An Investigation of the Differences in Religious Conflict and Anxiety

University of Tennessee, Knoxville TRACE: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange

Doctoral Dissertations Graduate School

12-1981

An Investigation of the Differences in Religious Conflict and Anxiety Among Religiously Fundamentalist Students Enrolled in Hiwassee College, Johnson Bible College, and The University of Tennessee, Knoxville

Clarence Victor McCall Jr. University of Tennessee - Knoxville

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Recommended Citation McCall, Clarence Victor Jr., "An Investigation of the Differences in Religious Conflict and Anxiety Among Religiously Fundamentalist Students Enrolled in Hiwassee College, Johnson Bible College, and The University of Tennessee, Knoxville. " PhD diss., University of Tennessee, 1981. https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_graddiss/3256

This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at TRACE: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange. It has been accepted for inclusion in Doctoral Dissertations by an authorized administrator of TRACE: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange. For more information, please contact [email protected]. To the Graduate Council:

I am submitting herewith a dissertation written by Clarence Victor McCall Jr. entitled "An Investigation of the Differences in Religious Conflict and Anxiety Among Religiously Fundamentalist Students Enrolled in Hiwassee College, Johnson Bible College, and The University of Tennessee, Knoxville." I have examined the final electronic copy of this dissertation for form and content and recommend that it be accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education, with a major in Education.

Karl J. Jost, Major Professor

We have read this dissertation and recommend its acceptance:

Clinton B. Allison, David L. Dungan, Robert Howard, W. Lee Humphreys, & Anand Malik

Accepted for the Council:

Carolyn R. Hodges

Vice Provost and Dean of the Graduate School

(Original signatures are on file with official studentecor r ds.) To the Graduate Counci l:

I am submitting herewi th a dissertation wri tten by Clarence Victor McCall , Jr. entitled "An Investi gation of the Differences in Religious Confl ict and Anxiety Among Rel igiously Fundamenta list Students Enrol led in Hiwassee Col lege , Johnson Bible College, and The Uni versity of Tennessee, Knoxvi lle." I have examined the final copy of this dissertation for form and content and recommend that it be accepted in partial ful fi llment of the requi rements for the degree of Doctor of Education, wi th a major in Curriculum and Instruction.

We have read this dis sertation and recommend its acceptance : �@/� ��-k,� (

-:2v k /�' �

Accepted for the Counci l:

Vice Chancel lor Graduate Studies and Research AN INVESTIGATION OF THE DIFFERENCES IN RELIGIOUS CONFLICT

AND ANXI ETY AMONG RELIGIOUSLY FUNDAMENTALIST STUDENTS

ENROLLED IN HIWASSEE COLLEGE, JOHNSON BIBLE

COLLEGE, AND THE UNIVERSITY OF

TENNESSEE, KNOXVILLE

A Di ssertation

Presented for the

Doctor of Education

Degree

The Uni versity of Tennessee , Knoxville

Clarence Victor McCal l, Jr.

December 1981

305808{) P..CK�!m1LEDG�·1ENTS

I ,.,ant to thank the n:P.mhers of my committee--Or. Karl t1.

Jost, Dr. Clinton B . .A.llison, Or. David L. Dungan, Dr. P.obert Howard,

Dr . W. Lee Humphreys, and Dr. Anand Malik--for their puidance, suqgestions, and encourage�ent during the course of this study.

A special thank you is also in order for the 301 subiects, without whose cooperation this investioation would have been ifT'possible.

i i ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to investigate the differences

in religious confl ict and anxiety among religiously fundamentalist students enrolled in three institutions in East Tennessee. It was felt that such an inquiry woul d provide insight into the difficulties encountered by the religiously fundamentalist student as that person moves and functions in higher education .

The subjects were 301 freshman students. The study was accompl i shed in two phases. Phase one invol ved meeting with freshman

English classes at two of the institutions and introductory Sociology classes at the other institution and aski ng the students to provide certain biographical information as wel l as mark their answers on four brief tests designed to measure socio-economic status, religious fundamentalism, anxiety, and religious confl ict. Phase two of the study consisted of 30 interviews; 10 students from each of the 3 schools. Interviewees were chosen on the basis of scores earned on the tests . Statistical techniques used were correlation and analysis of variance .

The general findings of the study were as fol lows :

1. Twenty percent of all students reported strong rel igi ous confl ict and anxiety accompanied by such difficulties as inability to sleep, eat or study; severe stomach pains; mental anguish; inability to concentrate; and daydreaming. The classroom was found to be a main source of rel igi ous confl ict.

iii iv

2. The variables rel igi ous fundamentalism and anxiety were not correlated at either of the three institutions.

3. The variables rel i9ious fundamental ism and religious confl ict were negatively corre lated at each of the three institu

tions.

4. Rel igious confl ict was positively correlated wi th

anxiety at the three insti tutions .

5. There were considerable differences among the three

school s with respect to religious fundamental ism and religious

confl ict though not anxiety.

6. Rel igi ous fundamental ism, religious confl ict, and

anxiety were related positively or negati vely to one or more of the

fol lowing personal data variabl es depending upon whether insti tutional

scores or total scores were used : consent to be interviewed,

rel igious preference , denomi national preference, sex, state of

residence, size of community of res idence, socio-economic status,

attendance at church and Sunday School , or grade point average . The

major variables were not related to age or approximate size of home

church .

I TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

I. INTRODUCTION 1

Need for the Study . . . . 2

Operational Definition of Terms • 8

Confl ict • . • 8 Rel igious confl ict 8 Re 1 i g ion , . . . . 8 Rel igi ous fundamental ism 9 Religious fundamental ist 9

Anxiety • • 10

Adjustment . • . • . 10

Assumptions of the Study • 10

Questions • . . . . 11 Del imi tations of the Study 11

II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 13

Summary 40

III. METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN 41

Questions • 41 Research Hypotheses . 41 Statistical Procedures 44 Ty pe of Research . 44

Measurement of Variabl es • 44 Rel igious Fundamental ism Scale 47 IPAT Anxiety Scale Questionnaire . 49 The Religious Confl ict Scale 50 The interview . . . 52 General Information Data Sheet . . . . 56 A Scale for Assessing Socio-Economic Status in Survey Research . 56 Procedures--Overview . 58 Procedures--Survey Phase 58

Sample . • . 58

Method of action • . 59 Procedures--I nterview Phase 61 Sample 62 v vi

CHAPTER PAGE

Method of action 62 Method of analysis of interviews 64

IV. INTERVI E\� PHAS E 65

Interview Procedures and Analysis of Interviewees• Scores 65

Summary and Findings . • . • 67 Summary and Findings of Interviews at Johnson Bible Col l ege . 68 Review of genera l information data sheet 68 Review of socio-economic status 68 Review of fundamental ism test 69 Review of religious confl ict 69 Review of anxiety 71 Case Study 2, Dearon 75 Johnson Bible Col lege : Summary . . . 78 Summary and Findings of Intervie�;Js at The Uni versity

of Tennessee , Knoxville . 81 Review of genera l information sheet 81 Review of socio-economic status score 81 Review of fundamentalism test 81 Review of religious confl ict 82 Re vie\'J of anxiety 86

Case Study 3, Marisa • . 88 The Uni versity of Tennessee , Knoxville: Summary 91 Summary and Findings of Intervie�;Js at Hiwassee College 94 Review of general information data sheet 94 Review of socio-economic score . 95 Review of fundamental ism score . 95 Review of religious confl ict score 96 Review of anxiety score 99 Case Study 1, Zandra . 100 Hiwassee College : Summary . 104

Interview Phase: Summary and Conclusions . 106

V. SURVEY PHASE 112

Analysis of Data Rel ating to Primary Hypotheses • 112

Fundamentalism Scores by School and as a Total • 112 Religious Confl ict Scores by School and as a Total . 115 Anxiety Scores by School and as a Total 117 Analysis of the Relationships Among Fundamentalism, Religious Confl ict, and Anxi ety by Schools and as Totals . 120 vii

CHAPTER PAGE

Analysis of Data Relating to Secondary Hy potheses 124 Attendance at Sunday School and Church 125 Size of Community of Resi dence of Persons Surveyed by School and as a Total 127 State of Residence of Persons Surveyed by School and as a Tota 1 . 127

Age of Persons Surveyed by School and as a Total . 130 Rel igi ous Preference by Schools and as a Total 133 Protestant Denomi national Preference by Schools and as a Total . 136 Socio-Economic Status by Schools and as a Total 139

Sex of Persons Surveyed by School and as a Total . 142 Grade Point Average of Students Surveyed at Hiwassee Col l ege 142 Size of Church of Persons Surveyed by School

and as a Total . 145 Consent to be Interviewed by Schools and as a Total 147 Analys is of the Relationship of the Variables Attendance at Church and Sunday School , Consent to be In terviewed , Rel igious Preference, Denomi national Preference , Age , State of Residence, Size of Community of Residence, Socio-Economi c Status , Sex, to the Hypothesized Rel ationships among Rel igi ous Fundamental ism, Religious Confl ict, and Anxiety Scores at Hiwassee Co 11ege , Johnson Bible Col leqe , and The Uni versity of

Tennessee, Knoxville . 150

VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . 155

fvlajor Hypotheses 162 Secondary Hypotheses 172 A Portrait of the Rel igiously Fundamentalist Co 11ege Student 178

VII. IMPLICAT IONS OF THE STUDY • 180

Implications for the Institutions Concerned 180 Impli cations for Further Research 182 Impli cations for Classroom Instruction . 184 viii

CHAPTER PAGE

BIBLIOGRAPHY . 185

APPENDIXES . 195

Appendix A . 196 Appendix B . 200

Appendix C . 210

VITA . 218 LIST OF T.OJ!LES

TABLE PAGE

1. Re:>liaious Conflict, Reliqio11S Funr:'are:>ntalisr1, anrl

Anxiety Scores of InterviewPes • 66

2. Relinious Fundar1�ntalisr Scores hy Sc�ool �"d as a Tntal 113

3. Relicious Conflict ScarPs hv School anrl as a Total 116

4 • An xi e tv 5 co re s b y S c 1l o ol il rc as a To t a 1 118

5. Analysis of the Relationshins rrong Fundamantalism, Reliqious Conflict, and �nxiaty hv Schools and as Totals · 121

6. '\ Cor1r2.rison of f7eliniow; FimrlaPPntalisf'l, RPlioio11s Conflict, and �nxi�tv ScorP� for the ThreP Institu tirms: �'h1assep r.olloce, Johnson E'ihle:> Colloc,.,, anrl

IJTK • 122

7 •.A Co r::parison of Hii-IasseP Cnllpne, ,Johnson Rible Co11P.fl0, n a rl IITY. ,,Ji�h Opnarrl tn Delia�n!JS Flln�.:�rrr>n talism, Relioious Conflict, and Anxietv Scores 122

8. Attendance at Sunday �chool and rhurch of Persons Surveverl hy School and as a Total . 126

9. Analysis of the f'P.lationshins ,llporw Attenrlilnc� i'lt Sunday School anrl Church, �eliaious Fundarentalis�. Religious Conflict, and Anxiety Scores hy Schools and as Totals 126

10. Size of Cor:'f'lunity of P.esicence of Persons Surveyed

by Sc�ool and as Totals· • 128

11. Analysis of the Relationshios Ar:'onn Size of Cnr:'mu nity of �esidence, Pelioious Funrlar1Pntalisf'l, R e 1 i 0 i o us Con f 1 i c t , and /\n xi e ty by Schoo 1 s an ci as Totals . 128

12. State of Pesicence of PPrsons Surveyed. hv Sc�ool and as Total-; 129

13. �nalysis of the Delation��ins ��nnn StatA of Resi�ence, RPliaious Fundanent�lism, Ppliainus C0nflict, 2nd Arxiety bv Sc�ools �nd as T� tals 131

ix X

TABLE PAGE

14. Age of Persons Surveyed by School and as Totals • 132

15. Anal ysis of the Relationshins A�on a �aP, Reli gi ous Fundamentalism, Rel igious Confl ict , and Anxi ety n a ot Scores by Schools a d s T al s • 134

16. Re l iqio us Preference of Pe rsons Surveyed �y Sc�on l and as tal a To • 135

17. Analysis of the Relationships Among Rel igious Preference , Religious Fundamentalism, Rel igious

Conflict , and Anxiety by Schools and as Totals • 135

18. Protestant Denominational Preference of Persons

Surveyed School an� as • by a Total • 137

19. Analysis of the Relationships ��ong Protestant De nor::inational Preferrnce, Reli9ious Fundamentalism, Reli9inus Conflict, and Anxiety by Schools and as T al s ot • 138

20. Socio-Economic Status tv School and as Totals • • 140

21 . Anal ysis of the Relationshins ��onq Socio-Economic Status, Peli0ious Fun�amentalis�. Reliaious Conflict, and nxie y by c ools and as a Total A t S h • 141

22. Sex of Persons Surveyed hy School and as a Total • • 143

23. Analys i s o� the Rcl ationshins A�ono Sex of Persons Surveyed , Religious Funda�entalisr., P.�l iai ous n as C0nfl ict, and Anxiety hy School a d Totals • 143

24. Analysis of the Relationships Amono S tu d ent Grade Point Avera�e. Reliaious Funda�pntal is� . Religious Conflict, and Anxiety of Persons Surveyed at

l�ilo.'as see Co 11eoe • 144

Size of hur by as Total 25 . C c h Attended School and s • 146

26 . Analys i s of the Relati onships Amonq Size of Church At tended , Rel iaious Fundamentalism, Relinious Conflict, and fnxiety Schools and as tot als by • 148

Interviewed hy S ol 27. Consent to be cho and as Totals • 148

28. Analy sis of the Relati onships Amana Reli0ious FundamentalisfT', Reliqious r:onflict , Anxiety, anri Consent to be Interviewed by Schools and as Totals • 149 xi

TABLE PAGE

29 . Correlations Among the Religious Fundamentalism Scores, Reliqious Conflict Scores, and Anxiety .- .. 151 Scores of the Persons Surveyed •

30. Analysis of the Relationshio of the Variables Attendance at Church and Sunday School , Consent to be Intervie\

Colle9e, and The University of Tennessee, Knoxville • . . 152

31 . Analysis of the Relationshio of the Variahles Attendance at Church and Sunday School, Consent to he Interviewed, Religious Preference, Denominational Preference, Age, State of Resi�ence, Size of Community of kesidence, Socio-Economic Status, Sex, to the Hypothesized Relationships Among Relioious Fundamentalism and Anxiety at Hiwassee Colleqe, Johnson Bible College, and The University

of Tennessee, Knoxvi 11e • • 153

32. Analysis of t�e Relationship of the Variables Attendance at Church and Sunday School, Consent to be Intervie\<�ed, Religious Preference, DenoMinational Preference, Aqe, State of Residence, Size of Community of Residence, Socio-Economic Status, Sex, to the Hypothesized Pelationshios Amonq Relioious Conflict and Anxietv at Hiwassee Colleoe, · Johnson Bible Colleqe, and The University of

Tennessee, Knoxville • • 154

33. Sumary Table of Relationships Amonq the Ma,ior and Minor Variahles: Reli0ious Funnamentalism, Religious Conflict, Anxiety, Consent to be Interviewed, Religious Preference, Denominational Preference, ft.ge, State of Residence, Size of Co�unity, Socio-Economic Status, Sex, Attendance at Church and Sunday School, Size of

• • Church, Grade Point Average ( Hiwassee College) • 173 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The ini tial experiences of col lege can have profound effects upon the entire col legiate experi ence and ensui ng life of the student.

Sanford's discussion of the massive research and accumulated data on the enteri ng col lege student, which descri be what he is like at the time of enrol lment and discuss the various factors which bear heavily upon him duri ng the first months of col l ege, are evidence of the importance which researchers place upon these early col lege experi ences.l

This investi gation deal s wi th the effects of religious confl ict and anxiety which ari se when the beginning col lege student's rel igiously fundamental ist beliefs are chal l enged by academic endeavors and \>lith the adjustment res ponse \'.Jhich the student makes to the confl ict. A major focus of the study wi ll be the differences among three higher educational institutions with regard to the variables: religious confl ict, anxiety, and rel igious fundamental ism. The educational philosophy of a particular institution as refl ected in its various programs of study and campus acti vities, is a signifi cant factor in the \'!hole education process . Research has concluded that

1Nevitt Sanford, "Higher Education as a Field of Study," The Ameri can Col l ege, ed. Nevi tt Sanford (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. , 1967), p. 42 ff. 2 the cl assroom , 2 the campus atmosphere , 3 and even al umn i 4 serve as vehicles whereby the Philosophy of the col l ege or university re aches the student as l"iel l as the type of infl uence each exerts upon him.

Need fo r the Study

Elmer To�>ms re fers to the explosive 9r01•1th of rel igi ous fundamental ism in the last b1enty years . "There \'!ere those," rema rks

Towns, "who a few years ago predicted its demi se in an increasingly enl i ghtened Ameri ca ."5 Instead , \'lhi le mai nline denominations continue to decl ine in membership, fundamental ist churches grow very rapi dly.

Tovms cites as evidence of this rapid growth that "most of the 100

6 largest Sunday School s in the Uni ted States are fundamental ist.11

The increased popul ari ty of fundamental ist bel ief means an increased number of such persons in the general popul ace. Thi s bears directly upon higher education as increased numbers of students who accept

2valda Robinson , "The Cl imate of Learning : Histori cal Perspecti ves and Impl ications fo r the Learner," The Younq Adul t, eds. Gerald Winter and E. M. Nuss ( Glenvi ew, Il l inoi s: Scott, Foresman and Co ., 1969), p. 304.

3c. Robert Pace , "Eval uating the Total Climate or Profi le of a Campus ," The Ameri can Col l ege, ed . Nevi tt Sanford ( New York : John l�Ji ley and Sons , Inc. , 19 7), p. 171.

4r·1ervi n B. Freedman , "Studies of Colleqe Alumni," The - Ameri can Col lege , ed. Nevi tt Sanford ( New York : John l•Ji ley and Sons , Ire., 1967), p. 857.

5El me r L.- Tmms, 11Trenrls fl.mong Fundamenta 1 i sts," Chri stianity Today, 17 ( July 6 , 1973) , pp . 12-14.

6Towns , pp . 12-14. 3 fundamentalist tenets are fo und on today's col l ege and univers ity campuses. Consequently, there is a need to ga in a clearer understandi ng of the situation fa ced by the religiously fundamentalist student in higher educational insti tuti ons , both secul ar and rel igious, and to exami ne the infl uence of the col l ege experi ence upon such a student.

This research rroject is related to a practical prohl em fo und on the campuses of The Uni ve rsity of Tennessee , Knoxvi lle ( UTK ) and Hiwassee Col lege . Dr.'s David Dungan and Lee Humphreys , both of whom teach in the Rel igious Studies Department, UTK, and Ka rl Jos t, who teaches in the Curri cul um and Instruction Department , College of

Education , UTK , have commented to this researcher on the relig ious confl ict and mental angui sh which seemingly reli�ious fundamental ist students experience as res ul t of their academi c endea�ors . For example, on his fi nal test in a religious studies course , one student commented to Dr. Humphreys , ''Th is is what yo u want as an answer to the question but

I \1/ant you to know that I don 't bel i eve it." In a convers ation wi th this researcher Dr. Humphreys ooi nted to the quandry in which the concerned teacher so often finds himsel f: the teacher, as a resul t of years of study and research , has discovered much about a particular subject and fe el s compel led to share this information \'lith his students , yet at the same time aware that to do so might possibly upset the stu dent , perhaps causing him to close his mi nd completely to any further discussion of the subject matter.

The matter has been of such great conce rn to Dr. Davi d Dungan that he has done considerahl e research in an effort to fi nd a teaching method that can be used in presenting sensitive and controve rs ial 4 material and ideas to his students. nn one occasion Dr. Dungan preoared and presented to the /\merican Academy of Relinion a paper entitled "The

Conflict of Styles in American 8iblical Interpretation" which dealt with this problem. In conversation with this writer, Dr. Karl Jest has often referred to the religious conflict and anxiety which the seemingly religious fundamentalist student encounters in his classes.

This investigator is a teacher of religious studies at

Hiwassee College, an institution owned and operated by the United

Methodist Church. Many of the students who attend Hiwassee College display what might be classified as religiously fundamentalist beliefs.

A 1 most every quarter there are those students \'lho reoort to this researcher religious conflict and anxiety stemming from certain of their acad�mic studies. Some of these troubled students will come by the office to discuss their difficulties and work their way through them while others will not do so.

In the summer of 1 977 this researcher made a careful study of the many religious groups and organizations v1orking with students on and near the UTK campus. One of the reasons most often given by group sponsors for the existence of the various religious groups was to help the students cope with tensions emanating from the university atmosphere, particularly the classroom. The aspect of the university atmosphere mentioned most often as exerting .,..Jhat they felt was an unhealthy influence upon the student was its questioning of religious viewpoints and at tjmes an antagonistic attitude toward traditional ethical positions. Interviews with adult sponsors and group leaders 5 revealed strongly held fears for all students moving into the university community for the first time hut especially for those \'tho from their descriptions would he classed religious fundamentalists, that they would experience bewilderment, confusion, and perhaos even worse. One adult worker related that it was a standard practice of his to register for one course per quarter, usually in Religious

Studies, Sociology, or Psychology, and in that class to serve as an apologist for traditionnl values and morals. If the instructor openly challenged the commonly perceived explanation, solution, or approach to a problem, or presented only one side of an issue then the adult worker attempted to balance the discussion by calling attention to the 11Dther wayll of looking at the problem or issue so as to lessen the possibility of religious conflict and the potential ill effects of tension and anxiety for the student.

Several scholars have indicated the need for research studies dealing vlith student tension and anxiety arisinq from the college experience where they face, perhaps for the first time, facts, ideas, and belief systems which are in conflict with their own. After a thorough review of the literature pertaining to ''Personality Changes in College Students, 11 V!ebster, Freedman, and Heist remark:

...we need to know more about the liberalization that usually takes place in students during college, but that varies in meaning with variations in social climate. The same can be recommended for changes in religious values, which seem to occur universally, hut which are 9t best poorly understood in varying cultural climates.

7 Harol d V.lebster, t�ervin Freedman, Paul Heist, 11Persona 1 ity Changes in College Students/ The American Colleqe, ed. Nevitt Sanford (New York: John Wiley and Sons, l967), p. 841. Hereafter cited as "Personality��. 6

Al though Sanford asserts that the "rleve1orf!1enta1 status of the freshfllan" in col lege is such that in order fo r gr01·1th and devel op ment to take pl ace the student "must subject hims el f to testi ng , must have the exoeri ences that he has been aporoaching wi th trepi dation , must knm'>' fa ilure and frustration ," he is careful to caution that a real danger ari ses v1hen the ch(l1 1 enqe is too strong , "the strains are too intense ," and the tension is too great; and instead of deserti ng an infanti le, outmoded way of thinkinq and advancing the indi vidual become s ego-defensive.8 Likevdse, v.rhile buth Katz and Sanfo rd recog- ni ze the need fo r a re-exami nation of the "cognitive structures--the conceptions of oneself and the worl d, the ethical principl es--wi th which the student enters col 1e0e," they suggest that there be re search leading to an unders tandi ng of the tension and mental anguish wh ich often accompany such intel l ectual questioning of deep-seated bel i efs and ideologi es and which may be counte r-producti ve . 9

In "Cri ses in �lorma l Personal ity De vel opment" P.1 1port di scusses the role and oppo rtunity of the quidance offi cer in assisting students , col l ege freshmen and sophomores mainly, who face "crisis" situations in their lives . The main crisis areas mentioned are 1ntel- lectual , inferi ori ty compl ex , rel igious cri ses , sex, and fami ly. The

8Nevi tt Sanford, "Devel oornental Status of the Er.te ri ng Fresh man ," The .Ameri can Col leoe, ed. Nevi tt Sanford ( Ne\

"crisis" produces anxiety \•lhich in turn ushers in "apathy and a

10 paralys is of vlill . " "The Freudian theory is the one usual ly fo llowed

in expl aining these dis turbances but thi s is adequate in only about ten

11 per cent of the cases," asserts Al lport . "Personal ity theory for teaching needs ...to be wo ven of less luri d fahri cs than

Oedipal complex, character di sorder, identity diffus ion , acting out , and

12 maybe an array of dimensions drawn fror:1 the �·1t1PI ," says All port . The

\'tri ter concludes wi th a plan fo r a theory of personal ity that takes into account cri ses and anguish and disturbance and sees them as important

13 and a defi nite part of indi vidual devel opment.

Doro thy Rogers , in an introduction to a series of arti cles on the val ues and rel igion of youth , says that "many questi ons remain to be answered regarding youths ' val ues . and equal ly confusing is the

L picture of youths ' rel igious bel i efs and practi ces ."l '- Roge rs continues by sayi ng :

Many questi ons and littl e re levant research exi st regarding youths' re ligi ous views . How does religion function in par ti cul ar areas of thei r lives? To what extent wi ll their current

l O G . H. Al lport , "Cri ses in Normal Personal ity Devel opment," The Younq Adul t, ed. G. 0. Winter, E. M. Nuss ( Glenview, Ill ino is: Scott, Fore sman and Co ., 1 969) , po. 295-303. 11 Al lport , p. 302 .

12Al l port , p. 302 .

13Al l port , p. 303.

1 4oorothy Rogers , "Youths' Val ues and Religi on ," Issues in Adol escent Psychol oay, 3rd ed., ed. Dorothy Poqers ( Engl ewood Cl iffs , New Jersey : Prenti ce-Hal l , Inc., 1977) , p. 281 f. 8

vi ews change as they move into adul thood? Are youths provi ded wi th enouoh education ahout vari ous faiths to permi t them to function �ffectively in a rel iqiously pl ural isti c society? How can such education be conrlucted wi thout , at the same time , unconsciously dri fti ng toward indoctri nation? What is the status of the youthful atheist or agnostic?15

By these statements Roqers clearly invites research in the genera l area of

re ligi on and youth .

Operational De finition of Terms

The fo l lowi ng terms are defi ned as they we re used in this study.

Confl i ct. Confl ict is 11 •••the simul taneous arousal of two

or mo re incompatible moti ves , re sul ti ng in unpleasant emotions.11 1 6

Rel iaious confl ict. Rel igi ous confli ct is defined in this

study as the confl ict which ari ses when the rel igious beliefs and

ensui ng way of life which the student has been taught and has practiced

unti l his present invol vement in col l ege studies are chall enged as

res ul t of his academi c endeavors , whether such academi c endeavors are

linked di rectly to the classroom or the general col l ege experience .

Rel iqion. "Rel igion is the unified system of bel i efs and

practices that pertain to sacred thi ngs and that uni te adherents of the

17 of the system into one single moral community. " The conceot of

l5Rogers, o. 281 f.

l6Jerome Kaga n and Ernest Havemann, Psychol ooy: An Introduction U!ev/ York : Ha rcourt , Erace and !,forl d, Inc. , 1968), n. 393 .

17Emi le Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of Rel ioi ous Li fe ( 1912) , trans. Joseph Ward Swain (New York: Free Press, 1965) , p. 47 . 9 rel igion which is si�mi: fi cant fo r the study is one Hhich emphasizes the ro le that re l igion pl ays in the life of the indivi dual as he lives in and interacts with his envi ronment and as he adapts to that envi ronment. The rel igion under consideration in the present study is Christianity. It is not within the range of the study to make pronouncements about the truth or fa l sity of a particul ar re lief or set of bel iefs.

Relioi ous fundamental ism. Rel igious fundamental ism is the name gi ven to a religious vi ewpoint wh ich incl udes the fol lowi ng: absol ute obedi ence to the wo rd of God as that wo rd is fo und in the

Bibl e; an attempt on behalf of the bel ieve r to separate himsel f daily from sin; strong bel ief in church practices which are based on a

1 itera 1 unders tandi nq of the Nel'.f Testament Church; vel''Y 1 ittl e concern fo r "relevance " in the sense of adapti ng one's bel iefs and practices to the present day; evangelical aggressiveness in trying to �'<'i n others to the fundamentalist vievmoint; a deep commi ttment to Bible teaching; an inexorable convi ction that the Chri stian pul pit is God's tool to convince both head and heart to choose Jesus Christ; a Pi ble centered ideol ogy and framevmrk fo r teaching as wel l as preaching; a

greater interest in persuading those who di s agree to accept the · fundamental ist position and join it in faith and practice than in debati ng issues wi th those who hold differi ng ideas and opinions .

Rel igi ous fundamental ist. In this study a religi ous fundamental ist is one who accepts the basic tenets of reli�i ous fundamental ism. 10

Anxi etv. "Anxiety is a re action of tension to threats to the sel fhood of an indi vi dual or the groups to which he bel ongs and fo r

\•lh ich he feel s respons ible. It mani fe sts its�l f at di fferent level s of meanings in terms of the -v.1ay it becomes conscious to him in his"l8 attempts to identi fy and deal v1i th his painful uneasiness of mi nd.

Adjustment. Adjus tment is the overall response which a student make s to the climate whi ch he encounters in a gi ven situation.

In this study particular emphasis is pl aced upon the circumstances which the student encounters in the col l epe classroom and the adj ustment response which he/she ma kes to those circumstances.

Assumotions of the Study

The fol l owing assumptions we re basic to this study.

1. Re ligious fundamental ist students are to be found in a vari ety cf col l eges and uni versiti es: publ ic, pri vate , and church owned and operated.

2. Rel igious fundamentalism, re l igious confl ict , and anxiety are characteri stics which can be measured by standardized tests.

3. Subjects did not vary or distort their usual ideas , bel iefs , or experi ences fo r purposes of the tests.

4. Subjects • accounts of th2i r rel igious confl ict and

18wayne Oates , Anxiety in Chri sti an Exoerience ( Philadelphia: The Wes tmi nster Press, 1955) , p. 9 f. 11 anxiety and the effects of such upon the person v1ere re counted honestly for the purposes of the intervi ews .

Questions

Six questions vtere formulated in connection wi th thi s study.

1. Do reli�ious fundamental ist students experience religious confl ict when enrol led in those col l eges and univ�rsities which are pri vate or denomi national ly owned as wel l as in institutions which are publ ic owned?

2. Are the vari abl es rel igious fundamentalism, re ligious confl ict, and anxiety siqnifi cantly related to each other?

