, when a teacher arrives for the first time in a class; for the first concern of the students in such a situation is to study the new teacher and to size him up to discover whether he has some weak point, and if so, to profit by it. When they see, on the contrary, that the teacher quietly and in an unruffled manner opposes a gentle and reasonable firmness to their tricks and their attempts at disturbing him, they soon submit and come back to the path of duty. b) Courage to keep trying to do whatever may produce or preserve good order, and the progress of the students. quietly to confront obstacles, opposition, problems even in spite of little hope of success. The main point here is to apply a firm gentleness to the guidance of the students, and for this it is essential to pay attention to the special circumstances in which they are, in order to combine wise gentleness with firmness. Thus, gentleness does not prevent a teacher from punishing the faults which should be corrected, but it does not allow him to show himself inflexibly firm, save when the method of gentleness and exhortation and all his efforts, repeated warnings, written punishments and other sanctions, along with other reasonable procedures have been used without correcting or overcoming a stubborn attitude, a disobedience maintained with obstinate ill-will, a mocking air, and an attitude of rebellion, an invincible laziness, missing school, notable and habitual negligence, disinclination and aversion toward study, duplicity and underhandedness, flattery, a tendency to tale-bearing, provoking divisions, slander and a mocking spirit. However, a teacher must never forget that inexorable strictness on his part will, as a rule, alienate the students, spur them to revolt, indispose their parents, and everybody else. Gentleness does not even permit us, when punishing, to appeal to our authority exclusively.(The original text here has a long footnote on authority. This important note has been transferred to the end of this treatment of Gentleness. [editor] ) When naked authority is invoked, it can indeed constrain the guilty party, but it does not correct him. If imperious manners inspire the boys with forced respect, they will obey while they are observed and while the teacher is with them, for they cannot do otherwise; but they come back to their old ways the moment they are out of his sight. Thus to reach a proper combination of gentleness with firmness we must not fall into any of the drawbacks of either. It is this happy medium which gives a teacher the authority which is the soul of obedience and submission. Thus, what should characterize the relationship on both sides, and be the principal consideration for both teacher and students, is gentleness and love. One should moreover carefully shun all the defects opposed to firmness. Thus, one will, in the first place, avoid weakness. A teacher sins by weakness when he fails to realize that he incurs guilt if he does not punish the faults which he should punish, or when he allows the students to do whatever they like, to violate order while feeling sure that they will not be punished for their misconduct. In the second place, he should avoid cowardly complaisance and spineless condescension. A teacher fails in this way when he does not use all the means given to him to succeed in his task; when he is inconsistent in his conduct and backs off ill-advisedly from proper firmness; when he considers as light or indifferent what might be a real and considerable evil; when for personal considerations of whatever kind he tolerates what should not be condoned; when, not wishing to take the trouble, he does not pay sufficient attention to the proper discipline in the class or to the progress of the students, and does not correct even the slightest faults contrary thereto; when he lets the students neglect or despise what he has rightly ordered or recommended; when he speaks ineffectually, acts in an indolent and indifferent manner, failing to show that he really wants the students to do their duty; when he is content with issuing ineffectual warnings. In the third place, he should avoid too much communication with the students. This leads them to despise the teacher, to become insubordinate, to show a distaste for work and application. It makes the students willful, undocile, rebellious; it encourages laziness and other vices, threatens their progress, allows evil habits to take root. When the teacher lacks the necessary determination and firmness, he is made fun of by the students, and lends himself inappropriately to their desires because of his own cowardice and reprehensible timidity. There is no doubt that he should be affable with his students; but this does not allow him to become familiar with them. In the fourth place, he should avoid the other defects contrary to firmness, which are: inconstancy; excessive timidity; a hang-dog look; a naive, unnatural, troubled, embarrassed air, as well as stubbornness, obstinacy, presumption, an inflexibility which never gives way, a rigidity that never yields either to reason or to legitimate authority, or even to force. Let us now go on to speak of punishments. We have seen that a teacher procures the good of his students by charitable gentleness, and that he maintains it by a firm gentleness. We must now show that he forestalls or corrects evil by his wise and prudent gentleness. First of all, he rejects the use of the rod or the whip. 1) These punishments are improper; they are also servile and demeaning and lead to serious consequences. 2) In correcting, one should use the means which will afford the greatest benefit to the students, through shame for having acted badly, preferably to those which would prevent them from falling again into a fault through fear of corporal chastisement. 3) Such punishments inspire aversion for the teacher who uses them and for the school. 4) They do nothing to change the heart and of themselves do not modify the nature. 5) They often brutalize the mind and harden the culprit in his evil ways. 6) The students get used to them and become unaffected by them so that in the long run they derive no benefit from them.

7) They expose the teacher to scorn, insults, and humiliations. 8) They are not really necessary. The best teachers, and the great majority of them, succeed in school even when they do not make use of such punishments. more helpful both for the teacher and for the students themselves. It is the rod the correction of children, but, says a commentator: this means that when it is necessary one should correct them with a holy severity. It is not being kind it is rather being inhuman to favor vices and evil habits in a child, in order to spare him a few tears; whoever lets him go ahead in his evil ways, through this cruel indulgence, does not treat him like a father, but like an enemy. Moreover, if parents (to whom Scripture is speaking here) are obliged to correct their offspring by using the rod, this kind of correction does not have, for them, the same inconveniences which it would have for a teacher. When their children show a character which is churlish, stubborn, hard-headed, indocile, unaffected by reprimands and appeals to honor, parents are certainly justified in opposing these nascent vices by using corporal punishments capable of mastering those who cannot be corrected by other, less violent, means. But the wisest thing for a teacher to do when confronted by students whom he cannot bring back to the path of duty save by punishments, is to send them back to their parents, while observing, of course, the measures prescribed by the Conduct of the Christian Schools in such cases. The following means can be used to avoid having to inflict punishments, or to make them rare, and to insure their effectiveness: 1) Early on, the students should be trained in docility; for this the teacher should show a firmness and a consistency of conduct from which he will never depart. When the students do something wrong, he must reprove them in an authoritative way, that is, a certain manner of speaking and acting which betokens energy and strength, and which suggests the master, the superior. Otherwise, the pupils would rebel against their teacher, or put themselves on the same footing as he, refuse submission and order, and do as they please. 2) The teacher should never allow himself to act through passion, ill humor, or caprice. This is one of the worst faults an educator can commit, because this never escapes the sharp eyes of the qualities, and robs his advice and his remonstrances of practically all authority. 3) The students should be brought to feel remorse and shame for their faults, rather than to fear the punishments they may have deserved. 4) The teacher should carefully distinguish between the faults which deserve punishment and those which he should forgive; moreover, he should not punish in the same way involuntary and inadvertent faults, and those committed with forethought and malice. 5) The teacher should attach the notion of shame and punishment to any number of things which may be indifferent in themselves, be left there for too long a time lest he be harmed.) A child may be put in the last place at a given table or bench, or near the door, or last in ranks; he may be made to sit in the middle of the classroom, or to stand in a certain place near a wall without touching it; or holding a book with both hands for an hour while standing in the middle of the classroom, under penalty of further punishment if he fails to act properly. All the while, the teachers should show him a cold, dissatisfied face, for as long as he does badly, or does not do all he should. 6) No penances should be imposed which are not just; and preference should be given to those which are less severe when these can bring about the desired effect. The teacher shall always avoid those which might detract from the lesson, such as hitting a student when he is not expecting it. This would keep the students in constant fear, trepidation, and apprehension whenever they saw the teacher approaching them; it would make them more attentive to warding off possible blows which the teacher might aim at them unexpectedly, rather than to paying attention to what he wanted to tell them for their instruction. 7) The fear which children should be inspired to feel should not always be the fear of being punished, but of the wrong they might be guilty of, and which they should carefully try to avoid. 8) The teacher should prefer useful penances to corporal chastisement, even to the ferule, which should be used rarely. He will then give them, along with the other penances already mentioned, a few chapters of the catechism, or some other book, to be studied and recited by heart; some page of penmanship or spelling, or arithmetic problems; some of this could be done at home. Such punishments have the double advantage of keeping the children usefully occupied outside of school time, of getting them used to working harder, of keeping them away from gambling and bad company, and of helping them learn more. 9) He should not make a given penance something habitual, or of daily use. The students would not fear it any more; they would make a joke of it. He should diversify his penances. 10) The teacher should take care to wait for the favorable time and manner of imposing a penance, so that it can prove more fruitful. Thus, he should not always correct a child at the moment he commits a fault, especially if he is not well disposed; this might only irritate him more and incite him to commit new faults, by pushing him beyond endurance. Let the teacher allow him time to realize what he has done, to enter into himself, to admit his wrongdoing, and at the same time, to acknowledge the rightness and the necessity of the punishment. By this means the teacher will bring him to the point of being able to profit by the correction. On his part, the teacher must never punish out of anger, especially if the fault refers to him personally, that is, a lack of respect, insolence, an insulting or disrespectful word. No matter how little emotion appears on his countenance or in his tone of voice, the student will immediately notice it; he will feel that it is not zeal for duty but the flame of passion which lighted this fire; and this is all it takes to make the punishment lose all its efficacy, because children, young as they are, feel that nothing but reason has a right to correct them. The second means for making punishments rare, or to forestall them is to instruct, reprove, and threaten before resorting to punishment. The teacher should, therefore, begin by instructing the students carefully about their duties. If they thereafter fail to conform to these rules, what then? If it is because of impossibility or incapacity, they should be excused, because we cannot require the impossible from anyone. If it is through forgetfulness, or inattention, but without malice, they should be warned. If it is through malice, they should be warned also, but sternly; if they persist, they should be reproved; if they fall again, they should be threatened; then if there is no amendment they should be punished. Thus, punishment is the final effort that the teac should make him use to bring a recalcitrant pupil to submission. For ordinary faults, warnings should be frequent, as often as the pupils give occasion for them; they should always be polite, spoken with kindness, and in a manner which induces the pupils to receive them willingly. The teacher should therefore avoid making the students think that he is prejudiced against them, lest by attributing these warnings to partiality, they thereby protect themselves from the defects pointed out to them. Nor should they have any reason to think that they are being warned because of some natural interest, or some special passion; in fact, for any motive other than their own good. Use of reprimands should not be frequent. This is the big difference between reprimands and warnings. The latter spring rather from the kindness of a friend than from the authority of a teacher; they are always accompanied by a gentle air and tone of voice, which makes them less disagreeable to accept, and for this reason they can be used more often, as we have said above. But as reprimands always sting self-love to some extent, and are often accompanied by a severe look and stern language, they should be reserved for more considerable defects, and hence should be used more rarely. Still, they should always be given without harshness, mockery, or exaggeration, without angry words; without partiality; and in such a manner that if the students are properly disposed they may be ashamed, and feel sorry for their faults, may resolve to correct themselves and take a firm resolution inspired by the good motives suggested to them. One should, however, be careful, immediately after reprimanding someone, not to show him the same serenity and the same affection as before; for he would get used to this little charade, convinced that these reprimands are only a summer shower, soon dissipated, and that he only needs to wait until they pass. The teacher should, therefore, not pardon him right away, until his application to doing better has proven the sincerity of his repentance. As for threats, since they come closer to actual punishment than reprimands, they should be even rarer. They should not be employed save for very legitimate reasons, and never without having first examined if we can or should carry them out. Otherwise, they should not be used; for if we make threats inconsiderately, they grow ineffective, and the guilty parties will be emboldened in their evil ways, by a sort of assurance of impunity. A third means of forestalling punishments or of making them rare is to prevent the faults of the students and make them rare. This can be done by using various procedures that can bring them to do their duty and continue doing it, such as words of praise granted appropriately and justly, but in such a way as not to encourage the despise others. Another means is to show satisfaction and pleasure to those who do well, giving them special marks of consideration and esteem; granting them privileges and outstanding awards which should consist not in frivolous gee- gaws or useless claptrap, but in worthwhile and edifying objects. Again, the teacher should give positive accounts of them to their parents and others interested in them; he might advance them in ranks as far as this is possible; he should point out to them the advantage there is in being well- versed in many things which make a man better qualified in whatever business he engages later on. There is no doubt that all these ways of threatening affect the minds of the students more powerfully than all threats and punishments. According to everything we have been saying, it is easy to conclude that the wise and prudent meekness of a good teacher does not prevent him, when punishing, from pursuing the end he has in mind, and that it is only for their own good, out of necessity, with regret that he punishes them; that he would do them a great deal of harm if he allowed them to give in to their evil inclinations and to contract wicked habits; that it is at their age that they are becoming what they will be for the rest of their lives; that to live honorably in the world and to be faithful to the duties awaiting them there, nothing is more important for them than to be rightly brought up and corrected when they deserve it; that the sorrow they feel at the moment will yield great advantages for the rest of their lives; and that they will be glad, when older, to have acquired the habits whose true value they will then appreciate, habits which will make them more acceptable to those they will have to deal with. It is also easy to understand that the true gentleness of a good teacher consists in seeking among the sentiments of goodness which fill his heart, only the amendment and the real benefit of those whom he punishes, the success of his ministry and of his efforts. He requires nothing save with circumspection, and awaits patiently for the opportune moment for obtaining what he wants of his pupils. Finally, it is easy to understand with what care a teacher should avoid ironical and biting language. Far from being a means apt to correct students, such words, on the contrary, can only dispose them unfavorably against the teacher and make the efforts of his zeal useless or nearly so. For it is clear that a student who lacks esteem for and attachment to a teacher whose insulting manner has wounded and ulcerated his heart will, as a rule, accept with all his instructions. He will nearly always remember that his teacher had the meanness, the offensiveness, the cowardice of making fun of him and ridiculing him for defects of body or mind, or others, instead of correcting or warning him gently, so as to win for him the friendship of his companions. Here are several other defects contrary to gentleness: petulance; the impetuous sallies of an over-ardent nature; bizarre, black moods; unpredictable, surly reactions; cross, somber airs; harsh and contemptuous ways; arrogant and supercilious attitudes; proud looks; severe, bitter, and peevish words filled with bile; insulting language (which students never fail to report back to their parents, to indispose them against the teacher and to explain their own dislike for him and their aversion for school); violent agitation; restlessness; precipitate, indiscreet, brutal, over-severe corrections lacking in any just reason and extending beyond the limits of justice and charity. All this debases authority and makes it detested. For in such cases it is regarded merely as tyranny; this cannot fail to cause mutiny, hatred, cursing, and a hypersensitivity which explodes when the child is the object of some scorn or insult. There is, however, a type of anger which is virtuous. This is the kind which is aroused only by a vehement desire of doing good, or opposing evil, of maintaining right order and the discipline which must be maintained. Such anger is necessary, but it must be governed by reason, proportionate to the faults committed, and to the interest one should take in what happens. It should always be such that one keeps self-control. In such circumstances, one should manifest this kind of anger, either to show that one is right in exacting what is good, and in being indignant at the failures one seeks to correct; or to lead those who do wrong to condemn and reform themselves; but this must always be done as the Prophet The anger we should be on our guard against, and which is a sin, is that which arises from an ill-regulated emotion of the soul. It leads to acts of revenge, or to violent responses to what displeases us. Such anger unsettles the judgment and blinds reason. only the esteem but also the love

5:4)

Footnote on authority... Authority is a certain air, a certain ascendancy which communicates respect and obedience. It has nothing to do with age, appearance, tone of voice, or threats; authority is accorded to an even-tempered, firm, moderate, self-possessed person, guided by reason at all times; someone who does not act either capriciously or in anger. Moreover, it is a wise blending of gentleness and firmness, of love and of fear. Love has to win them without making them feel rejected. We are going to retrace the principal means for establishing and maintaining authority. Many of these aspects are found scattered throughout the present work but we think it worthwhile to group them here. They are: 1) Never use authority excessively without good reason, or without reflection, nor for matters of no consequence;

2) Always insist that things properly ordered be carried out; 3) Be firm to the point of never giving in to what has been rightly refused when the circumstances have not changed; 4) Do not easily utter threats, but hold to those already made provided the students have some room to maneuver and there is no injustice involved; 5) Communicate and maintain a respectful fear among the students; 6) Always be well-organized in the guidance of students; 7) Be consistent in your behavior so that students always find their teacher someone who insists on duties being done and orders respected; 8) Be even-handed toward all, with no favorites, because those who enjoy an exclusive friendship become daring and cheeky, while other students become jealous, rebellious, stubborn, and uncooperative. This does not mean that there can be no expression of satisfaction, praise, and rewards for those who cooperate, and dissatisfaction for those who behave badly;

9) Do not become familiar with students; 10) Always act in such a way that you cannot be accused of making a mistake with students; 11) Do not look upon students in any way as slaves, but at the same time act toward them in such a way that they would never think of putting themselves on a par with their teacher; 12) Give all things their rightful importance; it would be ridiculous to accord great importance to matters of no consequence. At the same time, let there be no lack of balance in essential matters, in the general order of the class or in the general interests of the students; 13) When something has been prescribed, speak little but insist that it be done; 14) Do not abuse authority by demanding too insistently or too severely what may be reasonably required as, for example, if, in the case of a student who is unwilling to learn what has been set for study, one were to double or triple the task to be done. Similarly, in the case where one increases a penalty in case of refusal: such an action would lead to despair or resentment, causing some to lose good sense and could even lead to revolt; 15) Make sure that the task be according to the capacity and character of each student; 16) When you have to deal with hard and stubborn characters, do not give in to them; do not in any way relax a just firmness, which is its own rebuke.

0 0 Teaching the Catolic RESOURCES FOR CATECHETICAL TEACHERS Faith Today General Editor: REV. MSGR. EUGENE IKEVANE, PH.D. TWENTIETH CENTURY CATECHETICAL HOLY SEE 7. The Holy See. TEACHING THE CATHOLIC FAITH TODAY DOCUMENTS OF THE

by Teaching, 1905 Pope St. Pius X, Handing on Christian Doctrine Instruction, 1935 Pope Pius XI, On Better Care for Catechetical God, 1968 Pope Paul VI, The Creed o the People of 1971 Pope Paul VI, General Catechetical Directory, World, 1975 Pope Paul VI, Evangelization in the Modern 1979 Pope John Paul II, On Catechesis in Our Time, Eucharist, 1979, 1980 Pope John Paul Ii, Metanoia: Letters on the by With an Introduction and Topical Index EUGENE KEVANE

And a Preface by SILvIo CARDINAL ODDI, Prefect

Iii L’ v Sicrcd Cc g iegc I iou for CI’u

I ? S2

MASSACHUSETTS ST. PAl II. EDITIONS BOSTON, INTRODUCTION

of documents on Pope John XXIII gives the context for the set the Supreme Magis Evangelization and Catechesis published by which has followed tht’ terium of the Catholic Church in the decade Diocese of Vatican II. Speaking to the pastors of his closing of of he says, “The Catechism is the constant preoccupation Rome, forms accord the Church.... This solll u ‘Th es on innumerable but these forms to the demands and conditions of various times, ing It is that of are always one and the same in their basic concern. pple inasimple and breaking the bread of truth for the Chrishan ‘etained in th memory and on in the larnilies as meditated upon and which can be handed their precious heritage.”’ speaks is the official SiiiiFe”Catechism” of which he Creed and of its elementary-level explanation of the Apostles’ XXIII is actually voicing application to Christian living, Pope John concern has motivated the concern for the deposit of faith. This concentration of docu Catholic Church since the Apostles; but the and especially in tlit’ merits expressing it in the Twentieth Century, unprecedented. decade after Vatican II, is altogether to gather under one The purpose of the present volume is together with the two earher cover these post-conciliar documents century, the Acerho nintis of cateche.tical milestones of the present Pope Pius XI, for the conve St. Pius X and the Provido sane of busy in the field. It should nience both of students and of catechists interpretation of thest also contribute toward the autheptic the rest.2 No commen documents by the light each throws upon (March 31 1. John XXIII, “L’incontro coi parroci,” 169-170. 1962), pp. Carniel, St. admit 2. In his Prologue to the Ascent of Mount at the beginning. ‘But as the readu readers will find his treatise difficult that his part better, since one part wi find himself understanding the first passes on, he will works of St. Joliii Allison Peers (trans1.), The Complete explain another.” See E. the poiri Press, 1964), p. 14. This illustrates the Cross (Westminster: The Newman xl” 0 0 0 those Jesus Christ, the Divine Teacher tary will b ,,.ven; the footnote references are exclusively themselves. The topical index is designed C official in the documents While Jesus was indeed a carpenter in N,zareth until he was study of the documents for their as ,i [0 assist in this comparative about thirty years ol age, the recognition has been growing mutual illumination. result of the more recent scriptural studies that he presented himself a con in These documents, furthermore, should not be taken in in his public life as a recognized Rabbi or Tea her of the Torah from the of 11w temporary isolation, as if they were somehow different Israel.3 This is of basic importance for tfle se1f1inige intelligi younger previous life of the Church since the Apostles. For full catechist today. It is the avenue, furthermor, by which of the constant and a sense of per bility, they need to be seen in the larger perspective Catholics are re-discovering the Magis[erium his Apostles on interest in Jesus catechetical concern of the Church since Jesus sent sonal loyalty to it born of their characteristic ew presenting the Ni1 their worldwide mission to teach all nations. Before Christ and faith in him as a person. ,) it seems proper to review in Twentieth Century documents, therefore, Pope John Paul II has made these newer insights official occr briefly this more general background. Catechesi tradenclae, nos. 7-8. “The clearly relate Jesus sions when Jesus taught,” he writes. “It is the witness that gives of himself: ‘Day after day I sat in the temple teaching’ (Nit. THE DEPOSIT OF FAITH again; and again, as his custorri 26:55). . . .‘Crowds gathered to him this way was, he taught them’ (Mk. 10:]). . ..One who teaches in in the , the o1Chrit From the very beginning described has a unique title to [he name of ‘Teacher’.... This image faith which she teaches as a md Catholic Church has treasured the the Teacher is at once majestic and familiar impressive the Supreme Being of the it often divine deposit entrusted to her by reassuring. It comes from the pen of the evangelists and has always ha been that of a earliest Christi,in universe. The, yy_Ldeac.tcb.csis been evoked subsequently in iconography since o this divine depostt. the begin .prce whicbJaiaiding1jithful times, so captivating is it. And I am pleased to evoke it at it be found officially Wha, exactly, is this cleppst?(-Whi)can considerations on catechesis in the modern world.” con ning of these formulated(”Wh,c iIIreasured? The answers are Twentieth Cen stated and This insight illuminates and unifies all of these in the Person andthe teachiog of Jesus Christ. Supreme N’lagis tained tury catechetical documents published by the They present century illuminate and which Jesus sent to catechize all nations. These catechetical documents of the Holy See in the terium of the Church the furth’r fact ihat all the they specify the way by which interpret each other in a similar way. There is of course implement his own teaching for luminous and seli-interpretu that same teaching documents of the Su,pL Magisterium form one catechiss are his instruments in continuing the Divine Teacher, in his whole, reflectIng the one, unified mind of Jesus Christ, interpret each other, corn today. Body which is the Church. The documents of his Church the one of them or group of [he content of Jesus’ teachinE? How did he form nwnt upon each other, throw light upon each other. No What was apart from or different than the reading of the Gospels shows ihem can be taken in isolation as having a meaning minds of his disciples? A catechetical meaning, of divine truth, is, and what whole. The mind of Christ is a seamless robe of unified that he [aught the_to.understand,w,ho,hç himself documents. For instance, expressed kr specific topics and purposes in the various this central come up in whenever philosophical dimensions, implications or presuppositions or social in purpose, then documents that are theological or catechetical or scriptural must be kept in mind. This is the matter, see Friedrich Normann, Chrr’.t” 1ihe documents on the renewal of 3. For the comprehensive study of of the abiding and Lehrer rtr tier clrristlrche,r Litt’ortrtt the source of illumination, of authentk interpretation, Didáskalos: Die Vorstellung von Christus ais mistaken to take Catechesi Ira Achendorlfsche Verlagsbuchlr,ind hernieneutic. To give on exan’ple, it is entirely des ersten und zweiten Joirrlrunderts (Muenster: the light of a vague philosophy see William H. Russell, Jesus tire Diz’i,0’ I’iidae In lblation and then to ‘interpret’ it in lung, 1966); for Jesus’ methods as a teacher, and its light theological picked up by osmosis from a decadent religious environment Teacher (New York: Kenedy, 1944). Iiierature popular at the moment. xv xiv of the Kingdom of Gc..., and saying, taught I Galilee, preaching the gospel would know who he himself is, he I of God is at hand. Repent doctrine. So that they the ‘The time is fulfilled, and the Kingdom Within the Godhead of Yahweh, essential cQflent or mystery of the . “ He taught them the them th divine Per and believe the gospel.’ Hebrew revelation, there are three equal they were to believe with divine One God of the to “articles” of this Gospel which utmost skill as a teacher, he brings them thirepenfaheor SOflS. Gradually, with the faith; and he helped them take up inresonse in the divine Trinity which will its three ftihdental know and to profess the faith metanhe 1%hristian way of J.fe with building upon this foundation, these and the practice’cll the characterize the Church he is aspects: persort prayer, G2loraIity, or students, who have come to to admiiTh1s specially-chosen full-time disciples Seven SEments Which he taught them sent them to the whole world with be called his Apostles because he Church. teaching mission and doctrine.5 of4’iiwhich the Apostles received his own identical heaven Such, then, is the “deposit Creator of “ ? 0 With regard to God the Father Almighty, Christ, their Divine Teacher. 1’ come to destroy the from Jesus he taught them that he was not who taught these disciples with his human and earth, Hebrew religion Since the Person to fulfill them. The substance of the was the Second Person of the divine — prophets but voice and lips and language Church which he is building: its and fulfillment of the continues in this new universal Trinity, his teaching is the culmination his attributes, his almighty creating Prophets. Concluding his revealed concept of God, revelation begun with Moses and the over his creation, will be handed on to who lived with Jesus and power and his Providence study of the privileges of the Apostles, nations. theologian Charles Journet summarizes the all the gentile Jesus well, learned from him, the with him, the disciples came to know regarding the deposit of faith: In their life son of constant teaching of the Church recognize him as the only begotten they had of the revealed coming gradually to two “Besides the exce tional knowledge in his divine Person, but possessing of a - miraculous God, their Lord: One th ApoEle - enjgyjhepnviIege_ Being, and the human deposit, expres natures, the nature of Yahweh, the Supreme whic enabled them to give it an oral or written of the Mary, his mother, assistance must be said to nature he received by being born (his emphasis) so faithful that God himself of their Teacher, the Apostles sion Thus, as a result of the program mouths.”6 to proclaim his resur speak by their and able to celebrate his death in charity, accomplished his purpose. He taught became - The Divine Teacher to look forward with firm hope to his as Apostles with rection with living faith, and these disciples so that he could send them Judge of the living and the dead. formed Word of God. ,.. Coming in glory as the divine revelation, the very Second Person, the Holy his own mission to teach them that there is a third divine it comes from the one who sent taught Spirit of “My teaching is not from myself: He he promised to send to them as the so I am sending you” (in. Spirit of God, whom to “As the Father sent me, of their faith, as the Spirit of Life me”Th7:16). Jerusalem..., but to Truth to support their teaching “You will be my witnesses not only in ;‘ his religion, and as the Spirit of Holiness 20:21). animate the Sacraments of ends of the earth” (Acts 1:8). and Gospel morality in his Church. the witnesses to him is to sustain the life of prayer Trinitarian pattern of this teaching that in a divinely simple yet masterful The of his Thus Jesus’ teaching fulfilled final mandate to his Apostles as founders his public life, summarized in clear from his way his own first call when he began been delivered up, Jesus came into Mark 1:14-15: “After John had Word bicarzate, Vol. 1, The Apostolic 6. Charles Journet, The Church of the method stated in the General 142. See the General CatechL’ticcil the basic principle of catechetical (London: Sheed and Ward, 1955), p. 4. l—Itnce be Chrislocentric”; see Hierarchy of all Revelation”: anti no. 40: “Catechesis must necessarily on “Jesus Christ: Mediator and Fullness Catecheilcal Directory. Directory, no. 12, Faith, and which constitutes the object of the Catholic below, p. 74. no. 13: “The divine revelation from text of the Gospels, Jesus’ in,!sjrcle .9LaJ time of the Apostles, must be clearly distinguished 5. In the original Greek that time which was completed at the hs iatheta\the ordinary word at inspiration and illumination no one can discjples ar ustomani) called the grace of the Holy Spirit, without whose chosen Dictionary of theT’1iv Ttanent Se Kiltel-Bromiley, Thelogiral Below, 55-56. for “studcnt.” I believe.” pp. IV, 390-461.. liu , iLiTds: Eerdmans, 1967), Vol. pp. 1(tCL. i. ,‘ (5( ( xvii (Grand :n ‘ -:‘ c.. xvi ‘

