The Domestic Environmental Movement in Contemporary Japan

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The Domestic Environmental Movement in Contemporary Japan THE DOMESTIC ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENT IN CONTEMPORARY JAPAN STRUCTURE, ACTIVITIES, PROBLEMS, AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE FOR THE BROADENING OF POLITICAL PARTICIPATION Von der Gemeinsamen Fakultät für Geistes- und Sozialwissenschaften der Universität Hannover zur Erlangung des Grades eines Doktors der Philosophie (Dr. phil.) genehmigte Dissertation von Wilhelm M. Vosse, M.A. geboren am 20. November 1963, in Lathen. 2000 Referent: Prof. Dr. Rudolf Wolfgang Müller Korreferent: Prof. Dr. Wolfgang Seifert Tag der Promotion: 9. Mai 2000 II III IV KEYWORDS Deutsch: Japan, politische Partizipation, Umweltbewegung. English: Japan, political participation, environmental movement. ABSTRACT IN DEUTSCHER SPRACHE Politisch ist die japanische Nachkriegszeit (nach 1945) von zwei grundsätzlichen Phänomenen gekennzeichnet, der Dominanz der Liberaldemokratischen Partei Japans (LDP), die zusammen mit einer sie unterstützenden Bürokratie sowie einer auf Protektion und gegenseitige Unterstützung angelegten Industrie- und Wirtschaftsstruktur Japan beinahe unangefochten beherrscht, sowie von sozialen Bewegungen im weitesten Sinne, die seit den 1950er Jahren bis in die frühen 1970er Jahre immer wieder auf unterschiedlichen Ebenen und mit verschiedenen Aktionsformen und Zielen versucht haben, die Dominanz der politischen und wirtschaftlichen Elite zu durchbrechen und das System sukzessive von unten zu öffnen. Letzteres schien Anfang der 1970er Jahre zu einem Teil gelungen zu sein, als besonders Umweltgruppen eine Reihe ihrer Ziele durchsetzen konnten und die Regierung sich unter anderem gezwungen sah, strengere Umweltgesetze zu erlassen und ein Umweltamt einzurichten. Diese Dissertation geht der grundsätzlichen Frage nach, inwiefern japanische soziale Bewegungen im Allgemeinen und die Umweltbewegung im Besonderen das politische Moment der frühen 1970er Jahre aufrechterhalten und nutzen konnten, um das relativ geschlossene politische System in Japan zumindest stellenweise für Bürger zu öffnen und den gesellschaftlichen Demokratisierungsprozess weiter voran zu treiben. Nach einer einführenden Darstellung und Erörterung der Relevanz von japanischen und nicht- japanischen theoretischen sowie empirischen Ansätzen zur Untersuchung sozialer Bewegungen im Allgemeinen und der Umweltbewegung in Japan im Besonderen (Kapitel 2) und der Erörterung der Entwicklungsphasen der Umweltbewegung im Nachkriegsjapan (Kapitel 3), wird mit Hilfe von umfangreichen eigenen empirischen Untersuchungen (Interviews, landesweiter Fragebogenumfrage, teilnehmender Beobachtung), der Aufarbeitung von konkreten Fallbeispielen von Umweltkonflikten, Protestgruppen, Naturschutz Organisationen, sowie Netzwerken unterschiedlicher Bürgerinitiativen (Kapitel 4), einer Darstellung und Erörterung der für die Fragestellung wichtigen Charakteristika der Umweltbewegung als Ganzes (Kapitel 5) und ihrer entscheidenden Probleme (Kapitel 6) nachgewiesen, dass es der Umweltbewegung zwar vereinzelt gelungen ist, konkrete Forderungen gegenüber verschiedenen Regierungsebenen durchzusetzen, dass es ihr jedoch nur unzureichend gelungen ist, das relativ geschlossene politische System weiter zu öffnen oder zu einer prinzipiellen Verbesserung der politischen Mitsprache- und Partizipationsoptionen von Bürgern beizutragen. Einen wesentlichen Grund für die relativ geringe Zunahme von politischen Einflussmöglichkeiten von Bürgern und Bürgerinitiativen sieht der Autor in dem elitären politischen System selbst, welches in Krisenzeiten zwar immer wieder flexibel genug war beschränkte Reformen zuzulassen, das aber erfolgreich eine grundsätzliche Reform und größeren Einfluss sozialer Gruppen verhindert hat. Innerhalb eines solchen Systems hat sich daher bisher kaum eine politisch lebendige Atmosphäre gebildet, was wiederum die Mehrzahl der vielen kleinen Umweltgruppen davon abgehalten hat, in einen gesellschaftlich-politischen Diskurs einzutreten. Die Umweltbewegung kann in Zukunft daher nur erfolgreich sein, wenn sie das Dilemma zwischen der Dominanz eines elitären Systems und weitverbreitetem politischen Inferioritätsdenken unter den Bürgern durch eigene Erfolge durchbrechen kann. V ABSTRACT IN ENGLISCHER SPRACHE The postwar political system in Japan can be characterized by two phenomenon: The virtually unchallenged dominance of the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) whose political power is firmly based on the support of a relatively strong and influential bureaucracy, as well as an economic system and an industrial structure which favors protectionist policies and mutual support on the one hand, and social movements in the broadest sense which have since the 1950s and particularly in the 1960s and 1970s frequently proven to be sufficiently influential