3. If the answer to question 2 is yes , what is the pattern of relationship?

4. Do students other than those categorized as re ligious fundamental i sts experi ence rel i�ious confl ict and anxiety?

5. Are there signi fi cant diffe rences between The Un iversity of Tennessee , Knoxvi lle, Hiwassee Col lege , and Johnson Bible Col lege as regards rel i�ious fundamental ism, religious confl ict, and anxiety?

6. Are the rel i gious confl ict and anxiety as we ll as the adaptation res ponse wh ich the student makes to these experi ences unique to the indivi dual , or are they Much the same for all persons who are thus disoosed?

Deli mi tations of the Study

The extensive phase of the study was limited to freshman students at UTK , Johnson Ri bl e Col lege , and Hiwassee Col lege . The interview phase of the study was limi ted to those persons who earned 12 high scores on the tests me asuring the major vari abl es : rel inious fundamentalism, religi ous confl ict, and anxi ety.

In liqht of the diffi cul ties invol ved in doinq otherwi se , the apol ication of the findinos is necessari ly limi te� to �iwassee

Col l ege, Johnson Bi bl e Col l eqe, and the under�raduate popul ation at lJTK. CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

There is no singl e body of material to which one can turn to ga in a thorough grasp of the unique problems faced by the rel igiously fundamental ist student enrolled in higher educational insti tations. Researth studies in this area have been limited, for the most part, to attempts to show that chal l enge and confl ict are necessary parts of the education process, to quanti tative analyses of vari ous kinds of personal-environmental data related to attempts to identi fy the kinds of changes which occur in col l ege students generally, and to the different factors which contri bute to these changes. The experiential aspects of these changes, however, have been largely overlookedo Al though concern for the difficulties faced by the rel igiously fundamental ist student in hi gher educational institutions has been manifested , there has been little research and investi gation wi th the rel igiously fundamental ist student specifically in mind.

There does exist a rather diverse body of literature which con tributes positively to a general understanding of rel igious confl ict, and one study which attempts to relate the variables 11 rel igious confl ict� manifest anxiety, and rel igious orthodoxy . 11 1 The great bul k of this in formation is not directed toward understanding the diffi culties faced by the rel igiously fundamentalist student seriously engaged in academic en deavors; yet, it suppl ies insights into the general situation of the college

l Ruth Funk, 11A Survey of Attitudes Toward Religion and Phil oso phy,11 Scales for the Measurement of Attitudes , ed. Marvin E. Shaw and Jack M. Wright (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1967), p.345. Hereafter cited as 11 Survey. 11 13 14 s tudent and may help explain the specific situation of the rel igiously fundamen talist student as well as serve as a starting point for a more

careful and detail ed analysis of what appears to be a rather unique circumstance.

Joseph Havens calls the reader•s attention to the massive re-

search that has gone on in higher education over the last fifty years.

There are now two major centers for resea rch--the Center for the Study of

Higher Education at the University of California at Berkl ey and a simi

lar institute at the University of Mic higan--in addition to a number of other departments of psychology or sociology engaged in research.2 How-

ever, continues Havens, 11implicit or explicit in the experimental design of nearly all the studies are some educational goal s.113 The most common involve a more adequate understanding of academic achievement or success, of creativity in individual students, and of the maturing personality.

11What is striking is the relative absence of explicit focus on religious experience and religious development,.. asserts Havens.4 Havens continues

by saying that some of these studies do provide interesting data on re

ligion but these data are mostly incidental to the central questions of

the studies. In the literature reviewed there is only an occasional ref-

erence to the religious confl ict or crisis which the student experiences

2Joseph Havens., 11The Changing Cl imate of Research on the Col l ege Student and His Rel igion,.. Journal for the Scientific Stody of Rel igion, ( Fa 11 , 1963 ), p. 56. Hereafter cited as trC hanging.11 .

3Havens, 11Changing,11 p. 5n.

4Havens' 11Changing' II p. 56. 15 and even then littl e attempt is made to understand the confl ict or crisis itsel f.5

Deutsch poi nts to the positive value of confl ict:

Confl ict is potential ly of personal and social val ue. Confl ict is a pervasive and inevi tabl e aspect of life. Its pervasiveness suggests that confl ict is not necessarily destructive or lacki ng in pleasure. Confl ict prevents staqnation , it stimulates interest and curiosity, it is the medium through which pro bl ems can be aired and solutions arrived at; it is the root of per sonal and social chRnge. · Moreover, confl ict is often part of the process of testing and assessing oneself and , as such, may be highly enjoyabl e as one experiences the pl easure of the full and active use of one's capacities.6

Meyer investigated the impact of col l ege envi ronment (defined as "more general than peer, cultural , or facul ty infl uences") by noting the "progressive structural cognitive growth11 as set forth in the "intel lectual and ethical development scheme of William Perry (1968, 1970) ."7

A mul tipl e approach was used, ·Jne assessment approac h being participation

"in a one hour structured interview in which four rel igious confl icts were the foci for a series of questions and probeso ug Results of the ·

5Havens, "Changing,.. P� 56. For a discussion of the changes in rel igious bel iefs which are characteristic of the adolescent years the reader is referred to Eli zabeth Hurl ock� Adol escent: oevelo�ment, 4th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company , 1973) , chapter l l an especial ly to the very extensive bi bl i ography (134 listings) on pp. 388-391 . A great deal of research has been done in this area. This line of investi gation , while interesting and very informative, does not lie wi thin the purview of the present study.

6Morton Deutsch, "Confl ict and Its Resolution ," Confl ict Res olution : Contri butions of the Behavioral Sciences , ed. Cl agett G. Smith (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1971 ), pp. 36-7.

7Pierre Gi bbs Meyer, "Intel l ectual Development of College Stu dents as Measured by Analysis of Rel igious Content,: Dissertation Ab stracts International , 37 (1977), 7643-A (University of Minnesota) .

8Meyer, p. 7643-A. 16 interviews were rated for the Perry Scheme (1968) positions. "The research appears to support the view that some students do change in measurable wavs as result of their experiences in col lege," asserts Meyer.9 Sanford points to the need for the type of education which pre- cipitates confl ict wi thin the individual , which chall enges the person to new adjustment and new thinking: "The type of education needed (for to day) is for individual development, which is a program consciously under taken to promote an identity based on such qual ities as fl exi bi lity, cre ativity, openness to experience and responsibility.11 10 Sanford continues:

There is a course of development for the human personality from lower to higher level s of devel opment, moving toward compl exity and whol eness. However, personal ity does not just unfold or ma ture according to a plan of nature . Further development wi ll not occur until stimuli arrive to upset the existing equili brium and require fresh adaptation. l l

The freshman, as do all humans, devel ops when he is confronted wi th chal lenges that require new kinds of adaptive responses and when he is freed from the necessity of maintaining unconscious defensive devices. 11These happenings result in the enlargement and further differentiation of the systems of the personal ity and set the stage for integration on higher level s,11 asserts Sanford . l2 11For change to occur,11 says Sanford ,

there must be internal or external stimuli which upset his ex isting equilibrium, which causes instabi lity that exi sting

9 Meyer, p. 7543-A .

lONevitt Sanford , Where Colleges Fail (San Francisco : Jossey Bass, 1967), p. 9. Hereafter cited as Colleges .

llsanford , 110evel opmental , 11 p. 258.

12Sanford , Col leges, p. 51 . 17 modes of adaptation do not suffice to correct, and which thus require the person to make new responses. 13

Liebermann speaks specifical ly wi th regard to chal l enge and confl ict being present in the rel igious education of chil dren. After making a case for teaching and approaching chi l dren so as to arouse them critical ly, Liebermann asks ,

Can everybody go this way? • the answer must be: everybody has the right to be shown the way. It is his choice to pursue it to the end , stop at an intermediate way station , or not embark on it at all. Our concern as educators interested in the welfare of children, which includes their mental and spiritual wel l-being , is to provide the tools and point out avenues toward acheiv ing this goal . 14

Blos and Erikson poi nt to the positive val ue of adolescence as a period of disequilibrium and uncertainty . Blos asserts that

too little attention has been paid to the fact that adol escence, not only in spite of, but rather because of its emotional tur moil, often affords spontaneous recovery from debilitating child hood infl uences, and offers the individual an opportunity to mod ify or rectify childhood exigencies which threatened to impede his progressive devel opment. The regressive processes of ado lescence permi t the remodel ing of defective or incomplete earl ier devel opments. New identifications and counter-identifications play an important part in this. The profound upheaval associated wi th the emotional reorganization of adol escence thus harbors a beneficial potential . 15

Eri kson suggests that adol escence is viewed not as an affl iction, but as a

normative cns1s, i.e. a normal phase of increased confl ict char acterized by a seeming fluctuation in ego strength, and yet also

by a high growth potential •••; what under prejudiced scrutiny

13sanford , Col leges, p. 51 .

14J. N. Liebermann, 11The Rel ationship of Rel igious Observance to Faith: An Attempt at a Devel opmental Interpretation,11 Rel igious Edu cation, 59 (1964), p. 257.

1 5Peter Blos� On Adolescence (New York: The Free Press of Glen coe, 1962), p. 228. 18 may appear to be the onset of a neurosis, often is but an aggra vated crisis which might prove to be self-l iquidating and� in fact, contributive to the process of identity formation. lb

J. Katz , investigating the links between confl ict, growth, and compl iance, fol l owed two groups of students from freshmen through the senior year at the University of Cal ifornia at Berkley and Stanford Uni versity. Analysis of student reports yi el ded the fol lowing: students who report a higher degree of confl ict than their peers seem to indicate that confl ict and devel opment go together. Students who report having experienced a greater degree of confl ict than their peers in col lege also report themselves more frequently as having engaged in creative activi ties , and as having changed more in their personal characteristics, in the freedom to express their feel ings and desires , and in their moral and pol itical views. 17

Bay's statements about the function of bel i efs are instructive in regard to the above:

The bel iefs we develop serve functions that are either ego defen

sive, social or explanatory ••••And it is not a matter of chance to what extent an individual acquires bel i efs that serve one or another of these functions. It depends on the nature and strength of the various anxieties in the individual 's life: he is doomed to have his central bel iefs serve ego-defensive functions at the expense of other functions until the ego anxieties become man agea bl e; at the next step he is doomed to concentrate on social ly instrumental bel iefs until his social or career anxieties are at bay; only from then on, or with what mental energies he has to

16Eri k Eri kson, "The Probl em of Ego Identity,11 Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 4 (1956) , p. 392, quoted in Blos, p. 23 •

17Joseph Katz , "Four Years of Growth, Confl ict, and Compl iance," No Time for Youth: Growth and Com liance in Col le e Students , ed . Joseph Katz and Associates San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc., 1968 , p. 12. 19 spare , can he concentrate on the tasks of making sense of life and his world and pursue intrinsically rewarding chall enges of the mi nd at his lei sure.18

In 1959 and again in 1962 Havens prepared and administered to a sample of students at Carleton Col lege (Mi nnesota ) two forms of an 11 In- ventory on Rel igion11 in an attempt to discover on the basis of research on rel igious confl ict, among other things what percentage of students at

Carl eton experienced confl ict over rel igious matters. 1 9 Havens points to the statement of Webster, Freedman, and Heist that 11rel igious crises , or

disillusionments, with consequent value changes •••ar e actual ly still fairly common in college students today ," but says that this statement is based on studies of decreasing need for rel igious faith.20 Twel ve percent of the Carl eton student population at any given time were experiencing serious confl ict over rel igious pro bl ems. Sixty-seven percent of the freshmen in 1959 and 59% in 1962 experienced small or moderate amounts of rel igi ous confl ict. Juniors and seniors tend to experience confl ict at deeper level s than do freshmen and sophomores. 21

Richard McCann investigated 11the natu re and varieties of re ligious change" in one hundred persons representing all walks of life.22

18Christian Bay, "A Social Theory of Intel l ectual Development,11 The American Col lege , ed. Nevitt Sanford (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. , 1 962) , p. 1002.

l 9James Havens, 11 A Study of Re 1 i g i ous Confl ict in Co 11 ege Stu dents," The Journal of Social Psychol ogy , 64 (1962) , pp. 77-87. Hereafter cited as "Study."

20Webster, _ Freedman, Heist, 11 Personal ity," p. 826.

2 1Havens, "Study," pp. 77, 79, 87.

22R. V. McCann, 11The Nature and Varieties of Rel igious Change," Dissertation Harvard University, 1954. Hereafter cited as 11Nature ." 20 Using the interview method McCann investigated these persons in light of

11the 'Abl e' vs. the 'Good ' orientation.11 23 By 11Abl e11 orientation McCann designates the success-achievement scal e of value about which so much has been said lately. 11Good11 orientation designates the altruistic, ethical ly-sensitive, and benevolent orientation to life. One of McCann 's major fi ndi ngs is the degree of confl ict between the 11Abl e11 orientation taken over from the culture as persons grow to maturity, and the rel igious heritage of the fami ly and the early years, the 11Good.11 The coll ege years are likely to be the time of the most painful encounter between these two orientations. 24

D. Katz and F. H. Al lport, in light of investigations done at

Syracuse University, remark that the majority of their findings show that the effect of coll ege traini ng is 11in the direction not of atheism or agnosticism but of the liberal izing of the older bel iefs , rendering them in the process less crudely anthropomorphic.11 25 Ausubel comments that

11Col lege attendance effects relatively little change in rel igious bel ief, but merely accentuates the developmental changes.11 26 Havens says that the rel igious changes in most students 11Can be accounted for by a

23R. V. McCann, 110evelopmental Factors in the Growth of a Ma- ture Faith,11 Rel igious Education 3 (May-June, 1955), pp. 145-:155. Hereafter cited as 110evel opmental .11

24McCann, 110evelopmental ,11 p. 150.

250. Katz and F. H. Al l port� Students ' Attitudes (Syracuse: Craftsman Press, 1931 ), p. 396.

26oavid P. Ausubel , Theor.Y· ahd · Probl ems of Adolescent : oevelo ment (New York: Greene and Stratton, 1954 , p. 269. 2 i liberal ization of bel ief rather than be a radical devaluation or

rejection of rel igious questions."27 In another context Havens states

"Liberal ization ," "cri ti cal -mindedness," "sophisti cation ," "avant garde," are among the identifyi ng intel l ectual characteri stics of American col lege students and a part of their sel f-identifica tion . To be in step with these social expectati�ns means for many a moving away from the moralism, the pol itical cautiousness and rel igious piety of the ma ss culture . Seen in this light, the loss of orthodoxy is better understood as a rejection of the uncriticized norms of the wider cul ture and an embraci ng of those of the academi c el ite than as a rejection of significant personal rel igion.28

Lehmann speaks of the change as "toward a lessening of stereo

typic bel iefs and prejudiceso"29 P. L Jacob feels that "what real ly happens is not liberal ization but that students are sociali zed into accepting

a particular viewpoint which happens to be tol erance of diversity."30

D. Katz and F. H. Al l �ort state than when the students at Syra-

cuse Un i versity were- asked the question , "What effect have the changes in

rel igious bel i efs since entering coll ege had upon your personal phil oso

phy (i.e., has the student been left whol ly at sea and in a state of per

plexity concerning the meaning of life )," 38% of those responding said the

shift in rel igious views had been accompanied by a fairly satisfactory

27Havens, "Study," p. 87 .

28Havens , "Changing ," p. 57 .

29L J. Lehman, "Changes in Critical Thinking, Attitudes, and Val ues from Freshman to Senior Years," Journal of Educational Psychology , 54 (1963), 309; see also I. J. Lehmann, Birenda K. Sinha, Rodney T. Hart nett , "Changes in Atti tudes and Va 1 ues Associ a ted wi th Cel l ege Attendance," Journal of Educational Psychol ogy , 57 (1968), p. 89. � 30P. E. Ja�ob, Changi n Va lues i n COl l ege (New York: Harper Bros., 1957 ) as quoted in Russel Eisenmann, 11Values and Attitudes in Adolescence,'' Understandin Adol escence:· CUrrent Developments , ed. J. F. Adams , 2nd ed. Boston: Al lyn and Bacon , 1973 , p. 192. 22

philosophy of life , 24% fel t that the phil osophy they had been able to

acquire since changing their rel igious views had met all thei r needs , 17%

felt the change had answered only a limi ted number of questions and had

left them troubl ed about many important things, while 7% �xpressed a

feel ing approaching complete despair.31 Katz and Al l port continue,

Grouping together the last two categories , we find that about one fourth of the students responding to the item fel t that the prob lems of readjustment required by their change of rel igious bel iefs

had been •••a rather baffl ing one •••• On the whol e, there fore, it cannot be said that changes of rel igious convictions during coll ege life, as exempl ified at Syracuse University in 1926, have tended to set students at sea or overwhelm them with anxi ety concerning the value and meaning of life. There seems , instead , to be ground for bel ieving that the progress which the students are making is made in the light of a hel pful understand ing.32

Changing rel igious ideas are rel ated to personal ity shifts oc curring during the coll ege years. From his study of rel igious confl ict

in col l ege students Havens found that "juniors and seniors tend to experience confl ict at deeper level s (behavioral and self-image level ) than do freshmen and sophomores,"33 Havens says that "there are apparently four

interrelated factors at work here" :

the first is that the impl ications of "the life of the mind, .. espe cially the critical-rational ist attitude, become apparent to the student only gradual ly; and even more gradually do serious doubts about one's core rel igious bel i efs fil ter down to the deeper lev

el s of the person; •••usual ly it is the junior and senior years that the coll ege norms decisively take over from parental , home town , high-school peer-group determi nants. The third factor has to do with the attitudinal change as the end of the coll ege ap proaches ; seniors become suddenly sober, and seem less pl ayfully intel l ectual than before. As the student faces exi stential choice

3 1o. Katz and F. H. Al lport , p. 315 f.

32o. Katz and F. H. Al lport, p. 31 5.

33Havens , 11Study," p. 8L 23 and responsibility in vocation and marriage partner he may be come less purely speculative in his rel igious thinking and try seriously to find some sol id standing ground for the life-in

earnest toward which he moves. • • • A fourth factor, is the tendency for juniors and seniors to try to tie together, or to bring into unity, their many faceted lives (again partly a re sult of the demand for consi stency and rational ity in the in tel l ectual enterprises). 34

In another place Havens rel ates the experiencing of rel igious probl ems by coll ege juniors and seniors at deeper level s than the fresh men and sophomores, to the more general personal ity shifts of the adoles cent.35 Reference is made to Nevitt Sanford 's description of the col l ege freshman's psychological situation , characterized as it is by a 11pattern in which strong impulses are directly opposed by an alert, rigid, and punitive conscience,11 which results in a certain amount of conventionali- ty , intol erance of ambiguity, and repression of impulses and thoughts that are not consi stent wi th the individual 's existing attitudes. Sanford continues his description:

The values of the entering freshmen are supported, typical ly by his family and home community; he is dependent upon this support, but, at least in the very beginning of the col l ege career, the support is adequate enough so that the freshman is able to pre sent a picture of organizati on and self-conta inment. 36

Pikunas is in agreement with the aforementioned idea of Havens but goes further to add that since most young persons are not exposed to any com- prehensive moral or rel igious guidance 11Commensurate wi th their ri sing

34Havens, 11Study,11 pp. 84-5.

35Havens, 11Changing, p. 61 .

36sanford , 11Developmental ,11 p. 256. 24 level of feel ing and understanding, cri ses occur and often lead to de nial of fai th." 39

Uti lizing three survey instruments .de Boer investigated 340 co 11ege and semi nary students at an evangel i ca 1, church-related co 11ege on the topic, "Do values determine certain kinds of behavior and can we develop certain kinds of val ues when they are hel pful for a particular kind of performance."40 The data indicate that values do infl uence kinds of behavior and that choices do infl uence values . De Boer says that

The strong emphasis on academic excel lance by the coll ege caused students to slightly prefer Competence Values as they passed

through col l ege� • o o As students become more committed to the ministry they preferred Social -Moral Values more. But as they progressed through col lege, they did not progress in preferring the Social-Moral Values even in the strongly conservative, evan gel ical col l ege. 41

A very interesting and provocative statement by de Boer has to do wi th the ability of an educational institution to alter the val ues of a person enrol led at that particular institution. Evidence seems to "indicate that perhaps values are not easily changed by the col lege unless they fit into the student's previous val ue system." Thus it is not that the "col l ege changes the val ues -of the student so much as it strengthens val ues to which he is al ready commi tted."42

39Justin Pikunas, Human Development: An Emer ent Science , 3rd ed . (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company , 1976 , p. 273; see a so Seth Arseni an, "Changes in Eva 1 uati ve Attitudes During Four Years of Co11 ege ," Journal of Appl i ed Psychology , 27 (1943), pp. 338-349.

40Lester de Boer, "Social ization of Student Values in a Church Related Col lege," Dissertation Abstracts International 36 (1975) , p. 1502- B (Michigan University) .

4 1de Boer, p. 1502-B. 25

Havens queries, "When the student experiences rel igious confl ict what clashes wi th what wi thin the psyche?"43 The confl ict is between

feel ings or intuition on the one side, (the roots of which are child hood background and loyal ties) and the dictates of reason on the other side (the demand for logical consistency by col lege teachers or argumentative confreres, the social norm of independence of au thority , the general mood of skepticism, analysis or "pl aying it cool ," and the pressures of time and an exhausting round of activi ties which literal ly fo rce many students to abandon attempts to reconcile the past wi th the present, or to satisfy their rel igious need with a fruitful intel l ectual search). What is clearly evident is that the col l ege envi ronment by its very proper demands on students--rati onally, independence from authority, refraining from premature commi ttment--tends to nurture a split between the student's rootage in the past and that attitudes , values and be haviors of the col lege peri od.44

The research of McCann and Osgood , et al ., may be cited in support of the aforementioned statement by Havens. McCann, in an investigation mentioned earl ier in this study , through the use of what he calls the

"Abl e" vs . "Good11 ori entation found a high degree of confl ict between the orientation taken over from the cul ture as persons grow to maturity (11Abl e11 ) and the rel igious heritage of the fami ly and the early years "(Good").45

Osgood , et al ., using the Semantic Differential wi th Stanford students made similar discoveries to those of McCann: "the remarkabl e supremacy of the able ori entation and , correl atively, of a denigrating reaction ot tra diti onal rel igious ways.1146 Havens says of the Osgood, et al ., study .

43Havens, "Changing, 11 p. 59.

44Havens, "Changing,11 p. 59.

45McCann, 11Developmental ,11 pp. 154-5.

46c. E. Osgood , E. E. Ware, C. Morri s, "Analysis of the Conno tative Meanings of a Variety of Human Values as Expressed by American Col lege Students," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 62 (1961 ), p. 60a. 26

Al though Osgood 's instrument is not desi gned to bring out con fl i cts in values , we can assume that in so far as a student's early training and experience has led to a lively sense of transcendent real ity or cosmic purpose or to an ethic of benev olent sel f-giving , to this extent is genuine confl ict in the university situation likely to ensue.4 7

Earl ier in this chapter reference was made to the study con ducted by James Havens at Carleton Col l ege (Mi nnesota).48 A further signifi cant finding coming out of that study was the identifi cation of four types of rel igious confl icts among students : the confl ict between rea son or logical thought and feel ings or intuition, the desire or longing for a satisfying set of rel igious bel iefs , or for a meaningfu l faith, the confl ict between the truth one inwardly bel ieves or has thought out for himsel f� and his outward behavior, uncomfortabl eness based mostl y on an ticipation of difficul ties or confl icts which may arise in the future. 49

Havens conducted a "longitudinal investigation of the course of rel igious confl ict through the undergraduate years" with the purpose of

"establ ishing categories of confl ict resolution," as well as showing how a ''cl inician may facilitate 'creative' or 'sel f-actual izing' outcomes of rel igious confl ict." 50 Four types of outcome of rel igious confl ict emerged from his study of thirty-two cases : 1. loss of ultimate concern (defensive rejection of rel igious concern and developmental rejection of ultimate concern ) in which the student seems to lose interest in rel igious or personal

47Havens, "Changing," p. 60.

48Havens, "Study," pp. 83-4 .

49Havens, "Study," pp. 83-4 .

50James Havens, "The Course of Col l ege Rel igious Confl ict,'' Re ligious Education, 65 (May-June , 1970) , p. 257. Hereafter cited as "Course." 27 phil osophical questions or their activities, and their place is taken by more immediate, less ul timate concerns such as academic achievement, personal rel ationships, aesthetic or scientific interests, or extra-curricular activities; 2. 11Short-circuiting,11 where the student usual ly unconsciously, appropriates rel igious bel iefs or practices in the service of other needs ; rel igion becomes a vehicle in the handl ing and perhaps the resolving of confl ict; 3. intel l ectual resolution--the key to this category is a high disengagement factor. The student seeks rational answers to questions wh ich are more theoretical than existential ; he seeks and enjoys rel igious thought and perhaps activity but it is not crucial to him and seldom af fects his life in fundamental ways ; 4� broad integrative restructuring- the distinquishi ng characteristic of this category is the close rel ation of rel igious thinking and practice to the rest of �he personal ity and be havior.51

Pil kington, Poppl eton, and Robertshaw investigated changes in rel igious attitudes and practices among students in a longitudinal study involving 106 students at the University of Sheffield, England , and discovered that women university students 11moved away from rel igion more than the men students.11 52 Lehmann made a similar discovery. He found that both males and females became less tradition-value ori ented from their freshman to senior years , less absolute in their moral , rel igious,

51Havens, 11Course,11 p. 257.

52G. W. Pilkington , P. K. Poppleton, J. Robertshaw, 11Changes in Religious Attitudes and Practices Among Students During University Degree Courses ,11 British Journal of Educational Psychol ogy , 35 (1965) , p. 157. 28 and ethical bel iefs, had less regard for the 11Protestant Ethic of Puri tan moral ity11 but females we re more suscepti ble to change then mal es . 53

In 1972 Pilkington, Poppl eton , Gould, and McCourt repl icated

Poppl eton and Pilkington 's 1961 study of the rel igious bel iefs , practices , and attitudes of university students. 54 Comparison of the 1961 and 1972 findings reveal s 11a massive and statistical ly significant movement away from rel igion on the part of al l students.11 55 The erosion of rel igious bel ief and practice over the eleven years was less serious among devout students than among those less committed to rel igion.56 110ne of the most robust empirical general izations': to emerge from the study by psychology of rel igious behavior is that 11Women are more rel igious than men in all criteria. This holds for modern university women. '' 57 .This same study al so revealed that women students during their years at university move away from rel igion more than men so that by the third year there are few significant sex differences : "In the period between 1961 and 1972 it is the women students who have forsaken rel igion more than the men."58

53Lehmann, p. 311 ; see al so Lehmann, Sinha , Hartnett, p. 93.

54G. W. Pil kington, P. K. Poppl eton , J. B. Gould, M. M. McCourt, 11Changes in Rel igious Bel iefs , Practices and Attitudes Among University Students Over an El even-Year Period in Rel ation to Sex , Denominational Differences , and Differences Between Faculties and Years of Study," British Journal of Social and Cl inical Psychology, 15 (l) (1976) , pp. l-9.

55Pilkington, Poppl eton , Gould, McCourt , p. l.

56p il kington, Poppleton, Gould, McCourt , p. 4.

57pil k i ngt.on, Poppl eton, Gould, McCourt, p. 6.

58pi1 kington, Poppl eton, Gould, McCourt, p. 6. 29 Beit-Hallahmi administered the Mooney Probl em Check List to 583 students at Michigan State University in 1967-68 and found "rel igious concerns" of importance to the students, but not of "major importance nor or marginal importance."59 At least 25% of respondents checked 5 of 17 rel igious items on the scale and these 5 items dealt wi th the "bel ief crisis students are going through. " They re fl ected confusion over changes involved in the "loss of faith." The students did not perceive the loss of faith as related to the breaking away from the fami ly or to the secu- larizing infl uence of science. Females expressed greater concern over the nloss of faith" than males. "This is in accordance with the almost universal finding of greater rel igiosity in women," remarked Beit-Hal lahmi . 60

Several studies have poi nted up the crucial rol e played by tbe teacher and teaching in certain courses in the changes that were experienced by the col lege students . In the study conducted by J. Katz noted earlier, when the students were asked , "What do you think contri buted most to the changes which you underwent in col l ege?•• between l/4 and 1/5 singled out course wo rk and professors as an important source of change.61

In the study done by K. Katz at Syracuse Uni versity, students who regis- · tered changes in rel igious convictions were asked the additional question,

"What influence or infl uences have produced these changes?" By far the outstanding influence which, in the students• opinion , was accountable for thei r change was "teaching in certain courses." Seventy-two percent

59Benjami n. Beit-Hal lahmi , . "Sel f-reported Rel igious Concerns of University Underc 1 as smen ," Ado 1 escence, 35 (Fa 11 , 1 97 4) , pp. 333-337.

60seit-Hall ahmi , p. 335.

61J. Katz, p. 13. 30 of the students answering the item checked this position. 11Personal in fl uence of professors in courses was · checked by 21% of those answering.11 62

Arsenian, in a "study undertaken •••to observe in some detail factors rel ated to changes in student attitudes toward rel igion ,11 asked of those participating, "In looking over your total experience for the past four years what factors in and outside col l ege have infl uenced your attitude toward rel igion?11 Professors and courses ranked in first position. 53

In the Pilkington, Poppleton, and Robertshaw study noted earl ier, the 106 students at University of Sheffiel d, England, who declined or in creased in rel igious activity, were asked to list the factors that brought about the change. The effect of subject of study was mentioned by none of those who had increased their scale scores , whereas it was thought to be a major infl uence by over l/2 of those who had decreased their scale scores. The subject of study mentioned as exerting the greatest infl uence wa s always rel ated to science.64

Strommen and McCann poi nt to the importance of the relationship between teacher and student in effecting change in bel ief. Strommen says that "it is not technique that counts for effective teaching but the qual i- ties of warmth, empathy , and genui neness. The model of teaching is one of mutual exchange.11 65 McCann, discussing the process of rethinking

62o . Katz, pp. 31 2-3.

63Arsenian , . p. 344 .

64Pilkington, Poppl eton, Robertshaw, p. 154 ff.