. j. ..‘ ( . fl 0 Paul wriws instruction is everywhere presupposed. “Brothers’. Church: “Go, therefore, make disciples of all appeal to you worldwidt. aching 0 to his community of predilection, “we urge you a. them in the name of the Father and of the Son the kind of liii’ the nations; baptize in the Lord Jesus to make more and more progress in and teach them to observe all the commands as you learned and of the Holy Spirit, that you are meant to live: the life that God wants, that I am with you always; yes, to the end of not forgotten I gave you. And know from us, and as you are already living it. You have the Lord Jesus’ time” (Mt. 28:19-20). the instructions we gave you on the authority of (1 Thes. 4:1-2). Apostles or pattern The Ccitechetical Teciching of the This first catechetical instruction had a definite form passage. “You faith by or “syllabus” to which St. Paul alludes in a striking The concern of the Apostles to hand on the deposit of cyithout were once slaves of sin, but thank God you submitted teaching is clear in the book of the Acts and in the Epistles which tlw to the creed you were tauht” (Rom. 6:17), In wrote. The Apostolic Church was a teaching Church. resertion the Apostles creed you were taught” (translation of tIn’ community had didáskaloi, “teacher”: original Greek, “the Every early Christian tpä iacwsjfi?”form”or “pattern’ or today, iT’ieachers. Paul Jerusalem Bible) re catechists, one would say the catechumenate of the Eu R on his missions by the standard of theachT When himself was one of them before he was sent records of the early Chris were prophets Church becomes visible in the historical Church: “In the Church at Antioch the following pattern or syllabus is tian writers, it will be massively clear that this and teachers: Barnabas, Simeon called Niger..., and Saul” (Acts given to his the Trinitarian faith and the corresponding nietanoia 13:1). The Jerusalem Bible is directly on Church by Jesus the Divine Teacher. The writings of the New Testament do not report into the English the therefore quite correct in rendering typos didaclzes this first teaching by which new converts were initiated into of today as “the creed you were taught.”1° of Christ and helped to deepen their conversion. But they into Mystery This brings the content of the first catechetical teaching it indirectly In many places, and they constantly presuppose in tiji’ reflect It Is the deposit of faith. This content can be studied else could the Epistles of St. Paul have been view. ils existence. How ae first discourses, of St. Peter as recorded in the communities? To begin 3e.rüslem K understood when received and read St. Paul s Epistles bear witness to tIn’ proper to children and to adults in the’Acs of the Apostles. with, there is an elementary level of faith to the gentiles. “As SOOfl as into the Kingdom of extensior dFtFii’rW”dëposit who come like little children seeking entrance you as God’s message, you teaching about you heard the message we brought God. “Let us leave behind us then all the elementary message, and not sonw the accepted it for what it really is, God’s Christ and concentrate on its completion, without going over in Christ,” hi’ human thinking” (1 Thes. 2:13). “You must be rooted fundamental doctrines again” (Heb. 6:1).8 After lht;rlemenhry which prepares for Christian initiation, there is a higher instruction “the simple and objective kind of in which builds upon the deposit of Catechetical Directory, no. 83, which speaks of level of Christian doctrine and no. 88 on the change of method first catecheticai struction which is appropriate for children”; faith.9 The existence and practical nature of this “the formation of a religious was’ ni necessary with adolescents who need help in rational foundations for faith writings, .by a “catechesis.. .which provides the many other references to “teachers” in the New Testament thinking”.. 7 For the 110. early Christian community,” in Kittel-Bromiley, Below, pp. 108 and 1’33. “h diddskaloi of the La théologie de Saint Paul (Paris: Beauc.’hesne, cit., Vol. Il, pp. 157-159. 10. See F. Prat, S.J’, lh’ologjcal Dictionary of the New Testament, op. esp. p. 35 on Rum. 6:17; 11??,’, third edi Vol. 11, 32-42, “La catèchése apostIique”; N. I). Kelly, Early Christian Creeds (London: Longmans, 1972; pp. Fixed and LIflihrTn 8. 1. conclusions result from this text. First,.1t1eL !P. 4c)!_iS.... passage “refers unmistakably to an elementary stage in Christian jLhuri tion), p. 8: This because typos means an ‘exemplar’ and a ‘model’.. opll..iLis instruction in doctrine as well as in ethics and the teaching, is a nile that hinds cducation which includes God’s Will for new way of life..!iird,ly,jt with catechetical practice.” tative, containing in Sacraments.... The passage is concerned and teachers being obliged to conform to it in Christian Doctrine all the Churches, the preachers 9. For the contemporary continuation of this instruction and secondary levels, see the General their work.” which distinguishes between the elementary xix xviii is Jesus’ ow,...ching..bcuIh firm by the faith Since it is the vey,,Word of Cod, since it tells the Galatians, “and be built on him and held teaching it is a in conte I in_patter concern for fidelity in you have been taught” (Col. 2:6-7). their own quite self-evidence. The Apostles do noto forth to inculcate What this faith, this content of the dEit, is, becomes er[ion opinions and options.”’2 They have a jui dill in First Corinthians. “Brothers,St. Paul writes, “1 want to personal explicit th’?y substance of the Apostolic Sicces I preached to you, the gospel that you èern, one which f’orns remind you of the gospel bear witness. Timoth. already taught myself, npç1y sion, as the Pastoral Epistles received.... I taught you what I had been guard and keep salt’ that ordained by the Apostle (2 Tm. 1:6), is to that christ died Lor our sins, in accordance wh the Scriptures; 1 Tn,2O), third day, in deposit of faith which has been entrustEhi was buried; and that he was raised to life oE.be Tm. i’2)o “Thm he in first toCephas handing it on to men fit to teach othe (2 accordance with the Scriptures; that he appeared 13 to me, turn is to lay hands (1 Tm. 5:22). andsEndly to the Twelve.. .and last of all he appeared overlook the “It is impossible,” J. N. D. Kelly concludes, “to too (1 Cor. 15:1-8). doctrine which is Concern for emphasis on the transmission of authoritative “l taught you what I had been taught myself.”1’ references to an found everywhere in the New Testament.... The this deposit of faith is the hallmark of the Church of the Apostles. inherited corpus of teaching are clear enough.”4

the norm of authenticity in Catechet.ics, and the “” in St. ’ sense, D. Kelly, op. cit., p. 10: “St. Paul...had a healthy regard for in religious education. Th 11. See J. N. thechiefcrtejotJpy.iatirig. syllabi and textbooks handed down in the Church.” These text where It is objective body of teaching authoritatively is in the original Greek of the inspired taken to specify in a general concept of the “deposit” com words of the non-Catholic professor at Oxford can be the ordinary word for something valuable as Cardinal denoted by the word parathéke, what is meant by ‘the deposit of faith.” This “deposit of faith,” Kittel-Bromiley. TheoIogical,Dictiriiary of way mitted to a trustee. For further study, see points out, is the source and origin of content in catechetical 1972), Vol. 8, pp 1S2-168, and br Joseph Ratzinger New Testament (Graz4Rapids: Eerdmans, with its Interrogatory Creed,” he writes, “...is the or the specific use of this teaching. “The baptismal questioning parathke, in particular, pp. 162 64. Rite of Baptism, and corresponds to the very essence of the word (:deposit, ‘c the Pastoral Epistles, e.g. tlw very heart of the Roman the New TestFiient, see the exegetical studies oldest formulas of the Sacrament which word In who states his con the baptismal event as witnessed by the lettere pastorali (Brescia: Morcelliana, 1970), Oriental Norbert Brox, Le .1 been handed down,.. (Hippolytus, Ambrose, Augustine, and the designates the Faith insolar as it IS have clusion as follows, p. 348: “The paratliéke of Nyssa). The sacramental formula, itself based on of the orthodox teaching.” For Church before Gregory which is handed on. It is the substance Formulation of the Faith,’ a concentrated statement heritage see Gino Conceiti Mt. 28:19, is the original ‘Short relating the concept to contemporary catechetics, of the Faith which the Creed iiiiul leads in Galot, “Cristt of the basic structure and substantial content e Catechesi (Milano: Massimo. 1980); Jean Glaubens,” Ephemerides (ed.) Evangelizzazione professes.” J. Ratzinger, “Taufe und Formulierung des 215-227; Martino Conti, “La Chiesa, Communita Karl Evangelizzatore e Maestro,” pp. Lovanienses (May 1973), p. 81. Ratzinger takes issue with See also the post-conciliar Rites for Tlieologicae Evangelizzatrice,” pp. 228-251; and passirn. view of “Short Formulations of the Faith” in his Schriften zur Theologie, of , Priests and Bishops. Rahner’s Adult and Infant Baptism, and for the Ordination 153-164. For Rahner, a “Creed” is a mere abstract summary of a “In catechesis,” he continues in Vol. 8, pp. 12. John Paul II, Catechesi traderdae, no. 6: a doctrinal structure contrived out of mere human thinking of today. Word and Son of God, who is taught theology, the same place, “it is Christ, the Incarnate to lose all perceptiveness regarding the original mean it is Christ alone who teaches. This, Ratzinger points out, “is else is taught with reference to him—and the Symbol or Creed,” 82. The relation everything Twentieth Century ing of the Profession of Faith by means of p. are a directive for the last two decades of the concludes, tends to These words which the ship to the ,netanoia, the new Christian way of living, Ratzinger the way the Apostles saw and practiced to express with wonderful accuracy this kind of contemporary discussion, and thus the way is barred Century. See below. p. 213. be missing from teaching of the deposit of faith in the First teaching and of the Sacraments: “The contemporary Hierarchy,” pp. 16-49, esp he renewal both of catechetical See Charles Journet, op. cit.. “The Apostolic or that theology, and not that of the 13. discussion is confined to summaries of this of Apostolicity.” goes on to link this pp. 16-17, “The Chain short summary of the Faith,” Rutzinger, ibid., p. 82. Ratzinger 8. See ibid., pp.lO-Il: “the documenR of 14. N. D. Kelly, op. cit., p. with the content of catechetical instruction, with the very heart J. Christian teaching. In baptismal Creed testify to the existence of a corpus of distinctively Church, and with the cbrrect procedure for the themselves Primitive Church. catechetical practice in the Early legitimate to speak of the Creed of the that the concept “deposit this sense at any rate it is renewal of contemporary catechetical teaching. It is clear its main features were clearly enough its Nor was it something vague and nebulous: in catechesis as the instrument and means for if ever concerned to set out of faith” is basic and central and Gospels are, of course. rarely no. 40, Hence it is also the defined. The Epistles Christocenttism. Cf. the General Catechetical Directory, xxi xx 0 b 0 • established date. Its catechetical teaching program was alreacell word(Katechein, meaning an elementary form of Jerusalem In fac., che C in the chief centers of the pagan Empire of Rom urn is fou& frequently in the Greek text of the New missionary oral instruction, the Church went early to Antioch, and on to St. Paul’s “catechism,” “catechesis” and “catechu the Church: Testament: “catechetics,” foundations; to Rome itself, where St. Peter organized from it. Apparently it was St. Paul who adopted Peter’s young.’I menate” derive to Ephesus in the person of St. John. St. Mark, rare Greek word to denote this distinctively in Egypt. In this comparatively associate at Rome, built up the Churlr at Alexandria of the deposit of revelation coming from Jesus for leaching tlw Christian teaching each of these apostolic centers, this sitne program “Paul uses this word exclusively in the sense of both in strw the Divine Teacher. deposit of faith was organized, wonderfully unified the content of the faith’.... He uses it was called, wtN ‘giving instruction concerning ture and in content. This(”Catechumenate,”)as didáskein but also this much rarer word, to its origin iii not only the common eére the same, the same as it had been back in the religious vocabulary of Judaism, as a reached aml hardly known at all the teaching of Jesus. Wherever the Catholic Church instruction. He desires thereby to it took root and technical term for Christian TaZiFTio’iWese original apostolic centers, nature of instruction on the basis of the handing on emphasize the particular grew by means of this same catechetical program for was in fact very apt to assume the exclu Gospel. The word selected the faith by teaching. and it finds an echo today in the was flour sive sense of Christian instruction, By late Second Century, this same Catechumenate “s Gaul. The worL word ‘catechism.’ ishing in secondary centers like Lyons in southern the Apostles, then, had a definite program of in teaching ilu TçJrch of of Irenaeus bear witness to its continuing fidelity It held to the standard procedures of oral of St. John tin r) cateçJ[icaj teaching. deposit of faith. Irenaeus was the spiritual grandson for guarding the inegrityof the con Catechumenate ri teaching andaform or pattern Apostle. For St. John taught in his revelation itself, received from Jesus then bishop of tent._The content was divine Epi-tesus. Polycarp became a priest himself and a deposit of faith. He entrusted this organized hi Christ the Divine Teacher as neighboring Smyrna, where he as a matter ol course to be guarded, to be handed on by a was the youn divi d56sit o his Church own Catechumenate. Among his catechumens be developed by infallible explanations— and the mission’ faithful teaching, and to Greek Irenaeus, who decided upon the priesthood the end of time.’6 and this all days, even to in the west. gives a desci’iptioi In his book, Against the Heresies, lrenaeus the doctrinal substance of wh,r of t sit of faith which follows The Successors of the Apostles “The Church,” ii lier on will be called “The Apostles’ Creed.” arid Their Catechumenate world..., has receivl’i writes, “though dispersed throughout the whole (She believes The death of the last Apostle, sixty or seventy years after the this faith from the Apostles and their disciples: of heaven and e.rrtlr , saw the Church busily carrying out its man- in one God, the Father Almighty, maker and in one Lord lesir and the seas with all things that are in them; so, it is possible to the faith in its fullness: they rather presuppose and hint at it, Even who became incarnate for our salvation consti Christ, the Son of God, with a lair degree of confidence, what must have been its chief the prophets di reconstruct, and in the Holy Spirit, who proclaimed through And he cites the works of C. H. Dodd together with the Symbolforschung Virgin tuents.” of God, and the advent, and the birth from a of the German scholars A. Seeberg and Paul Feine. dispensations of the New Testa from the dead, and the asci’ri 15. .1. W. Beyer, in Kittel-Bromiley, Theological Dictionary and the passion, and the resurrection Ill, 638-639. ment, op. cit., Vol. official teaching is liii Catholic Church on the concept of divine 18, 1965), “On Divine Revelation.” This 16. For the official teaching of the bum (November natur Constitutions of and basic for understanding correctly the revelation and the process of its transmission, see the two Dogmatic damental to the field of Catechetics and PastorAeternus documents of the same Supreme Magrstt’irii Vatican I, Dei Filius (April 24, 1870), “On the Catholic Faith,” and the unity of the catechetical Constitutions of volume. (July 18, 1870), “On the Church of Christ”; and the two Dogmatic gathered into the present ad Del Ver xxiii Vatican 11, Lurr,eri Gentiurn (November 24, 1964), “On the Church,” xxii ,,.l,,’; f’ . ii’L;.1(i’ i’ . (c