to challenge the dominance of the political and economic elite, and to gradually open up new political channels by pursuing a wide range of goals and by making use of a broad range of different tactics and activities. In the early 1970s, it seemed as if environmental movements had achieved some of these fundamental goals, since they had successfully forced the government to draft and enforce stricter environmental legislation and to set up the Environmental Agency. This dissertation therefore pursues the question, to what extent social movements in general and environmental movements in particular have been successful in maintaining and making use of the political and social momentum of the early 1970s, in order to further open up the relatively closed political power structure for ordinary citizens and to press ahead with the social democratization process. Following two introductory chapters on the relevance of certain Japanese and non-Japanese theoretical and empirical approaches towards the study of social movements in general and environmental movements in particular (chapter 2), and on the postwar developmental stages of the environmental movement (chapter 3), and based on comprehensive empirical research findings (interviews, nationwide questionnaire survey, participant observer) as well as a detailed description and analysis of several case studies of environmental conflicts, protest groups, nature conservation organizations, and citizens’ movement’s networks (chapter 4), an analysis of the decisive characteristics of the environmental movement in general (chapter 5) and its most serious problems (chapter 6), this dissertation argues that the Japanese environmental movement has to a certain degree been successful in getting government approval for concrete demands, but that it has not been able to comprehensively make the relatively closed political system more approachable and open, or to essentially improve and broaden opportunities for political participation of ordinary citizens. It is argued, that the most significant reasons for the insufficient improvement of the political opportunity structure of citizens and citizens’ movements are rooted in the elitist political system itself, which has frequently proven to have just enough flexibility to permit limited reforms in times of crisis, but which has successfully prevented a comprehensive reform of the economic and political system and an increase of the political influence of extra parliamentary social and political groups and organizations. Therefore, a lively politically atmosphere has not yet been developed within the limits of the existing political system. This has also discouraged a large number of the smaller environmental movement organizations to actively engage in any socio- political discourse. In the future, the Japanese environmental movement can therefore only succeed if it can overcome the dilemma between the dominance of an elitist system and a widely held belief of inferior political efficacy among ordinary citizens through original and widely significant social and political achievements. VI VII VIII TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures …………………………………………………………… XV List of Tables …………………………………………………………… XVII List of Abbreviations …………………………………………………… XIX 1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... 1 1.1 BACKGROUND............................................................................................ 1 1.2 ARGUMENTS AND QUESTIONS..................................................................2 1.3 APPROACHES.............................................................................................4 1.4 DATA .........................................................................................................7 PRIMARY DATA ............................................................................................................ 8 SECONDARY DATA....................................................................................................... 8 1.5 WORKING DEFINITIONS ...........................................................................9 2. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS ABOUT SOCIAL MOVEMENTS ............................................................................................11 2.1 ON THE RESEARCH OF ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENTS IN ENVIRONMENTAL SOCIOLOGY AND POLITICAL ECOLOGY...........................11 2.1.0 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................ 11 2.1.1 ENVIRONMENTAL SOCIOLOGY. SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS ................................................................................. 13 1. Assembling of Environmental Issues .......................................................... 15 2. Task Presenting...............................................................................................
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