65M. P. Strommen, "Al ienati on, Gratification , and Disenchantment," Religious Education, 64 (1969), p. 363. 31 rel igious ideas as one gets older, says , 11the rigidity, the inel astic and unyielding nature of such imagery (concrete , pictorial idea of God ) is often due to the nature of the rel ationships with those who present it or who represent it--parents, teachers , clergy . 11 McCann continues,

As we real ize more and more cl early the importance of the qual i ties of the rel ationship in the process of education and social i zati on, we may be in a better position, as the individual pushes on towards maturity and consi stency , to hel p him change the idea of God without wea kening or destroyi ng it, to refashion the con tainer without losing the contents. 66

The investigation and fi ndings of McCann relative to the probl ems encountered by rel igiously fundamental ist persons who find themselves con fronted by chal l enges to growth and change in bel ief are of such signifi cance and importance to the present study as to demand careful and extensive consideration. As mentioned previously, McCann's study is an investigation of the rel igiousness of the individual using the interview method.

Two hundred persons from al l wal ks of life participated in the interviews. 67

Bel ieving that the nature of the relationship between the individual and the person(s) who present rel igious ideas to the person is crucial , McCann exami ned careful ly the history of a sub-group of agnostic subjects who came from Protestant fundamental ist backgrounds. Ninety percent of them experi - enced environments or rel ationships , particularly with parents , which lacked supportive, integrating val ues for devel opment, or which were rigid and absolutist. McCann asserts

We can say that among persons from fundamentalist Protestant back grounds, we can observe indications of a direct rel ationship

66McCann, 110evelopmental ,11 pp. 154-5.

67McCann, 110evel opmental ,'' pp. 154-5. 32

betv1een the nature of early fami ly atmosphere and characteristi cs- deprived or non-deprived, happy or unhappy, riqid or permissive- and the direction, amount, and kind of change in theistic bel ief. In fundamentalist Protestant homes , if the early environment is basically unhappy or othervli se traumatic--where there is . . deprivation of love, of support; or ri gid rel ationships and hence ri gid transmission of inelastic, external i zed values--the seed for future agnosticism may have been sown . Under such circum stances, future rel igious devel opment may be bl ocked and the transmitted val ues may at some time have to be rejected when they cannot be transformed and rei nterpreted , in order to make way for consistency.

In a fundamental ist church or community, the content of rel i gion transmitted from generation to generation consists almost exclusively of supernatural and creedal concepts. The trans mission of rel igious val ues through such a closed community may cause one whole area of transmitted sentiments to be out of syn chronization with other senti ments "caught" or transmitted from the wider community. The individual is caught in the disequili brium caused by this cultural lag, and tries to restore balance and consistency. The very imbalance can in itself be a spiri tual ly dynamic force urging the individual on to formulation, revision, and sometimes fresh creativity in the closel y rel ated spheres of rel igious and social val ues. Often, however, as the individual works his way out of a positiDn wh ich may be intolera bl e both logically and psychical ly, he overcompensates ; he passes beyond the line separating reinterpretation and revision from re jection and loss. For some, this is a point of no return. For others , the result is not so much a loss of faith as a suspension of faith . 68

McCann cites John Wel ler as example of "one of those who travel ed from fundamental ism to a •suspension of faith1•11 "After breaking away from the fundamentalist community, both geographically and psychical ly, he [John Wel ler] began to gain a new comprehension of what the individual can be , what the world is real ly like,11 and how the indivi dual most

68McCann, "Developmental ," pp. 154-5; see al so Hans Toch, James Clark, R. T. Anderson, James J. Mul lin, '1 1Secul arization• in Coll ege -An Exploratory Study," Religi ous Education , 59 (1963), pp. 493-501 ; Jacob, p. 56; L. B. Brown , D. J. Pallant, 11Rel igious Bel ief and Social Pressure ," Psychological Reports 10 (1962), pp. 813-4; M. Rokeach� The Open and Closed Mind, New York Basic Books , 1960, p. 92. 33 effectively rel ates to his worl d,11 asserts McCann. 69 McCann continues

When man had become , for Wel ler, an autonomous, unifi ed organism rel ating himsel f consistently with his context, and God had be come the 11gods11 or 11respect for the ri.ghts of others , trust for the life that is ours ," he had to modify his old conceptions of the rel igious community, its God , and its val ues. Al though in tel l ectual emancipation coul d take pl ace, Wel ler's emotional attachment to the church which still insisted on its authority and on its barriers against the 11Worl d," and to the God who damned or saved arbitrarily, had been too rigid. The absolu

tist God , the absolutist rel igious community--and the absol u- · tist father--could not be spiritual i z�d or rei nterpreted in his thinki ng. Yet Wel ler had to push on towards inner consis tency . Since modification of the inconsistent .el ements, whi le necessary and possible intel l ectual ly, was impossible emotional ly, they had to be swept away to clear the path to that consis tency and integration, unity and maturity which are the natural goal s of the developing self.70

Havens set forth the idea that shifts �n student rel igious attitude (move toward different, usual ly more rel igion, move toward �theism or agnosticism, move toward a more orthodox faith) can be attributed somewhat to student response to that which the indiv idual fi nds or fa i ls to find in the coll ege envi ronment. 7 1 In support of his position Havens cites

Newcomb's study of changes in pol itical and economic attitudes at Benning ton Col l ege. Newcomb identi fied eight groups of students , each bei ng a particular combi nation of the followi ng three variabl es : conservative vs. liberal socio-economi c atti tudes ; active in community vs. not active or negativistic; aware of own position rel ative to community norms vs. una- ware of own position. In each group student expectations and needs coupl ed wi th what the student found in the environment el icited a particular

69McCann, '.'Developmental ," p. 155.

70McCann, "Developmental ," p. 155.

7 1Havens, "Changing,11 pp. 62-3. 34 response. For exampl e, group one are students who were essentially negati ve toward the commu nity norms of pol itical liberal ism because they fai led to achieve desired leadership in the student community, and as result they returned to an acceptance of fami ly or other outside norms. The 11 same causal categories can be fruitfully appl ied to shifts in rel igious atti-

tudes •••,1 1 asserts Havens. Havens continues,

Let us assume that a student from a theological ly conservative background matriculates at a coll ege with prevailing norms of rel igious liberal ism. In such an instance, these same factors of degree of success in leadership, personal anxieties and prob lems , closeness of ties to fami ly, status and friendship needs , and capacity for independent thought wi ll be operative in sha ping his rel igious outlook. On such a campus students described in the first three groups listed above are less likely to move with the coll ege ethos than are those in the two latter groups. 72

Havens goes further and rel ates the study done at Bennington

Col lege by Newcomb of expressed attitudinal change, rel ating these atti tudinal changes to both the inital val ues of students and to the social and academic values of the col lege as a community, to the alumnae study done at Vassar by Brown and Freedman concerning the effects of certain social variables mediated through the individual student in the form of rol e-behavior toward and within the educational institution, upon academic achievement.

Differences in fi ndings between the two studies are to be explained largely by the differences in the col lege enviornoments o Each campus has its own atmosphere and this in turn becomes a factor in deter mining shifts in rel igious views . 73

72Havens, 11 Changing,11 p. 63.

73Havens , 11Changing,11 pp. 63-65. 35 Havens cites findings in Hol lingshead 's Elmtown 's Youth (1949) ,

Murray Ross' Rel igious Bel i efs of Youth (1950, and his own study conducted at Carl eton Col l ege (Minnesota ) as indicating that col l ege students are mo re likely to go through crises of rel igious doubt than are non-col lege students. 74

Funk did a study using two hund red fifty-five Purdue University students, the majority of whom were sophomores and juniors enrolled in the School of Science, the major purpose of which was to determi ne whether rel igious confl ict and change of rel igious bel i efs during col l ege residence are correl ated with manifest anxiety.75 Funk found that "rel igious con fl ict is positively correl ated with manifest anxiety (r=.43); anxiety is

unrel ated to orthodoxy •••ho stility to rel igion, or change of rel igious attitudes during col l ege residence, rel igious confl ict is negatively cor rel ated wi th orthodoxy (r+.25)." 76

Brown found that fundamental ism was positively related to dogma- tism, authoritarianism, rel igious institutional ization, and conversion. He al so found no rel ationshi p between fundamental ism and questionnaire mea sures of neurosis. ??

74Havens, "Changing," p. 58.

75Ruth Funk, "A Survey of Rel igious Attitudes and Manifest Anxie ty in a College Population," Dissertation Abstracts International , p. 15 (1955) , 2569 (Purdue University) . Hereafter cited as "Attitudes."

76Funk, "Attitudes," p. 15.

77Gordon Stanley Brown , "Personal ity and Attitude Characteristics of Fundamental ist University Students ,'' Austral ian Journal Of Psychology , 15 (1963) , pp. 199-200; see al so J. L. Chambers , et. al. , 11Need Differences Between Students with and wi thout Rel igious Affiliation," Journal of Counsel ing Psychol ogy , 15 (1968) , pp. 208-21 0. 36 Kerr tested 246 Tu lane University men studeDts in an effort to ascertain whether or not 11l iberal i sm-conservatism Ll�7 a single person al ity continuum.11 The students were tested for five types of liberal ism- conservatism: pol itical , economic, rel igious, social , and aesthetic.

Kerr 's findings were as fol lows : ''prediction of one type of liberal ism or conservati sm from another type is as inefficient as predicting achieve ment in a relatively unrel ated academic subj ect.11 Liberal i sm-conservatism wa s shown to be not a unitary dimension of personal ity but 11a compl ex group of rel atively independent continuua.11 78

Putney and Middleton investigated 11four potentially independent dimens ions of rel igious ideology: orthodoxy , the fanaticism which it in- spires ,- its importance to the sel f conception, and the consciousness of ambivalence concerning the bel ief.11 Other personal ity characteristics whi ch might be rel ated to the four dimensions were measured al so: autho- itariansim, status concern, anomia, and conservatism. Social characteristics such as education , sex , region of residence, church affi liation, and socio-economic status were likewi se determi ned . It was found that the four dimensions are significantly related to each other, the first three directly and the fourth inversely. Socio-economic status and anomia are not significantly rel ated to any of the dimensions , al though there is some ten dency for the more anomie to be more fanatic and for those of higher socio economic status to be less orthodox. Noting that the rel ationships between the dimensions and the afo rementioned correlates are rel atively low, the authors conclude by saying that clearly rel igious ideology is neither

78Willard A. Kerr, 11Untangl ing the Liberal i sm-Conservative Con Continuum,11 The Journal of Social Psychology, 35 (1952), p. 125. 37 a major determinant nor a simple resultant of personality characteri stics, such as authoritari anism, conservatism, or anomia, or social factors such as pl ace of residence, year in col lege, or even church affi liation.79

Putney and Middl eton offer the fol lowing description of an orthodox person :

The person who is highly orthodox in rel igious bel i efs tends to be authori tarian, highly concerned about his social status , and conservative in pol itical questions and economic questions. Such an individual is more likely than the person low in orthodoxy to be a lower classman , to be a female, to have lived in the South, and to be a Catholic rather than a Protestant. The orthodox may or may not be anomie, may or may not be middle class , and may come from either a small or a large metropolitan city.80

Dittes made the distinction between the content- free characteristics of bel ief and the content-based characteri stics of bel ief. The content-free characteristics refer to the dynamic, psychological variabl es that relate pri marily to the intensity of bel ief and the vigor wi th which these people defend their bel iefs . The content-based characteristi cs of rel igious conservati sm denote conservative beliefs that are held primarily by a rel igious institution and which are su.bsequently adopted by a person who identifies wi th the institution . 81

College freshmen personality inventori es and a mail survey were used by Kahoe to study "correlates of current and retrospective [.Coll ege freshmeDJ conservatism among one hundred forty-two former students of a

79s. Putney , G. Mi ddleton , 11 Dimensi ons and Correlates of Rel igi ous ,11 Social Forces , 39 (1961 ), pp. 285-290. 80Putney and Middleton , p. 289.

81J. E. Dittes , 11Psychology of Rel igion ," The Handbook of Social Psycho l ogy , 2nd ed., ed. G. Lindzey and E. Aronson (Reading, Massachusetts : Addison-Wesley, 1969) , p. 118. 38 rel igiously conservative co1 lege."82 The purpose of the study, according to Kahoe, was to examine both "co ntent-free and content-based aspects of conservatism [concepts set forth by Dittes8�7 and rel igious conservati sm in particular." The hypothesis was that conservati sm is determined in part by personal ity dynamics and that "because of the institutionali zed nature of rel igion, rel igious conservatism is also partly determined by social , institutional , •content-based • factors."84 Kahoe summarized his studies as fol lows : (1) identifi ed a content-free aspect of conservatism, reflected by authoritari an and dogmatic traits, but having greater sal i

ence for racial than for rel igious or legal istic attitudes •. Religi-6us and legal istic atti tudes were felt to depend more on content-based aspects of conservati sm--rel igious institutional influences made sal ient by an individual •s intrinsic rel igious orientation; (2) general ly the fi ndings support the concept that defensive personal ity dynamics pl ay a rol e in the development of conservative attitudes; (3) in general both retrospective and current measures of conservatism were negatively rel ated to educational level "which refl ects a general ly accepted fact in the social sciences"; (4) "the retrospective measure of rel igious conservatism had a significant positive relationship wi th subsequent level of education attained." The temporal rel ationship would suggest that rel igious conservatism may "have a causal effect on amount of col l ege and graduate or

82Richard D. Kahoe, "Rel igious Conservatism in a Quasi-longitu dinal Perspective," Journal of Psychology and Theology, 5 (l) (Winter, 1977) , pp. 40-47.

83Dittes , p. 118.

84Kahoe, p. 40. 39 professional education one from this po pulation achi eves .11 Final ly, Kahoe •s investigation showed that 11a cons equence of more education for the conservative is a shift toward more liberal attitudes , particularly in the re ligious realm.u 85

P. F. Wil son utili zed G. W. Al lport•s rel igious ori entation scale in an effort to investigate rel igiosity and anxiety in Christian men. He found that intrinsical ly oriented Christians were more rel igious and less anxious on trait and existential anxiety measures than extrinsi cal ly ori ented Christians. 86

Following similar procedures to those of Wil son, Sturgeon and

Hamley investigated 148 students 11almost equal ly represented by sex from a conservative, Protestant church-rel ated col l ege11 and had similar fi ndings to those of Wi lson, only the results were extended to a different rel igi ous group and incl uded female col l ege students . 87

The Sturgeon and Haml ey findi ngs were:

A t test of the difference between the means for each of the above self-report measures reveal ed that the intrinsic group was signif

icantly less anxious existentially [t (38)=3.60, p . • 005/ had less

trait anxiety [t (38)=2.41 2, p < . . 02� , and had greater internal locus of control [t (38)=3.801 , p . < .00� than did the Extri nsic group. The two groups di� not differ in state anxiety .

These results indicate a better state of adj ustment for the Intrin sic bel ievers over the Extrinsic bel i evers and are consistent wi th

85Kahoe , pp. 40-46.

86p . F. Wil son, 11Rel igious Orientation and Anxiety,11 Unpubl ished Master •s Thesis (1976) Middle Tennessee State University, p. 95.

87Robert S. Sturgeon and Roy W. Haml ey , 11Rel igiosity and Anxiety,11 The Journal of Social Psychology , 108 (1979) , pp. 137-8. 40

the notion that the Christian who lives his bel ief should be mo re secure , more self-sufficient, and less anxious. 88

Smi th conducted a systematic inquiry into the "characteristics of al ienation among students in a suburban, rural , •open-door• community col lege .. and- found al i enation 11Was not rel ated to rel igious upbringing, but alienated students mani fested less church attendance.u89

Summary

This chapter has presented a review of the literature related to the rel igiously fundamentalist student and the relig ious confl ict and anxi ety which he encounters as he pursues his academic endeavors . If any single concl usion may be drawn from this vast aggregate of data, it is the positive vlaue of chal l enge and confl ict. There seems to be general agree ment that chall enge and confl ict are inherent parts of the education pro cess. Students grow and develop through confl ict and resolution of con fl ict. Col l ege is a time of change. This change may be viewed as a 11l ess- ening of stereotypes .. . The col l ege envio rnment, sex differences , teachers , and courses are all factors which determine if changes in thought and out look occur in the student and the type of changes which will occur.

88sturgeon and Hamley , p. 138 . 89Louis John Smi th, 11Characteristics of Al i enation in a Community Col lege," Di ssertation Abstracts International , 35 (1975) , p. 41 54-B (Uni versity of Pennsyl vania). CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN

Questions The questions upon which the study is based are as follows :

1. Do rel igiously fundamentalist students experience rel igious

conflict when enrol led in those col l eges and universities which are pri

vate or denomi national ly owned as wel l as in those institutions which are

publ icly owned?

2. Are the variables rel igious fundamental ism, rel igious con

fl ict, and anxiety significantly rel ated to each other?

3. If the answer to question two is yes , what is the pattern of interrelationship?

4. Do students other than those categorized as rel igiously funda mental ist experience rel igious confl ict and anxiety?

5. Are there signifi cant differences between UTK, Hiwassee Col

lege, and Johnson Bible Col lege, as regards rel igious fundamental ism, re

lig ious confl ict and anxiety?

6. Are the rel igi ous confl ict and anxiety as wel l as the adap tation response which the student makes to these experiences , unique to to the individual or are they much the same for all persons who are thus dis

posed?

Research Hypotheses

The following research hypotheses have been established:

1. There wi ll be no significant differences among the r�ligious 41 42 fundamentalism scores and rel igi ous confl ict scores for the subjects from Hiwassee Col lege , Johnson Bible Col lege, and UTK, at 0.05;

2. There wi ll be no signi fi cant di fferences among the rel igi ous fundamentalism scores and anxiety scores for the subjects from Hiwas see Col lege, Johnson Bible Col lege, and UTK, at 0.05;

3. There wi ll be no significant differences among the rel igi ous confl ict scores and anxiety scores fo r the subjects from Hiwassee

Col lege , Johnson Bible Col lege , and UTK , at O.P5;

4. There wi ll be no significant differences among the rel igi ous fundamental ism scores, rel igious confl ict scores , and anxiety scores for the total sample,.at 0.05;

5. There will be no significant differences between Hiwassee

Col lege, Johnson Bible Col lege, and UTK with respect to either rel igious fundamental ism, rel igious confl ict or anxiety , at 0.05;

The secondary hypotheses are as fol lows :

l. There wi ll be no significant relationship between the re ligious fundamental ism scores , rel igious confl ict scores, anxiety scores and any of the fol lowing variables either at Hiwassee Col lege, Johnson

Bible Col lege, UTK, or for the total sampl e, at 0.05;

l. Consent to be interviewed .

2. Rel igious preference.

3 . Protestant denomi nation preference.

4 . Age .

5. State of residence.

6. Size of community of residenceo

7. Socio-economic status. 43 8. Sex.

9. Attendance at Church and Sunday School .

10. Approxi mate size of Church.

11. Grade point average (at Hiwassee Col l ege only)�

The fol lowi ng show no significant difference in the hypothe sized rel ationships among rel igious fundamental ism and rel igi ous confl ict scores , rel igious confl ict and anxiety scores , and rel igious fundamenta lism and anxiety scores , either at Hiwassee Col lege, UTK, Johnson Bible

Col lege , or for the entire sampl e, at 0.05;

l. Consent to be intervi ewed .

2. Rel igious preference.

3. Protestant denomi nation preference.

4. Age.

5. State of residence.

6. Size of community of residence.

7. Socio-economic status.

8. Sex.

9. Attendance at Church and Sunday School .

10. Approximate size of Church.

11. Grade point average (at Hiwassee Col l ege only).

In this study the null hypotheses have been set up with the ex press purpose of being rejectedo The null hypotheses will be tested by com pari ng the responses to the items used to measure the variables in question.

If the number of responses in the various categories of response indicate statistically significant differences , the null hypotheses will be rejected . 44

Statistical Procedures The statistical procedures used were coefficient of correl ation and analysis of variance.

Type of Research

The research design is ex post facto , i.e., the variabl es have al ready occurred and no manipul ation of the variables is done by the researcher.

Measurement of Variables

Those persons who accept the rel igious fundamentalist viewpoint subscribe to a set of bel i efs which, for the most part, are deri ved from a literal interpretation of the Bi ble. Fundamentalis ts have strongly re sisted new approaches to the interpretation and understanding of the Bi ble. Other scholarly advances whose appl ication would threaten the funda mental ist position have likewi se been resisted. New ideas and approaches in the fields of science, sociology, and psychology have been noted by fundamental ists but with a jaundiced eye and oftimes only in order to di s pute them and their impl i cations for the fundamental ist viewpoint.

If a person with such an outl ook enrolls in a college or uni ver sity where there is a free exchange of ideas , where students are encouraged to explore , to consider alternate points of view, to loose their minds , to question, to analyze, to criticize, where every effo rt is made to stimulate wide-ranging thought, there is a strong likelihood he will feel his funda mental ist position chal l enged. Unless that person blocks out all new thoughts and ideas completely he wi ll experience rel igious confl ict and pos sibly anxiety . 45 It is anticipated that not all fundamental ist students wi ll experience rel igious confl ict" Some may be so rigid in thei r outl ook as to brush aside al l other ways of viewing things" If that be the case then the confl ict will be avoided. Students experiencing confl ict and concomi tant anxiety will not long endure those conditions which are re- sponsibl e for the trouble and unpleasantness. Some kind of resolution wi ll be forthcoming. These solutions to confl ict wi ll in some respects be individual in character but in the main they wi ll probably fall into a few broad categori es . The anxiety accompanying the rel igious confl ict will vary with the person and the situation but, as in the case of the rel igious confl ict, these varying situations wi ll likely have some com- mona l iti es .

Measurement of rel i0ious fundamental ism. The administration of the Rel igious Fundamental ism Scale wi ll enable the investigator to measure rel igi ous fundamental ism among the student sample.l The higher the score the higher the degree of fundamentalism and, by the same token, the lower the score the lower the degree of fundamental ismo

Measurement of religi ous confl ict. Those students with a strong fundamentalist orientation wi ll experience a rel igious confl ict of measure- able proportions as they encounter points of view and approaches to problem-solving which clearly chal l enge the ones which they presentl y follow.

IJames Go Martin and F. R. Westie, 11Rel igious Fundamental ism Scale,11 Measures of Social Ps cholo ical Attitudes, ed. John P. Robinson and Philip R. Shafer Ann Arbor, Michigan : The Uni versity of Michigan, 1969), pp. 593-595. Hereafter cited as 11Rel igioUS11 o 46 The solution to the difficul ty for some of these students will be to dis-

mi ss as of no consequence any opinion , viewpoint, approach, or idea that

is not in keeping with the person •s establ ished outl ook, in which case

confl ict will never surface as such. Others of the students wi ll look at

the other approach or different idea, be intrigued by it, examine it, see

the logic or val idity of such, but at the same time recognize the chal l enge

it presents to their present position. A confl ict and an internal debate of sorts ensues . Use of the Rel igious Confl ict Scale wi ll enable the re-

searcher to identify those persons in the student sample who are experi encing rel igious confl ict.2

Measurement of anxiety. Anxiety is conceived to be an upsetting or disturbing condi tion in the individual •s life whose potential effects

are many and far-reaching. The anxiety is a derivative of the ambivalent

rel igious feel ings of the indivi dual concerned. Anxiety wi ll be measured

by the IPAT Self-Analysis form.3

Munn says that "a disturbing form of confl ict •..is that in which the individual has both positive and negative atti tudes toward the

same person (or thing). This kind of mental confl ict . • . is often ac

companied by great mental stress."4

2Funk, "Survey," p. 345.

3 R. B. Cattel l, The IPAT Anxiety Scale Questionnaire, (Champaign , Illinois: The Institute for Personal ity and Ability Testi ng), 1963.

4Norman L. Munn, Psychology : The Fundamentals of Human Adjust ment , 5th ed. (Boston : Houghton Mifflin Co ., 1966), p" 277. 47 The interview wi ll be utilized to confirm the findings of the abovementioned measuring instruments and investigate in depth each vari able, particul arly the confl ict and anxiety.

Measurement of other characteri stics . The followi ng data were el icited by direct question : consent to be int�rviewed , age, sex, rel igious preference, denominational preference, size of community of resi dence , state of residence, size of home church, attendance at Church and Sunday

School . Grade pain� average of students at Hiwassee Col l ege were obtai ned from the col l ege with the student's consento Socio-economic status was estimated by A Scale for Assessing Socio�Economic Status in Survey Research.5

Operationally then , rel igious fundamental ism in this research is expressed in terms of the scores on the Rel igious Fundamental ism Scale.

Rel igious confl ict is defi ned in terms of the scores on the Rel igious Con fl ict Scal e of the Survey of Attitudes Toward Re l igion and Philosophy of

Life Scal e, and supplemented by information obtained by the interviews .

Anxi ety is discussed in terms of the data derived from the IPAT Self-Anal- ys is Scal e and the interv iew. Socio-economic status is defi ned in terms of scores on Vaughan 's A Scal e for Assessing Socio-Economic Status in Sur vey Researcho

Methods of Gathering Data

Reliqious Fundamental ism Scale. The measurement of fundamentalism as defined earl ier in this study can be done by using the Rel iqious

5charles Lu Vaughan, "A Scale fo r Assessing Socio-Economic Status in Survey Research," Publ ic Opi nion Quarterly, 22 (Spring, 1958 ), p. 20. 48

Fundamentalism Scale developed by Martin and Westie.6 ''This scale mea-

sures rel igious fundamentalism among Chri stians,11 says Robinson and

Shafer, 11and it seems to be a good short measure. II This scale, which Westie and Martin say 11Stresses dogmati sm and supernatural ism,11 8

is composed of nine items , five of which are '' 'positive• for scoring

purposes.11 9 Middleton suggests than when measuring an atti tude such as

rel igious fundamentalism 11 it wo uld be better to have a test where about

hal f the questions were to be scored in reverse.u lO Each of the items

is 11Scored along a fi ve-point agree-disagree continuum of the Likert sort.

Scoring (is) accompl i shed by simply summing item scores across the nine

items .1111

Rel iability. The author does not report any estimate of re liability.

Val idity. Scores on the fundamentalism measure differentiated significantly (p ( .005) between the tol erant and prejudiced re spondants . Moreover, fundamental ism correlated .56 with intoler ance of ambiguity, and .41 wi th national ism (all significant at the .05 level ) among the tolerant respondants. l 2

6Ma rtin and Westie, pp. 593-595.

?John P. Ro binson and Philip R. Shafer, eds. Measures of Psy chologi cal Atti tudes (Ann Arbor, Michigan : The Uni versity of Michigan, 196 9) ' p. 680.

8James G. Ma rtin and Frank R. Westie, 11The Tolerant Personal i ty ,11 American Sociologi cal Review, 24 (1959) , p. 524. Hereafter cited as 11Tolerant.11 ' 9Martin and Westie, 11 Rel igious ,11 p. 594.

lOstatement by Russel l Middl eton , University of Wisconsin, in a telephone conversation with the wri ter on August 17, 1979.

llMartin and Westie, 11 Rel igious,11 p. 595.

1 2Martin and ltiestie, 11rel igious,11 p. 679. 49 This scale, which requires about six minutes to compl ete , wi ll

enabl e the investigator to place persons in the sampl e along a continuum

of scores ranging from pl us 18 to minus 18. In a telephone conversation

dated September 24, 1980, Frank R. Westie, one of the desi gners of the

scal e, sta ted that no scale val ues had been establ ished for the test. In

the case of variabl es that have a continuous range, such as fundamental ism

and rel igious confl ict, normally one does not establ ish scal e val ues.

IPAT Anxiety scale Questionnaire. Leve l of anxiety can be measured with the !PAT Anxiety Scal e Questionnaire developed by Raymond B.

Cattel l and I. H. Scheier. The instrument is a forty item 11rapidly sten- cil-scored , objective, sel f-administrable questionnaire for the assessment of general free anxiety level as di stinct from general neurosis or psycho

sis.11 13 Cohen says that it is effective wi th functional ly literate adoles cents and adults both for mass screening and individual cl inical use. 14

The test and its interpretation rest on very sound research and theoretical

background. Cohen refers to it as 11a mature fruit of a third of a centu ry of both methodologically and cl i nical ly sophi sticated large scale factor- analytic research.11 1 5 So far as systematic research background is concerned

11no competing test can compete in thi s crucial regard .'' The test is an outgrowth of a series of 1114 repl i cated researches with the longer !PAT 16

l3Jacob Cohen , 11The IPAT Anxiety Scale Questionnaire,11 Seventh Mehtal Measurements Yearbook, ed . Oscar Kristen Bures , (Highland Park, New Jersey : Gryphon Press, 1972), p. 255.

14Cohen, p. 255.

15Cohen , p. 255. 50 PF test.1116 Six scores are yielded by the test: self-sentiment devel opment, ego strength, protension of paranoid trend , guilt proneness, ergic tension , total anxiety. The test requires about 10 minutes to complete.

Rel iability. Rel iability coefficients for the total anxiety score , depending on type and the nature of the group, range from .80 to .93, an adequate level for most purposes. The same can not be said for the homogeneity rel iabi l ities of the fi ve compo nent scores (based on 4-12 items) , which range from .26 to .60. No rel iabilit ies are given in the manual for combinations of overt and covert anxiety scores , but a reference (7) give .24 for the rel iability of thei r difference.17

Val idity. Evidence for the tests •s val idity is varied and im pressive. It rests fi rst on the foundation or repl i cated factor analytic researches invol ving not only questionnaire items but objective test and physiol ogical measures , which establ ished and cross-rnatched the anxiety factor. From these, 11construct11 va 1 i di ty coefficients in the range . 85 to .90 are claimed . These are multiple correl ation functions of factor loadings and are there fore probably somewhat overstated. Neverthel ess , they are high enough. As fo r external val idity, many lines of evidence con verge : (a) Correlation with a rel atively unrel iable psychiatric concensus is .30 to .40 (.60 to . 70 when the criterion is atten uation-corrected ). (b) the mean of 174 anxiety neurotics dif fers sharply from the popul ation average (by 1.3 standard devi ations) , which expressed as a point-biserial r. yields .65 (re viewer •s computation, assuming equal numbers of anxi ety neu rotics and general popul ation adults are being discriminated so as to give a maximum correl ation). (c) the means of 23 groups of cl inical interest order them in a cl inically compel ling way . (d) Other data (on occupations , nations, vol unteers for experi ment, drug effects , etc.) presented or preferred to further en rich th background for interpretation and thereby enhance va lidity. T 8

The Religi ous Confl ict Scale. Determination of persons experiencing rel igious confl ict can be made by using the Religi ous Confl ict

16Cohen , p. 255.

l 7Cohen, p. 256

l 8Cohen, p. 256. 51 Scale, a subscale of A Survey of Attitudes Toward Religi on and Philosophy

of Life Scale developed by . Ruth Funk�l9 The Religi ous Confl ict

Scale is a twenty-two item scale designed to measure "simul taneous ten-

dencies to react in opposing and incompatibl e ways to the same rel igious

atti tude obj ect."20 The items of the scale were chosen on the basis of

their abili ty to discriminate high and low scorers. A person scoring 16-

22 on the scale woul d be considered ambival ent in his rel igious feel ings.