f , ,,‘.I II Christ Catechumenate, handing on the divine deposit, Jesus the flesh, of the well-beloved Christ Jesus our not sur sion into heaven in continuing to teach in his Body, which is the Church. It is Coming from the heavens in the glory of the to Lord, and his Second prising, then, that devotion to Jesus Christ the Divine Teacher, all things into one (Eph. 1:10), and to raise up charac Father to gather which Pope John Paul 11 alludes in the passage cited above, the whole human race.”’7 anew all flesh of terized this Early Church in a special way. convinced that this deposit of faith is being o1 the Irenaeus is firmly The Catechumenate becomes fully visible in the writings e red inj ii cachetka1t In I the Catho lic whether in the han ded on unalt Fathers of the Church. It is everywhere the same, of faith constitutes the on-going Apostolicity with Saint C1’urcFi. This deposit East with St. Cyril of Jerusalem, in Northern Church and provides the cahisfiith their always an of this same Catholic Ambrose of Milan, or in Africa with St. Augustine. It is Canon of Truth, concepts which lrenaeus article h’ Rule of Faith and organized teaching which explains the Apostles’ Creed Gnosticism, the first great heretical challenge in personal developed to meet article and then teaches how to deepen the threefold the Church. lrenaeus says that Christians receive this sacrarnentil the life of response of i-netanoia in prayer, Gospel morality and baptism, a clear indication that he means the Rule of Faith in their living. Let St. Augustine, in one of his homilies to his catechumens, form of the Apostles’ Creed.’8 interrogatory speak for all the Fathers. in his famous passage on the deposit of the Creed. irenaeus continues “Receive, my sons, the rule of faith which is called Church,” he writes, “having received this preaching and Recite it dail’ faith. “The When you have received it, write it on your hearts. scattered throughout the whole world, yet, as if forth, fortify this faith, although to yourselves. Before you go to sleep, before you go house, carefully preserves it. She also believes you will he occupying but one yourselves with your Creed.... This is the Creed that as if she had but one soul and one and the same memory. These these points just going over in your thoughts and repeating from them, and teaches them, and hands them the divine heart; and she proclaims words that you have heard are scattered throughout as if she possessed only one mouth. facilitate tht’ down with perfect harmony, Scriptures. They have been assembled and unified to languages of the world are dissimilar, yet the be able to say For, although the memory of dull mankind in order that everyone will tradition is one and the same.... As the sun, that import of the the Creed and adhere to what he believes.”2’ one and the same throughout the whole world, to mankind, creature of God, is Based directly on the original call of Jesus Christ the preaching of the truth shines everywhere and enlightens Church is his teach so also (Mk. 1:14-15), the Catechumenate of the Early willing to come to a knowledge of the truth.”9 extended now to all men that are ing of the faith and its corresponding meta-zoia, the catechetical teaching which hands on the Catechesis. For St. Irenaeus nations. It is the vital activity of Evangelization and times will call “tlJrdinaryl the thc deposit of faith is what later of the Church organized and functioning. It is was as yet no other form of the very life Universal Magisterium.” For him, there and applied in the formation of persons fot Magisterium, deposit of faith taught the Magisterium, for the actions of the Extraordinary of life. which living the new Christian way taken to explain, defend and develop the Articles of Faith the future in the great Marie Liguori. I.H.M., ir constitute the deposit, belonged to 21. St. Augustine, “The Creed,” translated by Sister Irenaeus and the Other Subjects (New York: Fathers of th Ecumenical Councils still to come.2° For St. St. Augustine: Treatises on Marriage and see R. Vander Plaetse ted.) S. Aiirt’li Church generally, this Magisterium of the Church, 1955), P. 289. For the original text, Fathers of the Early in Corpus Cjiristianorun’i (Tti,’n Augustini: Sernio de Symbolo ad Catechumenos, 10, 1; in Roberts-Donaldson (eds.) The on 181, the editor reconstructs th 17. lrenaeus, Against the Heresies, 1, holti: Brepols. 1969), Vol. 46, pp. 179-199; p. 1973; reprint), Vol. 1, p. 330. Church of Augustine’s day, identica Ante-Nice,ie Fathers (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, Latin text of the “Apostles’ Creed” used in the familiar in English today. For a con 18. lrenaeus, ibid. 1, 9, 4; p. 330. in pattern and substance with the formulation and discourses, see Suzannt 19. lrenaeus, ibid., 1, 10, 2; p. 331. venient collection of Augustine’s catechetical homilies no. 52: “It is on the basis of revela (Paris: Cerf, 1966). in the serie’ 20. Cl. John Paul 11, , Poque, Augustin d’Hippone: Sermons Pour la Pâque as transmitted by the univer tion that catechesis will try to set its course, revelation Sources Chrétiennes. or ordinary form.” Below, p. 249. sal magisterium of the Church, in its solemn xxv xxiv 0 0 0 t ) did not end with the er’N the Patristic Vincent of L rins produced The Catechumenate Shortly alter Augustine’ tme St. and conL.o.red for over a principle of the C Age. It changed its form, quite naturally, his famous’VincentianCanori urn Catholic .hildren by means ol its concern to thousand years to teach and to form Early Church idi1Fssed and implemented everywhere, always and by all. by human innova this same original deposit believed keep its precious deposit intact, unadulterated from St. Bonifact’ crossing (lu For human opinions And adults beyond Christendom, tions, and hence faithful to Jesus Christ. ivossing Wi’ come up, Rhine in the Eighth Century to St. philosophies and cultures do indeed received into tin’ drawn from ambient Pacific Ocean in the Sixteenth, continued to he novelties which impact upon Evangelization learned tin’ producing doctrinal Church in the age-old way of the Catechumenate. They a case, St. Vincent identifies the authentic and Catechesis. In such rudiments of the same doctrine. ashat which has been taught every same and original deposit of faith and eywhere this Qrdinjy, and Universal Magis ‘ir the Church, from thVeiy Always wherein the ChUrd4, held by all the supervs1on of the men in floly Order’, his Apostles. “In the terrurn proceeded under origit’dflJ hurh in Jesus’ t.eadiing of the lay catechists, aid T1y T’th’ be taken toiá hd1[he religious and iwrites every c hould At his ordination each bishop 1ihuih iV’1t” parents in family catechetics. Eiwi:iat has beenb iev eveF7Fier alays and oiiing oi affirmed his resolution [o maintjn.the.conteit-of.bith7-entire tJuo a 6iñiibiis. the apostles and professed by the Apostolic uncorrupted, as handed down ‘y of the which èlrlTèhö the prac pro Church at all times and places,” words “0 Timothy, keep th deppsjj, avoiding Vincentian Canon. Each Church to Timothy: of tice of the Early Church summarized in the he asks,”Is then religion in the Church the Ministry ol fane novelties.” Then priest likewise expresses his resolution “to exercise of progress? But surely ther must be prog the gospel and Chii Eb 5incapabJe the Word worthily and with wisdom, preaching not a little.. W u.sL_mak..,rni”iësërvation, although primarily ress and that an,.53 explaining the Catholic faith.” The deacons, shall genuine pronnt IIkowic profess their however, that the progress l?(a concerned with tii Minls,try of Charity, We have ministry, resolving alteration of the faith. intention to participate in this same catechetical when a thing becomes some Wi’ yet remains itself: we have alteration conscience to the Mystery of Faith, as completing hicföiiriiiIa “to hold with a clear thing else.”2 ‘tet,’then,” he continues, to proclaim this faith in word and action and wisdom grow Apostle calls it, and [ion of his Canon, “understanding, knowledge the Church’s tradition.”25 as well as in the taught by the gospel and and advance mightily and strongly in individuals the Church as a whole, community, in one man as well as in but only Pope John XXIII uses its very words in degree proper to each age and tim; cant reference to it in Pa.scerrdi (1908); according to the it its orientation; as to rope Paul \‘l the same dogma, the same discourse (1962) opening Vatican II and giving their own domain, that is, with of the in particul.u. within there is not only frequent allusion, but the Creed Vincentian Canon implicitly wherevt’r meaning, the same sense.”24 and Pope John Paul II may be said to cite the 1, 2; in Rudolph E. Morris transi.) of the world he stresses the abiding characu’ 22. Vincent of Lerins, The Co,nrnonitories, in his many discourses in various parts Church, 1949), Vol. 7, the Church (New York: The Fathers of the of faith. The Fathers of o1.,,the-deit Rites of Ordin,i quotations are taken from the present post-conciliar p. 270. 25. T)es has receivet by Charles Journet, op. cit. pp. 536-537. priests and deacons; the Church of today, however, 23. Ibid., 1, 23; translation across all th passage quoted within Chapter IV of the Constitution the Early Church and has used them faithfully 24. Ibid., 1, 23; this is the these concepts from Pn,’si S.J. (transi.), Documents of Vatican Pontifical, The Ordination of Deacons, D(’j Fjljj4s of Vatican I; see John F. Broderick, Christian centuries. See The Roman 48. Beginning in 1835, the 37, p. 26 and p. 14. The fact that Ilu I (Collegeville: The Liturgical Press, 1971), p. and Bishops (Washington: NCCB, 1969), p. Council more and more its of the Early Church regard been making the “Vincentian Canon” ordination contains the “Vincentian Canon” Supreme Magisterium has cite very rite of fih’i recent times for the deposit of faith. To more visible in the Latin;..,. jitisdepositum own to express its growing concern in ing the deposit of faith is even recalls it in his document (1899) on in Ecciesia sernper et ubiqTh”-seniatai few additional examples: Pope Leo XIII (,ecundum traditionem inde ab Apostolis only a opinions into the Religion,” the tendency to introduce new \\t integrum custodire? And the answer: Volo. “False Americanism in 7” purum et — is contained”; St. Pius X makes signifi / very ‘doctrines in which the deposit of faith xxvii ‘(1’ I - xxvi y’ . .11 I r fl 1J .‘‘/ rI)’ 1..” \\ \ ,‘ L retained the let for children called ever since “The Catechism.” the substance of this which Always and everywhere, furthermore, same four classical areas of content and the Christocenirism origin in the call of and teaching has been one and the same since its the Ecumenical Councils of [lie Early Church had defended of God is close Christ: ‘The time has come, and the Kingdom In other words, he did not deparl from the Ordinary Jesus It is consolidated. and believe the Good News’(Mk. 1:14-15). regarding the first irid second Articles - at hand. Repent and Universal Magisterium the Articles of and tim irst a teaching of what is to be belid,%mely of the Apostles’ Creed. But, seeing differently the presence and then it is a changes in Faith summarized in ihe Apostolic Profession; work of the Holy Spirit, Luther introduced innovation,d their metanoiab1- and its teaching that helps them to repent and deepen the third Article regarding the Church, its Magisterium or metanoia is the conversion to God Incarnate. This repentance Sacraments. activities: per Trent to define the new Christian way of life with its three principal The Catholic Church called the Council of living. Thus the novel opinions and sonal prayer, Gospel morality and Sacramental truth of the faith in the points challenged by the and catechetical care of fouj ieas of catech r content, classiEál iñhCatechumenate, at the same time to see to a better pastoral life and work of the with accurate come into view together with their roots in the souls so that they might receive the Sacraments purpose and power for Divine Teacher. personal knowledge regarding their nature, and Universal of Trent projected a The Catechumenate, carrying out the Ordinary the life of Grace. To this end the Council teaching pro “so that the faithful may he Magisterium of the Catholic Church, is a magnificent “Catechism” to be used in pastoral care the simplicity and the which they made in their bap gram. It is divine in origin, divine in both mindful of the Christian Profession purpose of forming study of the Holy Bible. power of its elements, and divine in its salvific tism, and be prepared for reading and same time, it is carried Trent gave this project final persons unto the new way of life. At the Seventeen years later the Council of not see or accomplish for use by the living pastor forward by frail humans who at times do form by mandating a printed manual were sometimes given as a handbook and guide in giving effectively its work and its mission. Children and his living adult catechists but not the reality of faith. At its close, the baptism as a perfunctory social enrollment, instruction on the content of the Catholic of the Catholic faith. project to the Holy See. The Pope Christian formation based on the doctrine committed this with respect to by St. Charles Borromeo to produce Religious illiteracy, defined correctly as ignorance set up a Commission chaired and rudiments of ever since as “The Roman Cate the very Articles of Faith which are the elements this manual, known generally over even wide 27 Christian Doctrine, sometimes affected minds a new phase in the and in its authoritative regions of Christendom. And this introduces Both in quality of composition unique work. It prescinds in a of the Church for her divine deposit. character this is a concern of the Protestant remarkable way from the particular innovations caechetical movement, proceeding to put into print the positive Concern for the Deposit in Modem Times Concilii Tridenti,ri 26. CI. A. Thiener (ed.), Acta genuina ss. Oecumenici modern period of universal history in the At the opening of the (1874), Vol. I, p. 91. Church for the . In English-speaking Sixteenth Century, the concern of the Catholic 27. Published at Rome in 1566, by order of present the title, “Catechism of the Council ol took a new turn which continues into the lands, it has often been published under deposit of faith and authoritative catechetical masterpiece. immediate background for the Trent.” It is noteworthy that this basic Twentieth Century and provides the conducted by Jesus Christ the Divine summing up the heritage of the Catechumenate gathered in the present volume. out of print and unavailable through catechetical documents Teacher in his Body which is the Church, was maven-tent led by Martin of catechetical confusion which The occasion was the Protestant norn\al channels in the United States in the years printing press to cap negatively the immediate situation of the Luther. He made use of the newly-invented followed Vatican 11. This fact illustrates of oral catechesis by gathered in the present volume. ture in print the centuries-long heritage catechetical documents with initiating the book xxix question-and-answer. History credits him xxviii 0 0 0 the deposit, to communicr’’t ever rnoi’e Magisterium as a whole. are designed to serve heritage ot e Ordinary and Universal and to secure it rn doctrinal doctrine, but also in C efficiently and more widely, is reflected not only in the content of the and Universal Magis This been the pat innovations or omissions. The Ordinary the four areas of teaching which had the Church: it holds its division into are terium proceeds as the dynamic apostolicity of since the Apostles. These four areas has tern in the Catechumenate by these actions of the Holy See and the bishops “to what the explanation of the Catholic fast the familiar ones noted already: everywhere, always, and by all.” The major cate Apostles’ Creed; and the been believed faith professed in the Articles of the XIV, Etsi mitiirn..cbry_7. in personal life: chetical .ccc& of ppijedict the metanoia, the threefold response at midpoint of the teaching of petitions 1742) illustrates the concern for the deposit the Ten Commandments, and the into the new the Seven Sacraments, of ChiFEh’s journey from Trent to Vatican 1, at the turn as the syllabus for teaching the practice the rise ot of the Our Father problematic of Spinoza, Voltaire, Rousseau and devoted to personal prayer. philosophical atheism. This Encyclical is entirely Holy See directed the bishops every for Published in Latin, the and extending the provisions of the Council of Trent faithfully into the vernaculars and to confirming where to have it translated of “the rudiments of the Catholic faith, or, as they call their catechetical teachers. It the teaching place it in the hands of the pastors and in the parishes by the pastors and under renewal of the Church. it, Christian Doctrine,”30 in this way the basic instrument for Noteworthy is the historic begin became Christian peo the supervision of the bishops. Council was to say, “the moral life of the the laity in this Pope’s As a later to the ning of the special catechetical apostolate of by a more thorough instruction given pastors in the ple was revitalized call for the enlisting of lay catechists o assist the frequent reception of the sacraments.”28 faithful and by the more “who are to hear the boys and girls giving from memory Catholic Church refused to be parishes, It is clear from this that the , Apostles’ Creed, and other similar living catechist, never to their Lord’s Prayer, dislodged from the historic primacy of the and non-printed media points of doctrine.”3’ be displaced by the various printed striking, and poantzn8 forward not only to Vati the same time, the best Catholic Even more invented in the modern age. At to the catechetical documents of the Twentieth Cen of Catechisms for children can I, but also minds recognized that the production Catechesi tradendae, is the recognition by Pope Protestant movement. The tury, especially could not be left as a monopoly of the problems arising from the multiplicity ot is intended to be an Benedict X1V of the very faith itself is at stake, for such a Catechism and hence the desirability of one unifying Creed, implementing “the children’s Catechisms elementary explanation of the Apostles’ explanation of the Apostles’ Creed. is appropriate for instrument for the elementary and objective kind of instruction which VIII and others among simple Council of “Following the footsteps of Pope Clement by St. (a peritus at the and earnestly children.”29 Led and our Predecessors,” he writes, “We exhort in the Lord Bellarmine and others, national, regional Bellarrnine, Trent), St. Robert of recommend that the Catechism composed by Cardinal were composed and published by authority diocesan catechisms under mandate of the same Clement VIII, be used in teaching Chris were put into use together with the Roman the bishops. They of tian Doctrine. It is well known that this booklet was diligently sustained the living teaching and explanation Catechism, which and approved by a Congregation of the Holy See communicated by the catechisms in the same examined the points of doctrine for the purpose, and that Pope Clement VIII in a decision which Luther had retained, reflecting in deputed question-and-answer form for souls ordered it to be published. For it was his teaching prior to the printing press. most salutary print the method of oral one and the same method of teaching and to the ongoing concern of the intention to provide All of this bears obvious witness be observed by all from that time These new printed tools learning Christian Doctrine to Catholic Church for the deposit of faith. 7, 1742). no. 2; in Magnum Bullariuni Broderick, 30. Benedict XIV, Etsi minirne (February Filius (April 24, 1870); in John F. 28. Vatican I, Constitution Dei Romanum (Luxemburg; Gosse, 1752). Vol. XVI. p. 64. S.).. op. cit., p. 38. 31. Benedict XIV, op. cit., no. 7; p. 65. no. 83. Below. p. 108. 29. G’iwraI Catechetical Directory, xxxi xxx a r, .er of prac for the deposit of faith. This concern is now of unifor See the Bishops more desirable than this kind practice supervised by the Holy See and forward. There is nothing in tical pastoral makes effective or opportune for guarding It is a definite procedure of teaching that mity. There is nothing more of acting in concert. of which can creep into the situation media which fix the heritage of oral teaching advance against the errors of use of the printed children. If, however, because Jesus and his Apostles. It is clear from the such a variety of Catechisms for the deposit deriving from some other Catechism be is teaching the deposit by placing necessities of particular regions, evidence that the Catholic Church peculiar to see that it not the living pastor and his watchful care must be exercised the Roman Catechism in the hands of used, strict and of harmony of the elements so as to contain, anything out with the brief official statements contain, or be changed in such teachers, together time simply must be taken, furthermore, that of Christian Doctrine called since Luther’s with Catholic truth. Care clear and or rudiments of the faith are explained in a a Catechism the teachings if “The Catechism.” and omitted, they are to be added; XIV the Church reaches the times lucid manner. If any truths are A century after Benedict superfluous, it is to be removed Holy See to convene the , there is anything redundant or events which led the teachin that is brief and une from December 8, 1869 to the Autumn of 1870, from the text. For a method of meeting in Rome and it facilitates the ques War caused its abrupt helps greatly in the learning, when the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian quivocal the progress which the agenda left unfinished. when the time comes to evaluate suspension with much of its tioning able to accomplish two far- have made.”32 The First Vatican Council was children among many of concern for the of the Holy See, standing out reaching actions, both explicit expressions This document of the Holy witness to the constant concern of faith. others, bears a special deposit able to coin first of these actions which the Council was The Dc’i Benedict con of its two Dogmatic Constitutions, 17; p. 66. In par. 18, ibid., Pope plete was the publication 32. Benedict XIV, op. cit., no. creation of Faith,” and Pastor to what St. Pius X will call “the (April 24, 1870), “On the Catholic in a passage which relates directly at 1740, Filius two tinues that was in It first beginnings 1870), “On the Church of Christ.” These of unbelief,” an atmosphere the aeterrius (July 18, an atmosphere present century. Continuing on been mounting to a climax in the have never heard of the but which has Bellarmine and discuss the graduate level of universities who a Catechism substituting for the young Catholics on second minimum requirements of also contain after sixteen years of Catholic elementary, XIV writes: ‘This Catechism should Acts of Faith, Hope and Charity ing its practical use, Pope Benedict and cor and good will, they ask where they can must be no doubt that it is wise ary and college education. In all innocence of Faith, Hope and Charity. There and he Acts Catechism lacks them, a revised copy of these Acts. —,,,, and print these prayers. If a obtain a I as a certain kind at rect to compose be brief, not verbose. In the occasion tor the calling of Vatican to be printed. These Acts should 33. The immediatF number of priests, torrected edition is wcfl he nature of the in 1835, on the part of a small meaning is to be explained, as teaching, first noted officially by the tatechetical teaching their full these Act, of çminaries and universities. Misled customary practice of making mostly in Germany, on the faculties to which they express. Because the pantheism and atheismThhking ‘irtue who professes the Christian Religion, substrate of modern phiiosojhi’cal necessary for each person metaphysical Church more successful with the highest degree few times each year. Let each view of reIiiiake the be restricted and limited to a use that metaphysical of the dogmas their use should not and that of his flock, to profess cultural and historical both for his own salvation modern man, they began but only Bishop, therefore, out of concern diocese, as are infallibly true (so they taught), the pastors of his city and his of the Catholic faith. These dogmas carefully on this matter for progress of mankind at the legislate before the altar, let the pastors relative to the philosophical and scientific on Sundays and Holy Days, with a truth teaching of faith, which follows. After Masses and clear voice, phrase by definition by the Church. Thus the Hope and Charity in a loud time of the dogmatic to be perfected by pray these Acts of Faith, This will cause the taught) has been proposed as a matter to repeat the phrases after him. God has revealed (so they It Ic phrase, pausing for the people will begin the of doctrine thus becomes changed in meaning. Acts to memory, and thus they human ingenuity. Development faithful gradually to commit these as well.” novelty which violates the Vincentian days but on the rest of the days clear that such an opinion is a doctrinal use of them not only on the feast is in faith is no longer seen as a divine devout for the deposit of faith; and it For in such a view, the teaching of the 66. This clearly relates to concern Canon. over to his Spouse, the Ibid., no. 18; p. Catholics which the Holy Christ the Divine Teacher handed the religious ignorance among deposit which Jesus Dei Films, fact an early perception of the Church.” and to be explained infallibly. See open wound in the side of Church, to be guarded faithfully Century will call “an S.J., op. cit., p. 48 and p. 51 See in the Twentieth documents gathered in the pres with its third canon; John F. Broderick, background for the catechetical chapter four, All of this forms the a commonplace to find xxxiii Century it has become rather ent volume. In late Twentieth xxxii 0 H 0 Catechesis. This concerned apostolate of Evangelization and teaching-by for childre th its use to the foundn of catechetical the composition of a uniform catechism in the first instance, 0 Church. Thus it intended to establishing the nature of Divine Ryelatjon be mandated throughout the Universal as its channel, in to the variety of national nfaThbilifTfthë Sup ejsdagisterium address and solve the problem attaching peak by Pope Benedict X1V in the 5T1o transcendentpersoñalG and even diocesan Catechisms, identified Sor incarnatihen this new dimension of concern his Word by the li6fhis divine and eternal the previous century. In presenting guarding and altogether special guide in the LheiiuitlëpbäiT of faith’ to hand on by teaching, for the deposit of faith there is an diEEthiflo so This would be a person of Pope John XXIII. have a different XXIIlpve a memorable Catechetics, for quite naturally it would begin to On the eve of Vaticañ-Jijp John a different purpose DioceseFRome which linked content, a different pattern and form, and even address to the parish priests of hi very concept “Ordinary of Catechetics in a remarkable in its teaching.3 It is significant that the the coming Council with the field definition in Del Council,” he stated, “will and Universal Magisterium” received formal way.36 “The success of this Ecumenical divine and Catholic 0esal Cbuich. This Filius: “All those matters must be believed with lie in thefl ratk,nai whether in Scripture a restored fervor of religious faith that are contained in the Word of God, renewal is summarized in three points: Church, either by a or Tradition, and that are proposed by the devotion; an extensive and deep renewal magisterium, to Cbrist.jjfe.”37 To this solemn decision, or by the ordinary and universal and this a 1Thiodçl and posth1ic his predecessors had done, held be believed as divinely revealed.”35 end Pope John XXIII, as so many of to this universal pastors, calling it “The Summa ol The second action of Vatican I relates up the Roman Catechism to his out chiefly by the to the action of Vatican I magisterium in its ordinary form, carried Pastoral Theology.” Then he turned and uniform Catechism for children, on behalf of a universal on of Vatican I cited The to the Council Fathers 34. In their discussions on the floor, the Council Fathers quoting from the schema distributed for its attack upon the very Religious Future of Modern Societies, by Earnest Renan, 1870.38 better religion which will January 14, authority of idea of the Creed. Renan looked forward to a new and Council Fathers of Vatican I by but in the idea of pure Presented to the unite mankind “no longer in the dead letter of Creeds the title, “On the composition and characterized by non-dogmatic Holy See, this schema bears religion” (p. 374). This idea is the Reign of the Spirit, the Church.” “All the Council Fathers recognized Catechism for the Universal religious acts that are personal and spontaneous. The use of one small whole on the level of natural Christ diffused throughout the this accurately as a religiosity of merely human opinions members of the Church of revelation. Hence Renan rejected and one soul; hence they philosophizing, not the religion of supernatural it begins, “should be of one heart harmful and divisive. See world,” It must be any Creed professing faith in such a revelation as basically unified in their lips and their language. (Leipzig: 1926), VoLSI, cols. 541-542 must likewise be of 1. 0. Mansi, Sacrorum Conciliorurn Collectio variety in approach and method appointed to a professorship at the recognized, however, that a and 571-573. Renan was a former priest who was faithful is no slight to the Church. Among his of the faith to the now-secularized University of Paris by persons hostile teaching the rudiments We “the Father of Catholic with the approval of this Council, students was the young Father Alfred Loisy, later to become obstacle to this unity. Hence, in 1940 in the most abject by Our authority Modernism” under Leo XIII and Pius X. Loisy died care to produce a Small Catechism All of this touches the shall take will h atheism, In formal apostasy From his God and his Church. the variety of small Catechisms significant part of the which all are to use. Thus shadow-side of the Twentieth Century; it forms an undeniably this Small Catechism, the nimis to Catechesi traden for the future. In composing background for its catechetical documents from Acerbo removed proposed as a model, But the study of this is hereby dae. This aspect of the background calls for much research. Catechism of St. already the present Introduction. of this Holy See, and negative dimension is beyond the scope and the purpose of the one composed at the command F. Broderick, S.J., op. cit., p. 44. Pope 35. Vatican I, Dci Filius, chapter 3; John AAS (March 31, 1962), 167-175. on the same twofold division John XXIII, “L’incontro coi parroci,” John Paul 11 in Catechesi tradendae, no. 32, is explicit 36. See that catechesis will try XXIII, ibid., p. 168. of the Supreme Magisterium: “It is on the basis of revelation 37. John magisterium of the John XXIII, ibid., pp. 170-171. to set its course, revelation as transmitted by the universal 38. See 249. xxxv Church, in its solemn or ordinary form,” See below, p. xxxiv continued er Vatican I Ordinary Bishops of the world by Benedict XIV Thus the pastors and the faithful recommended to all several national and it be necessary that priests Catechism together with the (February 7, 1742). In the use of it, will with the Roman aids for But more for children as the ongoing teaching it in hand for explanation to the Christian people. regional Catechisms have of tht’ deposit of faith.H also in the hands of the faithful in such a handing on the elements and rudiments than this, it must be found Century. The to commit it to memory, to form Christian Era was at the eve of its Twentieth Form that they will be able easily The Nl,igisterium for the happiness of Councils, actions of the iixt raordinary as ii were their identification and pledge Ecumenical and faith.”39 the deposit of faith taught by the Ordinary heaven, the happiness promised to those who live by the had safeguarded actions which perpetuate the same mean Pope John XXIII singles out this final phrase for his pastors. Universal Magisterium, had for the Apostles. The uniform Small “What words, venerable Brothers and beloved Sons! Ideiitification ing which the deposit to define indeed, but not forgotten. The Teaching and pledge for the happiness of heaven! it is impossible Catechism is suspended, of the faced with deeper issues as the new Twentieth the importance of the Catechism. As the sacred canons Church, however, is better about the Dogmatic Constitutions Di’i repeatedly legislated, this catechetical teaching must Century opens. They turn Councils have members of the Church obey in order to have a worthy reception Filius and Pastor aeternus. Will all the be accomplished ahead of time teachers in the hearts, in the hearts of all letter and spirit, especially those who are of the Sacraments. It must be sown in the their to protect so that the faithful For these Dogmatic ConstitutiQflsare designed the faithful. We must do this teaching tirelessly, Church? as St. Pius X and be instructed in the Law of the the Cburc froi ambienatmospherLu.nbe1ief, can comprehend the Bible transcendent God and vill phrase it, which removes any idea of a Lord.”4° practical effect of this on the floor of Vatican I, the hence any idea of a deposit of faith. The After some weeks of discussion ignorance of the very survived intact.4’ It was brought atmosphere is to generate religious ignorance, project for the Small Catechism to the very elements ul Congregation of Vatican I on Articles of Faith, illiteracy with regard to formal vote at the 49th General then feeds upon this same present, 491 voted placet, Christian Doctrine: and the atmosphere May 4, 1870. Of the 591 Council Fathers deepens. gave approval with ignorance, growing as it grows and approval, 56 voted non placet, and 44 religious teaching approval, 3 the thought-provoking context of catechetical qualification. Of the Cardinals participating, 31 voted Such is for Century, with its new dimension of concern voted non pIacet.2 in the Twentieth which life of reflected in the number of its documents This overwhelming formal vote stands as a fact in the the deposit of faith to its catechetical teaching. the Catholic Church. After the vote the Council turned bear directly upon Pastor aeternus. In the vicissitudes second Dogmatic Constitution, CATECHETICAL DOCUMENTS the darkening internatHnal situation of the coming months, with OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY Catechism, completed in every the disciplinary decree for the Small efforts of the Successors ut promulgation when the Pope John XXIII surfimarizes all the other respect, was left without formal in communion with outbreak of the across the centuries and the bishops Council was suspended (October 20, 1870) at the St. Peter preoccupation he says, “The Catechism is the constant Franco-Prussian War. them when universally uniform Small Catechism for Catholic children 43. The idea of one despite 1924), Vol. 50, at all levels of catechetical responsibility, 0. Mansi, Sacrorurn Conciliorum Collectio (Leipzig: continues to preoccupy the Church 39. See J. challenged by even more fundamental fact that the Twentieth Century will be cots. 700-701. the Dogmatic Constitutions ul deposit of faith, linked with the four 40. John XXIII, op. cit., p. 171. concerns for the regarding the op. cit., Vol. 50, cols. 16, above. For the ongoing question the record of this discussion, see J. D. Mansi, Vatican I and Vatican II; see note 41. For Vatican 1, the 1977 Synod of Bishopc 454-500. “Small Catechism” project of 699-866, and Vol. 51, cots. suspended Paul Il, Catechesi iradcn Mansi, op. cit., Vol. 52, cols. detail; and cf. especially Pope John 42. For the details on the voting, see J. 0. should be studied in 501-512. the tabulation by name and diocese, cols. due, no. 50, below, p. 248. 493-512; tor xxxv ii xxxvi 0 0 0 to”’i him turning all things in Christ.”6 It is logical, therefore, one thing with the “Handing on Chris t Doctrine by of the Church.” This preoccupation is actually C 9fiiiediaTelrto’74Erbo nimis, love for its doc 19O5. bTdioncein for the deposit of faith, born of Teaching,” published on April 15, and His Apostles and programmatic treatment trine, which has been sketched above from Jesus Acerbo nitnis, the comprehensive to present this Century, is remarkable as a to the threshold of the present century.45 It remains of Catechetics for the entire Twentieth as and experience for the deposit and this same love for its doctrine of th new Pope’s personal activity same concern statement care of souls. of the catechetical documents of this Twentieth lifetime of teaching the Faith n his pastoral the essential nature through a activity and bond of unity between them. time it contains the essence of the Church’s Century and as the At the same given to the in catechesis since the divine command experience plan of the teach all nations” (Mt. 26:20). The St. Pius X: Acerbo nimis, 1905 Apostles, “Go, decline forthright. The chief cause for ‘he his first nine years Encyclical is simple and Ordained in 1858, Father Joseph Sarto spent the General Catechetical Direr native of ron,” a phenomenon which as the associate pastor of Tombolo in his is “ignorance of_things in the priesthood of toy will call “The Reality of the Problem,” followed a lengthy tour of duty as the pastor do abouTh obiem. The diocese. Then divine.” Then the Pope explains what to was the personal catechist of his people who of the truths of the Saizano. Always he is simply to see to the effective teaching souls by teaching them and their children “remedy and to the adult took pastoral care of their Faith to the children, to the adolescents, summarized in the official Catechism. His Catholic nimis continues the truths of the faith in the parishes. In other words, Acerbo practical. He explained the points of Catholics but now in till’ teaching was effective and historic concern for the deposit of faith, them in the minds, wills, to state the it. doctrine in an attractive way, rooting showing how to hand it on by teaching bishop of Mantua, he very practical way of imaginations and lives of his hearers. Named for actually doing this teaching. theology in his and of giving directions continued to teach: he taught both dogmatic the Catechism to his people. the renewal of catechetics is the means Seminary and he continued teaching St. Pius X says more than once that and 46. in Christo, See, for exam catechesis in the entire diocese, goal of his pontificate, instaurare ornnia His pastoral letters renewed for achieving the projected nation,iI the Acetho jimis. bishop approving and encouraging a contain already the substance of ple, his reply to an Italian 487: “You, actually Ada Sanctae Sedis, Vol. 37 (1904-1905), p. Holy See of St. Peter as”Pope Pius_)he conference on Catechetics, For in order k’ Elevated to the goal which we have urged repeatedly. of his pontificateln the well- proposal aims at the very ol expressed the intention and program of all things in Christ, that i there-Christianization tells us that achieve the restoration the doctrln( omnia in Christo. He himself life it is absolutely necessary that known motto, In5taurare moral custoth’iiublic and ,private achieve this “renewal of fill the minds and hearts of the commor catechetical teaching is the chief means to arid the precp,oL Christ once more peopJe’ doctrina tradenda. For the off ida parroci,” AAS (March 31, 1962), p. 169: “Di Pius X, Acer&o nimis: De Christiana 44. John XXIII, “L’incontro coi 47. St. 613-625. The Latin wor della Chiesa.” This famous and S. Sedis, Vol. 37 (1904-1905), pp. fatto, ii Catechismo e Ia preoccupazione costante Latin text, see Acta technical term ir 169-170: “In the dioce to another person,” became a standard the late Twenheth Century continues, pp. tradere, “to hand something ni venerated Pope of takes on age with the meaning of “handing all in the Ecumenical Councils, this solicitude educational system of the classical san Synods as well as.. above the Roman Latin title of Acerbo ohmic i the needs and conditions of the times, to others by teaching”: hence the innumerable forms which vary according to a body of doctrine by Teaching principle, which is that of “Handing on Christian Doctrine forms are all one and the same in their underlying correctly rendered by the phrase, sen But these is simple and meaning of “Tradition” in the Church for the Christian people, in a form that This gives likewise the most fundamental breaking the bread of truth See the directly related passage meditated upon, and handed on in the “teach all the nations” (Mt. 28:19). understndabIe, that can be remembered, by Christ to is for some reason It’l difficult to improve upon this as a no. 22, 227 below, where traditio as a precious heritage.” ft would be Catechesi fradendae, p. full meariiri families as its official Pope’s Latin text into English. The and purpose of catechesis, and’ of the Catechism untranslated by the translator of the definition of the nature The from one generation to the next by of its Creed and its tnetarzoia. been rendered as “.. communicated instrument for explaining the content could have the deposit of faith, h form of the older oral catecl’iesis, used of handing on Christian doctrine, “Catediism,” of course, is simply the printed living, active process since the invention of printing. teaching.” 17, below. xxxix 45. See Pius XI, Provido sane (1935); p. xxxviii St. Pius X continued the fundamentally cat .tical orienti “The task of the catechist,” St. Pius X writes, “is to take up one tion of his pontificate with many documents designed to implement other of the truths of Faith or of Christian morality and then or or encourage the catechetical renewal which he had launched. its parts..., moving his hearers and clearly pointing explain it in all mention of only two, the two most intrinsically regulate their own conduct.”48 This is Space permits out to them how they are to of Acerbo nimis. purpose and method, and it ex linked with the purpose the abiding heart of catechetical c’atechisni of C”ht’istiafl c’octritt’ which he of the Catholic Church for The first is his presses the constant practical concern Acerbo is.irii he addressed and practical published in 1905, hoitly after handing on the deposit of faith. This simple, clear I, the uniform calt’ one, is himself to the matter left unfinished by Vatican method, centered upon the truths of the deposit one by metauoia in their a chism for explaining the Creed and the Christian in detail by the letter which the Pope caused to be sent of Saint specified first and most simple elements. He took up the catechism after Acerbo riitnis to each pastor of his own diocese of of month Robert Bellarmine which had descended in various dioceses “Each catechetical instruction is to take up a point from the of Italy. Rome: Italy, re-worked it and made it law for all the dioceses explaining it by making use of The Roman diocesan catechism, that he continued to work on this Catechi,cni of to recommend to you as a pastor It is remarkable Catechism.... It is a pleasant duty years as Pope, using it himself and produced and pub Christian Doctrine during his the careful study of this Roman Catechism, catechists in the field.5° On the is always to be listening to reports returning from lished by mandate of the Council of Trent, which new and final edition of his to their basis of this experience, he caused a the pastors in teaching the doctrine of Jesus Christ 1912,vitli used by Catechism of Christian Doctrine to be published in faithful people.”9 expressed still more set up for fewer points of doctrine, and with the answers Such is the divinely simple means to the end he has thIs effective way of briefly and simply.5 his government of the Universal Church: Quans singulari on the lust the means for restor The second document is the famous the truths of Creed and Catechism is ci il n By thi’; teaching of the Confession and Holy Communion of CaRIic and renewing all things in Christ. Catechetical teaching renewal in ing measure St. Piu X launched an ongoing movement of can accomplish this renewal worldwide—and only deposit of faith life of Twentieth Century Catholics. This fundamental primarily to the bishops and parish priests the spiritual it can do so. Addressed of course intrinsically linked with the General Cate clear message: there is no. authentic document is of the world, St. Pius X has a with the well-being of the sacramental ep,o J’i. With chetical Directory and and effective care Qf sQulsaparLfjqm makes clear.53 love and follow system of the Church, as its Addendum out this divine deposit, they will neither know, his Sacraments in the Piazza San Damasu at Jesus the Good Shepherd nor be able to receive 50. St. Pius X taught his own Catechism regularly living near St. Peter’s. Hi’, the Vatican throughout his years as Pope to children fruitfully. Merry del Va!, did the same thing at S. Maria in Tras Plan,” below, p. 8. Secretary of State, Cardinal Pius X, Acerbo nirnis, “The Catechetical Lesson struggle against religious ignorance is a ques 48. St. to tevere, Both were convinced that the his Cardinal Vicar, “Circular Letter, May 18, 1905, society. See A. Zulueta 49. St. Pius X, through ion of life or death both for the Church and for civil “On the Teaching of Christian Doctrine.” Acta S. the pastors of the diocese of Rome Marigosta, in Gran Enciclopedia Rialp, Vol. V, p. 389. gives a rare insight into catechetical Sc’dis (1904-1905), pp. 725-727, This letter takes a point of 51. See note 55, below. “The pastor is to see to catecheticat instruction which singulari. AAS (1910, pp. 577-583; for the methodology: Roman 52. See Pope St. Pius X. Quam and explains it by making use of The Caterhetical Docmiou’nt ‘j doctrine from this diocesan Catechism English translation, see Joseph B. Collins, S,S. (trans.). Roman Gatechisrn, see above, pp. xxix-xxx. This union Guild Press, 1946), pp. 54-62 Catechism, “p. 727. For The (Paterson, New Jersey: Saint Anthony the hands of the living catechists with the elements (or “Addendum: The First of The Roman Catechi5rn in 53. See Paul VI, General Catechetical Directory (1971), elementary Catechisms of the Church 139-143. ‘points’) of doctrine as stated in the official Sacraments of Penance and the Eucharist”; below, pp. Church, constituting Reception of the well be termed the classical heritage of catechesis in the “Certain New Experiments.” see the joint could See With respect to no. 4 of this Addendum, of the “Ordinary and Universal Magisterium.” for the Clergy, approved the basic teaching activity Declaration of the Congregations for the Sacraments and the GCD, no’ 119; and Catechesi tradendae, translation, see Austin Vatican I, Dci Films, c.3 (D-S 3011); Pope Paul VI, 1’IAS (July31, 1973), p. 410; for the English and 249-250, by nos, 22, 50 and 52; below, pp. 130, 226-227, 248 xli xl CD C of faith XI: Provido sane consillo, 19’’ Conceit for the purity and integrity of the deposit Pope Pius to take in C after Ihe ravages of World all the measures which St. Pius X was forced Elected to the Holy See of St. Peter motivated the catechetical pro inroads of the Modernist movement within the War I were ended at last, Pope Pius Xl carried order to stop the ‘ the deposit as such, X forward lucidly and vigorously. In his very Church. This movement was essentially against gram of St. Pius the same meaning he was writing on behalf of intensified cate holding that “the Articles of Faith did not have first months as lope do for Christians of “The content of the Catechism,” he says, “must for Christians of the Early Church as they chetical teaching. nimis in as in a school, with methods The Holy See maintains abidingly, from Acerbo be given in the form of a true teaching, today.”54 exactly for which this teaching Catechesi tradendae in 1979, that the truth is suitable for reaching the noble purpose ‘1905 through to of St. Pius X and con this Modernist teaching. This is ongoing fidelity takes place.”5 This summarizes the thinking the opposite to which he himself in the present century. tains already in germ the practical directives the deposit and regulations published the new and final (Pius XI) will give in Provido sane, directions Nearing the end of his life when he Catechetics in the St. Pius X stressed which rightly earn him the title, “Organizer of edition of his Catechism of Christian Doctrine, teaching as the constant concern of Catholic Church.”5 the positive side of catechetical step on June 29, 1923, “by his own he writes, “we devoted the Pope Pius XI took the first his pontificate. “From the beginning,” Authority,” with the the Christian people, initiative out of the fullness of the Apostolic greatest care to the religious instruction of Doc greatest part of document entitled “On Organizing the Teaching of Christian particular of the children, persuaded that the a and in of her trine in the Entire Catholic World.”59 His purpose is to implement which afflict the Church arises from the ignorance the evils contact of the Holy See with each bishop of the world with her laws. Her enemies condemn them, blaspheming closer teaching and knowing are ignorant, and many of her children, Pope St. Pius X that of which they again in the years after Vatican II in English translation: live as if no laws available Cate her doctrines and her laws only imperfectly, of Christian Doctrine (Arlington, Virginia: Center for Family the necessity of Catechism we have insisted frequently upon chetics,19g0JE existed. Hence was planning the’ we have promoted it everywhere to the 5’PFm the beginning of his pontificate Pope Pius XI catechetical instruction and begun by Pius X and measures necessary to carry forward the catechetical renewal very best of our power.”55 XV do little, for his years to consolidate it. His predecessor, Pope Benedict could I. He did, however, publish were absorbed in the problems created by World War II: The Conciliar and Post Conciliar begun by Pius X, in which the canons on catechetics Flannery, OP. (ed.) Vatican Council the Code of Canon Law, Company, 1975), P. 241. This Declara Acerbo nirnis; and he set up a commission to carry Documents (New York: Costello Publishing embody the directives given in taken account of the views Vatican Council. This comniis “After mature consideration and having forward the uniform Catechism projected at the First tion concludes: the Sacraments and for Research is needed on the Sacred Congregation for the Discipline of sion seems to have disappeared in the throes of the war. of the bishops, the the Sovereign document, with the approval of of the Holy See in its regard. the Clergy declares by this present the intentions which have lasted for two years up to 19, 1922; for the text, see C. Frumento, La catechvsi Pontiff, Paul VI, that these experiments, 57. Pius Xl, Letter of June cease and that everybody everywhere Edizioni Paoline, 1965), pp. 38-39. This let of the school year 2972-1973, should nei documenti della Santa Sede (Roma: end catechesis, reflecting Acerbo ljulis conform to the decree Quam aingulari.” ter manifests the mind of Pope Plus Xl regarding should sane consilio, proposition condemned by the Supreme accurately and looking forward already to Provido 54. See D-S 3462 for this erroneous and “legislator” ‘l For a comprehensive and dispassionate 58. Pope Pius Xl is generally recognized as the “organizer” Magisterium in its document of July 3, 1907. renewal content of catechetical teaching teaching, fulfilling the logical step forward in the catechetical of the efforts of St. Pius X to preserve the catechetical summary “Pius X and the Integ see C. Frumento, op. cit., pp. 38-55, with the references phenomenon, see James M. Egan, O.P., launched by St. Pius X; against this negative the Life and De christianae doctrinae institutione tofu or!’’ B. Collins, S.S. (ed), A Symposium on 59. Pius XI, Motu proprio: rity of Doctrine,” in Joseph This document is dated on the Feast Confraterroty of Christian Doctrine, 1946), catholico ordinanda, AAS (1923), pp. 327-329. Work of Pope Pius X (Washington: recurs frequently for actions of of Sts. Peter and Paul, June 29, 1923, a date which 50-67, of faith. It follows pp. new edi See which have a special reference to the deposit 18, 1912, to his Cardinal Vicar on the the Holy academo. 55. St. Pius X, Letter of October the Studiorum ducem of Pius Xl, which regulated the 690. This new edition has been made immediately after tion of the Catechism, AAS (1912), p. xliii xlii more widely over the earth to the inexhaustible fou.....ins of truth “a special that regard to catechetical teaching. To this end he establishes and Grace, ‘the water.. .welling up to eternal life’ (Jn. 4:14), so as its instru Catechetical Office which the Apostolic See will use religious ignorance, that greatest of all the stains upon the Catholic the teaching ment for fostering world-wide obedience to its laws on peoples, will be washed away.”63 and promoting of Christian Doctrine to the people and for guiding This new Catechetical Office of the Holy See embarked imme Pius XI calls catechetical activity in the universal Church.”6° Pope diately upon the remarkable procedure which produc’d i’roz’idn to assist the for all lay associations and religious congregations sane consilio, By a letter dated June 24, 1924, l’ius Xl consulted he urges in his parish clergy in catechetical teaching. In a striking passage every bishop of the world on the state of catecheikal teaching post-graduate effectiveness in the Catholic schools and colleges to set up special diocese and on the needs of the Church for greater “obtain a specific and institutes for their own graduates where they can carrying out this teaching. Twenty questions asking for Christian Doc years were Diploma attesting to their competence as teachers of detailed information were included in the letter. Seven followed by two trine, Bible History and Church History.”61 taken to gather this data from the entire world, supervised by final out All of this catechetical activity is to be “carefully more years to analyze the results and to compose the report every on the Feast the bishops,” who are directed to make a detailed come: the Provido sane corisilio published significantly regarding the cate three years on all these matters, especially of the , January 12, 1935. colleges of emi chetical diploma programs in the Catholic schools and This document is a masterpiece of catechetical wisdom, Church each diocese.62 riently practical, the fruit of the experience of the Catholic his let consultation “We have the happy hope,” Pius XI says in concluding across all the centuries since the Apostles. The careful souls ever directives ter, ‘that these measures will bring ever more thirsting with the bishops is striking: the resulting catechetical adapt the catechetical heritage to the great need of the Catholic document regulates a separate and specifically order of teaching in the Church. This present Church in the present century for an effective catechesis the catechetical teaching of the igno distinct order of teaching, institutio, in the Church, designed to overcome the stain and the wound of religious deposit of faith as such. That the document is intended to be an instrument for prac of this basic passage reads: “Itaque, rance. 60. Pius Xl, ibid. pp. 327-328; the Latin is clear from the list of twenty-four questions potestatis plenitudine, Nos apud Sacram Congre tical efficacy motu proprin ac de apostolicae supervision and et per has Litteras declaramus, quo appended to it to serve the actual administration, gationern Concilii peculiare Officium instituimus urgendam toto orbe terraum obtem programs in each diocese and in its velut instrumento utitur Apostolica Sedes ad evaluation of the catechetical doctrinae praeceptis erudiendo: cuius perationem suis legibus de populo christianae parishes. moderari ac pr..:vehere.” For Officii sit universam in Ecclesia actionem catechisticam although it indeed is, the Provido sane consilio fairly of this Catc,hLLcal Off: e Practical the current description of the functions and competency spirit, nothing other than the same love Pro comperto sane, AAS October 31, 1967, pulses with an animating at Rome, see Paul VI, Motu proprio: the name of the Sacred Con doctrine of the Faith and concern for the purity and integrity 910-911. In the same document, Paul VI changed for the pp. for the Clergy,” as expressing bet the constant preoccupation of the gregation of the Council to “Sacred Congregation of the deposit which has been that the special relationship of ter the purpose of the Congregation. It is noteworthy Catholic Church across the ages. in the very structure of the of catechetical teaching to the priesthood is reflected Pope Pius XI followed up this major and central document Holy See. of catechetical exhortation and “Catechetical” Institutes and his pontificate with a constant flow 61. Pius Xl, ibid., p. 328. This concept of special points forward to the the part of the i-foly See’ (enters, authorized to award “Catechetical Diplomas,” 63. Pius Xl, ibid., p. 329. This expression of hope on below, 124-125. toward mid-Twentieth Cen Gi’m’rai Ca!L’j)wt Ecu! Directory, no. 109; see pp. carries the vision which animated St. Pius X forwacd that the bishops, in their periodic handing on the 62. See Pius XI, ibid., p. 329; it is significant tury. The vigorous and worldwide renewal of authentic catechesis, in particular what is being done the instrument for general catechetical reports to the Holy See, are to specify deposit of faith by teaching, is intended and hoped to be the Holy See intends Catholic schools Instaurare omnia in Christo, on these catechetical diploma programs which renewal in the Church and also in civil socIety: academic order of teaching is to motto of Pope Pius Xl. and colleges to organize for their graduates. The together with in Regno Christi, the minister in this way to the catechetical order. xlv xliv C C, using all the chetical document as such. But the catechetical ren was a con 1e Catechism,” he insists, “is to be taught direction. increas stant theme of his administration. He gave encouiagement and methodology provides.”64 He stressed means which good the guidelines for initiatives everywhere, always with the purpose of role of the priest in Catechetics, especially ingly the primary the confirming and consolidating the provisions of Pius X and Pius Xl. this end, he gave recurring átention to pajpies!.3TbWäd Space permits only one typical example of his many catechetical an ecclesiastical science in the seminaries teaching of Catechetics as letters. “The world suffers from serious evils,” he own proper object and syllabus. aliocutions and of the world, a teaching with its Church in Spain, “but few and stern procedure for writes to a Catechetical Congress of the is his enactment of a special has Noteworthy Christian doctrine. have such grave ce which approval of textbooks for use in teaching need for energetic the the imprimatur are become general. Society itself has urgent faculties of the bishops for granting of the The without a previous reidies for this, and the most urgent of all is the diffusion this case: it is not to be granted restricted in Office of Catechism.”68 The lament of his predecessors over the evil of books in question by the Catechetical examination of the religious ignorance becomes even more explicit in Pius XII. the Holy See.66 major cate “Religious ignorance,” he told the pastors of the City of Rome, “is consilio, it may safely be said, is a Prop ido sane carries an open wound in the side of the Church.”69 Again and again he of the Catholic Church, one which chetical document foun returned to this problem in his letters and allocutions. There is only and which remains the abidingly valid Acerbo nin’zis forward one remedy, he urges, and that is “to intensify by every intelligent catechetical problems of the later Twentieth dation for solving the efficacious catechetical activity.”70 Pope Pius XII calls the catechetical documents which means an Century and for implementing upon catechetical teachers, the parents of the Catholic children, For knowledge and love for come after Vatican II. and the men in Holy Orders. in that order of ascending respon kind reIigTus ignorance is always the problem. ilwiys thyurpo. sibility. It is the Catholic priest who renders “the incomparable ser “It iidjble,” Christian Doc vice of handing on the treasures of Christian Doctrine to the work, “how great is the ignorance of his catechetical This is true of on-coming generations by forming them with the Catechism.”7’ Church suffers in the present time. trine which the Cate For a priest, “no time is more precious than that which he dedicates age group or social rank. Hence the the faithful in whatever of so to the teaching of the Catechism.”72 “Pastors, whenever it is possi with renewed dedication, lest in a time chism must be given most ble, should personally prepare their children for First Penance and fields, religious knowledge, the much education in other First Holy Communion.... The Catechism Hour offers each pastor suffer neglect.”67 important of all, alone suc a fruitful occasion for contact with the young generation of his to Pius Xl as his Secretary of State, Pope Pius XII, close years parish.”73 Church from 1938 across the difficult ceeded him and ruled the Pius XII, it is clear, continues the concern of the Church John XXllIan4 Vatican II. In these Pope of World War II up to 1958: to of faith in a most forceful and lucid way which Pius XII iued no major cate for the deposit decades of mid-Twentieth Century, in Congress of Spain; in C. Frumento, Catechetical Office (November 30, 1925); 68. Pius XII, To the National Catechetical 64. Pius Xl, Circular Letter of the op. cit.. pp. 56-57. op. cit., p. 50. C. Frumento, to bear in mind that the 69. Pius XII, Discourse of March 10, 1948; in C. Frumento, op. cit., p. 57. Frumento, op. cit. p. 50: “It is necessary 65. See C. Religion and that the 70. Pius XII, Letter of July 20, 1949; in G. Frumento, op. cit., p. 57. aloiw, has the divine mission to teach Church, .ind the Church God to do Congress of Spain; in C. Frumento, this task, hs a special grace from 71. Pius XII, Letter to the Catechetical priest, comrnissiunl’J by the Church for op. cit., p. 58. this teaihing fruitlully.” of the in C. Frumento, 50-51, quoting the Circular Letters 72. Pius XII, Letter to the Secretary of State, July 20, 1949; 66 Ste C. Frumento, p. cit., pp. February 20, 1925, and lune 21, 1930. op. cit., p. 59. CaecheIird Office dated 6, 1940; in of Naples,” AA5 (1928). 73. Pius XII, Lenten Discourse to the Pastors of Rome. February 67. Pius Xl, ‘letter to the Cardinal C. Frumento, op. cit., p. 59. 290-2l. xlvii xlvi guard the deposit of faith from corrupi..i1.” 76 And he documents. In fact, as his pontificate fast will to deserves special study in his inspired source for 11w “catechetical,” so to speak, cites St. Paul, I Timothy 6:20, an explicit nears its end, he becomes ever more of pastoral activity in use of the phrase, “deposit of faith.” for a “pastçral updating,” a renewal ‘wi.’ calling fruitful. Using “In making this Profession,” the Vicar of Christ continues, which will make catechetics ever more the Church priests of are aware of the disquiet which agitates certain groups of men at aggiornarnento t9g.when addressing the the phrase pastoral the present time with regard to the Faith,... Wi.’ see even Catholics Piux XII calls for an “adaptation” of the italy in 1956,”Pe to be seized by a kind of passion for chan to the mentality and the problems allowing themselves ministry to the modern sciences, seen in these diys, living Magisterium, all, as he and novelty.. .(givingj rise, as is unfortunately of modern man, but above all to the souls.”77 of faith.” “Our concern to disturbance and doubt in many faithful says explicitly, at the service of “the deposit catechetictl to strengthen personal To understand the nature and post-conciliar matter,” he states, “is to clarify and in this contact with the importance of this document its occasion and setting nnist hi.’ on the necessity of maintaining this convictions ministry noted. Pope John XXIII has convened Vatican II and it has already the Church in order to keep the pastoral Magisterium of December 8, 1965. The Catholic Church and indeed the to contemporary man. The Church ended on adapted to the times and moment of hope for a new resources for this ministry, world itself have had an exhilarating possesses from Christ himself the this earth. Hardly had thi.’ of the Holy Spirit. Thus springtime of spiritual renewal upon namely his own truth and the presence and even ominous pulse of the times, and the Council ended, however, when a discordant armed, the Church has its finger on the pulse of the Church note sounded: in 1966 the Dutch bishops approved the publication in turn must keep their fingers on the faithful our times in rela of The New Catechism. Appearing immediately in several trans orientation, diagnosis and prognosis in for correct lations, it promised to catechize the whole world. But the catecliesis to eternity.”74 Magis tionship pastorale which was a subtle deviation from the Ordinary and Universal is precisely this program of aggiornamerlto carrying on since tho It predecessor and charged terium which the Teaching Church has been XXIII took in hand from his had been urged fre Pope John on October fl, 1962 Apostles. Faithful use of “the Catechism” realize, as his opening discourse not for its own Vatican II to of catechetical quently by all the Popes of the Twentieth Century, With this the remarkable group explicitly states.75 come into sake, nor because of its humble format, but because it explains thi.’ with the documents associated Creed in “the simple and objective kind of instruction which is view. appropriate for children.”78 The Dutch Catechism, however, does not explain.ihe Creed; it sets jLäFd1y J’8 The Creed of the People of God, Pope Paul Vi: 76. Paul VI, The Creed of the People of Cod, no. 1; see below, p. 20. For tl (August 10, 19h81. of the living and contemporary official Latin text of this “Sollemnis ProIessio Fidei,” see AAS This unique document is its catechetical in nature. The reason 433-445. Magisterium is intrinsically which 77. Paul VI, ibid., no. 4; see below, p. 30. with the deposit of faith below, 107-108. and intrinsic connection 78. Paul VI, General Catechetical Directory, no. 83; see pp. explicit object and the ,ln the Apostles has been the formal Since catechesis is the handing on of the deposit of faith by teaching, it must have indefectibly since not be as a form teaching. Pope Paul VI could elementary level proper to children, for otherwise it could not be authentic ongoing content of catechetical the vt’rv comes from “Our stead of teaching on the human scene. The elements of content on this level are solemn Profession of Faith he more clear: this Articles of Faith. Jesus himself stresses that adults who come to his Religion must with childlike faith. Saint Pastoral Ministry,” AAS like the children, receiving these same elements to the Italian Clergy on the point 74. Pius XII, “Allocution Pius X in Quarn singulari takes the predilection of Jesus for the children as his children, since they are tIlL’ (1956), pp. 707-708. October II, 1962, the of departure. These elements of doctrine proper to Allocution Gaudet Mater Ecciesia, their Creator 75. See John XXIII, 786-795. Articles of Faith, are the means whereby children come to him, in AAS (November 26, 1962), pp. official opening of Vatican II, xlix xlviii o 0 0 anr’elirninate developed comprehensiveness in order to counter of the Apostles’ faith in Jesus teaching. ing. Since tt... creed is the profession C the errors which were beginning to spread in cateltet. and S lo1aIl, ihe issue is cl of God sum iLdThEjedeemer Putting this another way, the Creed of the People it perceptively and appealed by her ‘Ordinary and Catholics of Holland recognized marizes the content taught by the Church in equal perceptiveness the Pope called of the Catholic letter to P2jauJ VLlith Universal Magisteriurn.”8’ It is the historic concern Catholics evere were in the times fdf Fworld-wide Year of Fpjthjn...whicj’i Church for her treasured deposit of faith, expressed faith by a new and concerted use of the sense, it is the abso to renew their baptismal after Vatican II in the most explicit way. In a in prayer. HecIdhIYi5F states the doc Apostles’ Creed in teaching and lutely basic catechetical document, the one which own solemn profession of the Creed documents flTon June 30, 1968, by his trinal content presupposed by all the other catechetical the name of all the Pastors and all the Paul II writes as of the People of God, “in of the Twentieth Century. This is why Pope John with you all.”9 of the People of God, faithful..., in full communion follows in Catechesi tradendae: “In the Creed a dogmatic definition,” the of the martyr “Without being strictly speaking proclaimed at the close of the Nineteenth Century Profession of Faith.. .repeats in sub predecessor Paul Vl Pope states, [this] “Solemn dom of the Apostles Peter and Paul, my called for by the spiritual condi of the Catholic stance, with some developments decided to bring together the essential elements of Nicea, the Creed of the immortal difficulty or risked tion of our time, the Creed Faith, especially those that presented greater of God.... As once at Caesarea for the content of Tradition of the holy Church being ignored. This is a sure point of reference on behalf of the Twelve to make a Philippi the Apostle Peter spoke Catechesis.”82 opinions, of Christ as Son of the pointing to true confession, beyond human Pope Paul VI affirmed the same in his allocutions, Successor, Pastor of the Universal of faith for cate Living God, so today his humble the Creed as the abiding canon of truth and rule on behalf of all the People of God, passage, “that you Church, raises his voice to give, chists. “P nøt_thi.k,” he teaches in a typical entrusted to the Church to be of thëilth; a firm witness to the divine Truth have the Faith if you do not adhere to the cpntent announced to all nations.”8° crd wi ich is the Church’s_synthetic of this developed nme1yJpjiSy.,mb.otor. Thus the Pope himself clarifies the nature of the Faith. Do not think you can renew of the People of God. As an oak tree summayLthJruths by minimizing or and contemporary Creed religious life or approach those who stand afar acorn, so it is that the devel not believe that a grows out of the small deforming this precise teaching of the Church. Do Nicene Creed was itself a development of the thinking or stops oped, just as the docile acceptance of this teaching humiliates of the “Apostles’ Creed,” the baptismal profession Christian knowledge. original substance research or closes the door to progress in was sent to teach to all nations. In other words, namely the proc which the Church Today mention is often made of the kerygma, People of God is the deposit of faith, stated with a Christian salvation to the Creed of the lamation of the Gospel truths which bear proclamation with the mankind. Know how to see the unity of that this matter, see Mark unity of divine revela Redeemer and Savior. For Jesus’ own forceful insistence on taught by your parish priest, the Mt. 19:13; Catechism Children appear frequently in the Gospels: Mark 9:35-36; professes divine faith: and hold yourself 10:13-14. and Luke tion and the Creed which Mt. 15:38; Mt. 21:16; Mt. 18:2-4; Mt. 18:6; Mt. 11:25 and liturgical for Mark 10:16; jealously and joyfully attached to that didactic 10:21-22, all that we below, 31. the doctrine of the Church. To summarize 79. Paul VI, Creed of the People of God, no. 7; see p. mulation of 31. Once again these borrow the words of that incomparable 80. Pitil VI, ibid., nos. 3 and 7; see below, p. 30 and want to say to you we shall explanation of their nature and purpose, as .,itiuhetic,d (lucuments contain the best Universal commentary, see Can of the Church on “the Ordinary and nos. 1-7 of this Creed bear witness. For a detailed theological 81. For the defined doctrine Illinois: Franciscan Herald Del Filius, Chapter ill (D-S, no. 3011); dido Pozu, SI., Creed of the People of God (Chicago, Magisterium,” see Vatican I, Constitution Kevane, Creed and tradendae, no. 52, below, p. 249. Press, 1980), and for a catechetical commentary, see Eugene add see John Paul 11, Catechesi of the People of God (West tradendae, no. 28; see below, pp. 230-231. C1L’cJI’tic: A CUtL’clo’tical Commentary on the Creed 82. John Paul 11, Catechesi mnster. Maryland: Christian Classics, 1978). Ii living. The by personal prayer, Gospel morality and sacrament bishop, teacher and pastoSt. Ambrose-,hen he was explaining Creed is the deposit of faith, expressed by the Church and professed [he Creed to his catechumens just as every good catechist does: in time the by the Church. It is the source of content and at the same are to add nothing and subtract nothing. For this is this teaching we pattern for the catechetkal teaching which all the holds and professes, that basic syllabus or the’tëêd Whkh th Holy Roman Church of the Twentieth Century speuify and which he continues to other catechetical documents Roman See of the first of the Apostles from taught by the Ordinary and “83 guide. It is that abiding doctrine, hand on our common and universal faith.’ explicitly Universal Magisterium, to which Pope John XXIII alluded Shortly after giving the Church this cQ9he People of and purpose. when he opened Vatican II and gave it its orientation Pope Paul VI reflected upon its very idea ina masterful sum which came God, This provides the link with the next document, the one mary. “A profession of faith cannot be other than a summary, a directly from Vatican II. syrnp as it is called intraditional theologicl làngug a ,ij.ulaaregu.lafidei ( rule of faith ) containing the main truths al - VI: General Catechetical Directory, 1971 -Faith in terms authoritative ye[ as_far.. as posibleoThdnsedari— PQpe Paul / the earliest days of the Church there was a of this j äb’6Eeviated. From The General Catechetical Directory stands at the center of dogmas of doctrinal teaching which the documents of the synthesis fundamental cluster of Twentieth Century catechetical had to learn and recite from memory. The the most basic candidates for Baptism Supreme Magisterium of the Catholic Church. It is method probably originated in Rome; we have It came into ex use of this teaching of them, the one to which all the others relate. it the beginning of the third century in the so-called much like that a record of at istence by mandate of Vatican II through a process of Hippolytus which consisted in a kind of mention of ‘apostolic tradition’ which produced Provido sane consilio. The very as is still used in the baptismal liturgy (ci. OS XXIII, the most interrogation such Vatican II evokes the figure of Pope John that this [ext went back to the Apostles, whence Pius X and perhaps 10). It was believed “catechetical” of all contemporary Popes, St. Creed,’ as it is called, and therefore it enjoyed great the General Cute our ‘Apostles’ John Paul U alone excluded.85 in a very real sense saw in it the authentic tradition as being what his Council, even credit. St. Ambrose chetical Directory belongs to John XXIII and always safeguards and preserves.’4 Paul VI. it derives most the Roman Church though it was completed and published by catechetical document, the Creed of the Peo John XXIII in callin) This fundamental directly from the original inspiration of when taken together with the explanatory character which ple of God, especially Vatican ii, and reflects with precision the pastoral Paul VI and the Catechesi tradendae of John Catechetical allocutions of Pope he wished the Council to have. To place the General that the deposit of faith is the very substance one must first see Paul 11, makes it clear Directory properly in its setting, therefore, This deposit is the Creed together wit he was, and then and content of catechesis. John XXIII as the great catechetical priest which which applies the Catholic Faith to life the Directory came the tnetanoia or conversion look into the manner and purpose with which Pape. Le out of Vatican II. 83. Paul VI, General Audience (May 31, 1967); in Discours du was full of con The short five-year pontificate of John XXIII Catéchisnze: Cormnent l’etiseigner? (Saint Cénéré. France: “Editions Saint-Michel, on the the deposit of faith; his numerous documents 1972), pp. 150-151, cern for cit., pp. practical and helpful for 84. Paul VI, General Audience (July 3, 1968); in E. Kevane, op. teaching of the faith are abidingly the result of the and all his priests 171-172. In this same allocution, the Pope states what he wishes catechists, as a sampling will show. “The bishop set ourselves Crec’il of the People of God to be in the Catholic Church: “We must all he said at the opening of his pontificate, country there working with him,” to renewed serious study of our religion, and we hope that in every original flowering of religious literature,” See ibid., p. 173. For the a chronological listing of the will be a new and 85. See G. Frumento, op. cit., pp. 263-271 for concern for the deposit of faith with that of St. Pius X, see the For Pius Xl, 40 are listed in identity of Pope Paul’s catechetical documents of Popes in the present century. 1972, ibid., 205-208, especially p. 207 where the John XXIII, 40 in 5 years. ,illoculion of January 19, p. 17 years; for Pius XII, 32 in 19 years; for (IICuujvflts of Si, Pius X are cited. liii lii 0 0 0 the constant..—Dccupation the deposit of faith: “The Catechism is the pastoral mission of Church, of Ror, i a passage ‘express tL. ,irst characteristic of of the Church,” he explains to the Pastors this takes place by means of a to the Twentieth Century the teaching of Sacred Doctrine. And cited a the outset of this Introduction and attractive to those who he tells his Pastors on catechesis that is strong, illuminating catechetical documents.’ Catechesis, j[•”86 of the Sacred truths coritainedin the receive “The first and weightiest responsibility another occasion, means “explaining thç presence of the Word iLmusLemhrace Hierarchy is that of securing the continuing Catechism,in an organic a rsuasive by means of the proclamation liturgy, in order to give of God in the world. This is done the whole: faith, morality and ctarnental revealed truth.”8 These words look forward to people so that from intellectual conviction and the teaching of solid nourishninrto the 92 on Evangelization and .pf...th..ieaching As the Synods of Bishops and the documents eaEersóiises to the practica living of Ars as “the tireless the best and most effective Catechesis. John XXIII held up the Cure St. Pius X bef6 eiiiiJdhn XXIII wants first and greatest duty teaching the truths of Creed catechist” who fulfilled what Trent calls “the methods to be put into service when X.88 At the canonization limit itself to a re of the priest,” the point so stressed by Pius and Catechism. “An instruction which would the new Saint as and the fundamental of St. Gregory Barbarigo, Pope John XXIII praises learning of the formul?teCatechism that of St. Robert movJhe ouI aid the the apostle of catechesis. “His Catechism was precepts of Christian morality without the bread of ay risk of Bellarrnine,” he says, “and he saved souls by breaking will to live accordingiihat dQctru]e would was for him an the true profession of Christian Doctrine for them.... The Catechism giving inert members to the Church, whereas later he gives the exquisite form of charity for the people.”8 A year the Faith creates a new man of St. Bertilla, ctrirw and CEristiari ile same praise to a Religious Sister, at the canonization all th Eivities of his lifç.,.”93 Ci ristian pastor when she alone placed in some kind of “who treasured the Catechism given her by her are never separated by John XXIII, let becoming a John Paul II will stress in was a child, reading and studying it continually and artificial opposition, a point which St. Gregory correlation of doctrine lifelong teacher of it to others.... The learned Cardinal Catechesi tradendae. It is this same intrinsic soil com and ser Barbarigo and this humble daughter of the same Venetian and life that John XXIII urges upon priests: “Eve_rnl plement each other in their love for the Catechism.”9° mon should bea form of catechism, He is own former Archdiocese Pope John XXIII has no reluctance about the Catechism. Willlng to a catechetical CongE1 latest and best and purpose of catechesis wants it to be used, used properly with the of Venice, John XXIII gives the definition Jesus. He knows golden book, the Catechism.” methodology, because its doctrine witnesses to and refers to its instrument as “The doctrine which teaching of the divine that children cannot come to Jesus apart from this “Catechesis is the systematic and complete remarkable fre in order to make it ever better witnesses to him. He speaks of the Catechism with revelation handed on in the Church, encourages its in personal living.... It aims quency, defines its nature and function lucidly and known and applied ever more deeply his daily know their faith and put it proper use throughout the documents which record at forming convinced Christians who Church for realities of Christianity, ministry. He connects it directly with the concern of the into practice.... Reflection on the great (November 23, 1958); in xiii, above. 86. John XXIII, Discourse at the Lateran Basilica 91. See note 1, p. 1961); in the Pastors of Rome (February 13, op cit.. 68. 92. John XXIII, Discourse to C. Frumento, p. cit., XXIII insists in his various catechetical (September 25, 1960); in C. Frumento, op. op. cit., pp. 70-71, John 87. John XXIII, Ailocution G. Frumento, the same as John Paul II in on “a systematic and organic teaching,” p. 69. discourses of the Curé of Ars 21 and 22; see below, pp. 226-227. 88. Set’ John XXIII, Encyclical Letter on the Centenary Catechesi tradendae, nos. AAS pastorurn, dated November 28, 1959, in C. Frumento, op. cit., p. 92. 93. John XXIII, Encyclical Principes (August 1, 1959); quoted, p. 850. at the Canonization of St. Gregory Barbarigo 10, 1959), 833-864; for the passage 89. John XXIII, Discourse (December pp. (February 22, 1962); in 93. to the Pastors of Rome (May 26, 1960); in C. Frumento, op. cit., p. 94. John XXIII, Discourse of St. Bertilla Boscardin 72-73. 90. John XXIII, Discourse at the Canonization C. Frumento, op. cit., pp. lv (May 11, 1961); inC. Frumento, op. cit., pp. 94-95. liv cer doctrine, is one thing, and the way in which it ts expressed i summarized in that golden book called the Catechism, will another thing, eodern tatnen sensu eadetnque sententia, hut never tainly lead to the fruit of interior renewal.”95 Hence in his weekly of the theless with the same meaning and the same sense.”98 allocutions John XXIII persistently urges the study book, I love Catechism. “Beloved sonsi The Catechism, that small These words bind Vatican II to Vatican I, which uses the sam’ For each one to stress, is the summa of divine truth and divine love. phrase in its solemn definition against historical relativism, and t All my life I of you it is your guide in the present and the future.... the Rule Failli ii he catechurnenate .i the Lu’ly Chutch which urging both have encouraged the study of the Catechism.. .always St. Viiceñf Lerius summarized in his canon.9” It is clear that Pope and priests and laity to fulfill this sacred duty, the duty of teaching John XXIII intended Vatican II to minister to a more effective instructing in the doctrine of Christ.”96 teaching of the deposit of faith to contemporary man. There is to he these Many additional instances could be cited. But perhaps no change in the Faith itself, no change in its interpretation: th pastor who suffice to reveal the pastoral heart of John XXIII, a meaning is to abide so that the Apostolicity of the Church may re’1 expressed in brings souls to Christ by means of the deposit of faith, main intact. John XXIII reflects to a high degree the ongoing concern use of the the Creed which professes him, and communicated by of the Catholic Church for the deposit of faith)°° it to Catechism which explains this same credal deposit and applies of The Second Vatican Council addresses itself to catechetical It is this dimension of John XXIII which led to the calling life. teaching in Christus Dorninus, the “Decree on the Bishop’s Pastoral Vatican II as a pastoral Council and which inspired his now-famous Office in the Church,” no. 44: “A Directory.. .should be compiled opening discourse on October 11, 1962. people in which the Council is this,” Pope for the catechetical instruction of the Christian “The greatest concern of the Ecumenical organization will “that the sacred fundamental principles of this instruction and its John XXIII told the assembled Council Fathers, taught more be dealt with and the preparation of books relating to it.”’°1 deposit of Christian doctrine should be guarded and The salient point of this Council is not, therefore, a efficaciously.... 98. John XXIII, “Gaudet Mater Ecclesia,” AAS (November 26, 962), p. 792 article or another of the fundamental doctrine of discussion of one notes 22, 23, and 24. to be well known and familiar to all. 99. See above, the Church.. .which is presumed Pope Paul VI referred to the fact that flit’ it is necessary that 100, When he closed the Council, lor this a Council was not necessary.. .(butj of Vatican II had come through the stresses and crosscurrents of the’ tour obedience of Documents this certain and unchangeable doct,cine, to which the years 1962-1965 unblemished in their fidelity to the deposit of faith. See his allocu in the on November 18, 1965: iii Faith must be given, be studied thoroughly and explained tion Publica haec sessio to the Council Fathers of faith in L’Osseruatore Rotnano—Italian Edition (November 19, 1965), p. 1: “Fidelity is their way for which our times are calling. For the deposit venerabh. characteristic,... This word.. .aggiornaniento, which described the goal of Pope truths which form the content of our it, itself, namely the John XXIII, certainly did not have the meaning for him which some try to give as Venice (April 22, 1961); EFdifi[b lhipi’rii ,I iIe TorId, of every 95. John XXIII, Letter to the Catechetical Congress of if itlI laws, structures, traditions.” The key phrase of this in C. Frumento, op. cit., pp. 86-87. thing in the Church—dogmas, 8, 1958); in by Pope Paul VI reads: quasi accorntnodationc ill,; 96. John XXIII, Allocution to pilgrims at St. Peter’s (December passage in the Latin spoken “relativisrni” placita. G. Frumen.o, op. cit., pp. 74-75. liceret secunduni of the world to use of Bishops in 97. Pope John XXIII composed a prayer for all the Catholics 101. Christus Dorninus, no. 44, “Decree on the Pastoral Office Frumento. op. cit., p. 79. 11: the Coricilior ,i,ii together with himself in preparing for Vatican H. See C. the Church;” in Austin Flannery, OP. (ed.) Vatican Council to a diffusion of the light and Liturgical Press, 1975) This prayer beseeches Cod that the Council “will lead Post Conciliar Documents (Collegeville. Minnesota: The the Council all men may a in catechetical teaching. power of the Gospel in human society; and that through p. 590, For the basic statement on the apostolate of bishop by the Church.” These two aspi Directory, no. 7, come to a deeper knowledge of the doctrine taught see Christus Dominus, no. 14, with the General Catechetical the subject of the future is quoted: “The catechetical rations are the essence of evangelization and catechesis, where this key catechetical concept of Vatican II and Catechesi tradendae. faith become living. of Bishops and the documents Evangelii nuntiandi form.. ,of the ministry of the word.. .‘is intended to make men’s Synods the linked Vatican II as a whole with the light of instruction.’ “ See below, p. 60. See above, p. xxxv, for the way John XXIII conscious and active, through cate’chetical apostolate. lvii lvi 0 0 0 prin actually supernatural, for it consists of methr” igical up promptly after the Council ended level, This r .date was taken to the revealed deposit as s .: if these are See, now well established 0 ciples which are intrinsic by the Catechetical Office of the Holy deposit of faith is not handed on which produced Pro disregarded or used ineptly, the the pontificate of Pius XI. The methods in its own proper supernatural since with the bishops of intact. It is not communicated were followed again: consultations function defined by vido sane revisions by mode. Such a catechesis fails in the precise linked with intensive and expert develop the entire world, Vatican II: “The function.. .of catechetical instruction is to 102 General Catechetical Direc special commissions. The resulting active faith.” 106 This faith, of course, is Sunday, April 11, 1971: in men a living, explicit and was made public in Rome on Easter of the term. This is llw tory General Directory divine faith, in the full theological meaning Pontiff, Paul VI, approved this or supernatural dimen “The Supreme authority and dimension of catechesis to which this first, Addendum, confirmed it by his Directory together with the sion of methodology ministers. The General Catechetical ordered it to be published.”03 of it in Parts Two and Three, on the principles governing itself is its own best evidence regard treats Once again, the document of the Word” and the handing on of “The Christian its authority? The passage just “The Ministry ing its nature and purpose. What is aspects of method, the General Catechetical The “Foreword” gives the Message.”