A score of 0-7 indicates little or no confl ict whi le a score of 8-1 5 indicates a moderate to high level of confl ict invol ving rel igious matters.

Rel iability. Based on a sampl e of thirty-one persons and a three week test interval Funk (private communication , 1958) reported the fol lowi ng test-retest rel iability estimates for these. scales : the

Religious Confl ict Scale .•72 (rank order R) and .84 (product mo-

ment r) • 21

Val idity. The author (Funk, undated mimeograph) reported a highly significant positive correlation between scores on the Tayl or Man ifest Anxiety Scale and the Rel igious Confl ict Scale, giving it a degree of construct val idity. The scale seems to have fair con tent val idity.22

Use of this scale will enable the investigator to identify which of the persons in the sample are experiencing rel igious confl ict. Informa- tion coming from the Rel igi ous Fundamental ism Scale and the Rel igi ous Con fl ict Scal e wi ll hel p to determine if the rel igious confl ict is due to fundamentalism or to something el se.

1 9Funk, "Survey," p. 346.

20Ruth Funk, "Experimental Scales Used in a Study of Rel igious Attitudes as Rel ated to Manifest Anxiety," Psychologi cal Newsletter, 9 (1958) , p. 240. Hereafter cited as "Experimental .11

21Funk, "Survey," p. 326.

22R. V. McCann, "Developmental ," p. 147. 52

The interview. The interview as a research technique in studying rel igious confl ict was suggested by Joseph Havens and R. Vo McCann.

McCann conducted a three-year investigation of the "rel igion of the individual 11 in the hope that 11Such a study mi ght contribute something to our understand ing of the contemporary rel igious situation , as wel l as making a contri bution to social science.11 23 The study received financial assistance from the Carnegie Corporation of New York. The method of in vestigation used in the study was the interview. McCann says of this choice of methods :

After a pilot study had been made with fi fty research subjects and after noting the consi dera bl e shortcomi ngs of the most frequently

used methods in empirical rel igious researc h __ tests, scales , and questionnaires-- an interview-guide was constructed , to serve as framework for a series of intensive interviews on a person-to-per son basis.24

In the course of his investigations, McCann intervi ewed two hundred persons 11for from six to twelve hours each - some of the interview series running over twenty hours per person.n25 McCann speaks further of the interview method in this type of research:

Our subjects 0 0 • tal ked freely, fully, intimately. This may be due not merely to the advantages of the interview over the written questionnaire or biography , but to the circumstances under which the interview series are hel d--in comfort and informality, and wi th genuine interest, appreciation, and receptivity expressed by the interviewero The interview series is much more than a means to col l ect information ; it becomes an important interpersonal re lationship. Many peopl e do not real ly know what they think about these topics and would no doubt be unabl e to give more than a per functory answer in a brief interview. Not only are they assisted and encouraged by guided discussions, but over the period of days

23R. Vo McCann, 11Developmental ,11 p. 147.

24McCann, 11 Devel opmental ,11 Po 147.

25McCann, 110evel opmental ,11 p. 148 . and sometimes weeks of the interview series they have a chance to refl ect at lei sure upon the total area of personal values, of ba sic bel i efs and sentiments.26

Havens has made extensive use of the interview in his studies of rel igious confl ict among col lege students. In a study conducted at the University of Massachusetts , Havens says he utilized data drawn from "cl i nical rna- terial , including some tape-recorded sessions , papers written for college courses, and open-ended interviews deal ing expl icitly with rel igious ques tions."27 Havens remarks that today's students are giving a "wide variety of individual ized sol utions to the rel igious pro blem ," and there is a great need for "mo re and deeper understand ing of these 'sol utionso '"28 Studies so far availabl e have utilized the interview in an attempt to get the ''in� side view" of the coll ege student but have only suggested the nature of the sol utionso The interview method can be put to greater use in understanding these "solutions" if these subjective data are "supplementary to the more objective test and observational information."29

26McCann, Po 148o See al so Nevitt, Sanford , "Research and Pol icy in Higher Education ," The American Col lege , edo Nevitt Sanford (New York: John Wiley and Sons , Inco, 1962), PP o 1020-1 , where he notes that a social scientist may "take one or the other of two main courseso He may conduct his work in such a way as to affect his subjects mi nimally, as in a lab oratory experiment or in a survey of opinions. The other course for the investigator is to assume that change wi ll occur and that the observer is an agent of change . This requires that he make sure that the change is valuable or at least not harmful and that he himself is treated as a vari able in the experimental design. It is this latter course that seems most appropriate and promi sing for the kinds of educational research that have been said to be most needed."

27Havens, "Course," p. 257o

28Havens , "Course," p. 67.

29Havens , "Course," p. 67 . 54

It is increasingly evident that phenomenological data can be dis torted in thei r reporting, in thei r reception by the investigator, and in their interpretation. Such data wi ll be least distorted by . an investigator who is able to 11feel into11 the frame of reference of the subject, ioe. someone who has in his own experience come close to the kind of inner events being reported. Cl ark Moustakas, in his recent book On Lonel iness discusses this point, and effec tively demonstrates it in his treatment of the lonel iness experi ence. He begins by perceptively descri bing an event in his own life which temporarily set apart from al l who might have shared his sufferingo It yet remains for a psychologist of rel igion to proceed with equal sensitivity to del i neate the problem of re lig ious doubt and confl ict. Even one case study , carefully re ported and empathetical ly shared by the scientists � could deepen the rather broad picture (of rel igious confl ict). 3u

Havens suggests the fol lowi ng procedure for obtaining an adequate picture of the student mind.

The least distorted picture of col l ege students • rel igion will be obtai ned if the question is approached from several viewpoints. Research such as the Vassar study can provide an inval uabl e back ground picture of the general intellectual and emotional develop ment of the coll ege student, and of the complex interaction of his personal ity, his intimate peer groups , and the wider col l ege com munity. Surveys and extended interviews focused on moral and re

ligious searchings a ••can lead us mo re directly into 11the stu dent mind.11 Phenomenological study of a few cases in depth and longitudinal ly is the third necessary ingredient of an adequate picture. When these are combined we are least likely to distort the picture to fit any preconceptions or proselytizing aims (overt or covert)o 31

The interview schedule is a compromi se between a structured and unstructured technique. A direct approach was taken in the interview and both 11Clo sed'' and 11open11 questions we re utilized. While aware of the dan- gers associated with the use of open-ended questions--they require cons- siderabl e interview time, analysis is difficult--some careful ly chosen

30Havens, 11Course ,11 p. 67.

31 Havens , 11Course,11 p" 68. 55 and worded open-ended questi ons were used because conditions required ''prob ing of atti tude and reaction fo rmations and ascertaining information that 32 is locked in a • 0 • personal ity structureo" The respondent was free to develop his responses to al l questions , both closed and open , as he saw fit.

An interview span of forty-five minutes , as suggested by Miller, was establ ished , though at no time was a session hal ted if the respondent maintained interest.33

Realizing the great val ue of probing in a study of this nature while at the same time aware of the danger of producing bias wi th one's questions , the interviewer made a strong effort to follow closely the techn ique cal led "controlled non-directive probing" developed by Kahn and

Cannel l.34 Using this technique the interviewer accepts responsibility for being sure that the interview includes the topics necessary to his content objectives and attempts to limit the extraneous topics into which the interview may rambl e, but beyond this does little to direct the interview. The respondent is encouraged to res pond freely in the atmosphere of acceptance and permissiveness provided by the interviewer. 35

32Del bert Mi ller, Handbook of Research Desi n and Social Measure ment (New York: David McKay Co., Inc. , 1964 , p. 287. Miller observes that there are problems associated wi th the use of open-ended questi ons. In gen eral the rule is: present closed rather than open-ended questions. "If you must empl oy open-ended questions , choose a few with care and wi th the precise aims of the study in mindo • o. Open-ended questions are appropriate and powerful under conditi ons that require probing of attitude and reaction formations • 11

33Miller, Po 287.

34Ro bert Kahn and Charl es F. Cannel l, The Dynamics of Interview ·� (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. , 1965) , p. 208 ff. 56

General Information Data Sheet. This is a series of questions

developed by the investigator to provide additi onal information about the

participants in the studyo Some of the questions were suggested by re

search rel ated to the question under study and noted earl ier in the re-

view of literature section . Other questions el iciting other data were

formulated because it was felt that the data were pertinent to the exer

cise. A copy of the General Information Data Sheet is found in Appendix

A Scale for Assessinq Socio-Economic Status in Survey Research.

Rather than have each individual give his socio-economi c status, in which case persons have a tendency to view themsel ves as being "middle-class ,"

Charles L. Vaughan 's A Scale for Assessing Socio-Economic Status in Sur vey Research was used . It is a fi ve question test wi th separate parts to three of the five questions and requires from two to three minutes to complete . Vaughan says that 11the initial stimulus for the development of the scale was the need for a device that would provide rel iable and val id soci o-economic groupings of people interv i ewed on the street in small pi lot research studieso"36 The scale was original ly desi gned for assessing the socio-economic status of homes in urban territory and rural villages

35Kahn and Cannel l state that they are greatly indebted to Carl R. Rogers fo r the concept of "controlled non-directive probing." Kahn and Cannel l, p. 208 f"

3 6Vaughan, p. 20. 57 in the United States. Data obtai ned subsequent to the construction of the scale indicate that it is al so useful with farm homes. 37

The scale was chosen because it requires only a small amount of time to administer, requires rel atively few instructions, requires just a smal l block of space on the questionnaire, in its original use chil dren could report the pertinent facts , and because it differentiates between homes near the mi ddle of the distri bution of socio-economi c status as wel l as between the very high and very low groups. Vaughan says that

the fact that the scale distinguishes twel ve-po ints along a contin uum makes it possible to study and highl i ght certain rel ationships n n ns n nc n non ) . not Cl early ViSible With a fOUr-point SCale ( A , , , •

Use of all twel ve poi nts on the scale • ••makes it relative- · ly simpl e to derive mathematical expressions of various rel ation ships--such as those between tel evision set ownership, incidence of Negroes , use of certain brands of products , knowl edge about var ious companies, etc. and socio-economi c level .

Reliability and val idity. Val idity of the scale is to some ex tent assured by the manner in which it was constructed. However, a cross-vali dational study resul ted in a Pearsonian correlation coefficient of . 61 between intervi ewer ratings of socio-economic status and total scaled scores.

• • • • 0 • • • Q Q • Q 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 •

Certain rel ationships between scaled scores and other variabl es al so indicate a high degree of rel iability and val idity of the scale. For example, studies indicate that the following vari abl es are closely rel ated in the expected direction to scaled scores: median family income , when geographic divi s ion is held constant ; percen tage of Negro homes. In fact, the curves depicting the relation ships are exceptionally smooth for social data. 38

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • o • • • • e • • • • • •

37Vaughan, p. 3l p

38vaughan, p. 31 . 58

Aside from questions in the product fiel d, answers to questions in the social and pol itical areas al so show the expected rel a tion ships to scal ed scores, in particular, the percentage of persons who answer ''don • t know" to questions in these areas. 39

Procedures--Overview

This study consists of two separate though closely rel ated phases: A survey phase and an interview phase. In the survey phase 301 sec ond and third quarter students registered at 3 institutions filled out a test bookl et which invol ved 2 kinds of activity: (1) the answers on 4 tests desi gned to measure religious fundamental ism, rel igious confl ict, anxiety, and socio-economic status, and (2) answering other questi ons which would yiel d additional data, biographical and otherwise. In the interview phase

30 persons , 10 from each institution , who made certain combinations of scores on the tests were asked to participate in a review and confirmation of test scores and in-depth discussion of the possibl e meaning of such scores.

Procedures--Survey Phase

. ) Sampl e. In the extensive phase the sample consisted of a total of 301 students , 99 of whom attended UTK, 100 of whom attended Hiwassee

Col lege, and 102 of whom attended Johnson Bible Col l ege. These students we re persons enrol led in Engl ish 102 A, B, E, H, J, X, N, taught by Pro fessors Lowry , Dai l, Luther and Stiles, at Hiwassee Col lege; Sociol ogy 1510 taught by R. G. Perrin and Ms . Cathy Ritter, and Sociol ogy 1520 taught by

Jim Lynxwi ler at UTK; Engl ish 102 A, B, C, D, E; at Johnson Bible Col l ege

39vaughan, p. 31 . 59 taught by Professors Beam and Wheel er. No attempt was made to randomize the sample because total popul ations are being used. Engl ish is a re quired course at Hiwassee Col l ege if the student desires to graduate from the institution with any type of degree or certificate so a broad spectrum of students enrol l in these classes. Sociol ogy 1510, 20 at UTK are basic

·courses for anyone choosing a major in Sociology and al so may be taken to meet basic curricular requi r�ments in the College of Liberal Arts. In this instance al so a broad spectrum of students sign for these classes .

Engl ish is required in al l the curricula at Johnson Bible Col lege, there fore a broad spectrum of students sign for these classes . The entire sample at the three institutions were second and third quarter freshmen.

A total of 101 persons at Hiwassee , 102 at Johnson Bibl e College, and 128 at UTK for a total of 331 ; compl eted the survey. Removal of non-freshmen and non-Christian persons resulted in the above listed fig ures at the three institutions. The sample was weighted in favor of freshmen for the follow ing reasons which are interrelated : the freshmen year is the latter end of the adolescent period, a period which Erikson and Al l port, among others , have referred to as one of difficulty, one during which identity is a ma jor issue and rel igion is a "cri sis" area ; the freshmen year is theorized to be the time when adjustment to the new and different col lege environ ment is the most difficult.

r1ethod of action. In the extensive phase of the study students in the above mentioned classes were admi nistered Marti n and Westie's Re ligious Fundamental ism Scal e, Funk's Religious Confl ict Stale, a subscal e of A Survey of· Attitudes Toward ·Rel igion and Philosophy of Life, Raymond 60 Cattel l's IPAT Sel f-Analysis Formula, Vaughan 's A Scale for Assessing So cio:Ec6ho�i c · Status_, and the General Ihf6rm�tion Oat� Sh�et� wi th the in tent being, fi rst, to obtain rel igious fundamenta lism, rel igious confl ict, and anxiety scores; second , to determine the socio-economic status of the student and col lect certain biographical information; and , third, to col lect data on social characteristics. Cross-referencing of the fi ndings on the Religi ous Fundamental ism Scal e, the Religi ous Confl ict Scale and IPAT

Self-Analysis Formula enabl ed the investi gator to establ ish categories of high and low scores involving each of the three major variabl es funda mentalism, rel igious confl ict, and anxi ety. These categories were estab lished for the most part to assist in sel ecting persons for the intensive phase (interview phase) of the study. Persons were to be chosen from the categories of high fundamentalism score, high rel igious confl ict score and high anxiety scores ; high fundamental ism score, low confl ict score and low anxiety score ; low fundamentalism socre , low confl ict score , and low anxi ety score.

A survey booklet consisting of the above mentioned tests and a cover letter was compiled and admi nistered during a regular classroom pe-- · riod in the Winter Quarter, 1980, at each of the three institutions. The enti re survey required approximately 35 minutes to compl ete.

The procedure was as follows : A brief explanation of the sur vey was made to each group after which the bookl ets were distributed and students marked their answers . Following the test opportunity was given for questions and discussion of the test. Ms . Ritter in Sociol ogy 1510 at UTK made this a compl ete learning experience for the class, utilizing the time following the survey as wel l as this investigator to discuss the 61 theory and method of attitude surveys . The investigator experienced con siderabl e diffi culty in gaining access to students at UTK for purposes of the survey. The assistance of Dr. 's Donal d Ploch and Thomas C. Hood and the Department of Sociol ogy at UTK is gratefully acknowl edged in this re gard . In each class surveyed the request was made that the tests be ad mi nistered in the first part of the period rather than the last part and that the regul ar classroom teacher be present and give a brief introduction of the proceedings . It was fel t that this would hel p create an atmosphere in which the students would consider seriously the testing process. A copy of the test bookl et is included in Appendix B along wi th the cover letter.

Procedures--Interview Phase

The intensive phase of the study consists of a series of thirty interviews desi gned to : l. review and confirm the findings of the survey phase of �he study, and 2. supply additional and in depth information about the rel igious confl ict and concomitant anxiety , particularly regarding the precipitating factor( s ) in the confl ict, manner of confl ict resol ution, as wel l as a description of the anxiety in terms of its overall effects on in dividual behavior. These findings are presented by broad categories of re sponse wi th an attempt to general ize concerning the data in each category. . . The interview phase is vital to the study and more than just a check on data in each categoryo An important aspect of the whol e research project is to secure information about individual reaction to rel igious confl ict and the concomitant anxiety. 62

Sampl eo In the intervi ew phase a total sample of 30 students was sel ected and interviewed : 10 at UTK, 10 at Hiwassee Col lege and 10 at

Johnson Bible Col lege. A strong attempt was made to secure interviewees in each of the fol lowi ng categories though the investigator was not suc cessful in every instance: persons wi th high fundamental ism scores , re ligious confl ict scores, and anxiety scores ; persons wi th high fundamen tal ism scores but low rel igious confl ict scores and anxiety scores; persons wi th low fundamental ism scores and high rel igious confl ict scores and anx iety scores ; and persons with low scores in each of the categories , funda mental ism, rel igious confl ict, and anxiety.

Method of action . Intervi ews were conducted in the office of

Cl arence McCal l, Jro , Garker Learning Center, Hiwassee Col lege , in Room

204, Cl ayton Educational Building and the office of Dr. Karl Jost, at UTK, and the office of Dr. Stanley McDaniel , Administration Building, Johnson

Bible Col l egeo There was monetary inducement for participation in the in terview at Johnson Bible Col lege and UTK but none at Hiwassee Col lege. The interviewees were electronical ly recorded . Al l students were asked to give their names and addresses on the survey forms as wel l as to check a space indicating willingness to participate in the interview phaseo Sel ection of interviewees was from among those who indicated a wi llingness to partici pate" No attempt was made to contact any others . The investigator was interested in the tone of voice, facial expression , and general reaction of the student to the questions asked as wel l as the answers formulated to the questionsa Fol lowing each interview session the interviewer recorded his reactions concern ing the session and these reactions were incorporated 63 into the eval uation and wri te-up. Students at UTK were contacted by tel e- phone while those at Johnson Bible Col l ege and Hiwassee Col lege were con tacted by mai l. Prior to the interviews themselves the participants were

tol d in general terms of the proposed format of the interview, topics to be discussed, and asked again as to their willingness to participate as wel l as permission to allow their statements to be recorded and incorpora ted into the study.

Each interview began with a br� ef reference to the info rmation on the data sheet then moved to a val idation of the scores on the various tests incl uded in the survey. This latter proced ure involved reading aloud some of the questions and answers on each test which was usually sufficient stimuli to get the student to discuss the subj ects of rel igious viewpoint, rel igious confl ict, and anxiety. In a few instances , however, this was not sufficient to stimulate conversation, in which case the interv i ewer resorted to a prepared list of questions and asked the person to formulate answers to each one. These questions are found in Appendix A.

Al l interviews were conducted by the author. In the summer of

1979 a pilot study was done involving a freshman female student at Hiwas see Col lege utilizing the survey and interv iew methods and most of the same instruments later used in the actual study. (See Appendix C. ) Fol lowing careful review of the write-up and tape of the session the supervi sing- doctoral commi ttee deemed the writer•s skills as an interviewer ade quate for the project. At no time did the interv i ewer feel ill at ease except perhaps in working with the Hiwassee Col lege students , persons

whom he knew quite wel l and to whom he was known •. The author encountered no difficulty at al l in schedul ing interviews . 64 Method of analysis of interviews . Al l tape record ings were reviewed and careful ly analyzed by the author. Analysis was done usinq an inductive method devised by the investigator but based partly on procedures suggested by Havens. 39

39Havens , "Course," p. 258. CHAPTER IV

INTERVIEW PHASE

Intervi ew Procedures and Analysis of Intervi e1;1ees • Scores

As noted previously, 10 persons from each of the 3 schools were invited to participate in the interviews for a total of 30 students. Ev ery person contacted agreed to the interviewo Interviews at Johnson Bible

Col lege were done on the evenings of March 26 and 27; fi ve persons each evening. This schedule proved to be exhausting. Three each evening would have been enough. Students at UTK were intervi ewed on Apri l 19, 22, 24 , and 29. Hiwassee Col l ege students were intervi ewed on May 5, 7, 9, 13,

15, and 19o Length of interviews ranged from 25 minutes to 50 mi nutes at each of the 3 schools.

A careful study of Table 1 reveals the fol lowing regarding inter viewee scores. Confl ict scores are as fol lows : at Hiwassee College they range from a low of 7 to a high of 17 (of a possible 22) ; at UTK from a low of 8 to a high of 17; at Johnson Bible College from a low of 10 to a high of 21 . Rel igious fundamental ism scores are as fol lows : at Hiwassee

Col l ege from a low of 6 to a high of 18; at UTK from a low of 4 to a high of 17; at Johnson Bible Col lege from a low of 11 to a high of 18. The anx iety scores at the 3 schools are as fol lows : at Hiwassee Col lege from a low of 26 to a high of 61 ; at UTK from a low of 32 to a high of 54; at

Johnson Bibl e Col l ege from a low of 20 to a high of 55.

Further analysis of intervi ewee scores reveal s the following: at Hiwassee 9 of the 10 anxiety scores are in either the "getting serious" or .. already serious .. range and 6 of these 9 persons have fundamenta lism

65 66

TABLE 1

RELIGIOUS CONFLICT , RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTALISM, AND ANXIETY SCORES OF INTERV IEWEES

School Student Scores Number Rel . Fundamental ism Re1 . Confl ict Anxi et:l

7 17 11 42 11 18 16 26 16 4 14 61 17 16 9 42 Hiwassee 25 8 17 40 Col l ege 28 18 13 51 44 12 15 61 52 18 17 52 58 6 7 46 83 15 ,, 49

37 16 10 52 44 18 13 33 45 18 12 47 Johnson 48 16 12 38 Bible 58 9 21 55 College 68 15 ,, 32 70 18 11 45 76 18 14 49 88 16 12 37 102 , , 13 29

2 4 12 49 7 13 10 35 23 16 12 50 37 15 14 54 UTK 39 16 13 54 50 16 17 58 100 15 8 51 103 17 10 32 106 13 8 43 125 14 14 40 67

scores in the 12-18 range ; 6 of the 10 confl ict scores are in the high or

high medium range and 3 of these 6 have fundamental ism scores of 18 and 2 of these 3 have anxiety scores in the "already serious" rangeo At UTK 9 of

the 10 have rel igious fundamentalism scores of 13 or above, 7 of the 10 anx

iety scores are in the "already serious11 range and 6 of these 7 have funda mentalism scores of 13 or above; 4 of the 10 confl ict scores are in the

high or high medium range al l 4 of whom have fundamental ism scores of 14

or more and of the 4, 3 have anxiety scores in the "al ready seri ous11 range.

At Johnson Bible College 8 of the 10 interviewees have fundamentalism scores of 15 or above , 5 of the 10 anxiety scores are in the "already serious" range , 4 of the 10 confl ict scores are in the high or high medium range and of the 4, 2 have anxiety scores in the "al ready serious"

range.

Summary and Findings

Information in the following section is presented by insti tutiono

Fi rst, a summary of the findings of the interviews conducted at each in

sti tution , next a case study, fol l owed by concl usions based on the summary

and case study for the institution. The section concludes wi th efforts to

relate the findings at the three institutions.

The specific purpose of the interviews was to learn as much as

possible about the individual 's rel igious confl ict and how it had been re

solved, anxiety, each person's understanding of his rel igious position ,

and if, as had been hypothesized , discover if there were correlations among

the variables rel igious fundamental ism, anxiety and rel igious confl ict.

The beginning point for each of the interveiws was a review of the various

tests , the scores earned, and what exactly the scores meant, all the whi le 68 listening for information that would answer the questions in the study ,

stopping quite often at vari ous points to probe , to ask fo r clarification , and request additional information. One of the most reveal ing intervi ews at Johnson Bible Col lege became productive only as result of a comment made by the person as the session was endingo The person sat back down and the next fifteen minutes were very productive and reveal ing.

Summary and Findings of Intervi ews at Johnson Bi ble Col l ege

The fol lowing section summarizes the findings of the interviews at Johnson Bible Col l ege.

Review of qeneral information data sheet. This was of signifi cance because certain data included therein wa s to be used in cal culating correlationso Al so, though all except 2 of the students at Johnson Bible

Col lege belong either to the Christian Church or Church of Christ, 2 in tervi ewees reported their denominational membership as 11Christi an/Church of

Christ,11 and it was necessary to ascertain what was meant by such answero

Al l 10 interviewees reviewed the data and said it was correcto Thi s al so hel ped to establ ish rapport between intervi ewer and interviewee.

Review of socio-economic status . When tol d the socio-economi c

$tatus score and what it meant in terms of social class, some students did not think of themsel ves as being in that particular social class.

The typical response was 11 I did not think we ( my fami ly) were that far up on the scale.11 It is the writer's opinion that for the most part , however, the results el icited by the test were accuratea 69

Review of fundamental ism test. Nine of the 10 scores indicated

strong fundamentalist learni ngs . In fact, one would probably have diffi

cul ty locating a non-fundamental ist on the Johnson Bible Col lege Campus.

One person wrote at the bottom of the re ligious fundamental ism test, 11\�hat

did you expect to find here at Johnson?11 Nine respondents indicated that

their responses were an accurate statement of their rel igious bel iefs .

One person mi sread one of the questions and thereby answered it incorrect

ly. The corrected score wou ld have been 15 rather than 11. Seven persons

scored the maximum 18, while the other 3 had difficul ty invol ving inter

pretation of questions 8 and 9.

Review of rel igious confl ict. Eight interviewees asserted that

their responses on Funk •s Rel igi ous Confl ict Scale were accurate represen

tations of thei r opinions , at the time of the test ( Fall Semester, 1979).

Out of a possible 22, scores ranged from 21 to 10, wi th al l but 1 in the

10-1 4, or medium range. One person noted that the score earn ed was in

deed correct since he was a 11bit undecided at the time11 he gave those an

swers , 11but 1 semester at Johnson Bible Coll ege has made me more certain.11

(The interviews were conducted in the Spring semester, 1980). The inter

view revealed that for one person it Nas not so much confl ict over rel i gious ideas as it \'Jas a reaction to anrl misunderstandinq of the 1t10rd "re

ligion." A variety of interesting and reveal ing data came from this dis

cussion of rel igious confl ict. Four persons indicated that the confl ict

invol ved doing what was ri ght rather than a debate over what was truth.

One of the four remarked , "I know what I should be but I can •t seem to do 70 it.11 Another 11 hope ( s ) that in the future my faith grows stronger and I learn how to do what I know I should do . My bel i efs wi ll not change.11

Still another wa nts to do what is right so as to please the parents . One person said that there is a ques tion in his mind as to the correctness of the teaching of his church ( Church of Christ) . 11Are we right or are the others right? In some things other churches are more nearly correct, but

I bel ieve the Church of Christ is closest to the way God would have us to bel ieve. 11 One person who scored fourteen on the test remarked, 11I deci ded to be perfectly honest. At times I questi on my bel iefs a lot.11 Another individual who has been a member of 3 different denomi nations in 18 years is experiencing confl ict because she wants to be sure concerning her fa ith.

She debates her early baptism. 11I need to study and learn about the fai th , but I do not do so.11

Education has contri buted significantly to the rel igi ous con fl ict which five of the interviewees are now experiencing. One of the fi ve stated that education has led to questioning in that 11education in stilled pri nicples in me that led me to doubt. I am more settl ed now than

I was in the beginning.11 Sti ll another who was rai sed in a home were re ligion was 11do's and don't's11 and 11Christ was a discipl inarian11 now sees rel igion as love and understanding as wel l. For another, education in high school led her to question her faith. When this happened she would consult the Bible and 11Whatever it said that was the way it was .11 One per son scored 21 of a possible 22. 11 I never thought seriously about rel igion before but now I want to discover if I am what I say I am ,11 she remarked.

This is the result of strong disagreement wi th certain college rules which 71 tri ggered a deeper level of thought. She noted that she intends to use the enti re summer of 1980 to work through the present confusion .

Three persons indicated an interest in and a willingness to dis cuss rel igion , though one said she grew 11impatient with those who bel ieve differently.�� 11Sometimes I even stop discussing because it upsets me ,11 she stated . One interviewee who sees the need to be 11l ed less by others and think more on my own ,11 says discussing rel igion hel ps her to think.

11 I am wi lling to listen to opposing points of view, thei r expl anation , learn more about it to see if it is reasonabl e.11

Five interviewees discussed the role of education and teachers in parti cular in hel ping students investigate thei r fai th. Three of the

5 said that teachers have the o�igation to present potential ly chal lenging ideas to students but with certain restrictions. One person noted that teachers have the obl i gation to present 11even opposing ideas11 but that students should be brought up in this kind of teachinq and not just intro duced to it in col lege. Another stated that 11teacher and education should make you want to search for the truth. However, if a teacher teaches things that di shonor God you should have him straightened out or get a new teacher.11 Still another said, 11Yes, but in the Chri stian atmosphere where there are materials and teachers to hel p you wo rk through the questions.11

One interviewee remarked that he wo uld listen to a teacher who expressed opposing ideas 11 if the Bible was not clear on the subject but if it was he wou ld not listen.11

Review of anxiety . Al l ten respondents fel t that the results of the IPAT test were accurate . Scores on the IPAT test were such that 72

5 persons were in the category of 11average level of anxiety11 and 5 were

in the category where such scores are 11found in only 1 of 20 cases.11 At

the time it was administered the test was not identified as a measure of

anxiety. During the interview, however, all were quite interested to

learn what the test measured and the significance of the score . Al l in

tervi ewees were encouraged to comment on anxiety as it related to their

lives and , if the score indicated such, to try to account fo r the high level of anxiety , to comment on the effects which they feel it had on

their daily experience , and to tel l if this anxiety is in any way rel ated to their rel igious experience/activi ty. The person who made the lowest score on the test (29) said that he does not 11get real hyper over things.