°7 These provides the answer. Is it binding? to be held by all.” cited divine revelation, the Directory says pointedly, “are “Those things which are said about of catechetical methodology functions answer: message is to be The second dimension according to which the Christian of all the principles, methods criteria of that same on the natural level. Here it makes use and the more outstanding elements teaching in the natural expounded, those things and organizational procedures of human be held by all. On the other hand, service of a higher message, are to and the sciences and disciplines, calling them into the the present situation, methodology, Cate which are said about taken body of content, the revealed deposit itself. The General people of differing ages, are to be form of catechesis for of Directory discusses this natural level of catechetical guides, for a number of them are chetical rather as suggestions and Parts Four, Five and Six.’°8 sciences, theoretical as well as methodology in necessity taken from the human Does the General Catechetical Direc(ort, to some evolution.”’04 What then of content? and these are indeed subject be taught, namely the Articles o practical, Directory is exactly contain the content which is to words, the General Catechetical in the triple netanoia of In other of carrying Faith together with their application to life it is a directory on the methods living? The what its title indicates: It tells personal prayer, Gospel morality and sacramental instruction of the Christian people.” applied cor out “the catechetical to answer must be studied carefully, given precisely and as a telephone directory tells how how to do this instruction, catechesis suffer from ambiguity and minister to an address. It states “the fun rectly, lest find a number or a city directory instead of dispelling it. Again it is the document and it outlines “the fun religious ignorance damental principles of this instruction,” needed witness. Some elements of the deposit These are precisely the itself which bears the damental principles of its organization.” II.’° op. cit., p. 571. points mandated by Vatican 106. Vatican II, Christus Dominus, no. 14; see Flannery, furthermore, that the General 10-16; below, pp.54-96. It follows from the “Foreword,” 107. See Paul VI, General Cateclietical Directory, nos. distinct levels of be noted that Part One, contains within itself two 108. Ibid., nos. 70-134; below, pp. 97-138. It should Catechetical Directory nos. 1-9, is likewise functions on a higher spiritual The Reality of the Problem,” General Catechetical Directory. methodology. The first appropriate catechetical fundamentally to methodology, that of “fostering an devoted Catt’ of men” (General Catechetical Directory, no. 6; see General the supervision of he American re-evangelization process was completed under St. Pius X in his seminal and pioneering way recognized 102. This of the Clergy and its chetical Directory, no. 2). Prefect of the Sacred Congregation as a perusal of his Catechism of Cardindl, John J. Wright, as this special challenge to catechetical methodology, the Holy See. furthermore a direct correlation between Catechutical Office of 144. Christian Doctrine makes clear, There is Directory; see below, p. the Evangelii handi oI 103. raul VI, General Gatechetical 42. this Part One of the General Catechetical Directory and Directory, “Foreword”; see below, p. 104. Paul VI, General Catechetical Pope Paul VI. no. 44; see note 101, above. 105. Vatican II, Christus Dotninus, lix lviii rccfortj was in It is clear, then, that the General Cateclictical in the General Catechetical Directory, “ of faith are indeed present never intended to be taken in isolation. it gives the principles “The More Outstanding Elements of the Part Three, Chapter II, and methods for the ministry of the word: it specifies the 36, the Directory is clear and Christian Message.”’°9 But in no. ministry,7r but presupposes that the Word of God, the deposit ol faith” is indeed dealt with, but “this explicit. “The content of the faith, will be I’eceived from its own sources in order to he served in intended to set forth each and every second chapter is by no means alFi[ puriiind Integrity by”amewadapied catechesis hich put which constitute the object of faith and one of the Christian truths sues its goal faithfully.” The operative word here is faitlijiiily: From of view is methodological: this chapter of of catechesis.””° The point the beginning to end, the General Catechetical Directory is part saving message.. .which must be the identifies “features.. .of the one seamless robe in catechetical doctrine and practice in new, adapted catechesis which pur brought out more clearly in a Catholic Church. It points to the Creed of the People of God for its The General Catechetical Directory sues its goal faithfully.”11’ doctrinal content, to Acerbo rzimis for its heritage, to Provido sane truths which constitute the object of knows where “the Christian for its organization, to Evangelii nuntiandi and Catecliesi trade,, be found: “The ordinary or extraor its faith and of catechesis” are to dae for right attitudes on the part of those who implement provides for this point authori cen dinary Magisterium of the Church methods. It does not stand catechetically alone in the present these tatively by its public pronouncements.”’12 tury. Quite the contrary. it stands fully in the line of all more to that constant concern nos. 47-69; below, documents, and bears witness once VI, General Catechetical Directory, 109. See Paul of the Church since the Apostles that the deposit of faith be handed Pp. 79-96. Quite simply, 70-71. on by “catechesis which pursues its goal faithfully.” 110. Ibid., no. 36; below, pp. of the General Catechetical Directory is worthy of John XXIII and ifl. Ibid. This Ordinary and Univer VI, General Catechetical Directory, ibid. It ought to be used with understanding of its 112. Paul regarding “the truths his Council’s mandate. provides the light for catechists to follow which it wishc’s sal Magisterium also See also the nature and purpose, and with love for the content being more sharply denied or neglected.” of the faith which today are noted In ‘The errors which are not Infrequently to serve. ‘Foreword” (below, p. 42): to subtle of these errors arises from a failure catechesis today.” Perhaps the most between a “Catecheticd Directory” take proper account of the intrinsic relationship Pope Paul VI: Evangelii nuntiandi (1975) Faith” professed at Baptism and taught “the deposit of faith” and its “Articles of and have to be in a Catechetical came forth from the Synod of Bishops, a new the Church, Do the Articles of Faith This document in catechesis by and ti-.e practical the Universal Church. one must distinguish between the theoretical organ of the Holy See for the government of Directory? Here catechisms, a and to assist in the preparation of and significance of this official order. For purposes of study of To understand the background be prepared, abstracting frori the deposit it necessary to ‘Catechetical Directory” can of course treatise on Evangelization for the deposit of faith, is Creed of the People of God ‘-.ntain p’ which other documents, such as the faith it is a practical process that consider briefly the Synod itself. Since catechesis is a form of teaching, and cx professo. order of catecheticl with a proper method. In the practical In such a situation, religious ignorance and unites a specific content Directory must real presence of the deposit of faith. treated in the ieralCatecheticaI children. The Geni’ral teaching, therefore, the methods be religious illiteracy must necessarily result, especially among and must function at their service A1hat can n its goldti’?iil br be united with the Articles of Faith C’atechetical Directory, no. 36, IndIcates the remedy briefly order must be kept united in the concrete provides for in the abstract and theoretical “The ordinary or extraordinary Magisterium of the Church separated as Jacques Maritain stated it in catechists: practical order Distinguish in order to unite by its public pronouncements.” See below, p. 71. and Once again, therefore, it is (his point authoritatively his masterpiece on The Degrees of Knowledge. than isolating the General Catechetical Directory from the the title of be seen in union with 113. Even worse documents of the Holy See must would be the supplanting of it h clear that the catechetical Catechetical other catechetical documents of the Holy See from each other. Otherwise, the General in turn supplanted h’ each other and not isolation does ambiguous or incomplete national directories, themselves bustle of methodological activity which of faith by Directory can be diverted to a great slanted away from the handing on of the deposit deposit, the Articles of Faith, by “commentaries” effectively to the handing on of the would frustrate the renewal of catechesis in the T’.ven not minister as an umbrella for teaching. Such a phenomenon it would be used, or rather abused, ignorance and illiteracy. teaching. In such a case of the tieth Century by a positive deepening of religious characterized by the real absence instead approaches in religious education lxi lx 0 0 C in the Cht’of God to Vatican II in 1963 those who have received the mandate VI had conducted two sessions of the deposit Pope Universal C) propagate the Gospel message and to teach and gu experience of the need of the for and 1964, a matchless faith must do so even more vigilantly because the dangers implement her world-wide unity of of Church for an organ to help have become both more nurnero!Js and nore the fourth and final session of this same deposit purpose and teaching. To this end, as dangers have become immense of Bishops by the serious. In fact, we.must say these II approached, he constituted the Synod from religion. Vatican 1965.114 because the generaL mentality of the day is alienated Apostolica Sollicitudo dated September 15, decit: the document toward But even more so because of a parEiilr re ti1Ibf “Apostolic Solicitude” seems to point a few The very title, the fact that in the very bosom of the Curçh.jyorks of not concern for the deposit of faith which characterizes while proposing the constant view when teachers and writers have been published, which, the Church. This comes clearly into nevertheless catechetical life of as to express Catholic teaching in new ways and modes, Evangelization and Catechesis are seen to the two documents on frequently desire more to accommodate the dogmas of the Faith the first fruits of the Synod of Bishops. and speech than to obey the norms of even more explicitly profane patterns of thought this concern for the deposit is linked from this, and it is an opinion But September 29, the Church’s Magisterium. It results Pope Paul VI in his allocution on doctrine may he to the Synod by in the widely disseminated, that the principles of the true this historic first meeting of the new entity according 1967, addressing neglected, and that each person by private judgment and of the Church. CaiJing the Synod of Bishops the life and government to natural propensity may select what each one wishes from communion” which unites the Churches “an admirable sign of that Faith, and reject the rest.”’18 before him, Paul VI sees “the truths of the governed by the Pastors assembled of St. Peter continues this explicit expression of this communion in a hidden The Successor Holy Catholic Church coalescing from of faith by rejecting “this kind of review of structure.” 115 Although the concern for the deposit but true way into one firm, closely-knit of the Church’s doctrine” in terms of a new the solemn authority proper the sacred heritage Synod of Bishops is not endowed with a new meaning “far from the genuine tradi it does rivertheless hermeneutic producing Paul VI continues for the Word of God.” Paul to the proposals of tion of the Church, with its reverence into practice certain of the more important the assent to the carry Catholic Faith VI reasserts the formal motive of faith, name!y the first of these concerned the iii not Vatican II. “And its teaching of th ChuFh Fihorityof God revealin safeguarded and confirmed in its integrity, bhavioi:aI sdiics, or itself, that it be taken on the basis h hIldsdjhor of th and its internal coherence, with account power, its progress of a consultation regarding crrei iiñAd hi[eS[”Pul, process. Furthermore, the Council intended of its historic teaching of Galatians, 1:6-9: “n if an elTrdf1iaven Faith be recognized as the necessary foundation purpose that the Catholic of Then Paul VI gives the Synod of Bishops its specific as the very cause and supreme attribute we are the CIWiIian life, and and charge. “We wish to confirm our own faith, insofar as 116 VI cites the words of John XXIII the ihurch herself.” Then Paul and pastors in the Church of God, so that our gave it its orientation and teachers, witnesses when he opened Vatican II and humble, sincere and authentic in the sight of the preservation of Christian faith may appear purpose. 117 “This concern for the faithful of the Church who is the living invisible Christ. was given such a solemn one Supreme Head doctrine,” Paul VI continues, “which faith of all our sons in Christ, but continue abidingly And we want to confirm the at the beginning of Vatican II, must and theology. May declaration Indeed, especially the faith of those who study religion followed upon the same Council. certitude in these times which have they come to a renewed and vigilant insight regarding the AAS (October 30, 1965), 114. See Paul Vi, Apostolica sollicitudo, 775780 118. Paul VI, AAS (November 30, 1967), pp. 965-966. pp. first Synod of Bishops, AAS (Novem Pope seems to raise a seri 115. Paul VI, Discourse opening the 119. See Paul VI, ibid., p. 966. This statement by the when the deposit of faith is her20, 1967), p. 963. ous question about certain types of “consultation” 1 lb Paul VI, ibid. p. 965. concerned. 117. See above, note 98. lxiii lxii At the very heart of this document is Part Ill, “T1. content of of the doctrine of the Church. May they and the changelessness Evangelization,” nos. 25_39.123 This is a comprehensive and assistance in developing the sacred sciei6iädit thus give wise authoritative statement of what the deposit of faith is. But it is not keeping Catholic teaching firmly lnviolate.”120 the same time in given in the form of the Creed. It is rather the substance’ of the lucid expression of con It has seemed necessary to quote this Creed restated for modern man, the content of Evangelization and for it is as it were cern For the deposit of faith at some length, Catechesis as the hsis for true social justice and ,iuthentie human Bishops, the necessary pro the founding charter of the Synod of promotion. Only the Catholic Church cati realize the intt’gral i nun tiandi and background for understanding both Evangeli of human persons, for only the Church has and ivi’s Jesus the bond motion Catechesi tradendae, and the prerequisite for recognizing Christ, “the mediator and fullness of all revelation.”’24 Thus in of the Church in of unity between all the catechetical documents these paragraphs the Church is the true Prophet for modern man, becomes visible as a the present century. The Synod of Bishops standing as God’s authorized Witness to “The Redeemer of Man,” concern of the Holy standing and organized manifestation of the over against the false prophets who politicize the Christian be a practical instru See for the deposit of faith. It is intended to message, reduce it to the merely horizontal and temporal, and sub Faith on an effective ment for teaching and guarding the Catholic ject it to the dialectic of the dichotomies.125 is its precious deposit, world-wide basis. The unity of the Church Evangelii nuntiandi, in summary, presents the deposit of faith The living unity and the deposit effects and manifests the unity. in the mode of a herald of the revealed message, addressing modern of the de of the Church results from the ongoing communication man at the point where his needs are most acute and his temptation dynamic processes of posit of faith by the mutually interrelated is most deceptive. The deposit is given descriptively in relationship Evangelization and Catechesis. to these needs and to this horizontalist temptation, so as to beget intelligible In and the better alti The document Evangelii nuntiandi becomes fully among men, even among CathoJics, the good Exhorta Creed, toward the Creed of the light of the foregoing. Its very nature as an “Apostolic tude toward the formulated Apostles’ office in the that authentic kind of catechesis tion” fulfills the primary function of the Petrine the People of God and thus toward again, the Church: “Confirm your brethren” (Luke 22:32). Once for which the next document calls. and pur document itself contains the best explanation of its nature pose in nos. 15.121 II: Catechesitradendae (1979) and Pope John Paul Concern for the deposit of faith is implicit throughout, of the Good News fourth convocation of the Synod of Bishops met in Rome explicit in no. 15: “The Church is the depositary The and the Apostles.... under Pope Paul VI in the Autumn of 1977 with Cardinal Karol to be proclaimed..., the teaching of the Lord It is the content of Archbishop of Krakow, Poland, participating. The sub The sources of grace have been entrusted to her. Wojtyla, she preserves as a was catechesis, with a significant specific reference to children the Gospel, and therefore of evangelization, that ject it hidden but to com young people.’2 precious living heritage, not in order to keep and it.”’22 of Evangeliza municate 123. See Paul VI, Evangelii nuntiandi, nos. 25-39, “The Content tion;” below, pp. 161-168. below, 55-56. 124. Paul VI, General Catechetical Directory, no. 12; see pp. 966-967. 120. Paul VI, ibid., pp. the initial and programmatic Encyclical of Pope John Paul II, Redenp 1-5; below, pp. 145-148. 125. See 121. See Paul VI, Evangelii nuntiandi, nos. dated March 4, 1979, AAS (March 15, 1979), 134-155. In his text tor hominis, “The Redeemer of Man,” See Paul VI, Evangelii nuntiandi, no. 15; below, pp. and especially 52; see below, 122. are 257-354; and Catechesi tradendae, nos. 30, 31, 49 5:17; 2 Tm. 2:15; 1 Cor. 2:5. These passages pp. the Pope cites 2 Cor. 11:28; 1 Tm. and 249-250. For this same concern in suc pp. 233-235, 247-248 to ‘the deposit of faith” as a biblical concept. bishops at the Synod, central 126. For the official oral and written interventions of the see Euangelii nuntiandi, no. 65, “The Unchangeable cinct contemporary statement, Rornano—English Edition, the weekly issues from October 6, no. 25, 161 below. see L’Osseruatore Deposit of Faith,” p. 189 below; and ibid., p. lxv lxiv 0 C n God, th-.ire Word inalienable right to receive the Word of Pope .ul VI in his discourse closing the Synod summarized God.”28 perceptive and unified interventions of the bishops of In the second the remarkably “Necessity of a Systematic Catechesis.”” the world. “We express our Second: tiw assembled from every continent of comfort to us to see hd eve’one noted have found place, it was a great joy,” the Pope says, “that the members of the Synod catechesis, precisely because this and extreme necessity of a systematic themselves in agreement on the principal aspects of catechesis, mystery is what dititiguishes us very orderly study of the Christian that at the conclusion of their work they have submitted to presentation oi the Word of catechesis from all other forms of useful suggestions contained in thirty-four propositions.”27 Then truth on the basis of some God... No one can arrive at the whole the Pope gives these headings to his summary. adequate explanation of the simple experience, that is, without an over the emphasis of the Christian First: “Interjy of Doctrine.” “We rejoice message of Christ.... The complete presentation and to see to it moral principles.... To placed on thhop’s responsibility to be vigilant message obviously comprises also its been manifested to us and young people of our that full fidelity to the Word of God, as it has educate in the Faith also the children course of the centuries educating them to by Divine Revelation and transmitted in the Christian communities will mean, therefore, always preserved in by the Magisterium of the Church, be follow Christ.”129 Revelation clearly the third place, we fully catechesis.... Faithfulness to the deposit of Third: “Usefulness of Formulas.” “In be passed over recall the necessity of demands that no essential truth of the Faith should agree with trwtiëW iiTh’iithoriiatively sacred and it possible to express silence.... The peopl entrusled to our care has the fundamental formulas which will make in some of the Faith in a suitable and accurate way, the truths more easily, learned by moral doctrine. These formulas, if and of Christian make for “children and possession of these truths.. ,and 1977, through November 17, 1977. The official topic of the Synod heart, greatly aid the stable which sees it youth” is significant because of a current aberration in adult catechesis the profession of the Faith easier.”’3° of Chrieianity on the adult unity of the as the teaching of a new philosophical interpretation of this world-wide catechetical with regard to pro On the basis level. This approach is designed to persuade parents to acquiesce VI began work on the catechetical during their Catholic bishops, Pope Paul grams which withhold the deposit of faith from Catholic children the Holy See to but at the right the members of the Synod asked childhood years when they are of course too young to philosophize, document which is quite dif the text of Catecliesi trade,idtw age to learn the elements of Christian Doctrine. The Synod of Bishops produce. Anyone who studies the Apostles, that the headings of Pope Pa iii ferent: it proceeds in the context of the concern, constant since attentively will agree that the three summary the same deposit which future document deposit of faith be handed on to the Catholics of the future, most accurate short synthesis of the is the same one which has VI are the had makes their parents Catholics in the present. The question It is well known in Rome that Paul VI ignoi ,ulue as the ‘l that could be devised. preoccupied the Church ceaselessly since St. Pius X: religious but that his death made an approval to Catechesi tradendae lem and authentic catechesis as its solution. The then Cardinal Wojtyla given final his suc of this abr it. It is likewise known that insightful written intervention which actually solves the problematic prevented him from publishing Romano—English Edition able and experienced rational adult “catechesis.” It is reported in L’Osservatore cessor, John Paul I, himself a remarkably establish a close link (November 10, 1977), p. 13: “His Eminence recalled the need to of the between the catechesis of young people and the catechesis of adults, especially the own Exhortation on the fifth anni must have a program of catechesis which is directly related to Paul VI, ibid. Here the Pope cites his family.... One 128. important expression of I form a common religious language within of Vatican II, AAS (1970), 97-106, an progress of their children. This helps to versary of the closing For the catechesis of their of the post-conciliar confusion. the family and to avoid parents feeling estranged from the concern for the deposit in the very depths as Pope John Paul II in 195-204. children.” He will return to the principles in this matter text, see E. Kevane, op. cit., pp. 263-264. 2:24 on the following of Christ. For tradendae, nos. 58, 59, 60, 61 and 68; see below, pp. 254-258 and 129. Paul VI, ibid. The Pope cites I John CatechL’si see the General Catechetical Bishops, Octo in which the Word of God is presented. 127. Paul VI, “Discourse at the Conclusion of the Synod of the chiel forms (November 10, 1977), no. 17; below, p. 60. ber 30, 1977,” L’Osseruatore Romano—English Edition Directory, 130, Paul VI, ibid. pp. 1 and 16. lxvii lxvi have com strengthen cessors,” he said at Porto Alegre, Brazil, “I the document in his turn before his through cities already priestly catechist, approved you in the Faith.... St. Paul travelled in office. Pope John Paul II, also a in the apostolic death after a few short weeks evangelized, exhorting Christians to persevere took the document in hand, gave it teceived (See Ads deeply experienced catechist, teaching and strengthening them in the Faith it on October 16, 1979. mine may have the his own finalization, and published 16:4-5). 1 ask God that this apostolic journey of itself, it should be noted that, like result.” Coming to the document same meaning for you and obtain the same “.” The doc nature and the purpose EvangeliI tiuntiandi, it is an This is the meaning, the intention, the See fall into several categories: Apostolic doctrine or practice. It does uments of the Holy of Catechesi tradendae, It gives no new actions taken motu proprio, and it encourages and Constitutions, Encyclical Letters, not alter the con.cpLand methodof catechesis.. the contents of the Acta Apostolicae Sedis. Church, doing what several others shown in urges catechists to be persons of the Apostolic is a genre which has been used increas do, to teach all nations The Apostolic Exhortation Jesus himself commanded the Apostles to Century.’3’ The Holy See always has document, an experienced ingly in this Twentieth the deposit of faith. Upon reading this and exhorted not only the men in Holy Orders in current religious encouraged, urged teaching Sister observed: All the aberrations and all the laity toward apostolic zeal for com is given in each case. but also all religious education are specified ‘arid Fh right attitude and handing on the deposit of faith. Pope responsible for cate municating the Gospel These aberrations would disappear J.Lth.ose. duty of confirming the brethren lisi a duty Paul VI is explicit: “The chetical teaching would pay it heed. of being the Successor of Peter we have It is concerned which with the office This characterizes Catechesi traclendae aptly. the Lord, and [it] is for us a daily preoccupa content, explicitly discussed received from withf1ä Attitude first toward the 132 the words of Jesus: “1 have prayed to you, else than that same tion.” And he cites and ed throughout the document as nothing not fail, and once you have recovered, to his Apostles by Simon, that your faith may deposit of faith, the Divine Revelation taught your brothers” (Luke 22:32). of the living you in your turn must strengthen Jesus Christ the Divine Teacher, Only the attitude II who is maklrt this dlvirwly 30 But it is Pope John Paul catechist can assure that ‘ic .2Lcc.nient’Jor..which_no Peter the hallmark of his pontificate. This is right to receive.” And mandated function of calls, and which catechumens have “the journeys to the countries and continents keeps meth the meaning of his pastoral attitdèèidly toward methods, the attitidi’hich the substance of his addresses to the various the content, “inspired of the whole world and odology always in its rightful place, serving and to the throngs of the faithful. It is his that must remain Episcopal Conferences by the humble concern to stay closer to a content as one instance will witness. conscious and avowed intention, (no. 31). through Peter and his Suc intact” close to “Carrying out the mission received tradendae, as a matter of fact, stands Catechesi and word since classical times as Pope John Paul 11 recalls the pastoral 131. In the Latin, Adhortatio Apostolica, where the Acerbo nimis, just a thing”; hence, ‘to encourage, to X. ‘‘ Concern for the deposit of always has meant “To urge persons strongly to do catechetical personality of St. Pius these two documents begun urge, or to exhort.” The persons who are envisaged in Paul VI and John Paul 11 are not exactly Brazil, L’Osservatore Roo,ai,o— by the Synods of Bishops and completed by 133. John Paul II, Homily at Porto Alegre, bishops of the entire world primarily in view, the same. Evangelil nuntiandi has the Edition (July 28, 1980), p. 4. of the Gospel. “This is the makes this point well, See for they hold the basic responsibility in the proclamation 134. Fernando Salvestrini of the Lateran University of Trent teaches (Fifth Session, “On catechesi,” in Gino Concetti (ed), special duty of the bishops,” the Council his “1 caratteri distintivi degli operatori della all bishops,. ..and also all priests who 1980), 280-281. For other corn Reform,” Chapter 2); and hence it orders “that Evangelizzazione e Catechesi (Milano: Massimo, pp. to which is attached the care of souls, are Spiazzi, OP., La caterhi’si net in any way have charge of churches mentaries on Catechesi tradendae, see Raimondo impeded, to preach the Holy Gospel of Jesus Grauiche, 1980); Cesare Bonivento, obliged personally, if not lawfully nostro tempo (Rovigo: Istituto Padano di Arti the persons of the catechists primarily in view: it is St. Paul Editions, 1980): and Christ. Caechesi tradendae has PIME, “Going, Teach (Boston, Massachusetts: to all who help the bishops and pastors as Pope John Paul II: Catechist (Chicago, intended to give the same encouragement Robert J. Levis and Michael J. Wrenn (eds.), cateclietical teachers, Illinois: Franciscan Herald Press, 1980). 132. Ei’angelii ,,unt,anth, no. 1; see below, pp. 145-146. lxix lxviii 0 d 0 hurch must time urgent a matter, the authoritative teaching of ‘Th faith is s. .ned throughout Catechesi tradendae, relentlessly, one .1. be consulted, in order to answer these questions r1, say. But it is not different from Evangelii rnrntiandi, nos. might truth is that these documents of the pu’tanoia are abso and Three of the General Catechetical The 25-39, nor from Parts Two because they contain the reason and I he’ purpose enacted by Provido lutely catechetical, Directory, nor from the clean-cut procedures because they demonstrate in their Con of all catechetical teaching, and sane, nor from the holy zeal which animates Acerbo nimis. is 1,iithful to own way the need of the Church for a catechesis that cern for the deposit of faith, that it be handed on, especially to the .‘ Pope the deposit by seeing rigorously to “integrity of content young, and handed on in full purity and integrity, is the unifying order that the John Paul II proceeds toward the right answer; “In between all the catechetical documents of the present century. 2:17) should he bond sacrificial offeringof his_or her faith (see PhiL. “The integrity of the content,” Pope John Paul II says, “deserves has the right to perfect, the person who becomes a disciple of Christ special attention today.” And he proceeds to summarize the main falsified rcee ‘the word rfaT(Rom. 10:8) not in mutilated, points of doctrine in the Ordinary and Universal Magisterium of rigor and vigor. or dimiñihd form, but whole and entire, in all its the points which constitute what he explicitly calls “the message means Church, Unfaithfulness on som du to the integrity of the deposit of faith.”135 at risk the results a dangerous weakening of catechesis and putting It remains to ask for the reason which underlies this deter a right to expect that Christ and the ecclesial community have mined, unremitting and ongoing concern for the deposit which has from it.” 138 the Catholic Church since the Apostles but which the characterized This passage of Catechesi tradendae actually contains before has needed such a cluster of catechetical documents remains only to never correct answer in full to the questions above. It to it as these of the Twentieth Century. The answer is con on the dot devoted explain its dense substance. For its full meaning bears in the Eucharistic teaching of the present Pope, summarized of the New tained trine of the Real Presence of the Victim of the Sacrifice Holy Thursday letters of 1979 and 1980. Worship of the in his Testament in the Holy Eucharist. “The Mystery and which is the very Eucharist” is the heart of the same deposit of faith teaching which 1980) content of catechetical teaching. It is catechetical Pope John Paul II: Metanoia (1979, Catholic parishes: makes the following passage a living reality in Eucharist become aware that This final section of the present volume contains three remarlç/ “All who participate with faith in the ‘consecrated Offering.’ For the able documents of Pope John Paul II on the Mystery and the it is a ‘sacrifice,’ that is to say, a and accompanied by the Worship of the Eucharist: the Holy Thursday letters of 1979 and bread and wine presented at the altar of the participants are finally 1980 to bishops, priests and deacons, and the Inaestiinabile doii,mi devotion and the spiritual sacrifices really and substantially Christ’s of April 17, 1980, on the liturgical norms, all three a unified whole consecrated, so as to become truly, blood that is shed.”39 addressed primarily to the bishops, priests and deacons of the own body that is given up and his further. The following Catholic Church. 136 Let John Paul 11 carry the explanation Apostles Peter and Paul, June 2, But, it may be asked, why are they given here among the cate words, spoken on the Feast of the collaborators in the central chetical documents? Are they not liturgical rather than catechetical? 1980, to the Cardinals and other cate see below, 233-234; this These are perhaps the most basic questions in the field of 137. John Paul ii, C’atechesi tradendae, no. 30; pp. of Catechesi tradetidae as a whole. When answered wrongly, the underlying reason could be termed the constantly recurring theme chetics today. 233-234. and even chaos which besets 138. John Paul II, ibid.. no. 30; see below, pp. emerges into view for the confusion 1980, no. 9; see below, p. 313. The the same 139. John Paul Il, Letter of Holy Thursday, field in these post-conciliar times. In so delicate and at of the solemn de fide definition of till’ this words italicized in the Pope’s letter are those See the Creed of tilE’ Church regarding the doctrine of the Real Presence. 233-234. Catholic below, 37. 135. Catechesi tradendae, no. 30; see below, pp. no. 24, with its reference to the conciliar definition; p. 1980; below, p. 307. People of God, 136. See Pope John Paul II, Letter of Holy Thursday, lxxi lxx time has come,’ he said, ‘and the Kingdom of God L ‘ose at hand, government of the Church, are actually the comprehensive “intro Repent, and believe the Good News’ “(Mark 1:14-15), duction” to these three documents of the metanoia. “To love God! Liturgical life is the very special place where The two fundamental components both ot Christian doctrine this exchange between God and man takes place: and the altar of and of the Christian way of living, namely, of catechesi’ as a whole, the Eucharist, where Christ Jesus, the true and eternal Priest, offers are contained in these two verbs which cdli to action: the response himself as a victim to the Father for mankind, is the meeting point of the faith which believes the Gospel and the nwtatioia the rept’n in the prayer. tiw between heaven and earth. The Second Vatican Council gave a Lance, the conversion—which practices the Gospel Chris magnificent impetus to liturgical renewal, which had been prepared sacramental participation and the Gospel morality of daily by a whole movement that had flourished all over the world since tian living. the innovations introduced by St. Pius X. The Constitution Sacro But faith in whom? Conversion to whom? To the vague and by sanctum Concilium was the first document solemnly approved nebulous “god” of pantheistic religiosity? Far from it. It is the call that the Council Fathers [of Vatican II], from which there started of God himself, Yahweh, in the Person of the eternal divine Son, by constant work of reform, carried on humbly and courageously the transcendent and almighty Creator of heaven and earth, for the great Pontiff Paul VI. conversion to himself incarnate, made flesh, living among us as the I[ is well known, however, that—alongside the dangerous Good Shepherd visiting his people. It is this active and practical ecciesiology which I mentioned before—there have developed conversion to the One who, when sending his Apostles to teach all movements and mentalities, both of regression and of arbitrary the nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son experimentation, which have sometimes led to serious disturbance and of the Holy Spirit, added these words: “And know that I am of the faithful, priests, and the whole Church. The most evident with you always; yes, to the end of Lime” (Mt. 28:20). Those who Eucha contradictions have come to light precisely concerning the follow this Way of Christian living, persons of the ntefanoia, the rist, precisely at the Altar, where the regula fidel, the Rule of Faith, conversion, will celebrate his death with love, will proclaim his who, in must inspire, on the contrary, the utmost respect for him resurrection with living faith, and will await with unwavering hope leaves it to 141 the Mass, renews his sacrifice in a sacramental form, and his return in glory. of his immolated love. his Church as a perpetual memorial conversion which is the purpose of catechetical which I addressed to the This is the “This was the origin of the letters which caBs me to conversion:... Thursday of last teaching. “Faith is a gift of God bishops and, through them, to the priests, on Holy men to receive the fol Catechesis performs the function of disposing recent [of this year]. There 142 year and of the action of the Holy Spirit and to deepen their conversion.” 1980) the liturgical norms of the competent Sacred lowed (April 17, must all be converted anew every day.... jng.pnverted_means ‘to to the cult of the Eucharistic Mystery. Congregation in regard continually and never lose heart’ (Luke 18:1). In a certain way in that spirit of respect and pray “1 ask the whole Church to live for conversion, spiritual 140 prayer is the firsad1at condition these documents wish to instill.” 143 love, which progress and holiness.” It remains to place this appeal of the Vicar of Christ in its context, the context of the deposit of faith. Catechesis catechetical in the Eucharistic Prayers of the pust Christ opened his public ministry before the peo 141, See the Fifth Weekday Preface began when Jesus Missal. Teacher of the revealed religion of conciliar Roman ple as the Herald of God and the 142. The General Catechetical Directory, no. 22; see below. pp. 62-b3. Jesus went 2Q1. the Eucharistic Sacrifice. “After John had been arrested, 143. John Paul 11, Letter of Holy Thursday, 1979, no. 10; see below, p. into Galilee. There he proclaimed the Good News from God. ‘The Hence in the catechisms which are classical and official in the Church, catechumen’, of ilw are taught about prayer, taught how to pray and taught to pray; prayer is one Collaborators in the Central Government of the 140. John Paul II, “Address to four areas of content in The Roman Catechism. lIuly 4, 1980), p. 17. Church, I. O5servalore Romano—EngIisii Edition lxxiii lxxii 0 0 0 who conversion to the Apostles to teach and baptize all the nations, wa’ same This i. practical and concrete personal to him D said to them: “You will receive power when the Ho1 pirit comes Jesus of the sacramental Presence, to the Mysterium Christi, the Eucha on you, and then you will be my witnesses not inly in Jerusalem who stands among us in the mystery and the worship of as to but throughout Judaea and Samaria, and indeed to the ends of the Catechesis is in focus when it teaches in such a way rist.’44 earth” (Acts 1:8). The doctrine, the content of the teaching, the conversion.” Catechesis, the “word of faith,” is intrin “deepen this deposit of faith, is the instrument for the witnessing. There is no Sacraments, for which prayer and Gospel sically related to the is the witnessing. If the teaching fails, so will dispositions. Again it is John other. The teaching morality are the necessary subjective the which is the unifying is intrinsically linked with the witnessing. The concern for deposit Paul II who explains lucidly: “Catechesis Love for it is in the bond of all these documents is a Christocentric concern. whole of liturgical and sacramental activity, for the in the doctrine is a part of love for Jesus, the true and real Jesus of the especially in the Eucharist, that Christ Jesus works Sacraments, baptismal profession, of the Apostles’ Creed, arid of the Eucharistic the transformation of human beings.... Catechesis fullness for Presence. reference to the Sacraments.... Every form of catechesis always has John Paul II does indeed answer fully the question about leads to the Sacraments of faith.”45 necessarily the catechetical bearing of his Holy Thursday documents. But it is of these Holy The answer to those questions on the inclusion Paul VI, whom he calls “that great Pontiff,” who puts the answer is now clear. It is Thursday letters with the catechetical documents into lapidary brevity. “The future of the Church depends on the Jesus, the contained in the Christocentrism of catechesis. “Christ wisdom and zeal shown in Catechetics. The world says to us today spel message within incarnate WorJTod, . . . is thE e ft precisely what a grou of individuals be Christo salvation history.... Hence catechesis must necessarily said t e And centric.” 146 it i Jèus we must show to the world—Jesus, and no substitute. is the con the utmost vigilance It follows once again that the deposit of faith, which Hence, Venerable Brethren, we exhort you to of the factor endeavor to point out tent of catechesis, is itself central. And why? Because in the matter of catechetical content, as you who sent his the Truth and the Life, who is of witness. The Divine Teacher, the first Catechist, to children and adults the Way, Christ.” 147 happened to be visiting Eugene Kevane 144. St. Elizabeth Ann Seton, the first American Saint, Feast of the Assumption writes in a letter sent back to the in Italy while still a Protestant. ‘These people,” she August 15, 1981 with them in their churches.” It United States, ‘really believe they have Jesus Christ conversion. And see The Creed of the Peoph’ of was a discovery which led to her 147. Paul VI, “Letter, June 6, 1976, to the Bishops of the United States on the no. 26; below, 38. Roniano—English Edition (July 8, God, p. 227-228. See occasion of the Bicentennial,” L’Osservatore Paul 11, Catecl,esi tradendae, no. 23; see below. pp. Pope because of his personal 145. John II, 1976), p. 7. Paul VI was a remarkably catechetical and no. 36. below, 162-163 and 166; Vatican The a general Euangelii nuntiandi, no. 28 pp. Christocentrism. See for example his words to the crowds at St. Peter’s in 11, Life of Priests, no.5: “But the other sacraments, and is Church, no. 10; and Vatican audience, L’Osseruatore Romano—English Edition (October 6, 1977), p. 3: ‘Jesus and works of the apostolate are bound up with the indeed all ecclesiastical ministries the way, the truth and the life” (John 14:6). Jesus is the light of the world (John 8:12; For in the most blessed Eucharist is contained Eucharist and are directed towards it. is Good Shepherd (John 10:11-14). Jesus is the Son of Man (Mt. 16:13: Christ himself our Pasch and the 9:5). Jesus the the whole spiritual good of the Church, namely 13:55); the Son of God (Mt. 14:33; 26:64; John flesh which is given life 25:31; 26:24); the Son of Mary (Mt. bread which gives life to men through his flesh—that The Successor of Peter living teach 9:35; etc.). Jesus is the Alpha and the Omega (Rv. 22:13).... Spirit.” All of this depends upon catechetical of faith.... In and gives life through the Holy wishes to proclaim (this witness) here with certainty and with humility put into daily living. Hence the Holy ing in order that it be known and loved and today still more than ever, Christ is alive, Christ is real, in they specify the cate the history of the world documents belong with those of catechetics, for Being.” For a convenient collection of such Thursday away with the exceeding dimension of his divine Word, bringing it into clear focus and doing of St. Paul: chetical Ministry of the discourses of Pope Paul VI on Jesus, see the publication of the Daughters its purpose. confusion and chaos by giving it Paul VI, Who Is Jesus? (Boston, Massachusetts: St. Paul Editions, 1972). no. 40; see below, p. 74. 146. The General Catechetical Directory, lxxv lxxiv THE PREVENTIVE SYSTEM IN THE EDUCATIONOFTHE YOUNG by Fr. John Bosco On several occasions I have been asked to express orally or in writing some thoughts about the so-called PREVENTIVE SYSTEM, which is in general use in our institutions. Through lack of time I have so far been unable to meet these wishes. Presently, I intend to print the rules of our institution, which until now have nearly always been used traditionally. In this context I think it opportune to give a brief sketch which may perhaps serve as an outline to a small book which I am preparing. I hope to finish it if God gives me life enough, my sole purpose being to help in the difficult art of the education of the young. Therefore, I shall explain in what the PREVENTIVE SYSTEM consists, why it should be preferred, its practical application and its advantages.