I1m usual ly very calm. At times , I get upset over things but I can con trol it.11 He does not feel that what anxiety he does have is in any way related to his rel igious experience. By his own admi ssion he is not very open to new ideas. Some teachers have said things that caused him to think about his rel igious views but none have caused him any real anxiety.

Two persons who scored high on the test (38, 45) stated that the anxiety was rel ated to things other than rel igion. In one case the anxiety (38)

is rel ated to personal aggressiveness which seems to be rerated to the prodding of parents . He wants to make good grades and please his parents but fears that he .wi.l l disappoint them as two older brothers have done.

He has definite goal s and has littl e patience with those who do not feel as he does . In another case the anxiety (45) seems to be rel ated to a number of factors none of which is rel igion. He wo rks full time for John son Bible Col l ege as a printer. Both the training which he received from hi s mother at home and as a printer has made him a perfectionist in his 73

wo rk. Some of the work-study students whom he supervises at Johnson Bi

ble Col l ege upset him with their unwillingness to do their best work. It

is this writer's opinion that his over-al l situation contri butes to the

high level of anxiety--married , working ful l time, wife working, both he

and his wi fe are going to school , and caring for a child. The interviewee

did comment that he is changing now , rel axing mo re , taking it easier with

himsel f and wi th others and that rel igion is hel ping him to do thi s.

Seven persons wi th above average to high anxiety scores asserted

that the anxiety was in some way rel ated to rel igion. Two of the 7 stated

that the anxiety had to do with the practice of rel igion. "I see the need

to do what is right , but I have no real desire to ; I can 't seem to bring mysel f around to studying and answeri ng the questions that bother me ,"

said one. Another remarked that, 11 it had to do wi th petty things, like

temper, bad thoughts in my mind. I don't study so that I can answer the

questions that people ask about my fa ith. I know I shoul d but I don't.

I feel guilty over this.11 Three of the 7 interviewees rel ated the anxie-

ty to re'l igious bel iefs . One stated that he is serious about rel igion and

for that reason he "wants to know what is right." 11When problems arise

and I am not abl e to think ·it out I go with mv feel ings. When I am not

abl e to think through a rel igious question I swi tch into the 1hyper1 gear ..

Once in high school I was tal king to this athei st and almost lost 'my cool !.

The anguish lasted for about a day." Another intervi ewee remarked that

she feel s guilty when she hears new ideas about rel igion. She experiences

consi derabl e anguish because this causes her to be unsure about her fa ith.

The resulting anguish never causes her to cry, lose sleep , or stop eating.

Her mind is upset for a day or two . but that's about al l. The third 74 interviewee who feels very sure about her rel igious views says that it upsets her when people disagree with her rel igious ideas because she feels they are wrong. If it was a close friend who did so she would probably be upset enough to lose sleep over it but not otherwi se.

Two interviewees have experi enced considerabl e anxiety directly rel ated to rel igious confl ict. The rel igi ous confl ict was brought into focus by disagreement with some of the rules at Johnson Bible Col lege, dress code and curfew. One person , wi th an anxiety score of 55 and a confl ict score of 21 ( of a possible 22} is now thinking seriously about rel igion whereas before she never did so. She wants to know what she bel ieves and why she bel ieves. She feel s guilty at Johnson Bible Col lege

11Surrounded by all these good people11 and consequently tries to cover it up. Throughout the interview she kept saying that she needed to get away from people and think it through for hersel L The results of this turmoil for her personally have been consi derable. She says that she is not as re sponsible as she used to be. She experienced a great depression at the start of the second semester, 1980, and during this time she would often stay up all night tal king, writing letters , or reading , then sleep through her classes the next day. As a consequence her grades went down and she narrowly avoided difficulty with the administration of the col l ege. Al so, during this time she had a bad throat problem which the doctor's diagnosed as 11nervous, nothing physical ." Al l of this she directly relates to the confl ict over rel igion raging in her life.

The second intervi ewee reports a similar experience to the pre ceding . In fact, the two went through the experience together, although it was not nearly so intense for this person. In high school she fel t the 75 need to do what others said and did very littl e thinking on her own . Now she wants to be led less by others and to ma ke up her own mind. Rules at Johnson Bibl e Col lege, dress code and curfew, have brought this about.

Too , certain ideas of the faith, certain bel iefs , are upsetting her and she is currently working to uderstand these and find her own answers . This caused health problems for her as wel l. S.he went to the doctor fi rst se mester 1979-80 with "stomach troubl e" which was diagnosed as nerves. She , too , slept through several classes after staying up al l night tal king, reading, or wri ting letters and likewi se narrowly avoided diffi culty with the admi nistration over this. This person seems to have resolved her dif ficulties better than her friend and as of the interview date plans to re turn to Johnson Bi ble Col lege for another year.

Case Study 2, Dearon

Dearon is an 18 year old female from the state of Kentucky, a member and regular attender of the Church of Christ for about 2 years , and at the time of the interview a second semester freshman at Johnson Bible

Col lege. She is. 1 of 2 chil dren in a fami ly that on the soci o-economic scale ranks in the upper-middl e cl ass. Dearon was a good student in high school and "had better than a B average on hard subjects like Physics and

Math." While at home she enjoyed considerabl e freedom to come and go as she pleased so long as she did not stay out "much past midnighV1 and her parents knew that she was with a good group of friends and "in a safe place." Her home church has approximately 85 members and since joini ng

Dearon has been an enthusiastic participant, especial ly active in the youth program. Dearon came to Johnson Bible Col l ege quite undeci ded about 76 what she wanted to do in the future thinking that perhaps she could ma ke up her mind whi le at school .

Life and study at Johnson Bibl e Col l ege has been a disappo int ing as wel l as upsetting experience for Dearon. A rel igious confl ict score of 21 and an anxiety score of 55 indicated both a . high level of anxiety and a great deal of indecision regarding matters of rel igion.

Both of these have surfaced only recently in her life. The interview re vealed that the two , anxiety and rel igious confl ict, were definitely re lated. Dearon 's rel igious bel i efs have not been chall enged by any of her classroom experiences. No one has presented any disturbing new theories or points of view. The carefully control led atmosphere at Johnson has

proved to be her undoing •.Ru les, many of which she cal ls 11petty11 , have caused her to reasses s her whol e rel igi ous perspective : curfew at 10:15 p.m. and that means in the dormi tory and quiet, not al lowed to leave the dormi tory unti l after 6:00 a.m. in the morning, no shorts may be worn within a 70 mile radius of the col lege, bl ue jeans must be worn when play ing tennis, dresses wi th slits may not exceed 3 inches above the knee, and discrimi nation in favor of the mal e student. As resul t, Dearon is now thinking seriously about rel igion, she is reassessing her values. 11 I want to discover if I am what I say I am. I am truly investigating rel igi on.11 She finds hersel f doubting a lot now whereas not so much before . 11 I try to hide it. In the middl e of Johnson surrounded by all these good peo ple I feel guilty over it. I try to cover it up.11 Dearon remarked that she felt the need to get away where she can be alone and think things through. At the time of the interview she coiTITlented that 11in about 3 or

4 days we have a week's vacation coming and I can 't wait to get out of 77 here." A bit later she expressed the hope that "in the Summer of •so I can think through by rel igious ideas . I want to do some research, be alone, and arrive at some concl usions.11

Al l of this disturbance over rel igious ideas has had some very definite effects on Dearon. Beginning about the "third week of the ( sec ond) semester," sometime near the end of January, she experienced severe depression. She had difficul ty eating, sleeping, even developed trouble with her "throat bur her nin�" which doctor diaqnosed as "nerves, nothing physical ." Dearon and a friend who was having much the same troubl e as she at the time, began staying up nights tal king, reading, writing letters , and then sl eeping. through their classes the following day. The two of them fel l behind in their studies and were soon in troubl e wi th the ad ministration over class absences. Although the situation had improved somewhat by the time of the interview near the end of March, Dearon said that she probably would not return to Johnson for the 1980-81 school year.

Dearon •s fundamental ism score of nine as wel l as the discussion of bel iefs in the interview showed that she was not a strict fundamentalist.

In her case she came to a strongly fundamental ist educational institution bel ieving that she would be confi rmed in her bel i efs and rel igious prac tice. She stated that she chose Johnson Bible Col l ege because it was a rel igious school . Disturbance over ideas about the Bible and theology were not the beginning point for Dearon•s reassessment of rel igious bel ief.

Instead, disagreement over rules was the thing that triggered her thought processes. In this instance the control led atmosphere whose purpose was to confirm the student in hi s bel ief served an altogether different pur pose. It disturbed the student and thereby brought about the reassessment 78

of bel iefo In the case of the other young lady who shared so much of

Dearon's experience, the effect was somewhat differento The disturbances

did not lead to reassessment of bel ief and she later said that she did

plan to return to Johnson in the Fall of 1 980.

Dearon's rel igious position is quite unusual o She feels strong

ly about the Christian faith, so much so in fact that she 11Would not let others bel i eve as they wanted to bel ieve. ( I ) would like to reason wi th others about rel igion, try to persuade them to accept the Christian rel i gion. ( I ) feel obl i gated to try to do so.11 Nevertheless , she demonstra

ted that she was not inflexi ble in her rel igious pos itiono It is wel l to note that the strict fundamental ist theology as mediated to her in the classroom did not prove upsetting , but only when interpreted as curfew

hours , dress code, sexual discrimination, and the like.

Johnson Bible Col lege : Summary

Students at Johnson Bible Col l ege represent a very select group of individualso Most of the students ( and financial support) come from the

Christian Church or Church of Ch r i st·a nd can .ri�htly be classed as re ligious fundamentalists. There are few surpri ses so far as regulations and requirements are concerned fo r those who enrol l at Johnson Bible Col

lege. Brochures and other material are very expl icit in setti ng forth

the requirements for students at Johnson Bible Coll egea As is true in many instances , however, once enrol led living and functioning in the sys

tem sometimes becomes a bit difficult. Three of the 10 interviewees ex

�ressed disagreement with certain regulations and practices at the school . 79

One of the 3 persons disagreed wi th the long prayers 11lasting sometimes

20 minutes ,11 in the Chapel services.

The education experience at Johnson Bible College, whether in side or outside the classroom, is careful ly desi gned to confirm and bol ster the student in his rel igious life and thought. Not one of the inter vi ewees said anything about heari ng ideas or discussions in the classroom which chall enged or upset his rel igious fai th. Five interviewees did say that education had contri buted to the rel igious confl ict they were currently experiencing but then went on to expl ain that this con fl ict is not of the sort where the individual fi nds the whol e framework of his Christian faith under attack. Rather is it one where the person reports re-examining and viewing rel igious ideas from a different perspective. Course offerings and col lege personnel are carefully chosen wi th an eye toward confi rming the student and hel ping him to grow in his Christian understanding rather than causing him to question his re ligious faith. The strong rel igious confl ict and anxiety which one person reported that she was experiencing, was precipitated by a di sagreement over certain rules and regulations of the Col lege. As result she was re-examin ing her bel ief structure . One other person reported a similar experience though not quite as long lasting as the first. Five interviewees asserted that teachers and education have an obl igation to present 11potentially chal lenging ideas to students11 , but these persons had reference to differ ent rel igious ideas or different rel igious expl anations for Bibl ical or theological issues. Not one intended that an instructor be so bold as to suggest that the worl d came into exi stence in any other way than that 80 descri bed in the Bible or to question the Biblical account of the creation of man.

The causes of anxiety discovered among Johnson Bible Col l ege students are similar in some respects to the causes of anxiety found among other students : urging of parents fo r the student to make good grades , fear of disappointing parents, desire to succeed , and the fear of fai lure.

Seven persons did link the anxiety score in some way to rel igion, whether bel iefs or practice. This does not seem unusual in light of the situation in which they live and study, where there are constant reminders and urg ings to conform in rel igious practice and beliefs , to grow stronger in their rel igious fa ith, and to engage in rel igious evangel ism. The one case in which both the anxiety score and the confl ict score were very high and by the students own admission were rel ated , is the classic example of the person who accepts the rel igious fa ith without a great deal of thought, practices it devotedly, again without asking is it correct or incorrect, and then have some situation precipi tate a re-examination of the tenets of the faith (in this instance it was the rules and regul ations at Johnson

Bible Col lege) which in turn throws the person into a turmoil.

The percentage of persons at Johnson Bibl e Col l ege experiencing

.,acute rel igious crisis,., 10 or possibly 20% is generally in keeping with the finding of Al l port who suggests that the 11Cri tical rel igious concern .. of students may be 11even more widespread11 than the 12% suggested by Havens. l

lAs reported by Al l port , 11Crisis,11 p. 300. 81

Summary and Findings of Interviews at The Uni versity of· Tennessee, Knoxvi lle

The fol lowi ng section summarizes the findings of the interviews at UTK.

Review of qenera l information sheet. The interviewees were asked to review the general information provided , verify it, and compl ete/ clarify the data " This brief period hel ped to establish a congen ial at mosphere in which both interviewer and interviewee could function wel lo

No one made any corrections to the information already providedo

Review of socio-economic status score . Nine of the ten inter viwees stated that in their opinion the test was an accurate indication of their socio-economic status . The one dissenting voice, when tol d what the l3 score indicated , remarked , "No, that 's too higho My fami ly is defi nitely middle class , very middl e class." In the opinion of this writer the test results are accurateo

Review of fundamental ism test. Upon review all ten interviewees said that the test results were accurate o One person indicated di fficul ty interpreting question 7, "The idea of life after death is simply a

" my th 0 One person commented , "I am fundamenta1 i st in bel ief, but 1 i bera 1 in practiceo This will change, however, as I see mysel f becomi ng a stri ct

Cathol ic in the futureo" Al l ten intervi ewees were interested to know,

"What is a fundamentali st?" and in each instance an explanation was made.

Too , each was tol d that in no way is the test score to be construed as a val ue judgement but as a means to place him/her on a rel igious bel ief con ti nuum . One interviewee stated "My rel igious beliefs have changed over 82 the past three years and will continue to do so as I mature. Right now

I'm uncertain in some areas of rel igion but this does not bother me ••

I look to the church, friends , priest, parents as opportunity to share ideas and grow.11 Another remarked that 11As you mature so wi ll your be

liefs. You will begin to think more real istical ly .••. You have to show me that new ideas are good before I wi ll change .11 Three interviewees fore saw 11little if any change in rel igious bel i efs in the near future .11 One person noted that her rel igious bel i efs have not changed in the last 4 or 5 years and she does not foresee any change . Another commented that her faith has become stronger since coming to UTK and she sees hersel f

11 becoming more fundamental ist in the future .11

Review of religi ous confl ict. The ten interviewees said that thei r rel igious confl ict scores we re correct. Al l ten scores were in the medium or high range. One person said that his ambi val ence toward rel igion is not as great now as it used to be. Three interviewees commented that the confl ict was between bel ief and practice. 11 I do the very things I was brought up to bel ieve are wrong,11 said one person. In this instance it had to do wi th sexual contact. Still another remarked , 11 rel igion dis turbs me when I do not live up to the best thi ngs , when I do not do the rel igious practices I should: pray , read the Bible, go to thurch.11

Five interviewees asserted that education plays or has played a significant rol e in their rel igious confl ict. The comments of one per son in this regard are most informative. Two classes, one in particular, chall enged her rel igious concepts , 11Shook her fa ith,11 so much so that she had to discuss the ideas with a parent. She had been taught never to doubt 83 so when these confl icting ideas came her way she was greatly disturbed.

"It started me to thinking seriously." She remarked that she could not bel ieve that all her life "all those sweet ol d ladies in Sunday School and preachers had hidden thi ngs from me. I fel t deceived. When the new ideas came I did not know what to bel ieve. I had to search for some answers . I now have reasons fo r bel ieving as I do . My faith is a more rational fai th."

When asked to name those· courses where subject matter or class proceedings disturbed their rel igious iDeas the most, 9 of 10 interviewees listed Geology, Engl ish ( "Where the teacher presented a Freudian view of sex and put women in their place" ), Worl d Rel igions , Western Civilization,

Astronomy , Botany , Phil osophy, and Sociology, whi le Geology was mentioned more often than any of the others . The issue of the manner of creation of the universe, whether it occurred according to the way descri bed in the

Bible or in some other way , caused more probl ems for these students than any other. One person noted that the discussion of the eucharist in West ern Civilization "chal l enged her, shook her faith."

Eight interviewees stated in very strong terms their bel ief that it is indeed the rol e of education to chall enge the student. However, many of those persons who commented in this regard issued a word of caution that the overall welfare of the student must always be kept in mind. One stu dent asserted, "It is good to be uncertain at times , it hel ps you grow.

You need to be chall enged, shaken in your bel iefs . You must be careful , however, not to cause a breakdown in the person especially if the ideas are different from those of his family's." Another student stated that,

"education should expose the student to as many different points of view 84 as possible, even if it disturbs the person." Yet another remarked that

education should "chal l enge students even if it is upsetting to them. One

day in class I said, 'It hurts to think like that.' I was disturbed but

it fel t good." One person, after stating in very strong terms that "edu

cation is to ma ke you wonder; it's good for you," said, "in the future I wi ll choose those courses that make me think."

Al l those students who addressed the question supported the idea

that teachers in any field, when deal ing with topics in his particular

area , should present all expl anations and points of view even though one or mo re might wel l offend the rel igious sensibilities of some student(s).

Al ong this same line, seven interviewees said they are of the opinion that

teachers have an obl igation to present al l points of view on al l issues , especial ly rel igious issues, even though some students are upset in the

process. One person said "the teacher should show you al l points of view

on a topic, but shoul d not use the classroom as a platform. Students need to be exposed to a 11 kinds of ideas but not have any imposed on them."

Another remarked that if time permits the "teacher should cover a broad · spec trum of ideas. If not, then present a middle of the road opinion. Stu- dents must always have the right to voice their opinions." Still another said that "teachers should present major viewpoints and let the student

make up his own mind, even if it means upsetti ng the student. • The teacher should be careful how he brings up controversial issues and not do so in a vol atile way. Ma ke sure he does not endorse any particular view.

Let the student decide.11 85

One student remarked that 11teachers should present points that

make you question rel igion , raise questions in the student•s mind. I

would appreciate a teacher who did that. However, teachers should not

purposely antagonize students ...

Only one intervi ewee had anything derogatory to say about tea

cher attitude toward rel igion at UTK. Her comment was , 11 Some teachers at

UT are 1down on rel igion • so I take what they say wi th a grain of sal t.

I real ly pity these people ... None of the other intervi ewees had anything

to say on this matter even when questioned directly.

Al l interviewees were asked how they would handl e a classroom

situati on where the material or teacher comments upset their rel igious

bel iefs. Would you speak out in class? Two said they would not say any

thing. Seven persons said they would either speak up in class or say

something to the instructor afterwards. One interviewee said 11in West

ern Civilization I fel t the need to say, 1Hey , you •re wrong.•n Another

remarked, 11 I would suppl ement what the teacher just said. I wo ul d try to

speak to the instructor after class, but if I got no results then I would

say something to the whol e class.11 11 I woul d listen carefully to the tea-

cher, .. said another, 11let him tal k so I would be sure of my ground. Then

I would speak privately with the teacher. If this did not get results I

would speak out in class.11

Students were asked to hypothesize how they woul d answer ques

tions on a test which asked for materi al that contradicted their rel igious

bel iefs . The usual answer was, 11 I would write down what the teacher wanted ...

One person commented , 11 I would say •this is the answer but I do not bel i eve

it.• Then I woul d write my own bel iefs and opinions in the margin and 86 identify them as my beliefs." T\-JO interviewees commented that they mi ght drop the course if it became oppressive.

Review of anxiety. Al l 10 interviewees felt that the IPAT test had accurately measured their anxiety level s. Scores ranged from 32 to

58. Tv10 persons had average to high average level of anxiety, 2 had serious anxiety , and 6 had scores that occur in only "1 out of 20" cases.

At the time of the survey the test was not identified as a measure of anxiety. Al l interviewees were interested to learn what the test measured .

None seemed surprised , however, at his score on the test. Al l were asked to discuss anxiety as it related to them and account for the anxiety indi cated by the score. One person whose score was average did not discuss his anxiety but the other nine intervi ewees did. One of the 9 said that about the time he took the test he had a fi ght at wo rk and that a good friend had shot himsel f. Another person rel ated the anxi ety to recent events in her life when she left school , went to work at a resort , laid rel igion aside , and "just went wi ld." "I used to be a very control led person , wel l organized but not now, however. I have trouble sleeping and eating ."

Three persons said they were very anxious and had been so for quite some time now . One of the 3 described herself as "highly anxious ." People and school get to her. "I didn't look forward to col l ege. I only came to col lege to get a better job and better my position in life." Much of the time she is very tense. She takes medication for her condition . Recently she lost her purse containing her medicine and was thrown into a near panic.

Another remarked that she is "natural ly hyper. I am bored easily. I 87

usually daydream in long classes ... She likes acti vity-with lots of people around , and has an inordinate fear of 11Supernatural thi ngs.11 She became very anxious in one class as they were discussing the Christian concept of eucharist. The interviewee fel t, however, that her great anxiety on this occasion was not so much due to confl ict in rel igious bel ief but to

her general insecuri ty about al l new different things. The third inter viewee sees a definite connection between rel igious confl ict and his anx

iety . He feared that at the time he came to coll ege 11his bel i efs were not as wel l planted as they should be and that they might not stand .11 For this reason he questioned comi ng to col lege. As things have turned out, however, this is a real advantage 11because I am very wi lling to stand in class and express my opinion.11 One intervi ewee is very insecure , but is unabl e to account for it. She sees no rel ationship between her anxiety score and rel igious confl ict. Another intervi ewee sees a rel ationship be tween the anxiety score and concern to make good grades to please her parents and hersel f. She recal ls an incident in high school when a dis cussion of evol ution in Biology cl ass resulted in great anguish for her and several classmates.

One interviewee with a score af 54 attributes the score almost entirely to concern over rel igion. Her great desire is 11to change ,11 and be a 11true Chri stian,11 a desire that began about 3 years ago , at age 15.

She worries that somehow she wi ll never 11change.11 She tal ks to hersel f about this anxiety to change and her mind wanders in class as she thinks about it. Thoughts of it keep her awake at night and tal ks with friends do not seem to hel p. She runs track fo r the university and lately has experienced bad stomach pains. Examinations have revealed nothing except 88 worry as the cause of the trouble. She stated that she has searched ev-

erywhere for this desi red 11change.11 Phil osophy class and Sociology cl ass

have disturbed her rel igious ideas , suggested questions and answers that

never before occurred to her, and she has wel comed these as possible so

lution to her problem, but so far nothing has hel ped . At a recent track meet she wanted to tal k with a missionary who was present but did not get to do so. She says she wants to 11take some rel igJ on courses11 in hopes that these might hel p. Further discussion revealed that her great concern

is over bel i efs and practices , how she acts and conducts hersel f.

Case Study 3, Marisa

Mari sa is an 18 year old third quarter freshman from a city in North Carolina, attendi ng UTK on an athletic scholarship. She is a member of a large Uni ted Methodist Church in her home town and attends

regularly when at home. Marisa 11despised the church when she was younger11 because 11her parents made her go. 11 There are three other chil dren in her middle-class fami ly.

The rel igious confl ict score of 14 and review of the rel igious fundamental ism score of 13 in the interview both poi nted to considerable indecision about rel igion on her part. Marisa said that her diffi culties

regarding rel igion began about 3 years ago when she was 15 years old. As noted above, while living at home she was forced to go to ehurch and as a result came to resent the church. Now that she is on her own and there

is 11no one to push her into it11 Marisa is 11trying to decide about rel igion.11

She reads a great deal , has long conversations wi th her friends , goes to church on a somewhat regular basis, and has experienced consi derabl e 89 intel lectual stimulation in her courses at UTK. Marisa's great desire is "to change " by which she means to experience a religious con version, and this desire has intensified since coming to UTK.

Mari sa sees her great concern over rel igion as directly rel ated to the considerable anx i ety which she presently experiences , as may be seen from her IPAT score of 54. ''I wo rry about studies sometimes but my greatest worry is about being a better person, wanting 'to change. ' I think about rel igion al l the time," remarked t·1ari sa. At one time Marisa began to have stomach cramps when she ran track. Her trach coach diag nosed these as being the result of wo rry and anxiety o "It's ( rel igion ) on my mind all the time, day and night. It keeps me awake at night. A lot of times in class my mind wanders and I will catch myself worrying about changing and not listening to what's going on . Other times I have tal ked to mysel f about it," asserted Marisao At certain poi nts in the in terview Mari sa conveyed the feel ing of desperation about the matter: "I worry that I will never change!" At the concl usion I suggested that she mi ght like to seek the hel p of a rel igious counsel or in the university area .

Two courses in particular at the University, one Phil osophy and the other Sociology , have contri buted to Marisa's heightened concern over rel igion. The phil osophy course especially has disturbed her rel igious ideas , caused her to think. "It raised many questions in my mind; ques tions about God, questions that never occurred to me before," she stated.

Marisa was even more upset over discovering that some in the class did not bel i eve in God. She viewed these cl assroom experiences as good, hel pful even though they did upset her. Marisa feels that this is the role of ed ucation, "to shake people's ideas , make students think so they will grow." 90

Mari sa stated that in the future when selecting courses she wi ll definite ly choose those that make her think because she "wants to know. "

When asked about her reaction in cl asses where rel igious ideas were discussed with which she did not agree Marisa said that she listens closely, lets the student or teacher tal k so that she understands what is bei ng said or the opinion bei ng expressed , "then sometimes I speak out and defend my opinion or express my bel iefs." If the occasion ever arose where the teacher persisted in making statements she found offensive the next step would be to speak privately wi th the teacher and if that did not hel p, ma ke a direct chal l enge to the professor in the classroom. Marisa bel ieves that any mental turmoil resul ting from classroom discussions and presenta ti ons has been hel pful to her as she struggles to resolve her own rel igious probl em.

Mari sa sees herself moving toward a resolution of the rel igious crisis. At a recent track meet she tri ed to tal k with a partici pant from another school , a young woman who was a missionary, about her situation in hopes of finding some hel p or sense of direction, but did not get to do so.

She often discusses the matter wi th friends and they are able to hel p some , but it is something that in the long run she wi ll have to resolve on her own. "I only hope it1s not too late ," says Marisa.

The rel igious confl ict which Mari sa experienced was not brought on by classroom presentations or discussions or encounter with new rel igi ous ideas which upset her thinking, al though she has had such experiences.

Perhaps the classroom discussions fueled the fl ames but they did not pre cipitate the confl ict. The roots of the difficulty reach back into the high school years and the intense desire "to change" , have a rel igious 91 conversion , yet unabl e to do so. No doubt guilt over disliking church when forced to attend and perhaps doing things she had been taught were wrong added to her diffi cul ty. While it was disturbing to sit in classes and hear presented and discussed material and ideas which were counter to her own , Mari sa sat through them , even participated in them , with the thought that such woul d hel p her in her pursuit of a conversion experi ence.

The University of Tennessee, Knoxville: Summary

Al l of the tests sel ected for use in the survey did indeed measure accurately the different variables of socio-economic status, rel igious con fl ict, rel igious fundamentalism, and anxiety. Some difficul ty arose with the use of the fundamental ism scales especially when subjects reasoned too long over a parti cular question. Question 7 caused the most trouble in this regard .

It woul d appear that students of al l rel igious faiths , denomina tions , or degrees of rel igious committment, experience littl e if any dif ficulty studying and working in the atmosphere of UTK. There is no evi dence to indicate that teachers go beyond the limits of sound academic and class room procedure in an effo rt to unduly arouse or offend the rel igious sensi bi lities of students. There is no evidence of intentional provocation or disregard of �tudent rights in this respect. On the other hand there is strong indication that every effort is made to cause the student to assess carefully all ideas and poi nts of view and make rational determinations about them. Al l viewpoints on potential ly disturbing issues are presented and ampl e opportunity is given for student discussion , expression, or 92

debate . Several students commented that such experiences had been quite

hel pful to them, No one said that at any time had he been denied the

ri ght to speak or had fel t afraid to express a contrary opinion. Some

students spoke quite frankly of times when the subj ect ma tter or class

discussion had indeed proven disturbing to their rel igious point of view.

However, this was always short-l ived and usual ly resolved by tal king wi th

a roomma te, teacher, or parent.

There was general agreement among interviewees that education

has a responsibility to shake, arouse, and disturb students , and likewi se

agreement that teachers pl ay the major rol e in this. It is as though stu

dents anticipate a certain amount of instabi lity wi thin themsel ves as they

move through the education experience . Some of the intervi ewees were

asked if they feared their university experience because of these chal

lenges to their ideas and outl ook. They were further questioned if at

any point anyone had suggested to them that they should be careful lest

thei r rel igious faith be eroded . Al l persons answered 11no11 to both ques

ti ons .

Questioning of rel igious perspective seems to vary with the sub ject matter rather than the teacher. Certain courses , Phil osophy, Geolo gy , Rel igious Studies, Western Civilization , and Anthropology seem to cause more discussion than any of the others . Of those who reported disturbance

in these classes , however, al l spoke favorable of the disturbances. None said he even consi dered dropping the course. Students themsel ves are aware that certain of thei r number (though perhaps not by name) are more likely to have thei r rel igious veiws chall enged by subject matter and 93 therefore get upset and even as they speak favorable of chal l enge in the classroom they urge that teachers exercise restraint in this regard .