I. In what the PREVENTIVE SYSTEM consists and why it should be preferred.

There are two systems that have been in use through all ages in the education of youth, the PREVENTIVE and the REPRESSIVE. a. The REPRESSIVE SYSTEM consists in making the laws known to the subjects, and afterwards watching to discover the transgressors of these laws, and inflicting, when necessary, the punishment deserved. According to this system, the words and looks of the superior must always be severe and even threatening, and he must avoid all familiarity with his dependants.

In order to give weight to his authority the Rector must rarely be found among his subjects and as a rule only when it is a question of punishing or threatening. This system is easy, less troublesome, and especially suitable in the army and in general among adults and the judicious, who ought of themselves to know and remember what the law and its regulations demand. b. Quite different from this and, I might even say opposed to it, is the PREVENTIVE SYSTEM. It consists in making the laws and regulations of an institute known. Then watching carefully so that the pupils may at all times be under the vigilant eye of the Rector and the assistants. They are like loving fathers and can converse with them, take the lead in every movement and in a kindly way give advice and correction; in other words, this system places the pupils in the impossibility of committing faults.

This system is based entirely on reason and religion, and above all on kindness. Therefore it excludes all violent punishment and tries to do without even the slightest chastisement. This system seems preferable for the following reasons:

(1) Being forewarned, the pupil does not lose courage on account of the faults he has committed, as is the case when they are brought to the notice of the superior. Nor does he resent the correction he receives or the punishment threatened or inflicted, because it is always accompanied by a friendly PREVENTIVE warning, which appeals to his reason, and generally enlists his accord, so that he sees the necessity for the chastisement and almost desires it. he (2) Consequently, one him. committing

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at ought tà reàede the boys tothe’place where they assemble; they should remain with them until others come to take their place, and never leave the pupils unoccupied.

3. Let the boys have full liberty to jump, run and make as much noise as they please. Gymnastics, music, theatricals and outings are most efficacious means of obtaining discipline and of benefiting spiritual and bodily health. Let care be taken however that the games, the persons playing them as well as the conversation are not reprehensible. “Do anything you like,” the great friend of youth, St. Philip, used to say, “as long as you do not sin.”

4. Frequent confession and communion and daily Mass are the pillars which must support the edifice of education, from which we propose to banish the use of threats and the cane. Never force the boys to frequent the sacraments, but encourage them to do so, and give them every opportunity. On occasions of retreats, triduums, novenas, sermons and catechism classes let the beauty, grandeur and holiness of the catholic religion be,dwelt on, for in the sacraments it offers to all of us a very easy and useful means to attain our salvation and peace of heart. In this way children take readily to these practices of piety and will adopt them willingly with joy and benefit.

5. Let the greatest vigilance be exercised so as to prevent bad books, bad companies or persons who indulge in improper conversations from entering the institution. A good doorkeeper is a treasure for a house of education.

6. Every evening after Night Prayers before the boys go to rest, the Rector or someone in his stead shall address them briefly, giving them advice or counsel concerning what is to be done or what is to be avoided. Let him try to draw some moral reflection from events that have happened during the day in the house or outside; but his words should never take more than two or three minutes. It is the key to good behavior, to the smooth running of the school and to success in education.

7. Avoid as a plague the opinion that the first communion should be deferred to a late age, when generally the Devil has already gained possession of a boy’s heart, with incalculable prejudice to his innocence. According to the discipline of the early Church, it was the custom to give little children the consecrated hosts that remained over after the Easter communion. This serves to show us how much the Church desires children to be admitted to holy communion at an early age. When a child can distinguish between Bread and bread, and shows sufficient knowledge, give no further thought to his age, but let the heavenly king come and reign in that happy soul.

8. Catechisms invariably recommend frequent communion. St. Philip Neri counseled weekly and even more frequent communion. The Council of Trent clearly states that it greatly desires that every faithful Christian should receive holy communion whenever he hears Mass, and that this communion should not only be spiritual but also sacramental, so that greater fruit may be reaped from this august and divine sacrifice. III. ADVANTAGES OF THE PREVENTIVE SYSTEM

Some say that this system is difficult in practice. I reply that for the pupils it is easier, more satisfactory and more advantageous. To the teacher it certainly does present some difficulties, which however can be diminished if he applies himself to his task with zeal. An educator is one who is consecrated to the welfare of his pupils, and therefore he should be ready to face every difficulty and fatigue in order to obtain his object, which is the civic, moral and intellectual education of his pupils.

In addition to the advantages already mentioned, the following may be added:

The pupil will always be respectful towards his educators, and will ever remember their care with pleasure. He will look upon them as fathers and brothers. Wherever they may go, Salesian pupils are generally the consolation of their families and useful citizens.

Whatever may be the character, disposition and moral state of a boy at the time of his admission, parents can rest assured that their son will not become worse; indeed, it can be held as certain that he will always make some improvement. In fact, certain boys who for a long time had been the scourge of their parents, and had even been refused admission to houses of correction, have changed their ways. They began to live upright lives, and are now filling honourable positions in society and are the support of their families and a credit to the country they live in.

If it should happen that any boys who have already contracted bad habits enter the institute, they could not have a bad influence on their companions. The good boys would not suffer any harm from association with them, since there is neither time, place nor opportunity, because, the assistant, whom we suppose to be present, would speedily intervene.

IV. A WORD ON PUNISHMENTS

What rules should be followed in inflicting punishments? First of all, never have recourse to punishments if possible, but whenever necessity demands stem measures, let the following be home in mind:

1. An educator should seek to win the love of his pupils if he wishes to inspire fear in them. When he succeeds in doing this, the withholding of some token of kindness is a punishment that stimulates emulation, gives courage and never degrades.

2. With the young, punishment is whatever is meant as a punishment. It has been noticed that in the case of some boys, a reproachful look is more effective than a slap in the face would be. Praise for work done well, and blame in the case of carelessness is already a great reward or punishment.

3. Except in very rare cases corrections and punishments should never be given publicly. But always privately and in the absence of companions; and the greatest prudence and patience should be used to bring the pupil to see his fault, with the aid of reason and religion.

4. To strike a boy in any way, to make him kneel in a painful position, to pull his ears, and other similar punishments, must be absolutely avoided because the law forbids them and because they greatly irritate the boys and degrade the educator.

5. The Rector shall make sure that the disciplinary measures, including rules and punishments, are known to the pupils so that no one can make excuse that he did not know what was commanded or forbidden.

If this system is carried out in our houses, I believe that we shall be able to obtain good results, without having recourse to the use of the cane and other corporal punishments. Though I have been dealing with boys for forty years, I do not recall having used punishments of any kind. Yet, by the help of God I have always obtained not only what duty required, but also what was simply a wish on my part, and that from the very boys in regard to whom all hopes of success seemed lost. 0 0 0 URSULINE METHOD OF EDUCATION .

O.S.U. MARIE DE SAINT JEAN MARTIN, Prioress General, Roman Union Order of Saint Ursula

New Jersey Rahway COMPANY, INC. QUINN & BODEN j946 PREFIICE them with deli their mothers . . . and they will prepare 16 the life that lies before them.” — one cacy and solicitude for Part The aim is always the formation of integral Christians. to undertake the teaching of chil “The religious are bound EDUCATION dren, above all for the purpose of training them in the Christian life. They will teach them Christian doctrine, they them in the will teach them to pray . . . They will interest life of the Church, and train them in the exercise of apos 1. THE WORK TO BE Acco1pLIsT1ED tolic zeal on the lines indicated by the Holy See. They will § duties to so teach them the duties of family life and their is nothing less than to their HE work to be accomplished ciety, and the obligation of giving alms according God in the unfolding to this cooperation with Almighty means. Moreover, in order to draw the children action. of His creative and sanctifying Institute and keep them from heretical or nonreligious lie en T man to his image and /ikeness. to their God created schools, they will teach them everything suitable will, and with a strong dowed his soul with intellect, with rank in life.1 through sanctifying grace lie raised Ursulines were revised by a propensity to love, and In 1943 the Règlenients des by making him participate in in the United him to the supernatural state group of religious of the Roman Union child is marked with this the divine nature.2 Every newborn States. They have been introduced on trial, and with great in this divine life. image; every baptized child participates satisfaction, in some of the most important of our schools of helping tile child The educator has the holy mission in this country as the true Ursuline method of education. to develop this divine to perfect this divine resemblance, This book tries to show, therefore, that the Ursulincs, stature of the perfect life, so as to attain, one day, the raised by the Church to the state of monials, have always Tile mind of the child is man,2 of whom Saint Paul speaks. wished, and still wish, to be true daughters of Saint Angela intelligence. The act of this made to the image of the divine Merici. 1\4ay it help them to keep jealously to their tradi that it has for term the divine intelligence is so perfect and may Our Lord, Christ the King, Our Lady, the the \Vord, the Second tions, substantial, living, personal ‘\Visdorn, par excellence, and Saint Angela, Foundress of the intellect of the child must be lViother Divine Person. Therefore, the of the later teaching orders, bless bring forth thoughts that Ursulines and forerunner formed in such a way that it will real accomplishments in the cause of edu will of the child is made to it and help it to are wise and Christian. The Will. The act of this divine VihI cation. MARIE DE SAINT-JEAN MARTIN, O.S.U., the image of the divine the substantial, living, per Prioress General, Roman Union. is so perfect that it has for term tile Third Divine Person. sonal Love, the Holy Spirit, , must he formed in such a Ursuline Therefore the will of the child Missouri, naturally good and super Festus, way that it will bring forth acts Anniversary of the Foundation of the Ursulines, The natu rally holy. 25, 1944. about that formation November Education helps the child to bring 1 4:13. 281 Peter 1:4. Eph. 1 Ibid., Art. 268. 1 Gen. 1:27. ‘Ibid., Art. 269. 1 x 0 0 C) ci THE WORK TO BE 11CCOMt-1Sl1lJ) URSULINE METHOD OF EDUC1ITION God, the right to command the is a Divine authority is, in within himself. It is clear, therefore, that “Education what theologians have so rightly under man He has created. It is as well as a service, and those who do not over iNs crcature; privilege called the supreme dominion of God are not worthy to train children.” Education is authority itself be stand this God is essentially all authority. He and how exalted a privilege! It is the highest gives being and life is a privilege, cause 1-ic is He who is, 11e ‘Who alone human works, if we concede that the priestly the creative and and holiest of to all that exists. He is Authority because ministry s a divine work. Because of this, Venerable the supreme and constitutive cause to generative power that is of the Incarnation gave more importance resides in His full Mother Mary of Authority, that is, divine Paternity, than to all the austerities of the con and inexhaustible the work of education ness of being and of life as in its essential templative orders.5 causes, to creatures, He communi great sub source. To secondary Dupanloup began his masterly work on this His creative and conservative power and of cates only a share of ject by saying that education is a work of authority only a portion of His authority, ‘‘Pro,,, of the edu and, nnscquently, respect. It is a work of authority on the part in heaven and on cart/i receives its of God whom all fatherhood in the rights and functions 6 cator, who participates name.” this magnificent creature called transmitted to the the Creator, the iluilior of In education, the authority of God is part of the educator thcm to the educator; man. It is a work of respect on the father and the mother and through and of the child immediate authority because of I-Urn Whose place he takes but God Himself wields a direct and and on the part most direct, the most whom he must form to the image of God; over all and a powerful influence, the regard are of the life 1--ic has of the child, for the educator whose rights in his effective of all, for the preservation Author Cs. the rights and functions shared with the divine given: Praeceptor nos(er a Deo institutus it is God Himself. Later, when educators seem to be preeminent, of the instruments, Tn education, therefore, God is the source and cause again who does all. The secondary causes, of authority and respect, of the rights and essential duties serve little. also Paul. “Apollo watered; hut all. He is the Model of the work to be done; He is “I have planted,” said Saint then, neither he who plants is the most powerful and most capable Master. God gave the increase. So the waters, but God who gives the ‘Vho then, by right, has the obligation of educating anything, nor he who Who creature? Evidently, it is the Creator Himself, He growth.” gives and preserves being and and, by that, its first Father; for Not only is it God Who is the Author of its life Who creates, over His work. movement and activity.8 But it is God authority is the natural right of the Author life, of upon the in us intelligence, will, and the perfection The work depends naturally and essentially V,Iho forms life. “It is God JJ”ho of lu5 qood preserves it, He governs it as He knows best. our works and of our Author; He and i/ic perforiiiance.’’ a right, it is a duty. He pleasure works ut you both the will It is His right; it is more than in us our to complete the WTe think in Him. It is He ‘Who engenders owes it to Himself and to His creature enlightens and our meditations, it is I-Ic Who work of His Hands. thoughts a them. “Omnes cogitationes pracparanlur (‘esprit, p. 3, Librairie Plan, and deepens TJ.Ni€Lou, MADELEINE, L’Edncaiion scion °Acts 17:28. Paris, 1939. °Eph. 3:15. i’Incarnath,ri, écris spkituels et ° Phil. 2:13. ° JAMF.T, Dori ALBERT, ifarie a’e I Cor. 3:6-7. Brouwer et Cie, Paris, 1929. 3 fiistoriques, vol. I, p. 261, Desclée de 2 THE WORK TO BE 1ICCOMPLI,c TIED URSULINE METHOD OF EDUCATION in his nature, 1w did because l\4an was so made that, incomplete Domino.” It is through Him that we come to know, resem not suffice unto himself. lie lacked another being He is tize God of knowledge.’° impicte bling himself, a imiJir being, someone who would ci therefore, works incessantly in us, not only to pre and at God, his entity; and who would be a pleasant companion faculties, but also to form them, to direct and to serve our the same time an aid arid a support. This was an indispensa God is our Supreme Educator.” perfect them. requisite of his nature; in spite of his solitary happiness, educator of the young girls con ble God is the creator and a deficiency in his existence, and in conse race, the future wives there would be fided to us. They are, in the human in his life, if God left him in this solitude. To understand what is quence, a sadness and the future Catholic mothers. is why, knowing the depths of the soul of man is important for us to know And that demanded of us for them, it made, God said, I: is not good for izian to question Dupan whom He had what woman is in God’s plan. Again let us him a helper like ziizto himself.1’ he is still be alone; let us make loup. He was, in his time, the genius of education; creature for whom man waited? books What was this new unrivaled master. After reading his articles and in life? an ‘Nhat was this completion of his being, this help his formation of the Catholic woman, eminent persons man, on the And how was she created? Her creation, as that of of all the countries of Europe and of the two Americas, fadamus was the fruit of wisdom, of power, and of love: religious, priests, and bishops resorted to him, as teaching ei adjulorium. As with man, truth, beauty, and goodness was to give to woman rights of a divine to an oracle who were to form the groundwork and the splendor of this new was to remind her of her sacred duties as spouse cx order, who creature, with prerogatives of her own, distinctivc and and who would teach her at what price and and as mother, qtlisite. Her soul, also, was an inspiration of the Divine she might fulfill them. intel by what means Spirit, created to the image and likeness of God, free, is eloquent when he speaks of the destiny of was Dupanloup ligent, active, generous. But, we must add, her body the glory with which God has over the woman. He says that not formed, as Adam’s body, of common clay. During is great. God made man it was whelmed man in His creation mysterious sleep of which Holy Scripture speaks, and pure; He made him substance noble. God made man generous drawn from the side of man, made of the very things, and is in powerful and strong, supreme over all created of man, the substance nearest to his heart. The story of all nature king; but at the dawn of creation, this king comparable: God, with His divine hand, formed and made in a desert; queen was alone in his vast domains and silent as a woman who was to be the companion of man and without alone, without the companionship of a like being, also to share with him the empire of the world. Cre fraternal comfort, without mutual support. He was with 1ledificavit is the astonishing term with which the good out hope of posterity, not knowing with whom to share in ator wished to describe this new masterpiece of 1-us edilce to the present, nor to whom he could transmit in the future, ness and love. It was something like a beautiful purity, all the the glories and joys received from his Creator. He did not which He had lavishly given dignity, grace, proportions that even have by his side someone to whom he could confide charm and all the splendor of marvelous beautiful work. his love for God. God saw that this solitude was not good a Divine Architect could give to His most to him, not good for his mind, not good for his heart. Therefore, when God presemited this companion for man, is man, ravished by admiration and joy, said, “This now 1OJ Kings 2:3. vol. II, pp. 3-24, Téqui, i Dui’,ru.oui’, Fcix, D, l’éducation, 16th ed., 12 Gen. 2:18. Paris, 1923. 5 0 0 c,JIEJ) 0 0 WORK TO BE JICCOMP- URSULINE METhOD OF EDUCIITION TIlE and, consequently, more re more humble and more tender, bone of my bone, flea/i of my flesh; she shall be called tendency for prayer, and is ligious than man, she has a woman, because she was taken from man. Wherefore a and admiration. Without more accessible to charity. hope, man shall leave father and mother, and shall cleave to his disinterested human love.’’ constraint she gives herself to a wife.” forgiveness is she capable Of what indulgence and of what So was Eve born and given to Adam. Dupanloup ex self-denial in maternal love! conjugal love! And of what presses his admiration in this exquisite conclusion : “Molded in education it is not the very beginning of children’s by the subtle workmanship of God, and drawn from a body At the souls and who the mother, who shapes their that was already the temple of the Holy Ghost, she is in father, but at the sorrows. The mother is, consequently, debted to this more noble origin for a greater spirituality, quiets their is child. WThen a child dies, the father less proclivity than man for material satisfactions, and bedside of her sick may be heartbroken, but it is the greater facility to rise to the ideal and toward the infinite.” disconsolate; the mother sustains the father. There is some Like man, but with some differences, woman has traits in mother ho stays and that fails not amid the ruins of common with him, but at the same time she has a personal thing invincible in woman physiognomy and features that make her distinct. The femi her heart. for slow’ and painful nine nature, so delicate and so rich, so frail and yet, in For certain things of the mind, man. But by a more reality, so energetic, presents to the nature of man astound reasoning, she has less power than her, she secs more quickly. log contrasts, but, also, marvelous compensations. Exteri delicate tact, which is proper to swift, long strides she reaches orly there is more gentleness, more suppleness, more grace; She has keen intuition, and in her penetration is often ex a lightness of step, a dignity and poise which attest divine the understanding of things; God limseif gives aspirations. Conversely, she has less strength, and pagan traordinary.’4 If such is woman—and books of Proverbs and man so abused this weakness that, after forty centuries of admirable testimony of this in the as Christ dignified degradation, it took a Revelation, a Gospel, a Christ, a Son Ecclesiasticus_0.s God made her and culture, to an education, as of God, a Virgin, a Mother of God on earth, and a Cross her, has she not the right to a to raise woman and once again to teach the human race great as the extent of her gifts? teaching religious; or, with what dignity woman had been created in the beginning, This education is the work of souls toward sell-educa as the spouse, the sister, the daughter, and the mother of more accurately, they are to help its own master. 13y a full man. tion; for, to repeat, each soul is is dominant characteristic of of all that constitutes her From delicacy, which a and harmonious development born not only her weakness with its perils, but beauty, each child, under our woman, is wealth, her strength, and her gift, mentioned before, that spirituality plan of God. Strong. also that great direction, works out the magnificent perfect in her than in man and from which flow treas must not he crushed. more powerful, and daring personalities ures of hidden energies that are distinctly hers. ‘Weaker he helped to he herself as On the contrary, each soul must than man, woman is superior to him by her nature which all that is good. The edu God made her, entirely herself in is less earthly and more spontaneous. Dupanloup dared to direct that which God has cator’s task is to watch and to say, “She is, at heart, more noble; she is, if I may say so, ed., pp. 111-ITS, .cur (‘education des flUes, 4th 14 DVPANLOU1’, Fi,iX, J.cffrcs more soul than man. She seeks divine love more naturally; Paris, 1890. H. ChapellieZ et Cie, 7 ‘- Gen. 2:21-24. 6 EI)UC1ITOR URSULINE METHOD OF EDUCATION THE filled with God. Evcr’i put into a soul. Everything was placed there for a purpose; give God. It must be the gift of a self extend beyond all God’s gifts are worthy of development. this is not sufficient: such an apostolate must must reach up to the sphere of the soul of the child; it God.’6 of God. All her 2. THE EDUCATOR The educator is the representative § what are her rela authority is borrowed. As an educator, constant union with This brief sketch of the work to be accomplished is suffi tions with God? She must strive for seeking His decisions in cient to demonstrate that, after the priestly office, educa God, asking Him for light and in accord with His tion is the most beautiful of all apostolates. The Holy prayer, in order that she may ever act pray to the Father Spirit officially summons the teaching religious since their spirit, His will, and His way. She must the God of intellectual institutes were founded for this definite purpose. They are of all light, of all intelligence, to of God, the Light called to this apostolate in the person of their foundress education. She must implore the guidance and the Father of and by the voice of their constitutions, which are ap of conscience, the Source of all virtue, proved by the Church. moral education. provided richly for the The apostolate must be a gift. To be a religious educator The Order of Saint Ursula has by giving to its is to give. A gift is the antithesis of employment. Teaching fulfillment of this first duty of the educator To ascend the moun may become a pecuniary work; it may beconc a livelihood, members an abundant life of prayer. God in mental prayer as it is with authors and publishers of textbooks. Teaching tain each day, like Moses, to speak to faith of God: such is the may be a profession, as that of a doctor or a lawyer; it and to come down to teach the may be a public service, a function in society, as in the case perfect vocation of the Ursuline.’T tile religious must of a university professor. This is the order of procedure in In carrying on her work of education education of girls: The edu human things. Professors do not give; they sell. bear in mind the definition of forming them to an integral We religious give. The ideal would he to receive from cation of young girls consists in love, and service of tile faithful only what is needed in order to practice our Catholic life, that is, to the knowledge, development of the natural apostolate freely. Since remuneration is indispensable, as it God, through the harmonious apply this definition per is for priests who have their share with the altar,’5 the and supernatural faculties. To help the educator needs necessary should suffice for us. Religious institutes should fectly to each of the children, what knows them because He never seek wealth. History shows that when religious insti from the Almighty, the God Who tutes were found with full coffers, Divine Providence had made them! on God was so real to the ways of its own for depleting the superfluous capital. This awareness of dependence that daily they consecrated Although an apostolate must be the gift of one’s self, first Ursulines of the Order chronicles portray them as it is primarily the gift of God. Children should be conscious long hours to prayer. The old of Saint Angela. The of the very throbbings of the soul of the teacher in her great contemplatives, as imitators ConferenCe 61, of her mind, hut also of her heart, a to Ursuline Superiors, teaching, not only 16 SEMPf, R. F., s.j., Conferences full of kindness and devotedness. But this is not ade Dinan, 1936. Romanar Sari heart ad usum )tona1ium Unionis 17 Brevarium Romanlim de Hrouwer et of religious must give more; it must of 1685, reprinted, Desclée quate; the teaching Ordinis Sancta Ursula, Preface “I Cor. 9:13. Cie, Paris, 1928. 9 8 0 0 0 0 THE STIIGES OF EDUC;ijION URSULINE METHOD OF EDUCIITJON

not be her peril, is governed, she of is equally her gift and she may consecrate this precious faculty to the service to impressions and flckle comes light and frivolous, a slave virtue and all that is good. the natural frivolity and fickleness of ness. To counteract of these little ones must have the gre:itest be strong and seri The teacher young girls, their entire education should for respect for them, respect for their innocence and their ous. Their training must tend to make valiant women. .cur potential gifts. Saint Angela declares that no charge Naturally, all this must be given with kindness, but with passes it.63 And the Constitittions of the Roman Union say, out allowing laxity or frivolity. ,,,ost “ilbove all, the Religious will be fair/i/ui o make the Above all, woman’s reason, her sense of justice, her of the precious treasure entrusted to them by Our Lord in firmness of mind and of character, and even her courage the person of the children.” Children, though they be must be any irregularity, any caprice, any neglect formed; of what is true, of what is beau form women children, possess a concept must not be tolerated. This training must hidden lul, and of what is good. It is the divine seedling, whose decisions and actions will be motivated by the princi must discover and develop. It as yet, but which education pies of faith and reason.°2 very little girls than with is easier to accomplish this with older ones because their pure minds are as yet untouched, and their enthusiasm for all that is good is marked. At this 4. THE STAGES OF EDUCATION § early age they can and must be told, in language that they be can understand, of the perfection which is one day to is to of faith The purpose of education produce women theirs, if they try now to be reasonable and good. is first a young and the and of reason; hut the woman girl, The teacher must, with great kindness, inspire ideals in of her in the young girl, a child. Let us make a rapid study the children and not condescend to them in any way. All us see be various stages of her existence, and let how it says, all that she does must be absolutely reason to phase. that she hooves us to give her the guidance proper each and sensible. A little girl five or six years of age can Education is essentially progressive. Since it develops able be reasoned with; she listens with a charming gravity. all that is good in nature, it must be based on nature and Naturally, her attention is short-lived, and she must not be must help it. of a exhausted; but it remains a fact that the penetration child’s mind is sometimes astoundingly precocious and Childhood formidable. Children appear to play, but they arc thinking. everything in their environment. They choose Education begins at the very birth of the child, but since They judge and are secretive, if it so this is the mother’s concern we shall omit it here. Let us the confidants of their thoughts ability to reason is in the rather study little girls from six to thirteen years of age. favors their little plans. The now appreciative, and The chief concern of this period of education is to form process of development; they are or weakness in the in them, little by little, reason, character, conscience, and judiciously so, of the amount of virtue child who received good good habits. To attain this, a teacher must be reasonable persons they meet. A ten-year-old

as pious and devoted. Woman’s and thoughtful, as well 63 SMNT ANGE,.A, Souvenirs, Prologue. (lie Order of St. Ursula, if her sensibility, which 04 Rule and Constitutions of the Roman Union of nature is highly impressionable, and Art. 268. 62 Ibid. 37 36 TIlE ST;IGES OP ED(1C.lT[O.’’ URSULINE 1IIETIIOD OP E1)UG4TION tire age of ten, and somet mt’s earl k’ when reprimanded by her educator’s skill. By marks in conduct at the convent, for reading develops. I ,ittl’ is because I curiosity is aroused and a taste mother for her bad manners at home, said, “It is mpnrI liii girls want to read evervthi iu. There fore, it always choose successful ways; 1 tried to do at the convent habis; IlL that in the life of each wonlari good reading as I did at home, but that did not succeed at all; therefore, lu’ :cl I formed at this early age. Otherwise, she may ;rlh’’w I just made myself reasonable.” young Ige. Sordid a deplorable freedom, even at a very In class these little ones have a charming curiosity. One she novels, in ferior poetry, and had drama are pcrriiissiblc, must show interest in their questions and begin immediately girl will say, because she must kcep in lormed. ‘i’hcn a little to make them seek the answers themselves. This little feat will, ii who reads with facility Ii as a we1 I-chosen hook, she of intelligence, if it is brief, is thought-provoking and in sev she is wise, he charmed with it and eager to reread it tensely interesting. of a eral times. She should not be given the freedom l\ladame de Maintenon advises us not to use childish to her library, where she may choose books according language, which is degrading; or to tolerate childish man preface of fancy, but she should be trained to examine the ners or to show pleasure at their baby talk. Saint Jerome says a book and to read the book thoroughly. l)upanloup censured the tutors of young Roman patricians for neglect because thre’ that these young minds, so absolutely innocent, ing this rule of psychology. The little ones should not be for the possess the purity of their baptism, have a passion tortured by the exaction of academic language, but neither that sublime, because the sublime is divinc; niid lie ndds should they be encouraged to speak incorrectly. It would be because little girls are more impressionable than little boys, better to insist with kindliness on the correct use of words girl is to their minds are more angelic. The books that tire from a very early age, and to watch the grammatical con niav read should be prudently chosen so that no blemish struction of their little phrases. Nonsensical talk that only reading disfigure this beautiful tendency, but rather that creates laughter should be avoided. Nothing unnatural, CIrilclrTn may deepen and develop her love for tIre sublime. or grotesque should be shown to them; no ridiculous tl ugly, intensely. 1-lere again, wise and Christian no silly tricks, no fooling, no suggestive words. love stories caricatures, demanded. It is a mistake to believe that cliii shown to children and to youths cernment is Each image, each symbol to history. l\ [any children ask at the noble. Let them find dren prefer fiction should be truly beautiful, good, and ?“ any rate it is close of a story, “Is it a true story At pleasure among themselves. As soon as they conceive little and false supremely important to give them truth as truth ideas, they know how to make use of them. which ex hood as falsehood. Fairy tales and tragic stories Children should never he mimicked, or humiliated, or be avoided. cite them to excessive or evil emotions should made to cry without a serious reason ; for this only irritates of sin, and They should be impressed only with the evil them and makes them disrespectful. It is proper to curb fancies which even then be offered solid reasons, and not their senseless words and to prohibit loud laughter over pity should be fill their little heads with false ideas. Their ridiculous things. Let them speak of amusing subjects, but and for the aroused for the truly unfortunate, for tIre poor train them also to listen and to answer politely when ad over romantic unhappy, instead of being made to Weep dressed. be necessary to heroes or imaginative sorrows. It may advance in age and in learning, they soon imagina As little girls to read fairy tales or other such purely that can be either advan allow them mani lest an attraction for reading they form a part of the literature of the to the tive works, when tageous or dangerous for their education according 39 38 0 0 C) C THE STIIGES OF EDUCT1OiV URSULINE METHOD OF EDUC1ITION ously among themselves on these subjects which interest mother tongue. Chesterton said that “the fairy tales con the earth, the real record of men’s them greatly. tain the deepest truth of they should, to ° It is important to make them pray as feelings for things.” This may also be said of the Fables be make them say their litle morning and evening prayers as of Aesop and La Fontaine. But little children should well as possible, exacting from them, out of respect for made to realize that these stories are only imaginative. she God, good posture, a distinct, well-articulated, and clear When the teacher is at liberty to make the selection, that enunciation. The importance of directing the first awaken should choose from the treasury of truth and beauty of the ing of love for God in the hearts of children is obvious. is the manifestation of God. She should tell them in the Spontaneously the Supreme Good is revealed to them, and apparitions of Our Lord, Our Lady, and the angels, with they are immersed in divine grace. A little girl once made Old and the New Testament; she should charm them this delightful remark, “I always imagine that all that is of hagiography and of God’s intervention in their tales ;cautifnl and good is a small apparition of God that re history. national mains in what He has created.” And another, “When God rectitude interests and forms the conscience as well This has touched something and man has not soiled it, immedi First impressions unconsciously form a as the sensibility. ately I find God and I love Him.” One word may spur little Besides the fact tl-igt it is cruel sense of value in children. souls to heroism; an event in the life of Our Lord charms reason, it would be to scold them excessively or without them and His Passion brings tears. Tell of a martyr’s life, regret an embarrassing unfortunate to make them fear or and children desire the grace of martyrdom; speak to them little girls are mistake more than a sin. Unfortunately, of the life of the patriarchs, and at recreation they imper or lost a toy, often made to weep because they have broken sonate these figures of the Bible; describe the cenohitical vanity, while their little deceptions, their acts of laziness, life, and they build hermitages and impose real mortifica or gluttony go unnoticed. This counteracts true education. tions upon themselves. Finally, while they are little, girls must be formed to true But it must be acknowledged that these beautiful femi piety. They sense supernatural truths. The first impressions nine faculties have their corresponding faults. Subtle pene is and given will never be obliterated. Their Catholic sense tration is balanced by instability, ingenuity by weakness, deeply impor formed from infancy, and thenceforth emotions are exquisite sensibility by softness. It is of the utmost defects. The evil implanted in their hearts. Either disinterestedness or selfish tance to train children to correct these and its insufll ness becomes a moral tendency, and the one or the other tendencies of childhood, if not corrected, are found deeply rooted in will increase in proportion to the development given by edu ciencies, if not supplemented, We meet adults who have cators. Much interest is aroused by talking of God, of the adolescence, youth, and maturity. of who constantly brag, and who have a providence of God in nature and in events, of the life never left childhood, the Our Lord and of the Blessed Virgin, of death, and of capricious temperament. their evident that all faults are simultaneously weakened eternal destiny of man. If the teacher adapts herself to It is their if the children are determined to uproot egotism, the fore understanding, social hours slip by too quickly for most of all. To impress this view gradually upon the con liking, and sometimes they may be surprised talking seri science and the heart of children, to accustom them not to Letters of Janet Ershine Stuart, p. 204, 5 Mouw, MAUD, Life and overrate themselves or to undervalue others, the best Longmans, Green and Co., London, 1922. 41 40 TIJE STiGES OF El) UC.! TlOA URSULIATE )IIETJJOD OF EI)UCiITION Inc wi I of propensity is firmness. it is 1I(CCSS ry to bend the children the educator’s auxiliaries Some method is to make children in order to make them submit to ohedic,nce. The most effective way to suppress a resista in cc a nil mi— against themselves. times they silo w an ñstonisli ing power of by a virtue. To conquer one emotion auth. irity. ‘I lie fault is to replace it geniously benefit from the dchcicncies of by one of generosity, is a posi of oli’d by another, a selfish feeling highest resource of authority for the obi iga tion ordinarily more efficacious than of obeying tive and practical method, ence is based upon a supreme reason : the duty and long discourses on the repression in the very long lessons in theory God. The roots of ol)edience must he implanted then comes, not from the ex of faults, because correction depths of the child’s conscience. Behind all prohibitions, authority, hut from the interior, insti In the beautiful terior, ordered by there must be the Name and Vill of God. constructive acts. A selfish nature who does not gated by personal and light of this supernatural truth, the educator into a generous one by leading ordei-s, vlm may be slowly transformed command arbitrarily but gives only reasonable share her gifts with others; by re herself an egotistical child to commands calmly and is self-controlled and shows in order to be able to thank her; secures quiring little services constant and firm in her demands for obedience, her soul to compassion and love for ‘i’liese clii 1(1 ecu above all, by opening from her children an enlightened obedience. children of her own age, at the this ohednence the poor, especially for obey and carry out their duties freely, and arc her sisters in God the fulfillment (If Same time reminding her that they strengthens and ennobles their souls. It is in His eyes and that she might man shall spe oh who, perhaps, outvalue her the word of Holy Scripture: The obedient still become poor. will be our have been horn poor and may of victory.” This great and beautiful victory of selfishness. Attentive sense of duty Jealousy is often a consequence children’s acquired sense of duty, and this of sadness, or even of very word observance of the causes of anger, will be a second nature so eflcacious that the some indication of jeal joy in a child frequently discovers duty will triumph over all hesitation in their wills. only by a com solemn ousy. This defect can he treated efficaciously 1iie profession of fail/i or the renovation of the child needs above at the passionate and (lelicate hand. The jealous promises of baptism, which ordinarily takes I)lacc can be given to all to be loved, so that no plausible reason threshold of adolescence, is extremely valuable in strength done, new horizons preemi explain her unhappy disposition. This ening the basis of this education of children. It is to give alms, which may be opened to her soul by asking her nently an occasion to impart to tile children a deeper knowl consolation of will enable her to find happiness in the edge of theii- faults and to inspire a greater determination compassion for time charity, in the joy of giving, and in for a serous struggle against them. It is a propitious reason may he to give more another’s sorrow. And as she matures, her to perfect the formation of their conscience, she may notice pres appealed to, as weJI as her heart, so that light to their faith, to place the children in the actual and its to this fault, note its subtle shadings, see its ugliness erice of their Origin and of their I ast l’nid, to reveal of jeal ( )nce unreasonableness, and acknowledge the injustice them tile gifts of God and their duties toward [ lim. there is ousy. Nevertheless, the educator must know that more let us hear Dupanloup. that only at this nio wound in tine soul more di flicul t to cure, and ‘‘I have always experienced this,’’ lie says, ‘‘that to correct it. Catho prayer can obtain the eflicient grace needed age a little girl clearly understands the very highest children by a vio Selfishness is also manifested in little for this GO Prov. 31 :28. lent inclination to do their own will. The remedy 43 42 0 •0 C-) a n a THE STIIGES OF EDUCIITJON URSULINE METHOD OF EDUCIITION it full bloom a child’s priceless poten lic, dogmatic, moral, and even psychological truths. With is reached, brings to girl keeps this ideal all her life.07 out using great words, I have dared to make experiments tialities, and the young in this field with great success, by the grace of God. My young pupils at catechism were enthusiastic on hearing of ildolescence the attributes of God, on learning about the soul with all At about the age of fourteen the child becomes an ado its faculties, and on knowing that, through the nature and lescent. Experienced educators say that this is the critical harmony of these faculties, they had been created to the age in the education of young girls. It is the age of puberty, image and likeness of God. One of them told me, ‘It is and the mentality of the human being changes with the de strange, some truths seem to be in me. As soon as you velopment of its organism. The activity of the child, it is express them I say to myself: I know that, but I did not said, is not that of a miniature man or of a worn-out adult; think of it. Now I see.’ And to obtain all this, I had no domhi;nt element in childhood is different. The period other book but the Catechism, with the simple developments of adolescence is characterized by a transformation which which it asks and suggests. The chapters on the existence is not only organic, but also psychological, intellectual, and and the perfections of God, on the angels, on the creation moral. The adolescent begins to reflect on matters concern of man, on the Blessed Trinity, and on the human soul cre ing human life, on the necessity of preparation for the God’s image fascinated the children. Their moral ated to future. She no longer maintains the attitude of a child re and religious education must, therefore, be given with great garding questions that pertain to family, social, and re respect for their intelligence. This simple, natural, and ligious life. Her moral personality is accentuated, and a Catholic philosophy, or rather this beautiful theology with new sense of honor and of good reputation is acquired. out any special method, without impressive appearance or Conversely, if she is not successful in this transient crisis, scientific intricacies, gave these little girls of the catechism she degenerates and follows evil ways. The law of nature classes such light that, later on, after many years of life, ordains that the transition from childhood to youth follows of them told me, ‘I never go into the busy world several normal development; otherwise, the human being would thinking of the eternal truths which you taught us without positively turn to evil, or stagnate in stupidity, or perhaps catechism class. These are still the bases of all my in the regress to the moronic level for the rest of its life. “He And others added, ‘The thought of original jus 08 thoughts.’ who makes no progress loses ground.” Mary Immaculate follows me incessantly; the more tice in Adolescence is the problem of education: It is not, says I see moral depravity.’” so when Daniélou, in exquisite words from which much will be bor is then that one may successfully inspire the love of It rowed here, as childhood or as maturity, a state perfect in and the courage of sacrifice when duty requires it. duty itself, a world enclosed and complete. It is a transition be ofttimes a convinced enthusiasm for all that is Love and tween two ages, a passage, a crisis. This word “crisis” good, and divine take in little girls of true, beautiful, should not be taken in its pejorative sense. Crisis here sig. twelve and thirteen years the impulse that is given to it. lilies, op. cit., Part II, Letter8 If thoughtless parents do not demand that this moral and ° DUPANLOUP, Lettres stir i’e’ducation des edu 3, 4. religious education be concluded too soon, if this great 08 GARRIG0U-LAGRANGE, REGINAI..D, O.P., The Three IVays of the Spiritual given until the decisive age of eighteen or twenty Life, pp. 26-27, Burns, Oates and Washbourne, London, 1938. cation is 45 44 THE ST:IGES OF El) (IC.! 7’iOA’ URSULINE METIJOJ) OF EDUC1ITION superiority is often surrounded. It is most interest lug for niIics growth, not malady. All progress, he it individual or every educator who is kccii and optimistic to ta I ili a social, supposes a crisis, because one never passes abruptly glimpse of the mental Ii Ic of the adolescent which show and entirely from one state to another. New characteristics absolutely new, original, and captivating traits. ‘l’hii appear, while the elements of the past still subsist; it is glimpse reveals a dynamism pecul a r to each one. It is pai only little by little that a change occurs which is not a fit! for the adolescent to know that the expression of this simple fusion but a true synthesis. It is the same with a force within him is watched on all sides, and will he man who passes from one belief to another; with a nation smothered by the crushing weight of routine, of prejw.hices, that evolves into a new regime; with a science that elabo of passions, of matter under all its forms. rates new methods; with a winter that changes into One should never be troubled by the laid ts ol an ado— summer. A promising future is prefigured in the present they are the reverse side of a beautiful medal. ‘[lie chaos, and it is in this chaos that we shall find the key to lescent; state of incapacity for adaptation in which the youth finds the future. himself is explained only by his precocious and super One of the first rules to be observed in studying ado abundant riches. The girl at this age IS awkward, hesitant lescence is to approach it with great sympathy, not consider in expressing herself, amid exaggerated in her reactions. She ing it an ungrateful age, unformed, incomprehensible, the believes herself misunderstood and is often so in reality. despair of parents and teachers; hut a privileged age, rich suffers from the lack of tcnder afFection that stir in elements, both positive and personal, which need only to She rounded her as a child and, through bashfulness, does be harmonized. nothing to seek it. She willfully accentuates the traits ol At this age the child ceases to be an anonymous part of character that are displeasing to her elders. She does mint a group. He becomes conscious of his personal life, of his bend to their tastes or to their desires. A spirit of contra place in the world. He frees himself from all social con diction may even lead her to revolt. She seeks in her chosen straints, and from a life that was almost purely iiistinctive, friends the sympathy that she feels she can no longer find at to think for himself, to love and to Hve, according to his home. At the bottom of all this, there is nothing but it lack own rhythm. He discovers the world and his own interior of adaptation which comes from the development of a per life in a way so original, so new, and, in a sense, so creative, sonal life. that his experience borders on genius. All adolescents would Adolescence is a transition between two a(Japtations probably have something interesting to tell if they knew that of the child and that of the adult. In a certain way, how to express themselves. Unfortunately, they lack this the child forms a part of its milieu. The adaptation is so almost completely. Those who have a certain capacity it is almost a fusion, and there is not the faithful to this first awaken intimate that strength of character remain we never find the it later slightest desire for evasion. In later life, lug to the consciousness of themselves and express equivalent of this; and for this reason no spot is so dear on; hut the majority never emerge entirely and blend with to us as the place of our childhood. Adult adaptation, to he a group as a whole, losing all that made them attractive. real, supposes a scttHng down in a chiosemi milieu among Everything conspires to make them lose their originality. special friends; it supposes a family of one’s own foumided Writhin them, there is laziness, human respect, a tendency on the soil of one’s preference; a home adorned little by of least resistance; outside them, there to follow the line to one’s dreams. A young girl during the that distrust with which little according is that lack of comprehension, 47 o 0 fl 0 0 0 URSULINE METHOD OF EDUCATION THE STAGES OF EDUCATION period of adolescence remains in her family after she has often, in opposition to older people. However, real geiler felt in her heart those profound instincts that will make osity is hidden within their souls. How often young girls, her one day a woman, a mother, the mistress of a home. disagreeable at home, always thinking of themselves, later She is conscious of a more integral love, perhaps of a truer give proof of an admirable devotedness. The faults of the love, surely of a purer love than that of any other age. child hide the growing virtues of the woman. She must be She burns with the desire to give herself, to act. She thinks made to feel that one has absolute confidence in her because that she has personal views; it is her own ideas that interest of what she will be and what she is becoming; she must her. if it is so difficult for her to obey, it is because she feel that she counts for something in the life of the family feels herself capable of creating. At the same time, her and of the school and that she will count for something in organism is changing, her person is growing firmer, and her society. She must feel that those around her understand the personality is appearing. This change must be understood importance of the drama that is taking place within her, and respected. One should rejoice in seeing maturity appear that thcv respect it, and wish to help her efficaciously and in the child, even though, in the beginning, there is no pro discreetly. At this age, constraint is unprofitable and irony portion between the wisdom of this emerging adult and is cruel. Intellectual work is the best distraction; th rough the boldness of her claims. This disproportion is inevitable. this, children enrich themselves and become strong, and the The originality of an adolescent is not very marked in problem is transferred to the plane to which it belongs, that the beginning. The desire and taste for originality are of the mind. strong. Movements of independence and even revolt fol At this crisis, the knot of the flesh and the spirit is tied low. There is apparent also a spirit of contradiction which and untied unceasingly, and it is seen how dependent they comes directly from the instinct of protecting this person are on each other; what deviations the passions bring to ality, still fragile, from restraint and intrusion. Youth is in the mind; what an élan they impress upon it by the ardent a state of continual defense, because it feels that its treas desire with which youth is consumed to know and to possess ure is threatened by counsels, by traditions that weigh upon the world. It is the educator’s duty to follow young people it, and by the will of parents and teachers who may wish in their diverse movements; to be ceaselessly humble, pa to influence it one way or another, while it wishes to keep tient, just, and discerning. If this is done, the educator will to its own choice and to remain free. ‘Vhen children feel experience the joy of beholding the face of a new woman that confidence is placed in them, that their free will and gradually appear with its harmonious features, its promises their liberty are respected, their defenses fall and they give of happiness, its precocious wisdom, its moral integrity, its themselves, without reserve, to the influence of those who nuances of spiritual life, and its youthful beauty. No mo will help them to become fully themselves. ment in the education of young girls demands such intelli The instinct of defending a personality that is just mani gent, kind, and firm solicitude. Then is it that they must be festing itself explains why adolescents are often taciturn, provided with reasonable, true piety, as well as with en secretive, and self-centered. They are silent because they nobling studies, but with the leniency demanded by their have an exaggerated fear of being misunderstood or of health. Especially is it advisable to allow them long hours being hurt. In reality, they have need of expansion and of of sleep and agreeable walks, because they need both rest sympathy. When together, adolescents leave off all con and activity; but, they must be treated as reasonable per straint, talk without ceasing, always of themselves and, sons. There are no sacrifices they would not impose upon 48 49 TJ1’() l’IPES 0F1’J)(’CITJOV URSULINE METJIOI) OF EDUCIITION and leaders for society, for the world, and for the cloister. themselves to maintain this reputation. And above all, their It ine,ritabiy happens in very large schools that g Ited love must be directed toward God. Ti must he shown children do not ‘receive all the development of whi icli they God as the ultimate end of alL intellectual knowledge, and arc capable, and maiy of the less gifted cannot projit 1v all matters of learning must he made links to God. Later, the teaching that is imposed upon thcni. In I I i CL! when calm comes through physical, intellectual, and moral providence Almighty God sees fit to crcite intellects tIii equilibrium, they will perceive the dangers that threatened range from the genius to the (lull and even lower. One of them and will be deeply grateful to the wise and good edu tile great fallacies that thinking educators sec in the Amen cators who protected them. When this educator is a re can educational system is tile failure to recognize this iii ligious, she should direct these souls, with a delicacy that versity of intellectual capacities. At its root is a confused only God can inspire, to an integral Catholic life, by the ziotion of democracy, which extended education to all, harmonious development of their natural and supernatural through compulsory education legislation, without adapting faculties. Tlttis, she will prepare the future wife and mother the methods and curriculum of the school to the needs of to make her home a center of pure Catholic life that will the individual. A system of education originally intended radiate the spirit of Christ.09 to prepare the superior student for the university has been offered to all, regardless of mentality. As a result, neither the intellectually gifted, nor the average, nor the dull are 5. Two TYPEs OF EDUCATION § in most cases receiving the training best suited to their indi vidual capacities and needs. general principles having been recalled, it must be The In the Christian concept of democracy, equal opportunity that there are two types of education: one that is admitted is offered to every individual to prepare for the place in to average students, and another that must he re suited society in which he may best reach his Last End. So, in the for gifted students. The first s more dogmatic; it served last analysis, the education that best fits the individual for ideas completely formed, practical formulas, communicates his God—designed place in society is tile most democratic. if short and attractive, impress the memory. It gives which, Rather than being the same for all, such an education must a definite plan, and, in a way, imposes itself the children take into account tile capacities of the individual, in order It fills the imagination with games and songs upon them. to provide for his best interests and those of society. There and sung in common. It favors the formation of a played is a place in society for leaders and followers, for govern soul without being concerned with the individual collective ing and governed, for employer and employed. Sttideiits The second, on the contrary, is entirely liberal and touches. should be imbued with a proper sense of values whereby In the first type of education, the accent is put on personal. they realize that the purpose of man’s existence is to attain acquisition of knowledge; in the second, on the disinter the his Last End—God——and that in Christian society, as COTi culture of the mind. The first, an extensive apostoiate, ested stituted by God, there is a place of equal dignity for all education, prepares Catholics to live honestly a collective grades of mentality; that, for tile welfare of tile whole The second, an intensive apostolate, and save their souls. Mystical Body, every member has his appointed task and prepares outstanding persons is a personal education which none is unessential or unimportant. If the ideal of develop Letires stir I’e’duafion des supernatural, 09 DnLou, op. cit., pp. 17-23; DUPANLOUP, ing his own individual capacities, natural and lilies, op. Cit., Part II, Letter 6. 51 I 0 0 (Th 0 FORMIITIVE 1rvcTRvc7’1oN

youths to he taught religion at.fixed hours,” said Len XIII, “hut all their training must be permeated by religious Part - - Three principles.” And Father Beckx, S.J., says, “Religion should not only hold the first place among the various and, according to our THE METHOD IN ACTION branches, but permeate and rule all, Ratio Studiorum, the teacher should treat all subjects in such a manner that the truths of the catechism are found