Forty percent of the interviewees noted that thei r rel igious confl ict was rel ated to fai lure to live according to their bel iefs . These persons said that this was particul arly true since coming to the universi ty . At the university students are indeed thei r own 11bosses11 and any nor mal restraint or control placed upon the person is put there by the indi vidual himself. Lack of experience in this regard as wel l as the univer sity atmmsphere wi th its great freedom , numerous diversions, attractions , and pl ural ism in life styl es , ethics , and bel i efs would indeed contri bute to student inability to continue in the university setting a life styl e and behavior pattern establ ished in the home. This would appear to be a part of the overall education process and as such a strength or positive force rather than a weakness or negati ve force.

There was no mention anywhere in the intervi ews of attempts in the classroom by a 11crusading professor11 to make rel igious converts of students . Two persons referred to what they considered to be uncompl imen tary statements about rel igion made by professors but in neither case was it more than passing remarks and did not greatly upset the students in vol ved. There is ample evidence of considerabl e discussion of rel igion-- ideas , bel iefs , practices , rel igious pl ural ism--at the informal level be tween students and student and teacher. In several cases these have pro ven useful in hel ping to resolve di fficulties that arose in class and per haps defused situations that caul� have proven harmful to students and the learning process. 94

There is no evi dence to indicate that students have found the situation at UTK to be any other than what they expected it to be. They came with no fear of the situation , no forewarnings as to what exi sted there. No one indicated that when he came he was "on his guard lest his rel igious faith be destroyed o" More concern was expressed about size and the impersonal nature of the situation than anything el seo

Al though several students report instances of anxiety and dis turbance arising from discussion of rel igious ideas in various classes , in only one instance was the overall anxious state of the person linked directly to rel igion. In this case the anxiety was not of recent origin, certainly not since coming to the university, but goes back to age 15 and has to do with a desi re for rel igious conversion and a fear that somehow it wi ll never happen .

Summary and Findings of Interviews at Hiwassee Col lege The fol lowi ng section summarizes the fi ndings of the interviews at Hiwassee Col lege .

Review of qeneral information data sheeto Each interview began wi th a quick perusal and veri fication of information given on the data sheet. A brief review of general info rmation pertaining to self and fami ly gave the intervi ewee opportunity to begin the conversation on a nonthreat ening level . Too , the additional information and discussion provided great er insight into and understanding of the indi vidual . Al l 10 persons indi cated that the data given at the time of the survey was accurate. 95

Review of socio-economi c score . One of the interviewees answered the questions on the test with reference to hersel f rather than her fami ly, noting that she is now sel f-supporting. Three other persons said they did not feel that their scores refl ected the true socio-economic status of their fami lies. The remaining 6 interviewees did feel that the test had yiel ded accurate scores .

Review of fundamentalism score . Seven of the 10 interviewees scored 12 or above on the fundamentalism testa Scores ranged from a low of pl us 4 to a high of plus 18o Three persons indicated that their scores were not altogether accurate, noting that a misreading of questions 3 and

7 had led to these mistaken scores. The pl us 4, the lowest score earned , would become a pl us 8, when corrected. One person was quite anxious that the score be changed so as to refl ect accurately her bel iefs . With the exception of these changes al l interviewees stated that the test had ac curately measured thei r rel igious bel iefs o Six of the 10 interviewees an ticipate a change in rel igion of one kind or another in the next 5 years .

Three of the 6 foresee a change in rel igious bel ief, 1 of whom wi ll be come more fundamental ist, and another who does not indicate the direction of change but thinks that education will contri bute to it. Two persons anticipate a deepening of rel igious feel ing in the coming years, 1 of whom bel i eves that Hiwassee Col lege•s atmosphere will contri bute to this deepening of his faith. One persons thinks she wi ll become stronger as she 11 bring her rel igious practice in line with her rel igious bel ief.11 Yet another noted that she is unsure about rel igious ideas. 11 I wonder if the 96

'Baptist way ' is correct. I certainly have reservations about it," she stated.

Review of rel iqious confl ict score . Al l 10 interviewees said

their scores on the Survey of Attitudes Towa rd Religi on and Philosophy of

Life test accurately represented their present state of thought. Scores

ranged from a high of 17 to a low of 7 . Eight of the interv i ewees marked

50% or more of the sta tements on the tes t (22 in all ) in such a manner as

to indicate ambivalence towa rd re l igion, whi le the scores of 4 of the 8

indicate high levels of uncertainty. Those persons who made the 4 highest

scores (17, 17, 16, 15) had the fol lowi ng to say regarding their scores .

"I am not confused about bel i efs but I am unsure about what I believe . You

see , rel igion is very important to mec; " rema rked one who scored 17. Ano ther who scored 17 said, "people upset me about rel igion, thi ngs they do

i.n church as wel l as all this business about denomi nations ." "Rel igion

bothers me , I think about it a lot. I was in church and Sunday School as a child but I strayed. The atmosphere at Hiwassee has caused me to think a

lot about re l igion. My biggest problem is that I don 't practi ce what I bel ieve," said the young ma n who scored sixteen. The young woman who

scored fifteen asserted that re l igion bothers her a lot, as she thinks

about it night and day. "I am right now tryi ng to fi nd rel igious truth by reading."

Ni�e of the 10 interviewees supported the view that it is indeed the role of education to make sure that s tudents hear all points of view,

al l sides to an issue, that they become fami liar with varyi ng explanations

and approaches to problems old and new , that they learn to discuss seriously 97 poin ts of view poles apart from their own even if in the process of doing so it upsets the thinking of some of those students . One person remarked 11 ( students) ought not to be left alone, but caused to see op posing points of view.11 Another said, 11Education is knowl edge of every thing and so should cover all po ints of view.11 Yet another asserted that education should 11shake students , otherwise how would you learn to think.11

Some of the intervi ewees made specifi c reference to education •s responsi bi lity to present views and expl anations other than rel igious or Biblical answers . 11Education should at times shake your rel igious bel iefs , cause you to think,11 stated one interviewee. One female respondent of Cathol ic persuasion asserted that 11rel igion and education are two different things.

Education is academic type of learning while rel igion is a separate thing, different.11 Six intervi ewees underscored the role of the teacher in the aforementioned process while 4 of the 6, in one way or another, urged re straint upon the teacher in this regard . 11Teachers sho uld not say this is right, this is it, the way ; do not force any way on the student,11 said one.

Another person poi nted to a very pl easant high school experience in this regard and said 11it is good to get the mind working but for one of unsure faith it might harm them.11 Another said, 11teachers should present ideas on rel igion to a certain point, show its origin, explain it, point out the direction to students11 but go no further. One intervi ewee who fel t very strongly in this regard said, 11Teachers should not ask potentially upset ting questions of students because if a teacher says it, it really makes you think.11 Three persons indicated that experience in classes at Hiwassee

Col l ege had disturbed thei r rel igious view point. There was no s p e cific men tton of a class, however. Three pe rsons referred to classroom experiences in 98 high school in which their rel igious views had been disturbed. A 11science course11 was responsible in two cases and a history course in the other.

In all three instances discussion with family and schoolmates enabled the persons to resolve the difficulties . Required chapel service at Hiwassee

Col lege proved upsetti ng to a young Catholic student. "It was wi ld,·too free .

I1m accustomed to a quiet reserved service, but it1s Ok now!11 One of the

3 coiTTTlented "A teacher at Hiwassee who does not seem to beli ev� in

God upset me very much.11 A fourth person noted that dormitory experiences had caused him to think a lot and reassess his rel igious views .

Nine intervi ewees stated that they would speak out in class and defend their views , rel igi ous or otherwi se, if they were chall enged. Three of the 9 qual i fied their remarks and said they would speak if they were

11Sure of their ground.11 Another remarked that she would speak if the whole class joi ned in the discussion, otherwise no . Still another asserted that she has confidence in hersel f now and would do so but not in high school .

Intervi ewees were asked to hypothesize what they would do if asked a question on a test which if answered correctly would require that the person make statements which he did not believe , in fact, were the exact opposite of his beliefs . Responses by intervi ewees varied . Two persons said they would give the answer the teacher wanted and probably say nothing about it; 3 others said they would give the desired answer but add a comment to the effect that they certainly did not bel i eve it;

1 noted she would put down the way she beli eved 11even t�ough she knew it was wrong,11 while another person recalled an experience in which she 99 refused to answer a question , wrote a note explaining why , and the teacher counted points off her grade.

Review of anxiety score . One score indicated "average" anxiety,

3 indicated anxiety at the "serious level ," while the remaining 6 scores are in the category "found in only l of 20 casesa" Al l 10 interviewees , one rather rel uctantly, stated that in thei r opinion the anxiety scores were accurate a Four persons attri buted their anxiety to fami ly problems .

One noted that rel atives are conti nual ly in "trouble with the law,'' while two others said that the anxiety was di rectly rel ated to an alcohol ic par ent and a broken home lifeo "I bel ieve the indecision in my life is di rectly rel ated to the great resentment I feel for both my parents , espe cially my mother," remarked one of the persons . "Sometimes I wa ke in the middle of the night crying over the situation. I feel very guilty over my attitude toward my parents ," she conti nued. The other says that she cannot quite shake the effects of the arguing and general tension in her home : "I �tiould leave home and sometimes do things I should not do . Then

I'd feel guilty about ito It kept me awake at night and greatl y affected my performance in school o Now that I'm older and real ize what real ly went on it hurts a l ota" The fourth attri butes her level of anxiety to a bro ken home and pampe red upbringing: "I always had anything I wanted. I

never studied in high school a ·I could never be 'just me ', I always had to be the daughter of so-and-soo" As result she has experienced depres sion and on occasion received psychiatric help. She describes hersel f as

"hypero11 One of the three highest scorers rel ated the anxiety to an ac cumulation of probl ems and experi ences reaching back into junior high 100

school . She left home at age 14, was gone for 4 years during which time

she was invol ved with drugs , and had an illegitimate child.

Three of 10 intervi ewees related their anxiety to rel igion but

not to any sort of rel igious disturbance or consternation arising out of

the classroom. One of the 3 stated 11behavior worries me . 'Should I

do this or that?' I have felt great anguish over not doing what I

know is right. Sometimes I worry so much it keeps me from eating while

other times I get indigestion... Another who has great trouble sleeping

and has made frequent visits to the doctor only to be tol d that it is her

11nerves", says that her anxiety stems from guilt over "doing and sayi ng

things I feel I should not be doing or saying. I've gotten lax in my

rel igious habits. • • • The worl d is so wrong. (There is) a lack of love, just sex. People don't really care for each other." This person is great

ly disturbed by recurring dreams . A recent dream about the "devi l11 awa

kened her. She looked in the mi rror and it appeared that the devil wa s

trying to get her. She was afraid to go back to sleep and she and her

roommate sat up the rest of the night tal king.

A third intervi ewee saw a direct connection between the anxiety

score and concern over not living up to what she should do. She said she was afraid that she would die at a time when she was unprepared to die and would go to he1l. She loses sleep over this, cries a lot, and her "nerves are messed up."

Case Study 1 , Zandra

Zandra is 19 years of age and a second quarter freshman at

Hiwassee col lege. She is the oldest of 3 chil dren in a middle-class 101

fami ly. Zandra is a member and regular attender of a Southern Baptist

church in her home city of Chattanooga , Tennessee. The church has an average attendance of 350 persons .

Zandra •s scores were as fo llows : rel igious confl ict 17 (out of a possibl e 22) , rel igious fundamental ism 14 but later changed to 18, the highest possibl e score , because she mi sread question 7, and anxiety 52.

There was no question in Zandra •s mind that her rel igious bel iefs were strongly fundamentalist. In fact, she was quite anxious that the mistake regard ing question 7 be changed so as to refl ect her true bel ief.

When told that a rel igious confl ict score of 17 indicated con siderable indecision regarding rel igion she repl ied, ''Yes , but I am not confused , just unsure about what I bel ieve. Rel igion is very important to me , I think a great deal about rel igion. I know I bel ieve. It•s not that. I once dated a Mormon and we , along with some friends of ours , used to kid around about rel igion but we always knew what we bel i eved." 5 Zandra •s current rel igious concern goes back "4 or years . In the 6th and 7th grades I went through a simi lar crisis. I was messed up about it

then. Sometimes I felt sure and other times I didn•t.11 Zandra sees her

self changing all the time wi th regard to rel igion. 11 Recently there have

been lots of changes (Spring •so) that I don •t really understand." From

her point of view, however, these changes will not involve real changes in

rel igious outl ook. "I do not foresee rethinki ng my rel igious position, no changing like that. My bel i efs will only get stronger over the next five years."

Zandra •s rel igious fa ith has not been chal l enged at any point by anything that she has heard presented or discussed in the classroom 102 at Hiwassee Col lege. She did mention a professor at UTC, though not by name , that she had heard about who presented "weird ideas about rel igion" and had greatly disturbed some of her fri ends. Zandra expressed concern that some "get real educated and try to expl ain away divine things, mir acl es . It seems that the smart ones in col l ege are the ones that turn atheist." Zandra has a pecul iar view of the role of education and the teacher in education. In her opinion "education should stir peopl e's mi nds a bit." Teachers should present and expl ain al l points of view on . all issues but make it clear that these "are only theories." "I had a high school teacher once who did this. He was a strong Chri stian . We used to go to his house for Bible studies . He would present and expl ain all poi nts of view but woul d say these are all theories, but we al l knew which one he fel t was true." Teachers should be careful about raising questions in class. "They need to consider where students are in thei r spiri tual life. It might harm someone whose fa ith is unsure. It can con fuse people!" In another context Zandra remarked , 11Education should pre sent all ideas about a thing but present them as theories not as truth."·

It is clear that Zandra views all ideas and points of vi ew not in agree ment with her own fundamental ist viewpoint as inval id. It is al l right to know they exist but they are not to be seriously considered. Zandra said she thought it was nice that in "Engl ish 101 gods and goddesses were dis cussed. Lots o( school s would not let you do that." When pressed further as to her opinion on the role of education , Zandra expressed concern that after being made aware of al ternate ways of viewing subject matter a 11Stu dent would have trouble picking objectively." What she was real ly saying 103 was that faced wi th a choice some may choose views or explanations other than the fundamentalist explanation.

Zandra stated that whi le until now she has never fel t the need to do so she would speak up and defend her rel igious views in class. In high school , in response to a test question that cal led for material wi th which she disagreed she wrote , 11the book says this (and proceeded to give the answer in the textbook) . It may or may not be true. I don •t agree with it. My point of view is this." Zandra continued by saying, If the teacher presented really strange ideas in class I would not listen or

I would just listen and do nothing else.11

When asked to comment on the anxiety score of 52 Zandra repl ied,

11a lot of it is rel ated to rel igion.11 In her own thinking she had connected the two : anxiety and rel igious confl ict, though she did not use the word anxiety. Zandra fears that she will die at a time in her life when she is

11not prepared to die and will go to he11.11 She is concerned over not 11liv ing up to what (I) know (I) should be doing.11 Several times duri ng the in terview she referred to her failure to practice her fa ith. At one point she remarked, 11rel igion keeps me from doing fun things .11 As result of her own difficulty in this regard Zandra tends to be very critical of others , quick to point out what she preceives to be the failures of her Christain friends and this gets her into trouble constantly. Zandra •s rel igi ous dif ficul ties have often caused her to lose sleep. Her 11nerves get messed up and sometimes I cry. Last Christmas ( 1979) I was very depressed over this and some other things. We were getting on each other•s nerves at home.

I1m not very happy now.11 When she is upset Zandra wi ll hunt up a friend and tal k it over with him/her but she has never tri ed to work her way 104

through the anxiety. Zandra sees the resol ution to the anxiety to 11get my head together and get right wi th the Lord... During the next fi ve years

her rel igious bel i efs wi ll get stronger. She does not foresee rethinking

her rel igi ous pos ition . Her bel i efs will remain the same , 11just get stronger. 11

Hiwassee Col lege : Summa ry

Although Hiwassee Col l ege is owned and operated by the United

Methodist Church and is looked upon as an extension of the Church, there is no evidence that the col l ege attempts to force Methodist doctri ne or even rel igion upon its students. There is a weekly Chapel program which al l students and col lege personnel are required to attend , but even here there is only a general presentation of rel igion, al though it is the Chri s tian rel igion. Students are informed of this requirement prior to their enrollment. There is consi derabl e discussion of the required Chapel among students particularly in light of the denomi national and rel igious plural

ism found in the student body. Some students as wel l as col l ege personnel feel that it is unfair. One of the interviewees remarked that the free,

rather unrestrained manner of worship was a bit disconcerting at fi rst,

but she became accustomed to it after a while. The person further com mented that the rel igious studies course in which she had been enrolled

had not upset her although the subject matter had been handled in an aca demi c, critical manner.

The interviewees did not establ ish a sol id link between rel igi ous confl ict level s and experiences in the classroom at Hiwassee. One must hasten to add , however, that there is no evidence to indicate that any 105

instructor whether in rel igious studies or any other course limits

discussion or consideration to any one single approach, point of view, or

explanation of a subject or issue. Students and teachers range over many

subjects and approaches to problens in the various course offerings ,

whether they be potentially volati le or not. A strong emphasis is placed

on academics and every effort is made to arouse the student intel l ectual ly.

The student body, faculty, and staff at Hiwassee are remarkably

pl ural istic in terms of rel igion as wel l as rel igious denomination. In

fact, though a Methodist-related institution, Methodist students do not

comprise the majori ty of the student body. Contact wi th persons of dif

ferent rel igious persuasions has proven to be a source of vital ity for

the students and enti re col lege community rather than any sort of distur

bance. There are frequent reports of discussions and efforts by Christi an

students to "convert" the non-Christian students , but such has not proven

to be a probl em.

Student reports indicated that all the tests admi nistered pro

vided accurate informati on about them, be it socio-economic status , re

ligious confl ict, rel igious fundamentalism or anxiety. Owing to a mis

reading of questions 3 and 7 on the rel igious fundamentalism test, 3

scores proved inaccurate. Two persons smiled revealingly as their anxi ety

scores were reported to them. It was almost as if they had tol d something about themsel ves which they had not intended to divulge.

Interviews did seem to establ ish a positive correlation between anxiety and various aspects of rel igious confl ict such as guilt over fai l ure to act as the person bel i eves , uncertainty about what the indivi dual bel ieves , and doubt in one's mi nd because of the bad behavior of avowedly 106 rel igious peopl e. Effects on the persons varied ; some had troubl e sleep ing, others had trouble eating , one reported indigestion, whi le others went to the doctor with symptoms only to be tol d that it was their 11nerves.11

With perhaps one exception the anxiety had not greatly upset the inter viewees . As noted earl ier the rel igious confl ict rel ating to the anxiety did not ari se from cl assroom experiences at Hiwassee. Two persons did re port past incidents of anxi ety and rel igious confl ict in high school which were rel ated to classroom experiences , but these had been resolved. In mo st cases the anxiety had not proven so severe that the person could not handle it and likewi se the anxiety was usually rel ated to other probl ems the person was having. Even in those cases where a rel ationship was es tabl ished between rel igious confl ict and anxiety , other factors entered into the situation at the same time.

There was a general feel ing among intervi ewees that expediency wo uld dictate the course of action if and when test questi ons cal led for answers which confl icted wi th the rel igious views of a student. Most said, how�ver, that a defense of one•s private position or protest of some kind would be made if the occasion should ari se.

Interview Phase: Summary and Concl usions

The three schools represented in the study are markedly different and this difference was quite apparent from the interviews. Each institu tion has its own declared purpose. The Uni versity of Tennessee, Knoxville is a publ ic owned and tax-supported institution , with a total student popu lation numbering 25,000-30,000. Hiwassee Col l ege is a two-year liberal arts college affi liated with the Uni ted Methodist Church, Hol ston 107

Conference, with approximately 550 students . Johnson Bible Coll ege is a private four-year Bible coll ege closely affi liated with the Church of

Christ and has an enrollment of approximately 450 students .

The University of Tennessee , Knoxvi lle provides training and educational opportunity in a variety of areas. Inside and outs ide the cl assroom students are urged to learn to grow and develop mentally, to broaden thei r horizons, to consider a broad spectrum of ideas and ap proaches to life, some of which include a variety of rel igious perspec tives and others which excl ude rel igion altogether. Rel igious studies courses are offered at UTK but they are not required for graduation. Re ligious groups and organizations abound in the university area and some religious meetings are held in university bui ldings. In some instances faculty and staff serve as vol untary advisors to these meeti ngs and groups.

However, participation is entirely voluntary and no one group has mo re university support or sanction than the others . Al l groups are viewed as part of the student aci tivites program and come under the same governing policies as the other student activities. Beyond civil behavior and abid ing by the law the university makes no behavior requirements of its students .

Pol es apart from UTK is Johnson Bible Col lege, founded in the late nineteenth century as a part of the resurgence of rel igious fundamen tal ism in America. · The primary purpose of Johnson Bible Col lege is to pre pare persons to function in some capacity as a missionary or representa ti ve of the Christian rel igion and the Christian Church or Church of Christ in particular. The intent of the school is strengthening the Christian re ligious faith of the students . The various curricula are weighted with courses in rel igion all of which are required. Student life is closely 108 supervised. There are dress codes , curfews for both men and women, and

required attendance at rel igious servi ces during the week and on Sundays .

In addi tion , each student has mi ssionary responsibilities at stated times

during the year. Students have almost no opportunity to view alternative

life styl es or to assess in a cri tical way thei r present life styl e. There

is almost no opportunity to discuss issues , view problems , or deal with

questions from any perspective other than the Biblical .

Standing somewhere between these two but probably closer to the

viewpoint of UTK is Hiwassee Col lege. Whi le there is a strong close con

nection between Hiwassee Col lege and her sponsoring agency , the United

Methodist Church, teacher and students al ike are encouraged to pursue truth

vigorously along any path it may lead, to investigate alternative approaches

to probl em solving, to adopt the broader perspective on issues . A guarded

envi ronment as opposed to unrestricted or control led is perhaps the better

descri ption for the situation at Hiwassee Col l ege. Strong efforts are

made to set forth to the �al l ege community the Christian fa ith and its

claims upon persons. This is quite evident from the six hours of Rel igious

Studies required for graduation, the required weekly Chapel service, the

services of a full-time Chaplain, and the presence on campus of an orga

nized church.

Interviewees at Johnson Bible Col lege seemed less incl ined to

expres s doubt , to admit uncertainty abo�t rel igion or anything. There

was more of a feeling of sureness about rel igion found among . these stu

dents . A number of these persons exuded confidence that their rel igious

po int of view was correct and expressed concern , almost pity, for those who thought otherwise. l 09

The student body at the three institutions is quite different.

Students at Johnson Bible Col l ege represent a very sel ect group of indi

vidual s with definite rel igi ous connections who have chosen this school

because they feel that here their rel igious faith wi ll be strengthened.

They come confident of confi rmation not chal l enge. The majority are pre

paring for some rel igious or church-rel ated job and they have been as

sured in advance that there will be ample opportunity for apprenticeship

and traini ng in their decided fiel ds. None of the above considerations

fi gured into the assembly of the student body at UTK and very littl e at

Hiwassee Col lege. There is no rel igious pl uralism at Johnson Bible Col

lege and a vast majority of the students are members of either the Chris

tian Church or the Church of Christ. Many different rel igions, rel igious

sects , and denominations are represented on the campus of UTK and Hiwas

see Col lege, along with persons who have no interest in rel igion or op

pose religion. From the information provided by the intervi ewees it may

be surmi sed that a student need not fear that either insitution or its

personnel wo uld del i berately attack his rel igious standpoint with the in

tent to confuse or bewi lder. The chall enge to such more than likely would

be felt at UTK and Hiwassee College but even here it wo uld only be a man·i· festation of the broad educational purpose and pol icy of the schools.

Interview data indicates more of a correl ation between cl assroom

experiences and rel igious confl ict at UTK than at Hiwassee Col lege or John

son Bible Col lege. Interviewees at Johnson Bible Coll ege noted that class

room presentations and discussions, when they did disturb , did littl e more than introduce alternate Christian interpretations , whereas those at Hiwas

see Col lege found littl e to comment on in this regard . Students at UTK, 110 however, named courses and rel ated specific experiences in which they had experienced strong chall enge to thei r rel igious ideas .

The causes and effects of anxiety appear to be much the same for students at all three institutions. Confl ict over rel igious ideas as a source of anxiety fi gured into a minimum number of cases , only about two in each insti tution to be exact. It would appear that the stringent behavior code at Johnson Bible Col l ege presents some special difficulties fo r students enrol led there .

As the interviewees anticipated the future fewer students at

Johnson Bible Col l ege foresaw changes in thei r bel ief structure than stu dents at UTK or Hiwassee Cal l ege. There appeared to be more of a 11Sure- ness about rel igious bel i ef11 among the Johnson Bible Col l ege students .

Johnson Bible Col l ege interviewees were much mo re willing to 11tal k rel igion,11 to discuss rel igious ideas. Interviewees at the other two institutions readily answered direct questions pertaining to rel igion generally or their particul ar bel ief structure but were not as wi lling to sit and chat about rel igion. They did not seem as comfortabl e with rel igion as the topic of conversation.

The sources of rel igious confl ict appear to be much the same for interviewees at al l three insti tutions. There is certainly less likel ihood that students at Johnson Bible Col l ege wi ll have their rel igious faith chal lenged by classroom presentation/student discussions than students at UTK or Hiwassee Col lege. By the same token , students at Hiwassee Col l ege would probably experience less chal l enge of this nature than students at UTK.

With regard to how they wo ul d handl e the situation of responding to test questions with answers which confl i cted wi th the bel ief system of 111 the student, responses were much the same from all intervi ewees " The probability of such occurring at Johnson Bible Col l ege is quite remote and perhaps less at Hiwassee Col l ege than UTK. Johnson Bible Col l ege students appeared to be more ready to defend themsel ves and their rel igi ous viewpoints should such a situation arise� As noted earl ier, UTK in tervi ewees referred to several instances of classroom situations in which they had fel t strong chall enge to their rel igious ideas , naming courses and instructors " It should be noted , however, that those persons who com mented did so with appreciation for the intel l ectual stimulation and growth which they had experienced in the process" CHAPTER V

SURVEY PHASE

Analys is of Data Relating to Pri mary Hypotheses The analysis of the data of the survey phase of the study is based on the entire sample of 301 students. The data are presented in the form of tabl es and each tabl e or set of tabl es is accompanied by ob servations and concl usions drawn from the data contained therein. This fi rst section contains data rel ated to the primary hypotheses.

Fundamental ism Scores by School and as a Total

A copy of Martin and Westie's Rel igious Fundamental ism Scale is found in Appendix B. The scale is comprised of 9 questions and the hi�hest possible score is +18 and the lowest is -18. No student at ei ther of the 3 school s scored lower than -4 . Scores earned at each of the 3 schools are given in Tabl e 2.

A careful study of Tabl e 2 reveal s that fundamental ism scores are high at all three of the institutions but highest at Johnson Bible Col lege, Hiwassee College next, and then UTK. A score of 11 or above would incl ude 100% of Johnson Bible Col lege's, 86% of Hiwassee Col lege's and 68% of UTK's scores. Fifty-four of the persons surveyed at Johnson Bible col lege scored 18, the maximum, 41 at Hiwassee :sco r�d 18, �hi le only 14 ·�t

UTK scored 18. The table further shows that scores at Hivmssee College and UTK are spread over a much wider range than those at Johnson Bible

Col l ege. Two persons at Hiwassee Col lege scored +l and one person at

UTK registered a -4, while al l the Johnson Bible Col l ege sco res are 112 113

TABLE 2

RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTAL ISM SCORES BY SCHOOL AND AS A TOTAL

Score School Total Percent of. Hiwassee JBC UTK Total

18 41 54 14 109 36 .21 17 2 8 13 23 7.64 16 11 19 8 38 12.62 15 9 9 13 31 10.32 14 9 7 8 24 7.97 13 5 2 6 13 4.32 12 5 2 3 10 3.32 11 4 1 2 7 2.33 10 2 0 5 7 2.33 9 3 0 3 6 1.99 8 1 0 6 7 2.33 7 1 0 4 5 1.66 6 2 0 1 3 1.00 5 0 0 1 1 .33 4 1 0 1 2 .66 3 1 0 2 3 1.00 2 1 0 1 2 .66 1 2 0 2 4 1.33 0 0 0 3 3 1.00 -1 0 0 2 2 .66 -2 0 0 0 0 .00 -3 0 0 0 0 .00 -4 0 0 1 1 .33

(There were no scores below -4.)

Totals 100 102 99 301 100.00 114 clustered in the 11-18 range . Tvm hundred forty-eight or 82% of all the stu ents surveyed scored 12 or above on the test which indicates how strongly fundamental ist the enti re group was . The fact that all three insti tutions are located in the South which is rel igiously conservative probably acco unts in large measure for the data . That Johnson Bible Col lege scores are the highest is no surprise in light of the fact tha t Johnson

Bible College is a 11Bible School ,11 established as part of the resurgence of rel igious fundamentalism in America in the mi d and late 19th Century , bears the reputa tion of rel igious fundamentalist, and is thereby far more likely to attract students of like mind. One tends to be somewhat sur pri sed by the rel igious fundamental ism found among the UTK stude�ts , how� ever. Judging by its reputati on in the immediate area one would tend to bel ieve otherwise concerning those enrol led at UTK. Hiwassee • s scores are somewhat different from Johnson Bible Col lege scores but not al l that much. Hiwassee •s reputation as a conservative liberal arts two year col lege is certainly borne out by the scores . It must be kept in mi nd, however, that persons surveyed were freshmen in ei ther their second or th i rd quarter of school . Perhaps at this poi nt tn thei r academi c ca reers they are not too long removed from home and parental influence and still cling to those ideas and opinions learned at home and in their home communi ties. As yet they may have not had the time , opportunity, nor re cei ved the stimulation to examine or critical ly evaluate their bel iefs and practi ces . 115

Rel igious Confl ict Scores by School and as a Tota l

A copy of Ruth Funk's Rel igious Confl ict Scale may be found in

Appendix B. The scale is comprised of 22 questi ons, the highest possi ble score being 22 and the lowest being 0. Funk says that the Rel igious

Confl ict Scale was designed to "measure simul taneous· tendencies to react 1 in opposing and incompatible ways to the same rel igi ous atti tude object," and that a high score indi ca ted an ambi valent atti tude toward rel igion.

Rel igious confl ict scores are given in Table 3.