. a dry in all branches. . . In this manner religion is not branch, but vivifies all the rest of instruc HE constant preoccupation of a religious educator and disagreeable sacred character, and makes tile be to prepare for the Church and for society tion, gives it a higher, should also better and more vir are thoroughly Catholic. She should, pupil not only more learned hut women who 2 T instruction, tuous.” therefore, give the children a truly formative .Acrling to their Constitutions, Ursulines teach pro an education of the heart and of the will, preparing them only o be able to Iraiui sort/s to live a Chris to be wives and mothers wortiy of their magnificent voca fane subjects han life.3 This is the expressed desire of Saint Angela niitl tion and apostles for the world. the whole aim of her work, as her daughters everywhere have well understood. “The Christian impetus given to the intellect in the acquisition of human knowledge is of fore 1. FORMATIVE INSTRUCTION § most importance,” one reads in the History of tIi’ ]‘%lon astery of Quebec.4 As stated before, the reason for this is Formative teaching, on a purely natural basis, is teaching the fact that God is not only the educator of man; He is which imparts, besides information, a formation of the the unique Model of the work to he done; He is the faculties and especially a formation of the intellect, such as also the Center, and the End of this vork. He s has been described above. Christian formative teaching is Principle, in the faculties of the child. He subsists in letters, teaching that refers all learning to God as unique Principle, present in art. He is in the simplest principle of Master, and End of all knowledge. in science, and said truly that all legitimate paths The principles of Catholic Action, as defined by Pius XI, aesthetics. It has been lead to God Who appears as a glori oblige us to train our children always to think as Catholics, of human intelligence over all. God is Truth, Beauty, to .cpeak as Catholics, and to act as Catholics; to be always ous Sun diffusing Its light beauty, and supreme good on the alert to detect and redress in themselves any falling Supreme Good; therefore truth, intellectual training. away from Catholic life and to help others to live in this are the essential objects of moral and way. 1 Leo XIII, Encyclical for i/ic Ct-ntenary of Peter Canisius, 1397. Minister Teaching has a large part in a truly Catholic formation, 2 BEcKx, PETER, General of the , to the Austrian quoted by SCTIWICKER.TH, ROBERT, S.J .,.irsui( not only give information to of Instruction, July 15, 1854, but to achieve its end, it must Education, p. 599, Herder, St. I,oui, 1903. of i/ic Roman Union of tile Order of St. Ursula, tile memory and culture to the mind; in order to fit bap Rule and Conjiit,,tions Art. 269, Ofl religion. It is not suffi (IC Quebec, tized souls, it must be centered Une Ursuline de Québec on C. Le Moine, [.es tirsulines 1, 536, G. Dravenu, cient that religion be taught clearly and thoroughly; it must depuis leur établissement jusqu’ã nos jours, vol. p. enough for Quebec, 1863. permeate all other subjects of study. “It is not 105 104 URS(1 liNE ]lIETJJOI) OF EDUCATION FORAL1TII’E 1VSTI? (‘(:7’!ov

God is Life, lnteHigence and Love. Is the child dTerent? ihionglitful educators of all cotitit ries deli In re a ge tie r:i Moreover, God has desired to communicate His own divine deterioration in intellectual formation. J’I1 imp cvcrisliccl life to this child. In this resemblance to God, and especially vocahtila i-y, the nvervlicl ming use of newa i, I a hsii 11— in this participation in Ilis divine life, is found the princi words, the neglect of written and nra I colilposi I cu gIl :ii t defi ple of harmony and of power which governs the human rance of foreign literature and of general Ii istorv faculties, and which, therefore, is the very principle and nite signs of degeneration in modern life. ‘I ‘hey attr craze basis of the theory of ecIucation. this decadence to a disjointed course of study, to a Presupposing this fundamental principle, it is also of im for degrees, and to a life of pleasure which rnonopol izes the portance that all studies he integrated in such a way as to free time of the student and makes work repugna cit to him. form a living, substantial, salient teaching which will lay To these fatal causes of failure, may not the absence of hold of the intellect permanently. It is important that the intellectual pursuits on the part of parents and even their ? essential he distinguished from the nonessential, and that lack of interest in the studies of their children be added sufficient time and care he given to each in proper propor Many parents exhibit an inability, as it were, or perhaps tion. It is absolutely necessary to give children a hierarchy a laziness, in aspiring to, understanding, a ml being inter of values. “Before making the most ordinary decision, ested in universal ideas. I iow few children Iiea r the things before determining the most familiar customs and habits,” of the mind praised at home, disinterested and di fhictiht in says Charmot, “let us ask ourselves whether our acts, efforts appreciated, and competitive sports or a crisis ma whether our words all tend to maintain a hierai-chy of business relegated to their proper I)l1ces ? Politics and “ apparently coniprise the entire field values. . . . To educate is to choose according to order.” terial preoccupations sonic interest is showii in It is important to teach the spirit, rather than the letter, of of thought, and if, occasionally, only in the law; to bring light to the mind, rather than to crowd the scholastic work of the children, it is a roused Jul e;i niina— tile memory; to train the intellectual faculties of the child, recognition of its practical utility for a success intellectual work is rather than to Hood his mind with facts. It is necessary that tion or a brilliant career. Consequently, superficially ; it is considered tin— teaching be directed, not exclusively to the head, hut to the performed hastily and wi tli nut the profit heart, to the emotions, and to the taste. It is more neces attractive and is accomplished i’’ with care and love cI rrics with it.’ Religious sary that- this teaching should mold the mind than that it that work done must react against this trend of in tell t’ctua l I ai i should fill it with a fund of information; that it should educators so much the more since it is tolerated in t lie fa mi lv produce well—formed minds, rather than full heads. Lastly, ness, circle. Un fortunately, programs cannot be altered, espe it is of primary importance, and this is an essential condi to examinations. I lowever, he pre cially the programs preparatory tion, if teaching is to he formative, that education effected, a reaction against this craze for degrees might be sent-ed interestingly enough to develop taste for work and if an attempt were made to convince the cnuitempora rv habits of application.’ e world that a married woman should live in liei• I tome. ‘l’hi Cf. I) 1’rnovi’, F6ti, fl l’jd,iratian, 16th ed., vol. II, pp. 36—37, Téqii, life would bring, return to this concept of woman’s role in Pnris, 1923. 146, Edition would he centered (ii IeT()-r, 1R.NçOIs, Esquisse dun pédagoqie familiale, p. ipso facto, a more serious life, happiness Spes, Paris, J 933. ed., pp. L’Education scion lespri!, p. 61, I iI,rai ne Cf. I)ip NT.OW, Frix, Lrt!rrs cur i’tdz,c-ajion des lilies, 4th DANILOU, MADELEINE, et Paris, 1890. Paris, 1939. I 222-223, 11. Chapelliez Cie, 107 106 0 0 0 r) C) Dl FORMJTIVE INSTRUCTION URSULINE METhOD OF EDUC4TION that is to say, directed to the intellect of the pupils more in the family, and perhaps, as a result, the child sented, to demand their continual personal effort, would do more work. However, laziness has its proper in such a way as alone forms and develops them. Once these princi place among the seven capital sins It must be admitted that which ples are recalled and set forth, it should certainly he possi many children are not assiduous; they are indolent and dis ble to draw up more than one satisfactory plan of studics. tracted, and concentration is rare among them. It is equally of that of the Company of Jesus, Father Luis true that, with mental agility devoid of effort, a child ac Speaking Martin, General of the Society of Jesus, wrote on January complishes nothing lasting; consequently, every act of indo 1, 1893, that the characteristics of the Ratio Siudiorum lence only makes him less capable of effort. On the con should not be sought in the mailer or order of the subjects trary, every intellectual endeavor develops the mind and of study, but in what may be called the form or spirit of strengthens the character. Work leaves on the soul deep system.1° impressions of honor, courage, patience, and humility re the Since education is the harmonious developmeni of the sulting from the realization of how little one actually hum’’ fulries and studies are a very important factor in knows; with work also comes the happiness of a duty ac this development, in planned study, essential considerations complished, sometimes at the price of great effort. be distinguished from secondary. The primary object The quality of the work accomplished by the children must of study is reIiion, which must be given a conspicuous is in great part due to their instructors. If teachers have place. After religion come the subjects required for the (Ic authority; if they can stimulate interest, enthusiasm, and velopment of the faculties and for the perfection of the ambition; if they prepare the individual work that they de prerogatives which characterize human nature and con mand from the children; if they vary their themes and two its dignity, namely, thought and word. The acces evaluate them according to the time given for the accorn-. stitute sories are the subjects knowledge of which, without having plishment of the project; if they dutifully correct their formative value, serves to cultivate the mind. papers and give the pupils a just appreciation, encouraging a direct name of humanities has been given to and blaming opportunely; if they are concerned about all The appropriate mold man; which, in the natural order, their pupils and show their interest in each one of them; the studies which expression of the attributes of mankind if they can discern the causes of, and apply the remedies evoke the highest most powerfully develop and strengthen for, laziness and weakness; if they do all these, they will in him; and which faculties, forming and perfecting arouse and sustain the interest of their pupils and obtain his intellectual and moral God. For centuries in all enlightened magnificent results.9 them to the image of a higher intellectual education When the interest of the pupils has been called forth, it and Christian nations, where the Lath: and Greek /anquaqes should be cultivated constantly. This is of primary impor was offered, the study of with the study of the national tance and indispensable to the kind of teaching that molds and literatures, coordinated was considered essential. These the mind. In addition, the material to be taught must be language and literature, humanities. To these subjects is ordinarily organized and presented properly: first organized, by a constituted the which is a helpful and even necessary aux plan of studies that assigns each subject its place and gives added history, iltoodstack Letters, vol. XXII it the time that its formative value demands; then pre lOCf. SCHWICICERATH, op. ci!., p. 286; The MRcEt., Li’s Jesuits et irurS (ruq’rI’s (1893), p. 106; quoted also by CHOSS,T, Avignor, 1896. DUPANT,OtJP, Fii,ix, De (a haute e’ducaiion infrilectue(ie, vol. 11, pp. 487- a 4’visnon, 1553-1768, No. 3, p. 258, F. Sequin, 493, Charles Douniol, Paris, 1870. 109 108 TECh URSUI,IVE IIIETHOI) OF EI)UC1TJON C.! i,cii

is the /novilic(’ oJ the fTticsi, lUll /o’lv diary in all fine moral and intellectual development. Finally hqious instruction have nevertheless established I/ia! (III n.i’— philosophy is added, forming the natural crown and the Constitutions •t,’Vt’Ufl/ fillies a Ia et keystone of the vaulted roof of higher education. Such is tresses s/ia/I teach catech,5,u w’’/. lii prescribe this forina liv.’ I e— i/ic essential and principal oliject of teaching. the Con.ctilutions of 1 646 of te:ichiiig cate Ihe stu(ly of the living languages, of the fine arts, and ligious who have the happy assignment more thorough prepa ia tioll (Ii a ii all of the dc in en is of the natural, physical, chemical, and chism must give it to the teaching of re inaiheniatical sciences is its secondary object. The term dc— other subjects. This importance given dealing with meni.c of sciences is used intentionally, because their teach ligion is the distinctive note of the chapters congrega ing, properly so called, that is, their complete mastery, can education in the Constiiuiio,,s of all the monastic Paris. in sub not in any sense be a secondary or accessory object. Such tions of Ursuhines and of the Rq/emciiis of science ol n’/iqicTii study requires a long period of time and is of a higher stance all these rules advise : Since the ,uecessari’, rc/,/l.ins ct// order. is the iliost excellent and the 7110Sf give it first place in their esteem and in their eI/r;rI.c to im mnud.c of their pupils. ‘7.i ci/! /‘c’ § 2. CATECHISM plant it solidly in the careful to review the matter to be taught (1,1(1 to •c imly it especial/v fire/Talc Saint Paul desires that Christians be rooted and con— iiiuch as it is necessary; and they wi/I prayer, seeking liqht front the holy Ghost. firmed in fail/i.’’ In reality, the more enlightened the faith, their class by means at’c the stronger the. practice of the Christian life. First and For success in this teaching. practical lug in av profit able, if in ii.c t, ui’ foremost, Christian I)octrine must he taught. It must be vi ded : So 1/ia! this teach be to in! elliqc’ncc’ and taught in order to maintain and strengthen the faith of the all oilier teaching, be proportionate the who receive it. /‘n I his ciii!, children in such a way that their conduct may be inspired the capacity of the persons i/ia! fUlfIlls lllflV lit and sustained by it: that, strongly armed, they may defend classes 1111151 be’ foi’;ned ill 51(4? (1 way 0/ equal ca/’aci!i’. Subject matter it against the numerous attacks directed against it, and that (iS ;iearlv as possible group may be selected. they may become convinced and loving apostles of faith. suitable for the age of each religion to the little out’s “Faith runs the risk,’’ says Charmot, “of not being de Fénelon recommends teaching the children love stories passionately veloped in the intellect to a greater extent than secular in story form, because 12 is one long thrilling story. Stories knowledge or even to the same extent.” The teaching of and because Cli ristianity of the OIL! and New Testament must be told, and tile catechism must be given the place of honor in the program ted in such a real way tli at child rcn, will) and the best hour in the day. It must not be sacrificed when cli a racters presen vivid imaginations, may believe that they see antI hear a subject has to be omitted from the daily schedule; for have them. ‘Fhic stories of the creation, of the fall of 1(fa Ill, this would be contrary to Catholic educational ideals. It the I)eluge, of the vocation of Abraham, of the s;icrihue has been recalled that the teaching of Christian Doctrine of Isaac, of the adventi.i res of oseph, anti (Ii the birth nmith was practically the only teaching given by the first congre flight of l\ loses not only awaken the curiosity of cli ild gated Llrsulines of Milan and of France. Later we read in but also establish in their minds the basis of religion by the Requlations of Paris the following rule: il/though re— revealing its origin. Religion is entirely historical: it is by 11 CCI. 2:7. cit., p. 234, 13 Règlcmcnts, Part I, Chap. V. TI C,,Ri.1oT, Esquisse dune pedagogic familiale, o. Ill 110 0 0 n fl C C I S1INT 4NGEL’ JIND J’ROGRESS

It has been recalled that the end of all knowledge, ac cording to Huby, is the perfect Four contemplation of Flirn \Vho Part said, “I am time Truth,” and WTho, fully manifesting I urn self to us in eternal glory, makes us known to ourselves as PROG RESS we really are and reveals the whole universe to us in I lirn self.’ Each course added to the scholastic program, and especially, the method of teaching it, denotes progress in the measure in which it draws the pupil to God. The § 1. WHAT PROGRESS Is end of every voluntary act is to unite man perfectly to God by love. Every new effort demanded of the child, ONG hesitation preceded the attempt at this last part whether it be physical or moral, will, therefore, he progress in of the work on education, because it was feared it the measure in which it helps him to love God more. might seem paradoxical to speak of progress in this epoch of retrogression toward paganism. Has there ever been more talk of progress? Was there § 2. SAINT ANGELA AND PROGRESS ever greater evidence of a return to barbarity? This so- Did Saint Angela effect called progress, accompanied by the decline of civilization, progress in education? Were the end that unhappily has caused a strange and dangerous confusion in she proposed and the method that she used suit able for many minds and even in many consciences. It is important, the remaking of the Catholic woman and, through therefore, to give the true meaning of the word progress. her, for the re-Christianizing of the home? The answez. to this question The perfection of a being lies in the attainment of its is evident in the exposition of her work. Mother end, and it is this perfection that renders it happy. It pro Monica, O.S.U., expresses it perfectly. She says in substance: Angela gresses, therefore, in the measure that it attains its end, Merici’s movement in Brescia, which was a reactionary reform and in the same measure, it is happy. Since man was created against the pagan ideals, iniported through the humanists into to know, love, and serve God and to possess Him for all the education of young girls, may be clearly defined as eternity, for him, progress consists in an increase of this a reaction in which the ]‘/foher idea, according to knowledge and of this love and in the perfection of this Christian tradition, was to be reempha sized and made workable. service. Saint Angela vigorously insisted that both the citadel of To know, love, and serve God is, for a baptized soul, education and the end of education are in the home, the home as the to lead a Christian life. It has been said that education must basic unit, “in cellule,” as it is called today; and that only by form the child to this Christian life by a harmonious de purifying and uplifting the home could society be velopment of its natural and supernatural faculties. There rejuvenated, and that this is the peculiar work of women.2 fore, a method of education may be judged by its efficiency She would begin by working on to help a child acquire this development. Every modifica the soul of the child. ‘Husy, JosEpH, S.J., Le renders it more capable of attaining Dijcour.r de Jesus après (a Cène, pp. 46-47, tion of method which Beauchesne, Paris, 1932. which renders it 2 this result is progress; every modification Cf. MONICA, SISTER M., ñngela l!erici and Her Teaching Idea, p. 197, less efficacious is retrogression. Longmans, Green and Co., New York, 1927. 246 247 URSULINE METHOD OF EDUC1ITION S1IINT iINGE1,1 IINJ) PROGI?Ecs

“Angela Mend,” writes Canevin, “had in mind the soul The great changes that the elevation of the Order to thc and its eternal destiny. To her, God was the Great Reality. monastic state brought about in the form of life of the The knowledge and worship of God was the truth and law first Ursulines is already known. The rule of progress was, that must dominate life and he the measure of all the nevertheless, maintained in this, and it was proha My iino juL. movements of the intellect, of the heart and of the will.” in the erection of a monastery. The Bull ol Approhation This adaptation to the needs of the times was all the of the Paris Monastery, signed by Pope Paul V on une 13, more meritorious as it was diflicult to bring about because 1612, prescribed a broad-minded spirit and a watchfulness of the opposition offered by certain accepted modes of over liberty of conscience, and finally, repeated “word-for- thinking. In our day, with the prevalence of religious of word” the privilege, granted to Angela by Paul Iii, of every costume, of every vocation, no adequate idea of the changing the Rule according to circumstance.” astonishing novelty of the religious society founded by Has the Order always responded to this desire of its Saint Angela can be formed. One of her admirers wrote: Foundress? This remains a question. Nevertheless, to quote “The Company is the result of long experience with a life Mother Monica again: “In the Paris R?g!enienis for the lived not only in supernatural contact with heaven, in the Ursuline School in Rue St. Jacques, we found a method of transcendent elevation of prayer and of Christian asceti teaching that is a careful application of pedagogical princi cism, but in long and painful contacts with the earth and its ples and enlightened methods.”’ miseries, with the horrible and gangrenous wounds of the The late Bishop Shahan, Rector of the Catholic Uni social life of her time. She overcame all these difficulties, versity of America, speaking of the Society of the Reiigic)us and all the opposition that must have come from the men of the Sacred Heart, wrote to the author of the life of the rigid juridical from . . tality of her contemporaries, or Janet Erskine Stuart, “Keep your identity . keep your conception of religious life.” spirit intact, your true self, your distinct personality as an stupe This innovation in the Church, which must have Order unchanged. Mother Stuart had the true vision: idt’n about, nevertheless, 8 fied her contemporaries, was brought lily plus development.” Were her daugh by the genius and the sanctity of Angela. Identity plus development—is this not the synthesis of Angela hoped so. She was ters to be as progressive as she? tradition and progress that Pius Xl called adaptation? It it an obligation for them. so anxious for this, that she made would be an error to cling tenaciously to the past, under them to be very careful It is true that she did recommend the pretext that new ideas, not only do not add anything her Rule be most diligently observed. that the regulations of essentially good, but that they also thoroughly corrupt ex added: “And . . .“—this word and But she immediately isting good by the very mixture of good and evil in them. to place the words that follow under the Rule, and seems To scorn new ways and to reject the past would he con . to equal importance—”. . if, according to give them trary to good sense. “Let us accept,” said Mother Saint needs, you should be obliged to make fresh rules time and Claire Boutros, “all the treasures of the past and receive and change certain things, do it wit/i prudence and on good with gratitude, as from the hand of God, all the timely advice.” “MONICA, SISTER M., op. cit., p. 3u2. ‘ Ibid., ItitroducUon, p. viL Merici e Ia Corn ‘Ibid., p. 12. GUERRINI, Origini della Compagnia in St. 4ngela MONAHAN, MAUI,, Life and Letters of Janet Erskine St,art, p. 210, St. Ursula net II’ Centenario della Fondazione, p. 109. pagnia de Longmans, Green and Co., London, 1922. Eleventh Legacy. “SAINT ANGELA, 249 248 0 0 0 (Th C C 1IND PROGRESS URSULINE METHOD OF EDUC1ITION S1IINT 1INGELI which have progress of our present age.” u This mother was already to have it serve these same providential tasks, formulating the synthesis that a great pope advocated in been too much neglected.” in so far as it is a later years. The tradition of a religious order, a grace. If the order should Ursulines will keep their identity by reclaiming what spirit, brings with it’ special lose this grace. It keeps this might have been lost of their tradition, and they will con abandon this spirit, it would it conserves or regains its tradi stantly seek progress, true progress, one which draws them grace, or finds it again, if closer to God. For the courage needed they will lean on tional spirit. you wish to succeed,” wrote Yorke, “enter into the Saint Angela. By her spirit she belongs to all times. She is “If your holy founders; study their lives and their certain to survive. In the Souvenirs that she left to be read spirit of their aims, and with proper allowance to her children after her death, she says: “Jesus Christ has ways; understand for th’ne and circumstance, conform yourselves to their chosen me to be the Mother, living or dead, of this Com methocl. Tn that way, you will develop, in the fullest arid pany.” 10 “Know that I am now more truly alive than when j most tural manner, your own powers and those of the was in the world.” “I am continually in the midst of 12 to which you belong, and you will give of your with Him Who is my Love, or rather, ours.” The institute ou to your present through all gen best to the children whom God has committed Mother of ill Ursuilnes is always 14 erations in the constant rebirth of her spirit. She sanctions, cure.” This may be truly said of the Ursulines of today who so to speak, with her encouragement, every new apostolic live in a century so much resembling that of the foundation effort that they undertake. The work that she began in of the Order, if not even more depraved. 1535, after forty-five years of experience, she continues in twentieth century higher education for our day amidst conditions similar to those of the times in “Our boasted women,” said Canevin, “is like much of our self-com which she lived. Among the disorders, common to her cen placency and flattery in other matters. In proportion to the tury and to our own, are doctrines hostile to Christian population, there were probably as many women students thought, inhuman wars, the apostasy of civil society, the in the higher schools of France and other European coun misuse of the intellect, the exaggerated thirst for money tries in the days of Saint Angela as there are today. It is and pleasure, the religious ignorance of the masses with all doubtful whether in four or five hundred years from now its individual, family, and social consequences. there will be as many women of our time famed for great The sixteenth century saw the dawn of the secular eman learning as have come down to us from the Catholic schools cipation of woman. In the twentieth century, this emancipa which, in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, exerted a tion seems to have reached the point where a return to marked influence on art and letters and perpetuated the Catholic principles becomes obligatory. This return has be learning and religious traditions of the Middle Ages. gun. Saint Angela, who was the first to try to direct this “The course of studies in the schools of that period did feminist movement toward the duties of the family and of not include the great variety of studies that are to be found Catholic life, is still capable of mastering it today, in order in the programs of modern colleges and universities, but Ursuline dii Monastère GAVEAU, ABEL, Vie de la Illère Salute-Claire, there is no doubt that the essential studies were taught, and de Blois, p. 131, Marchesson fits, Le Puy, 1881. 10 SAINT ANGELA, Third Souvenir. 3 VIANNEY J3OSCHET, M. M., O.S.U., unpublished article. 11 SAINT ANGELA, Prologue. 14 MONICA, SISTER M., op. cit., Foreword, p. xiv. 12 SAINT ANGELA, Fifth Souvenir. 251 250 URSULJNE METHOD OF EDUCIITION THE PROGRESS OF THE EDUCIITOR

taught so thoroughly that even an unbeliever like Huxley admitted, ‘I doubt if the curriculum of any modern uni 3. THE PROGRESS OF THE EDUCATOR versity shows so clear and generous a comprehension of § what is meant by culture, as this old trivium and quad The first training school for teachers was founded by rivium do.’ ‘ Saint Angela, in whose writings are found pedagogical in “The position of girls in the schools of Italy and France structions for her teachers. Her Counsels and her Testa in the early days of the Ursuline schools was not unlike the ment lay down the principles upon which her matrons arc position of Catholic pupils in many of the nonsectarian to form the young under their care. Her rule of life em schools of the twentieth century. It was an age of aggres braces both the matrons and the young members of the In sive skepticism, bold infidelity, shameless immodesty and stitute, telling them how they are, themselves, to live and pagan immorality. Youth in the days of humanism (pagan• act. She instructs the matrons how to train the younger humanism), as in our own materialistic age, needed the teachers and novices, whose mission is to teach Christian steadying and directing force of sound doctrine, and the Doctrine to little girls in Brescia. The substance is the art restraining and fortifying power of the sacraments and of handling character, rather than the principles of impitrt prayer, that they might stand in faith and purity amid the ing knowledge. It is certain that Angela personally formed insidious attacks and seductive allurements of a sensual and instructed her daughters. There is extant, hanging on world and a creedless majority that like not to have God the walls of Saint Afra’s Church in Brescia, a quaint pic in their knowledge. ture of the Saint, who is seated in the midst of her lady Ursuline ideal of education was, in the seventeenth “The governesses as she teaches them. This painting is an inter / the same as it is now, to train teachers and conduct century, esting document in the history of normal schools. It is /schools that neglect no useful branch of human knowledge, doubtful if there exists any such record of a school for surround pupils with all the safeguards and Jwhile they teachers, dating earlier than here, 1534.17 Christ’s truth and grace may be in / helps of religion, that The training of educators means their intellectual and form and guiding principles of life I grained as the professional formation. It goes without saying that, in a may be formed as well as the mind, and that that the heart teaching order, the importance of this formation is linked as well as the intellect, so that the the will may be fortified with that of religious formation. The saintly Foundress of with the light and liberty of Christian soul may be filled the Ursulines must bless her Roman Union for having or truth, purity, peace, and joy.” ganized provincial juniorates in such a manner that today, herself the educator of the members Saint Angela made after the novitiate, a wide horizon on the apostolic life and she named governesses, and of the of her Company, whom intellectual development is opened to her daughters. There, her care. The Ursuline ideals are the children confided to the supernatural formation is continued and developed in both educators and children. same today, to train tensely. Of Saint Paul, who had been detained by the gov Trivium and guadrivium included the seven liberal arts of the medie ernor of Cesarea for two years, Grandmaison says, “God logic, and rhetoric; val schools. Trivium: the language subjects, grammar, because the formation of His apostle was more quadrivium: scientific subjects, music, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy. It willed this curriculum that included literature, science, and art. was a 17 Cf. MONICA, SISTER M., op. cit., Chap. VIII. 16 MONICA, SISTER M., op. cit., Introduction, pp. viii-x. 253 252 0 0. n NAPCIS Teacher Certification Program Additional Resources

The Study of Virtue

NAPCIS Essay and Study Guide for Virtue Unit (2003)

Sullivan, Daniel J., An Introduction to Philosophy: The Perennial Principles of the Classical Realist Tradition, TAN Books (Rockford, 1992), ch. 12,15,19-21

The Classroom: Virtue’s Workshop, I and II.

Professionalism

NAPCIS Essay on Confidentiality and Responsibility

“Gossip” by Robert Spencer (Lay Witness, July/August 1997)

“Lying” by Robert Spencer (Lay Witness, December 1997)

“The Vocation of Teaching” by Rev. Joseph Terra, F.S.S.P.

Modern Educational Principles

“Independent Catholic Schools: Are They Good for the Church?” by Joseph Almeida and Richard Cross

Stormer, John A., None Dare Call It Education, Chapter 3: “Using America’s Schools to Create a ‘New Social Order’”, Liberty Bell Press (Florissant, MO, 1999) pp 39-50

Traditional Educational Principles

“The Lost Tools of Learning” by Dorothy L. Sayers

Sampling from the Various Pedagogical Traditions

Dominican Educational Approach

St. Thomas Aquinas, “The Office of the Wise Man” from Summa Contra Gentiles

St. Thomas Aquinas, “The Teacher” Question XI, articles 1 and 4 from De veritate

Ashley, O.P., Benedict M., Introductory chapter from The Arts of Learning and Communication, The Priory Press (River Forest, 1958)

Kocourek, R. A., “St. Thomas on Study” in Thomistic Principles in a Catholic School edited by Theodore Brauer, B. Herder (St. Louis, 1943)

Ignatian Educational Approach

“An Ignatian Paideia” from Kolbe Academy

“A Synopsis of the Objectives and Methods of Ignatian Education” from Kolbe Academy

Lasallian Educational Approach

Brother Agathon, “The Twelve Virtues of a Good Teacher”, foreword, chapter V on Wisdom, Chapter VIII on Gentleness

Modern Catechetical Approaches

Kevane, Eugene, Introductory chapter from Teaching the Catholic Faith Today: Twentieth Century Catechetical Documents of the Holy See, St. Paul Editions (Boston, 1982)

Salesian Educational Approach

Bosco, St. John, “The Preventive System in the Education of the Young”

Ursuline Approach

Sister Marie de St. Jean Martin, O.S.U., Ursuline Method of Education, Quinn & Boden Co., Inc. (Rahway, 1946): Introduction, The Stages of Education, Formative Instruction, What Progress Is