Using the scale values: 0-7, low; 8-15, medium; 16-22, high , it may be seen that viewed as a group the confl ict scores are mostly in the high medi um to low range , 14 or less . Two hundred thi rty-six or 78% of the persons surveyed scored ll or less out of a possible 22 on the test. While the majority of students expressed some rel igious confl ict, the scores do not appear to indica te an undue amount of rel igi ous confl ict on the part of these persons . Several reasons may be sugges ted as to why this is true. The students ' educational experience to this point may not have been such that thetr rel igious viewpoint has been chal lenged. Per haps the student is as yet not that far along in his educational experi ence. Possibly the rel igious position of the student is such that the ideas or opini ons expressed make no difference to him one way or the other. Courses , course content, instructor, or some unknown variable may be responsible here. The indi vi dual may have consciously chosen those courses which by reputation do not stir the rel i gi.ous ire of students .

The academi c chal l enge of the institution may be such that student

lfunk, "Experimental ," p. 240. 116

TABLE 3

RELIGIOUS CONFLICT SCORES BY SCHOOL AND AS A TOTAL

Score School Tota l Percent of Hil-1assee JBC UTK Total

0 1 1 1 3 1.00 1 1 3 2 6 1.99 2 2 7 0 9 2.99 3 1 12 4 17 5.65 4 6 14 4 24 7.97 5 5 5 6 16 5.32 6 7 9 9 23 7.64 7 8 9 9 26 8.64 8 9 10 12 31 10.30 9 11 7 13 31 10.30 10 7 5 9 21 6.98 11 15 8 6 29 9.63 12 6 4 8 18 5.98 13 6 3 3 12 3.99 14 3 3 8 14 4.65 15 6 0 2 8 2.66 16 3 1 2 6 1.99 17 3 0 1 4 1.33 18 0 0 1 1 0.33 19 0 0 0 0 0.00 20 0 0 1 1 0.33 21 0 1 0 1 0.33 22 0 0 0 00 0.00

Totals 100 102 99 301 100.00 117 intel l ectual equilibri um is never upset at that particular place. In the

case of at least one of th.e insti tuions i. ncl uded in this study, Johnson

Bible College , the avowed intent of the school is to confi rm and strengthen rel igious convictions and not create doubt or arouse suspicion relati ng to those convictions .

Rel igious confl ict scores at Johnson Bible Col lege are lower

than those at either Hiwassee Col lege or UTK. Seventy or 69% of the scores at Johnson Bible Col lege are 8 or below as compared to 40 or 40% at Hiwassee College and 45 or 45% at UTK.

Anxiety Scores by School and as a Total

The res ul ts of the IPAT Anxi'ety Scale by school and as e1 total are given in Table 4. Cattel l and Scheier have the fo llowing to say re garding IPAT scores :

General ly, a sten score of 4, 5, 6, or 7 (a raw score of 19-39) indicates an average level of anxiety. Scores of l, 2, or 3 (a raw score of 0-18) are typically found in unusually relaxed se cure , phlegmatic individuals. A score of 8 (a raw score of 40- 44) indi'cates a person whose anxiety, level would be getting serious wh ile stens of 9 or 10 (a raw score of 45-80) are found in only about 1 of 20 cases . 2

As a group the anxiety scores are as fol lows : 31 or 10% are in

the 11unusually relaxed, secu re , phlegmati c indi viduals11 category; 189 or

63% are in the 11average level of anxiety11 category ; 40 or 13% are in the

11Serious level of anxiety11 category ; and , 41 or 14% are i: n the 11found in only l of 20 cases11 category·. The number of scores in each of the cate gories at each of the schools differs only slightly from the scores as a whole. The biggest difference is in category l, 11Unusually relaxed ,

2cattell and Scheier, pp . 1 6, 19. 118

TABLE 4 ANXI ETY SCORES BY SCHOOL AND AS A TOTAL

Score School Total Percent of Hiwassee JBC UTK Total

0 0 0 0 0 .00 1 0 0 0 0 .00 2 0 0 0 0 .00 3 0 1 0 1 . 33 4 0 0 0 0 .00 5 0 0 0 0 .00 6 0 0 0 0 .00 7 0 0 0 0 .00 8 0 2 0 2 .66 9 0 0 0 0 .00 10 0 0 0 0 .00 11 1 0 0 1 .33 12 0 1 0 1 .33 13 1 3 1 5 1.66 14 0 0 2 2 .66 15 0 1 1 2 .66 16 1 4 0 5 1.66 17 0 4 3 7 2.33 18 1 1 3 5 1.66 19 1 3 4 8 2.66 20 2 3 2 7 2.33 21 5 4 3 12 3.99 22 4 1 3 8 2.66 23 5 1 3 9 2.99 24 1 5 2 8 2.66 25 5 2 1 8 2.66 26 5 4 2 11 3.65 1 1.33 27 1 2 4 28 0 2 4 6 1.99 29 7 7 2 16 5.32 30 4 1 5 10 3.32 31 4 6 5 15 4.98 32 0 3 3 6 1.99 33 3 3 5 11 3.65 34 6 2 1 9 2.99 35 5 3 5 13 4.32 36 0 1 1 2 .66 37 1 3 4 8 2.66 38 1 3 4 8 2.66 39 3 3 4 10 3.32 40 3 2 2 7 2.33 119

TABLE 4 ( continued)

Score School Total Percent of HhJassee JBC UTK Total

41 2 2 1 5 1.66 42 8 3 3 14 4.65 43 2 1 3 6 1.99 44 3 3 2 8 2.66 45 1 2 2 5 1.66 46 2 2 1 5 1.66 47 1 3 0 4 1.33 48 1 1 0 2 .66 49 2 1 3 6 1.99 50 0 0 1 1 .33 51 2 0 1 3 1.00 52 1 1 1 3 1.00 53 0 0 1 1 .33 54 1 0 2 3 1.00 55 1 2 0 3 1.00 56 0 0 0 0 .00 57 0 0 0 0 .00 58 0 0 2 2 .66 59 0 0 0 0 .00 60 0 0 0 0 .00 61 2 0 0 2 .66 62 0 0 0 0 .00 63 0 0 0 0 .00 64 1 0 0 1 .33

Total s 100 102 99 301 100.00 1 20 secure persons . 11 Only 4% of Hiwassee •s scores fell into this category

whereas 16% of Johnson Bible College•s scores and 10% of UTK scores

fel l in this group. The mean score for the variable anxiety is 32.22.

Analysis of vari ance reveals that there is no significant difference

between the schools so far as anxiety scores is concerned.

Analysis of the Relationships Among Fundamental ism, Rel igious Confl ict , and Anxiety by Schools and as To tals.

The fo llowing discussion is based on information given in Ta-

bles 5, 6, and 7. Careful attention to Table 5 reveals that rel igi ous

fundamentalism bears a significant negati ve correlation to rel igious con-

fl ict and anxiety at Hiwassee Col lege, Johnson Bi. ble Coll ege , UTK, and as

a total sampl e. Although anxiety and rel igious fundamentalism are not

significantly correlated at either Hiwassee College, Johnson Bible Col

lege (though quite close, .0545) , or UTK , these two variables are nega-

ti vely correlated when the scores for the enti re sample are put together.

Rel igious conflict aand anxi ety are signi ficantly correlated at all

. points--Hiwassee Col lege , Johnson Bible College, UTK, and when the sampl e

is viewed as a unit.

The significance of the abo�e data is as fol lows : flu ctuations

in level of fundamenta lism are linked to fl uctuations in rel igious confl ict.

The more fundamentalis.t the student is, i.e. , the higher the rel igious

fundamenta list score , the less rel igious confl ict that individual expert -

ences. A posstble reason for this is a rigid belief structure . A rel igi-

ous fundamental ist qperates from a position which has defini te clearly

defi ned answers for al l questions , situati ons , and problems one is likely

to face and , as such , i. s. unl ikely to be dis turbed or upset by alternative 121

TABLE 5

ANALYSIS OF THE RELATIONSHIPS AMONG FUNDAMENTALISM, RELIGIOUS CONFLICT, AND ANXI ETY BY SCHOOLS AND AS TOTALS

Std . Dev. Pr > 5 Stat. Sign.

Hiwassee : Fundamental ism 4.22 Rel igious Confl ict 3.81 -.0403 ./._ .05 Anxiety 10.98 -.1027 ;-.05

Hi\.11assee : Religious Confl ict 3.81 Anxiety 10.98 .0001 ·� . 05

JBC : Fundamental ism 1.67 Rel igious Confl ict 3.87 -.0143 �.05 Anxiety 11 .25 -.0545 :--.05

JBC: Rel igious Confl ict 3.87 Anxi ety 11 .25 .0001 < . 05

UTK: Fundamentalism 5.55 Religious Confl ict 3.84 -.0060 <.05 Anxiety 10.91 -.6884 ?.05

UTK: Rel igious Confl ict 3.84 Anxiety 10.91 -.0020 <.05

Total Sample: Fundamental ism 4.49 Rel igious Confl ict 4.00 -.0021 <.05 Anxiety 11.12 -.0263 .;:..05

Total Sample: Rel igious Confl ict 4.00 Anxiety 11.12 .0001 ..: .05 122

TABLE 6

A COMPARISON OF RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTAL ISM , RELIGIOUS CONFLICT, AND ANXI ETY SCORES FOR THE THREE INSTITUTIONS : HIWASSEE COLLEGE , JOHNSON BI BLE COLLEGE , AND UTK

Vari able Mean Std . Dev. F Val ue Stat. Siqn.

Religious Fund. 14.568 4.129 29.09 . 0001 <.OS Rel igious Conf. 8.431 3.847 13.36 . 0001 <.05 Anxiety 32 .222 11 . 054 2.96 .0532 ).05

TABLE 7

A COMPARISON OF HIWASSEE COLLEGE, JOHNSON BI BLE COLLEGE , AND UTK WITH REGARD TO RELIGIOUS FU NDAMENTALISM, RELIGIOUS CONFLICT, AND ANXI ETY SCORES

Institutions Variable- Pr ./ F Stat. Sign . Compa red

Hiwassee-JBC Fundamental ism .0004 < .05 Hiwassee-UTK Fundamental ism .0001 <.OS

JBC-UTK Fundamental ism . • 0001 < .05

Hiwassee-Jsc· Rel igious. Confl ict: .0001 <.05 Hiwassee-UTK Re 1 i gi ous Confl ict· .5224 ?.05 JBC-UTK Rel igious Confl ict · .0001 < .05

Hh'lassee-JBC Anxiety .0186 < .05 Hiwassee-UTK Anxiety .4863 > .05 JBC -UTK Anxiety .0978 ;>.05 123 soluti ons to these questions gtven by others . I n short, the dogmatic position of the strong fundmenatlist almos t precl udes rel igious confl ict.

Religious fundamental ism in and of itself is not signi fi cantly correlated with anxiety, except for scores as a whole. Another near exception is at Johnson Bible Co llege (.0545 ) .05) , the more fundamenta list of the school s.

Persons unde rgoing religious confl ict wi ll likely experience concomi tant anxiety as wel l. This anxiety co uld trigger inhibi tions which may in turn cause the individual to be more guarded in his outlook, and less willing to consider al te rnative answers to questi ons or alternative poi nts of view.

Rel igious fundamental ism is significantly negati vely correlated wi th anxiety when the sample is viewed as a whole. The higher the rel i gious fundamentalism score the less likely is anxiety to be present wi th in the person. Strong fundamentalists encounter less confl ict, hence less anxiety.

As may be seen from Table 6 the analysis of vari ance when the scores are totaled clearly shows that the religious fundamental ism and rel igi ous conflict scores earned by the students at the 3 insti tutions are indeed very di fferent--fundamentalism (.0001 , <.05) ; relig ious con flict (.001 , <.05). THe same does not hold true for the anxiety scores ,

(_.0532 >. 05), however.

Ta ble 7 gives the res ults of a . comparison of ·the 3 schools wi th regard to each of the three variables , fundamental ism, rel igious confl ict, anxiety . Hiwassee College and Johnson Bi ble Col lege are un like wi th regard to re ligious fundamenta lism (.0004, (.05) and rel igious 124 confl ict, (_. 0001 , ( .05 )_ . Hiwassee Col lege and UTK are unlike wi th regard to rel igious fundamental ism ( .0001 , ( .05) though not unlike wi th regard to rel igious confl ict ( .5224,� .05 } . Johnson Bible College and

UTK are unlike wi th respect to rel igious fundamentalism (.0001 , < .05) and rel igious conflict ( .0001 , <.o5 } .

As indicated above there is no significant differe nce between the three instituti ons with respect to anxiety, al though there are sig ni fi cant differences on the other two counts . THe lack of variation on this count when there is variation on the other two might be taken as evidence of the absence of any strong tie between anxiety and fundamenta lism and rel igious conflict may or may not be accompanied by fluctation in anxiety.

The anxiety being measured here may , accordi ng to Eri kson's theory·, be indigenous. to the peri od from which the student is just now emerging, which is a period of di sequilibri um , reassessment, and person ality reorien tation.

Analysis of Data Relating to Secondary Hypotheses

Th is section contains data re lated to the secondary hypotheses .

Whereas the data in the preceding section were obtained by use of the rel igious fundamentalism, rel igious conflict, and anxiety scales , these data we re copied from student survey forms . 125

Attendance at Sunday School and Church

Table 8 reveal s clear- cut di fferences between the three schools on the question of frequency of atte ndance at Sunday School and Church .

Ninety-eight percent of the students at Johnson Bible Col lege report that they attend every Sunday as compared to 51% at Hi'wassee College and 40% at UTK. On this question of frequency of attendance at religious servi ces

Hiwassee Col l ege and UTK resemble each other very much . Sixty-one percent of Hiwassee•s students attend at least 2 times a month as Compared to'··

58% of UTK students . Thirty-two percent of Hiwassee • s students attend occasional ly as compared to UTK1s 35%. When viewed as a group, 73% attend rel igious servi ces at leas t two times a month .

As may be seen from Table 9 fundamentalism and Sunday School and

Church attendance bear a signifi cant rel ationship to each other at Hiwassee

College , UTK, and for the sample as a total , indicati ng that persons so pers uaded do feel quite strongly about this particular rel igious disci pl ine. Rel igi ous conflict is related in a significant way to attendance at Sunday School and Church i'n the Hiwassee College group and when all the scores are gro uped. One way to view this is that persons in rel igious confl i'ct atte nd worship and study as a means of findi ng some answer or resoluti'on for the conflict.

The absence of a co-vari ation of any sort at Johnson Bible Col lege is not at all surprising. Rel igious fundamentalism scores and re cord of attendance at Church and Sunday School of Johnson Bible College students are both very hi'gh. This i.s but further evidence that this is indeed a uni:que i. nsti: tution wi th a unique student body . 1 L 6

TABLE 8

ATTENDANCE AT SUNDAY SCHOOL AND CHURCH OF PERSONS SURVEYED BY SCHOOL AND AS A TOTAL

Variable School Total Percent of H h1a s see JBC UTK Total

Every Sunday 50 100 39 189 63.64 T\·JO times a month 10 1 17 28 9.43 One time a month 2 f) 3 5 1.68 On holi days 3 1 1 5 1.68 Occasionally 32 0 34 66 22 .22 Neve r 2 0 2 4 1.35

TABLE 9

ANALYSIS OF TH E RELATIONSHIPS AMONG ATTENDANCE AT SUNDAY SCHOOL AND CHURCH , RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTALISM, RELIGIOUS CONFL ICT, AND ANXIETY SCORES BY SCHOOLS AND AS TOTALS

Insti tution Variable Std . Dev. F Val ue Pr) F Stat. Sign.

Hiwassee Rel . Fund. 4.01 3.03 .0083 < .05 Re1 . Confl ict 3.60 2.75 .0229 < .05 Anxiety 11 .01 1.01 .4150 7.05

JBC Rel . Fund. 1.68 .30 .7385 >.05 Re1 . Confl ict 3.88 .84 .4344 >.05 Anxiety 11.16 1.81 .1698 }.05

UTK Re1 . Fund. 4.89 7.01 .0001 <.OS Re1 . Confl ict 3.75 1.27 .2823 /.05 Anxiety 11.15 . 16 .9736 /. 05

Total Rel . Fund. 3.87 22.66 .0001 <.05 Samp l e Rel . Confl ict 3.80 6.17 .0001 < .05 Anxiety 11.11 1.30 .2619 7.05 127 Si ze of Communi ty of Resi dence of Persons Surveyed by· School and as a Total

Table 10 contains tnformation re lati ng to this topic. Eighty- one percent of Hiwassee Col lege students come from rural areas or small

towns , whereas 62% of Johnson Bible Col lege students and 38% of UTK stu-

dents are from these population groupings . The University of Tennessee ,

Knoxvi'lle has by far the 1 a rger percentage of students from the ci ties ,

43% as compared to 11% for Hiwassee Col lege and 27% for Johnson Bi ble

Col lege . Hiwassee College1s rural setti ng may in large measure account for the high percent of its students from those places wi th a populati on of 2,500 or less . It is indeed inte res ti ng that 181 students , or 60% of

the enti re sample, are from areas wi th 2,500 or ,l ess population.

As may be seen from Tab 1 e 11 , size of community of res i dence

and fundamenta lism are signficantly related at Hiwassee Col lege (.0381 ),

Johnson Bi ble College (.0290), and for the sample as a total (.0025).

Size of communi ty of resi dence and anxiety bear a significant relationship

to each other at Johnson Bible Col l ege (.0194) thought at no other point.

The rural locati on of both Hiwassee Col lege and Johnson Bible Co llege

as wel l as their rel igious affi liati on are probably factors in these re-

lationships . The i'ndi cation seems to be that fundamentalism is more like

ly to be found in the rural areas and smal l towns and Hiwassee College ,

in parti cular, attracts a very high percentage of her students (81%) from

these areas .

State of Res i.·dence of Persons Surveye d by Schoo 1 and as a Tota 1

As may be seen from Table 12 a greate r number of di fferent

states are represented in th.e student body at Johnson Bi ble College 128

TABLE 10

SIZE OF cm�MUNITY OF RESIDENCE OF PERSONS SURVEYED BY SCHOOL AND AS TOTALS

Size of Community School Total Percent of of residence Hhmssee JBC UTK Total

Rural area 52 35 13 100 33.33 Smal l town 29 28 24 81 27.00 ( Incorporated- 2500) Large town 8 11 19 38 12.67 ( 2600-15,000) City 11 28 42 81 27.00 ( 16,000- )

TABLE 11

ANALYSIS OF THE RELATIONSHIPS AMONG SiZE OF COMMUNITY OF RESIDENCE , RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTALISM, RELIGIOUS CONFLICT, AND ANXI ETY BY SCHOOLS AND AS TOTALS

Insti tution Variable Std . Oev. F Val ue Pr> F Stat. Sign. Hiwassee Rel . Fund. 4.11 2.91 .0381 <.as Rel . Confl ict 3.81 1.12 .3457 ?. 05 Anxiety 10.86 1.77 . 1 568 /. 05

JBC Rel . Fund. 1.62 3.12 .0290 <.05 Rel . Confl ict 3.81 2.19 .0921 7. 05 Anxiety 10.86 3.45 .0194 .(.05

UTK Rel . Fund. 5.49 2.05 .1105 ).05 Re 1 . Confl ict 3.86 .98 .4079 (.05 Anxiety 11.00 .79 .5039 /. 05

Total Rel . Fund. 4.41 4.95 .0025 -<.05 Sample Rel . Confl ict 3.98 2.24 .0820 �.05 Anxiety 11.09 1.88 . 1314 ·/.05 129

TABLE 12

STATE OF RESI DENCE OF PERSONS SURVEYED BY SCHOOL AND AS TOTALS

State of Residence School Total Percent of Hiwassee JBC UTK Total

Alabama 3 0 0 3 1.00 Cal ifornia 0 0 2 2 .67 Connecticut 1 0 0 1 .33 Flori da 0 5 3 8 2.68 Georgia 5 3 1 9 3.01 Illinois 0 2 3 5 1.67 Indiana 0 36 0 36 12.04 Kentucky 1 10 2 13 4.35 Maryland 1 1 0 2 .67 �·1i chi gan 2 1 1 4 1.34 �1innesota 0 2 0 2 .67 Mississippi 0 2 0 2 .67 Missouri 0 1 1 2 .67 New Hampshire 0 0 1 1 .33 New Jersey 0 1 2 3 1.00 New York 2 0 1 3 1.00 North Carolina 1 4 1 6 2.01 Ohio 1 4 0 5 1.67 Pennsyl vania 0 7 0 7 2.34 Tennessee 77 11 76 164 54.85 Texas 0 2 0 2 .67 Vermont 0 1 0 1 .33 Virginia 6 4 2 12 4.01 Hest Virginia 0 4 1 5 1.67

( New Zealand) 0 1 0 1 .33 130 than at either Hiwass.ee Col lege or UTK . Fifty-four percent of Johnson

Bible Col lege students are from those states whi ch Osborn des ignates as

"areas of stre ngth'' of the Disciples of Christ, Christi an Church , and

Church of Chri st.3 Only ll% of Johnson Bibl e College students are from the state of Tennessee. Quite the re verse is true at Hiwassee Col l ege and UTK , where 77% and 78% of their respective student bodies are from the state of Tennessee . The above fig ures regardi ng Johnson Bible Col l ege probably reflect the strong re crui tme nt effort which the col lege makes through the churches with which it is affi liated and relates to the purpose of the insti tution whi ch is to train pe rs ons in r� l igious vocati ons so that they may re turn to constituent Churches and fill leadership po- s i ti ons .

The inte racti ons of state of re sidence wi th fundamentalism, re - lig ious confl ict, and anxiety yiel ds a signifi cant co-variation be twee n fundamentalism and state of residence at Hiwassee Col lege and fo r the total sample but not at Johnson Bible Col lege or UTK . ( See Ta ble 13.)

State of res idence produces no variati on in the religious co nfl ict score or anxiety score at either of the three schools. The closest is wi th anxiety at Johnson Bible College (.0771 , 7 .05) .

Age of Persons Surveye d by School and as a Total

Table 14 shows that the big difference between schools in the ages of the persons surveyed is at 19, 20, and above . Whereas 29% and

3Ronald E. Osborn , ''Disci pl es of Christ.'' The Ameri can Church of the Protestant Heri tage , ed. , Vergilius Ferm ( New York : Philosophical Library,, 1953), p. 391 . 131

TABLE 13

ANALYSIS OF THE RELATIONSHIPS AMONG STATE OF RESIDENCE , RELIGIOUS FUNDAI�Er-1TALIS1·1, RELIGIOUS COriFLICT, AND ANXIETY BY SCHOOLS AND AS TOTALS

Insti tution Variable Std. Dev. F Val ue Pr/ F Stat. Sion.

Hiwassee Re1 . Fund. 3.64 4.45 .0001 <..05 Rel . Confl ict 3.84 .88 .5565 ).05 Anxiety 10.98 1.00 .4503 /.05

JBC Rel . Fund. 1.63 1.23 .2517 ).05 Rel . Confl ict 3.87 1.00 .4681 ;. 05 Anxiety HL65 1.62 .0711 ;>.05

UTK Rel . Fund. 5.66 .85 .6032 /. 05 Rel . Confl ict 3.88 .97 .4883 )'.05 Anxiety 10.69 1.23 .2700 I'.05 Total Rel . Fund. 4.26 2.51 .0002 <.as Sample Rel . Confl ict 3.96 1.30 .1620 /. 05 Anxiety 11.01 1.23 . 2171 }. 05 132

TABLE 14

AGE OF PERSONS SURVEYED BY SCHOOL AND AS TOTALS

Age School Total Percent of Hiwassee JBC UTK Total

16 0 1 0 1 .34 17 2 3 2 7 2.39 18 48 47 47 142 48.46 19 29 25 40 94 32 .08 20 10 11 3 24 8.19 Above 20 9 12 4 25 8.53 133

25% of Hiwassee College and Johnson Bible Col lege students , respecti vel� were age 19, 41% of UTK students were age 19, and whi le 19% and 23% of the

Hiwassee Co llege and Johnson Bible Col lege students , respectively� were age 20 or above only 7% of UTK students we re in this category.

As may be seen from Tab le 15, when fundamental ism, rel igi ous confl ict, and anxiety scores are interacted with age by schools and as totals they do not vary signi'ficantly in any way .

Re li'gi ous Preference by Schoo 1 s and as a Tota 1

As Table 1 6 shows , 96% of the persons surveyed at Hiwassee Col lege are Protestants and only 4% are Roman Cathol ics. At Johnson Bi ble

College, 100% of the inte rviewees are Protesta nt. In both instances the high percentage of Protestants is unders tandable in light of the fact that both are Protestant denomi nati onal schools, advertised as suoh , and in the case of Hiwassee Col lege recruit students primari ly from the Southwest

Vi rgi nia, East Tennessee , North Georgia, Western North Carol ina, North

Alabama area which is predomi nantly Protestant. Johnson Bible Col l ege has very close ties with the Christian Church/ Churches of Chri st and re crui ts heavi ly through the denomi national structure . The University of

Tennessee , Knoxville has somewhat mo re variety with 85% Protestant, 12%

Roman Cathol ic, 1% Greek Orthodox , and 2% with no re l igious preference .

In this respect UTK re flects strongly the area whi ch it serves , Tennessee and the Southeas t.

Table 17, where religious preference , fundamental ism, rel igious confl ict, and anxiety are interacted shows stati sti cal vari ance in 2 l::l4

TABLE 15

ANALYSIS OF THE RELATIONSHIPS AMONG AGE , RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTALIS�1 , RELIGIOUS CONFLICT , AND ANXI ETY SCORES BY SCHOOLS AND AS TOTALS

Institution Vari able Std . Dev. F Val ue Pr/ F Stat. Sign.

Hiwassee Rel . Fund. 4.16 1.98 .1040 ·/. 05 Re1 . Confl ict 3.85 . 41 .8027 ). 05 Anxiety 11 .13 .23 .9187 /. 05

JBC Rel . Fund. 1.61 2.09 .0727 )'.05 Rel . Confl ict 3.90 .59 .7081 )'.05 Anxiety 11.10 1.44 .2173 /.05

UTK Rel . Fund. 5.56 1.67 .1643 /.05 Rel . Confl ict 3.71 2.07 .0907 /.05 Anxiety 10.89 1.51 .2063 ;?.05

Total Rel . Fund. 4.57 .18 .9695 7.05 Sample Rel . Confl ict 4.00 .64 .6727 /".05 Anxiety 11.10 1.50 .1895 /.05 135

TABLE 16

RELIGIOUS PREFERENCE OF PERSONS SURVEYED BY SCHOOL AND AS A TOTAL

Rel igi ous School Total Percent of Preference Hiv1assee JBC UTK Total

Roman Cathol ic 4 0 12 16 5.33 Protestant 96 102 83 281 93.67 0 Greek Orthodox 0 1 1 . 33 Other or none 0 0 2 2 .67

TABLE 17

ANALYSIS OF THE RELATIONSHIPS AMONG RELIGIOUS PREFERENCE, RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTALISM , RELIGIOUS CONFLICT, AND ANXIETY BY SCHOOLS AND AS TOTALS

Institution Vari able Std. Dev. F Value Pr 7 F Stat. Sian.

HhJassee Rel . Fund. 4.15 4.63 .0338 < .05 Rel . Confl ict 3 � 78 2.93 .0901 ).05 Anxiety 11.00 .72 .3976 /.05

JBC Rel . Fund. 1.67 .00 1.0000 Re r. Confl ict 3.8T .00 1.0000 Anxiety 11.25 .00 1.0000

UTK Rel . Fund. 5.56 1.25 .2958 /. 05 Rel . Confl ict 3.85 1.07 .3644 /.05 Anxiety 11.12 . 10 .9566 7. 05

Total Rel . Fund. 4.37 7.27 .0001 <..05 Sample Rel . Confl ict 4.00 .92 .4356 /.05 Anxiety 11.19 .09 .9602 7.05 136

instances , fundamenta lism scores earned at Hiwassee College (.0338 <.05} and fundamentalism scores when reported as a total (.0001 "".05). .

Protestant Denomi national Preference by School s and as a Total

Table 18 gives Protestant denomi national preference by schools and as a total . The high percentage of Johnson Bible Col l ege students who hold membershi p in the Church of Christ and Christian Church , 90% , is certainly no surprise especial ly since Johnson Bible College is strong ly aligned with these two groups . The percentage of Bapti sts, 55% as com pared to Methodi st, 22% , enrol led at Hiwassee Col lege , a Methodist insti tution, is a mi' ld surpri se , however. Two denomi nati ons are strongly represented in the UTK group : Baptist, wi th 35%, and Presbyterian wi th

18%. The high percentage of Baptists enrol led at Hiwassee Col lege and

UTK is understandable in light of the great numeri cal strength� of this parti cular denomi nati on in the southeastern region .and particularly East Tennessee .

Analys is· of th.e re 1 ati onships among denomi nationa 1 preference , fundamentaltsm, religious confl ict, and anxiety scores at each of the three institutions , and then as totals as seen in Table 19 reveals a statisti cal ly significant re lati onship between the vari able denomi nati onal preference and fundamental ism scores as a total ; between denomi national pre fe rehce and rel igious confl ict at Johnson Bible Col lege and re ligious con fl ict scores as; a total ; and between denomi. nati ona l preference and anxiety at Johnson Bible Col lege . 137

TABLE 18

PROTESTANT DENOMINATIONAL PREFERENCE OF PERSONS SURVEYED BY SCHOOL AND AS A TOTAL

Denomination School Total Percent Hi\-1assee JBC UTK of Total

Disciples of Christ 0 l 2 3 1.03 Baptist 53 l 33 87 30.00 Methodist 21 1 11 33 ll . 38 Lutheran l 0 1 2 .69 Church of Christ 2 15 7 24 8.28 Christian Church 0 74 2 76 26.20 Church of God 3 0 0 3 1.03 Presbyterian 5 0 17 22 7.59 Pentecostal Hol iness 1 0 0 1 .34 Quaker 1 0 0 1 .34 Episcopal 2 0 4 6 2.07 No denominational preference 7 0 3 10 3.45 Non-denominational 0 6 1 7 2.41 New Testament Church 0 1 1 2 .69 Does not apply 0 0 13 13 4.48 138

TABLE 19

A�ALYSIS OF THE RELATIONSHIPS AMONG PROTESTANT DENOMINATI ONAL PREFERENCE, RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTALISM , RELIGIOUS CONFLICT, AND ANXI ETY BY SCHOOLS AND AS TOTALS

Institution Std . Dev. F Value Pr ) F Stat. Sign.

Hiv1assee Rel . Fund. 3. 71 3.53 .0006 <.05 Rel . Confl ict 3. 72 1.42 .1857 ?.05 Anxiety 11.01 .90 .5359 7.05

JBC Rel . Fund. 1.72 .27 .9480 >-, . 05 Rel . Confl ict 3.71 1.50 . 1 868 /.05

Anxiety 10.88 2.43 . 0316 <.OS < .05 UTK Rel . Fund. 5 . 1 9 2.00 .0382 Rel . Confl ict 3.59 2.28 .0173 < .05 Anxiety 11.11 .85 .5956 ) .05

Total Rel . Fund. 3.88 6.96 .0001 < .05 Samole Rel . Confl ict 3.74 3.97 . 0001 < .05 Anxiety 11.19 1.50 .1119 )'.05 139 Socio-Economi c Status by Schools. and as a Total

As may be seen from Table 20 , 56% of the students surveyed scored between 13-ll whereas in the two nati. onal surveys where the state ment was used only 15% of the homes surveyed scored as high. One hundred twenty-nine or 43% of the students surveyed scored between 10-5 whereas in the two nati'onal survey-s 67% had scores in this category. National ly

18% of the homes scored between 4-2 but only .6% of the students 1 scores we re in this category.

When scores at the individua1 school s are compared it may be seen that Hiwassee Col l ege has 39% of its scores in the 13-ll category whereas Johnson Bible Col l ege has 52% in the same category and UTK has

79%. In the mi ddle range , upper and lower , Hiwassee Col l ege has 60% of its sc6res whereas Johnson Btble Col lege has 49% and UTK only 20% . A possible explanati on for these differences may be that Hiwassee Col l ege has tradi ti onally attracted students of limited finanial means whereas this may not be true of the other two insitutions. Hiwassee Col l ege has a reputation of never denyi ng admi ssion to anyone on the basis of lack of finances.

A possible explanati on for the difference between the scores of the students surveyed and those scores comi ng from the two national sur veys may be that persons from the upper socio-economi'c level tend to place more of a premi' um on education and children from these homes are more likely to conti nue their education beyond the secondary level .

Table 21 reveals th.at wh.en the socio-economic score from the three schools are i.nteracted with the fundamentalism, reltgi'ous confl ict, and anxi ety scores from these i_nsti tutions , the only ones statistical ly TABLE 20

SOCIO- ECONOMIC STATUS BY SCHOOL AND AS TOTALS

Score * School Total Percent of Percent of Score Hiwassee JBC UTK Total National Surve�s (By certain groupings ) Top 15% 39 53 77 169 56o00 ( Scores 13-11 ) Upper t�i ddle 31% 42 35 14 91 30o00 (Scores 10-8) Lower Mi ddle 36% 18 14 6 38 130 00 ( Scores 7-5) Bottom 18% 1 0 1 2 6o00 ( Scores 4-2)

(By individual scores ) 2 0 0 0 0 oOO 2o9 3 0 0 1 1 o33 6o0 4 1 0 0 1 o33 6o0 5 7 6 0 13 4o33 11o2 6 2 3 1 6 2o00 130 3 7 9 5 5 19 6o33 l2o6 8 11 8 2 21 7o00 11.6 9 10 10 5 25 8o33 10o0

10 21 17 7 45 15o00 9 0 1 11 8 22 12 42 14o00 607 12 11 13 23 47 15o 67 501 13 20 18 42 80 26o67 2o7

__, .j::>, C> * According to 2 national surveys 1 41

TABLE 21

ANALYSIS OF TH E RELAT IONSHIPS AMONG SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS , RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTALISM, RELIGIOUS CONFLICT, AND ANXIETY BY SCHOOLS AND AS A TOTAL

Insti tuti on Vari able Std . Dev. F Va lue Pr ? F Stat. Siqn.

HhJassee Rel . Fund. 3.94 2.67 .0085 <.05 Rel . Confl ict 3.75 1.36 .2178 ).05 Anxiety 10.72 1.55 .1415 7.05

JBC Rel . Fund. 1.70 .55 .8172 7.05 Rel . Confl ict 3.89 .90 .5183 /.05 Anxiety . 11.12 1.30 .2555 7.05

UTK Rel . Fund. 5.37 1.77 .0853 / . 05 Rel . Confl ict 3.80 1.21 .2985 "7 .05 Anxiety 11.01 .81 . 6101 /.05

Total Rel . Fund. 4.35 3.07 .001 0 < .05 Sampl e Rel . Confl ict 3 .96 1.66 .0894 /'.05

Anxiety 11.05 1.49 • 1411 7.05 142 significant are the fundamentalism score at Hiwassee Col lege (.0085 ) and the fundamentalism scores as a total {.0010). The null hypothesis relati ng to these two parti cular items are thereby rejected wi th respect to Hiwassee College . If the persons surveyed are representative of the students enrol led at these three insti tutions then one can say that where as the fundamental ism scores as a total and fundamentalism scores at Hi wassee Col l ege and soci o-economic scores are signifi cantly correlated, the same does not hold true for Johnson Bible Col lege and UTK.

Sex of Persons Surveye d by School and as a Total

As may be seen from Ta ble 22, the percentage of males and fe males in the sample was about the same for Hiwassee Col lege and Johnson

Bible College , 45% male, 55% female, but slightly different for UTK where the percentages are 37% male and 63% fema le.

Table 23 shows the followi ng : rel igious fundamenta lism is not signifi cantly re lated to sex at either of the schools or the sample as a whole. Rel igious confl ict, however, does bear a significant rel ationship to sex at Johnson Bible Col l ege though at no other poi nt. Anxiety and sex do co-vary at Hiwassee Col l ege and also when the three sample popu lations are taken as one group.

Grade Point Average of Students Surveyed at Hiwassee College

The grade point average was available only for those students at Hiwassee Col lege . Table 24 shows that rel igious fundamental ism scores and grade point average are not significantly correlated (.3650 �.05 ), but re ligious confli.ct (.0094 <.05} and anxiety (.0334 <. 05) do bear a signifi cant negati ve correlation to grade point average . The higher the rel igious 143

TABLE 22

SEX OF PERSONS SURVEYED RY SCHOOL AND AS A TOTAL

Sex School Total Percent of Hiwassee JBC UTK Total t·1al e 45 46 36 127 42.33 Female 55 56 62 173 57 .67

TABLE 23

ANALYSIS OF THE RELATIONSHIPS AMONG SEX OF PERSONS SURVEYED, RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTALISM , RELIGIOUS CONFLICT, AND ANXI ETY BY SCHOOL AND AS TOTALS

Insti tution Variable Std. Dev. F Value Pr 7 F Stat. Siqn.

Hiwassee Rel . Fund. 4.25 . 01 . 9118 . /. 05 Rel . Confl ict 3.82 .53 .4670 '7. 05 Anxiety 10.57 8.95 .0035 <.05

JBC Rel . Fund. 1.67 .30 .5843 /. 05 Rel . Conf1 i ct 3.75 7.97 .0057 < .05 Anxiety 11 .29 .28 .6011 /.05

UTK Re1 . Fund. 5.61 .00 .9976 /.05 Re1 . Confl ict 3.82 2.55 . 1138 ).05 Anxiety 1 1 . 01 .29 .5929 /.05

Total Rel . Fund 4.51 .30 .5836 >.05 Sample Rel . Confl ict 3.99 3.43 .0650 ;>.05 Anxiety 1 1.06 5.39 .0210 ( .05 144

TABLE 24

ANALYS IS OF TH E RELATIONS�IIPS AMONG STUDENT GRADE POINT AVERAGE, RELIGIOUS FUNDAr1ENTALISM , RELI GIOUS CONFLICT. AN D ANXI ETY OF PERSONS SURVEYED AT HIWASSEE COLLEGE

Institution Variabl e Std. Dr.v. F Val ue Pr/ F Stat. Sign.

Hiwassee Rel . Fund. 4.29 .3650 7. 05

Rel . Confl ict 3.81 . 0094 (.05 Anxiety 1 n. 98 .0334 <.05 145

confl ict and anxiety the lower the grade point average. The reason for such would appear obvious : when upset the anxiety increases perhaps to the poi nt of interference. Concentration becomes difficult if not im possible. Too , rel igious confl ict or consternation produced by chal l enges to long standing opi nions or bel i efs consume o�e's attentri on· and energy , and interfere wi th study. It must be kept in mind that for the sample as a whol e, rel igious confl ict and anxi ety are significantly correl ated.

Rel igious confl ict triggers anxiety which has a direct beari ng on grade point average.

Size of Church of Persons Surveyed by School and as a Total

As may be seen in Tabl e 25, 99 of the 102 Johnson Bible Col lege students surveyed report approximate church size ranging from 35-2000, for an average church size of 278 . Eighty-seven Hiwassee Col lege students state approximate church size ranging from 5-900 , for an average church size of 201 . Eighty-one UTK students list approximate church size as ranging from 50-6000, for an average church size of 748. With a total of

267 intervi ewees reporti ng approximate church size ranging from 5-6000, the average church size for the sample is 396. It is perhaps worth noting that at Hiwassee Col lege 87% of the 99 students responding to the survey were abl e to provide data on approximate church size, at UTK 81% of the students gave the same type information , while 97% of the Johnson Bible Col lege students suppl ied the information . On the basis of this, one might hy pothesize a rel ationship between rel igious fundamental ism and importance of church and rel igious activities. Johnson Bible Col lege is clearly the mo re fundamental ist of the three institutions and in this case a higher 146

TABLE 25

SIZE OF CHURCH ATTENDED BY SCHOOL AND AS TOTALS

Vari able School Total Hiwassee JBC DTK

Approximate size of 5-900 35-2000 50-6000 5-6000 church attended ( ra nge ) Number of persons 87 99 81 267 responding Average size of 201 278 747 396 church attended 147 percentage of Johnson Bible Col l ege students knew and reported on their church.

Data tn Table 26 show -that interaction of size of church wi th fundamental ism, re ltgious confl ict, and anxiety failed to yield a sta ti.scal ly signifi cant variance in ei ther of the means at either of the

3 schools or with the total sample.

Consent to be Inte rviewed by Schools and as a Total

As may be seen from Table 27 the percentage of persons who gave their consent to be interviewed is nearly the same for all 3 schools.

Table 28 reveals that when the variable of consent to be interviewed is interacted wi th fundamentaH sm, relig ious conflict, and anxiety scores there is no statistically si.gni. ficant difference for ei ther score at ei ther school . The same is true with the to tal score for al l those schools when the fundamentalism and rel igious confl ict scores are inter acted wi th 11Consent to be interviewed.11 However, the to tal score for al l three schools on anxiety when interacted wi th consent to be inter viewed does show a statisti cal ly significant di fference (.0375 <.05).

Those persons who experi'ence high levels of anxiety woul d find their anxiety expressing itself in diverse ways , even reluctance to engage in seri ous discussion wi th an interviewer. 1 48

TABLE 26

ANALYSIS OF THE RELATIONSHIPS AMONG SIZE OF CHURCH ATTENDED, RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTALISM , RELIGIOUS CONFLICT, AND ANXI ETY BY SCHOOLS AND AS TOTALS

Insti tution Variable Std. Dev. F Val ue Pr :zF Stat. Sign. Hiwassee Rel . Fund. 4.22 .8450 /.05 Rel . Confl ict 3.81 .1163 ).05 Anxiety 10.98 .9018 /. 05

JBC Rel . Fund. 1.67 .6127 /.05 Rel . Confl ict 3.87 .8796 )'.05 Anxiety 11 . 25 .9378 /.05

UTK Rel . Fund. 5.55 . 1 523 /.05 Rel . Confl ict 3.84 .4622 /.05 Anxiety 10.91 .2752 7.05

Total Rel . Fund. 4.49 .6374 /.05 Sample Rel . Confl ict 4.00 .8578 7.05 Anxiety 11.12 .4068 7.05

TABLE 27

CONSENT TO BE INTERVIEWED BY SCHOOL AND AS TOTALS

Answer School Total Percent of Hiwassee JBC UTK Total

Yes 83 84 85 252 83.72 No 17 18 14 49 16.28 149

TABLE 28

ANALYSIS OF THE RELATIONSHIPS AMONG RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTALISM , RELIGIOUS CONFLICT, ANXIETY , AND CONSENT TO BE INTERVI EWED BY SCHOOLS AND AS TOTALS

Insti tution Variable Std . Dev. F Val ue Pr7 F Stat. Sion.

Hi\va ssee Rel . Fund. 4.20 2.26 .1364 "7.05 Rel . Confl ict 3.83 .11 .7365 )'. 05 Anxiety 10.99 .84 .8400 7.05

JBC Rel . Fund. 1 .66 2.00 . 1 604 )'. 05 Re 1 . Con f1 i ct 3.87 1.12 .2916 (.05 Anxiety 11 . 13 3.09 .0820 7.05

UTK Rel . Fund. 5.53 1.84 .1779 7.05 Rel . Confl ict 3.85 .36 .5516 7.05 /l.nxiet y 10.91 .99 .3219 . /.05

Total Rel . Fund. 4.50 .00 .9679 7. 05 Sample Rel . Confl ict 4.00 .15 .701 9 7.05 Anxiety 11.06 4.37 .0375 {.05

I 150

Analys is of the Relati onship of the Vari ables Attendance at Church and Sunday School , Consent to be Interviewed , Re ligi ous Preference , Denomi nati onal Preference , Age , State of Residence , Si ze of Communi ty of Re sidence , Socio-Economi c Status , Sex, to the Hypothesized Re lationships among Re ligi ous Fundamental ism, Rel igious Confl ict, and Anxiety Scores at Hiwassee Col lege , Johnson Bible Col lege , and The Uni versity of Te nnes see, Knoxvi lle

As may be seen from Table 29, the correlations among the variables rel igious fundamental ism scores , rel igious confl ict scores , and anxiety scores for the 3 institutions in the study do not differ significantly. Hence , there is no need to treat each of the schools separately.

Tables 30 , 31 , and 32 show that only 3 of the variables are statisti cally significantly related to the hypothesized rel ationships among relig ious fundamentalism, re ligious confl ict, and anxiety at Hiwassee Col - lege , Johnson Bible Col lege , and UTK . Two of these are wi th the hypothesized religious confl i ct--anxiety relationship: attendance at church and (..0416, .05) (.0062, .05) , Sunday School < and age < while the other is wi th the religious fundamental ism anxiety re lationship: size of communi- (.0193, .05). ty of res i dence < Information is no t avai lable for the variables approximate size of church and grade point average which itself was avai lable only for the Hiwassee

The fact that two of the statisti cal ly signifi cant connections involve religious conflict and anxiety might be viewed as further evi dence that the confl ict and the anxiety are not al together rel igious . Perhaps the difficulty surfaci ng in these ins.ta nces is indigenous to this particular period in life and/or has to do with a diffi culty or difficulties associated with th is parti cular period. 151

TABLE 29

CORRELATIONS AMONG THE RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTALISM SCORES , RELIGIOUS CONFLICT SCORES , AND ANXI ETY SCORES OF THE PERSONS SURVEYED

Variable Std. Dev. F Val ue Pr :;> F Stat. Sign. Religious Fund.- .97023831 . 12 .8827 /. 05 Rel igious Confl ict Rel igi ous Fund.- .98901006 .65 .5237 7. 05 Anxiety Religious Confl ict- .92602032 .40 .6709 7.05 Anxiety 152

TABLE 30

ANALYSIS OF THE RELATIONSHIP OF THE VARIABLES ATTENDANCE AT CHURCH AND SUNDAY SCHOOL, CONSENT TO BE INTERVIEWED, RELIGIOUS PREFERENCE , DENOMINAT IONAL PREFERENCE, AGE, STATE OF RESIDENCE, SIZE OF COMMUNITY OF RESIDENCE, SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS, SEX, TO THE HYPOTHESIZED RELATIONSHIPS AMONG RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTALISM AND RELIGIOUS CONFLICT AT HIWASSEE COLLEGE, JOHNSON BIBLE COLLEGE, AND THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE, KNOXVILLE

Variable Std. Dev. F Value Pr? F Stat. Siqn .

Attendance at Church .9823 .25 .9405 /. 05 and Sunday School Consent to be .9584 . 17 .6770 7. 05 interviewed Rel i9ious preference .9457 .29 .7514 1. 05 Denomi national .9407 1.05 .4037 /.05 preference Age .9516 1.28 .2779 7.05 State of residence .9201 1.11 .3450 /. 05 Size of community of .9505 . 71 .5500 ;.05 residence Socio-economi c status .9590 .24 .7869 '7.05 Sex .9536 1.06 .3044 7.05 153

TABLE 31

ANALYSIS OF THE RELATIONSHIP OF THE VARIABLES ATTENDANCE AT CHURCH AND SUNDAY SCHOOL , CONSENT TO BE INTERVIEWED, RELIGIOUS PREFERENCE, DENOMI NATIONAL PREFERENCE, AGE, STATE OF RESIDENCE, SIZE OF COMMUNITY OF RESIDENCE, SOCIO- ECONOM IC STATUS , SEX, TO THE HYPOTHESIZED RELATIONSHIPS AMONG RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTALISM AND ANXI ETY AT HIWASSEE COLLEGE, JOHNSON BIBLE COLLEGE , AND THE UNIVERS ITY OF TENNESSEE, KNOXVILLE

Variable Std. Dev. F Val ue Pr/ F Stat. Siqn.

Attendance at Church .9846 1.37 .2354 7. 05 and Sunday School Consent to be .9890 1.05 .3060 /. 05 i ntervi e\AJed Rel igi ous preference .9852 .91 .4056 /. 05 Denominational .9727 .70 .7546 '/.05 preference Age .9774 2.02 .091 5 /.05 State of residence .91145 1.20 .2604 7.05 Size of communi ty of .9783 3.35 .01 93 (.05 residence Socio-economic status .9873 .78 .4577 7. 05 Sex .9919 .02 .8756 7. 05 154

TABLE 32

ANALYS IS OF THE RELATIONSHIP OF THE VARIABLES ATTENDANCE AT CHURCH AND SUNDAY SCHOOL, CONSENT TO BE INTERVIEWED, RELIGIOUS PREFERENCE, DENOMI NATIONAL PREFERENCE, AGE, STATE OF RESIDENCE, SIZE OF COMMUNITY OF RESIDENCE, SOCIO- ECONOMIC STATUS , SEX, TO THE HYPOTHESIZED RELATIONSHIPS AMONG RELIGIOUS CONFLICT AND ANXIETY AT HIWASSEE COLLEGE, JOHNSON BIBLE COLLEGE, AND THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE, KNOXV ILLE

Variable Std . Dev. F Value Pr/ F Stat. Sign.

Attendance at Church .9145 2.34 .0416 < .05 and Sun rlay School Consent to be .91 73 2. 77 .0973 7. 05 interviewed Rel igious preference . 91 19 2.24 . 1 077 7. 05 Denominational .9034 1.04 .4100 ? .05 preference Age .8943 3.67 .0062 < .05 State of residence .8758 1.24 . .2228 ?.05 Size of community of .9063 2.32 .0737 7.05 residence Socio-economi c status . 91 71 .76 .4663 /.05 Sex .9102 2.15 . 1 439 /. 05 CHAPTER VI

SUMMARY AN D CONCLUSIONS

In the present study rel igion is viewed as the committment of the individual to a bel ief in what he conceives to be the ul timate power and authority of the universe. In this case it is the Christian Godo Al

so included in the definition is the strong bel ief that the conduct of the adherent is to be guided by principles deri ved from his bel ief in his God.

Every aspect of his life--work, leisure, fami ly, social--is under the aegis of his rel igious bel ief. Fundamental ism is that interpretation of Chris tianity which insists that the bel i ever subscri be to certain ri gid views of the faith and its holy book. Fundamental ism is an interpretation of

Christianity which places great emphasis upon the holiness and authori ty

of the Bible and the need for man to order his life around its teachings .

Incl uded in fundamental ist bel ief are evangel ical aggressiveness , less

interest in debating rel igion and rel igious issues than in trying to wi n others to the fundamental ist position, a strong desi re to separate one 's sel f from sin, and strong insistence upon church practices which are based on a literal understanding of the New Testament church. Rel igious con fl ict occurs when the bel ief structure of the person is chall enged by ex periences which the student has both inside and outside the classroom but particularly inside. Chal l enge is precipi tated by the education process

itsel f as the student is led and encouraged to range over a wi de variety of ideas, opinions, and viewpoints , some of which are poles apart from his own . As the student becomes aware of the chal l enge which his education experience presents to him, a chall enge to the very foundation on which 155 156 rests the structure of his sel f, he experiences tension , a painful un easiness of mind--this is anxiety.

Beginning with fi rsthand experience in the col l ege classroom observing students so chall enged as they labored to resolve the issue in their own lives, then through lengthy discussions with other teachers who were al so aware of the problem , certain ideas began to emerge. Some stu dents do indeed experience rel igious confl ict and concomitant anxiety which varies in its intensity. It was theorized that the persons having the most diffi culty were those who had little room in their rel igious viewpoint for tolerance of, or consi deration of, opposing rel igious ideas ; in a word , rel igious fundamental ists. It was further theorized that these persons so chall enged would deal with this threat and situation of tension in a variety of ways . Some mi ght drop the course while others would close the mind to any serious consideration of the matter regardless of its ve racity. Still others would sit passively in the classroom whi le debate swi rl ed about them, their sol ution being to think about the matter but only in an abstract way , never real ly opening their own bel ief structure for scrutiny.

As will be remembered from earlier discussion, the research ques tions underlying the study are :

l. Do rel igiously fundamental ist students experience rel igious

confl ict when enrol led in those col l eges and universities which are pri� · vate or denominationally owned as wel l as in those institutions which are publ icly owned?

2. Are the variabl es rel igious fundamental ism, rel igious con fl ict, and anxiety signifi cantly rel ated to each other? 157

3. If the answer to question 2 is yes , what is the pattern of interrel ationship?

4. Do students other than those categori zed as rel igjously funda mentalist experience rel igious confl ict and anxiety?

5. Are there significant differences between UTK, Hiwassee Col lege, and Johnson Bible Col l ege , as regards rel igious fundamental ism, re ligious confl ict, and anxi ety?

6. Are the rel igious confl ict and anxi ety as wel l as the adapta tion response which the student makes to these experiences unique to the individual , or are they much the same for al l persons who are thus dis posed?

The fol lowi ng nul l hypotheses were establ ished to answer these questions:

lo There wi ll be no signifi cant differences among the rel igious fundamental ism scores and rel igious confl ict scores fo r the subjects from

Hiwassee Col lege, Johnson Bi ble Col lege, and UTK, at 0.05 ;

2. There will be no si�nifica�t differences among the rel igious fundamental ism scores and anxiety scores for the subjects from Hiwassee

Col lege , .Johnson Bible Col lege , and UTK, at .0 .0.5 ;

3. There will be no significant differences among the rel igious confl ict scores and anxiety scores. for the subjects from Hiwassee Col lege,

Johnson Bible Col lege , and UTK, at 0,05 ;

4. There will be no significant differences among the rel igious fundamental ism scores , rel igious confl ict scores , and anxiety scores for the total sampl e at 0.05; 1 58

5. There wi ll be no signifi cant differences among Hiwassee Col lege, Johnson Bible Col lege, and UTK wi th respect to either rel igious fundamentalism, rel igious confl ict, or anxiety at 0.05.

The secondary hypotheses are as fol lows :

1. There will be no significant rel ationship between the re ligious fundamental ism scores, religious confl ict scores, anxiety scores , and any of the fol lowi ng variabl es eithe� at Hiwassee Col lege, Johnson

Bibl e Col lege, UTK, or for the total sampl e at 0.05:

1. Consent to be interviwed .

2. Rel igious preference.

3 . Protestant denomi nation preference.

4. Age.

5. State of residence.

6. Size of community of residence.

7. Socio-economic status.

8. Sex. ·

9. Attendance at Church and Sunday School .

10. Approximate size of Church.

11. Grade point average ( at Hiwassee Coll ege only) .

2. The following show no significant difference in the hypothe sized rel ationships among rel igious fundamentalism and rel igious confl ict scores, rel igious confl ict and anxiety scores , and rel igious fundamentalism and anxiety scores, either at Hiwassee Col lege, UTK, Johnson Bible Col lege, or for the entire sample at 0.05:

1. Consent to be interviewed .

2. Rel igious preference. 159 3. Protestant denomination preference.

4. Age.

5. State of residence.

6. Size of community of residence.

7. Socio-economic status.

8. Sex. ·

9. Attendance at Churchi and Sunday School

10. Approximate size of Church

11. Grade point average ( at Hiwassee Col l ege only) .

A search of the literature revealed intense scholarl y interest over a number of years in the changes in rel igious bel iefs and values of

col l ege students but only limited researc h into the rel igious confl ict which these students experience and the experiential aspects of this con

fl ict. Availabl e evidence suggest that persons who experience rel igious confl ict al so experience some kind of mental tension and that these per

sons wi ll make moves of one kind or another to escape the irritation. Of particular interest is the statement by Sanford l that 11the existing equi-

1 i bri um11 of the student must indeed be cha 11 enged and the person encouraged

to adopt new modes of thought and patterns of adjustment. However, the chall enge must not be such that the individual 11 SWitches-in11 defense mecha nisms. These stop the education process altogether. Little is known about what goes on in the mi nd of a person so chal l enged.

l sanford, Where Col leges Fail, p. 21 . 160

The hypotheses were tested on 301 students at 3 schools:

100 at Hiwassee Col lege, 102 at Johnson Bible Col lege, and 99 at UTK.

The survey was conducted using second and third quarter freshmen , because it was fel t that students at this poi nt in their educat ional ca reers have had neither the time nor experience to alter drastical ly the rel igious bel ief structure which they brought with them from the home envi ronment, but would likely have experienced chall enges to bel ief struc ture. Students were asked to reply to a survey form containing 94 items : four scales which measured rel igious fundamentalism, rel igious confl ict, anxiety , and socio-economic status, plus 17 additional items formulated by the author. Surveys were conducted in freshmen Engl ish classes at Hi wassee College and Johnson Bi ble Col l ege and introductory Sociol ogy classes at UTK.

The results of the survey revealed significant negative correl a tions between rel igi ous fundamentalism and rel igious confl ict at each of the three institutions and for the entire sampl e, significant positive cor rel ations between rel igious confl ict and anxiety at each of the three in stitutions and for the entire sampl e, and between rel igious fundamentalism and anxiety for the enti re sampl e though not at any of the individual in stitutions.

The three institutions differ significantly from each other on rel igious fundamental ism and rel igious confl ict though not on anxi ety .

Data strongly indicate Johnson Bible Col l ege is the more fundamental ist of the three with Hiwassee Col lege second , and UTK third.

A second phase of the study invol ved choosing 30 students , 10 from each of the 3 schools, for interviews . The purpose of the interviews 161 was as follows : to test the hypotheses of relationships among the variabl es rel igious fundamental ism, rel igious confl ict, and anxiety and differences among the school s as regards these same variabl es on an individual basis; to probe more deeply into the effects upon the individu al of the chal l enges to rel igious sel fhood and the various ways in which these persons had responded to these chall enges : and, to val i date informa tion gathered in the survey phase of the study.

Prime consi deration for the interviews was given to those per sons who scored highest on al l three scal es : rel igious fundamental ism, rel igious confl ict and anxiety were sel ected. If enough of the preceding combi nations were not availabl e then those who scored highest on anxiety were chosen . The reader is referred to Table 1, p. 66 for a listi nQ of scores of the interviewees.

The interviews , for the most part, were structured . Often answer and attitude were evident from the discussion that went on in the inter view and it was not necessary to pose definite questions. With some per sons , however, the process wa s almost entirely a question-answer process.

Interviews were el ectronically recorded and these provided opportunity for a later, more careful analys is and summary .

The interview phase clearly revealed a rel ationship between rel igious confl ict and anxiety. Interviewees who discussed their rel igious confl ict al so told of their anxiety. Students reported a number of dif ferent probl ems in connection wi th their rel igious confl ict and anxiety.

Mental tension and disturbance wa s the difficulty most often mentioned , fol l owed by anger and frustration . Two out of 10 persons interviewed at each of the 3 institutions for whom the rel igious confl ict and anxiety 162 were cri tical , reported physical symptoms--throat ailment, stomach ache, cramps , unabl e to eat or sleep, extreme nervousness--along wi th the men ta l tension. Thei r solutions to the probl em had been to tal k wi th friends, fel low students, teachers , or parents about the problems , but not to with draw from class or school or to close the mind to further consideration of the subject of rel igion. Al l fel t that the role of education was to stimulate thought in al l areas and praised education and educators for performing faithful ly their task.

Interviews with students at Hiwassee Col l ege and UTK indicated that the rel igious confl ict which they experienced was rel ated to cl ass room activiti es: discussion, teacher or student presentations, exposure to ideas or opinions that ran counter to those which they currently held.

The intervi ewees at Johnson Bible Col l ege who reported rel igious confl ict indicated that campus rules and regulations were the cause of the probl em .

Major Hypotheses

The fi rst nul l hypothesis is successfully rejected: there is a signifi cant negative correl ation between rel igious fundamental ism and religious confl ict as measured at each of the three institutions in the study and also when al l the students in the sampl e are viewed as a group.

Religious fundamentalism and religious conflict are inversely related. · The gre�ter the tendenc� - toward f�ndamental ism the l�ss likel ihood there is of rel igious confl ict. One possible explanation for. this circumstance is that the true rel igious fundamental ist has fi rmly fixed ideas and views and is far less likely to entertain, let alone consider seriously, any idea or view markedly different from his own. Such positions are quickly 163 pas sed over. Another possible explanation is that in the mental processes of certain persons rel igious ideas are somehow sequestered from the ordi nary reasoning processes and as such never subjected to the same scrutiny or investigation as are other ideas and viewpoints. Rel igious ideas are not viewed in the same way as other ideas. This finding is similar to that of Ruth Funk at Purdue University in 1958: 11rel igious confl ict is negatively correlated wi th orthodoxy.11 2 Funk, however, measured orthodoxy with an instrument which she devised.

Interviews wi th students clearly supported this inverse rel ation ship between rel igious fundamentalism and rel igious confl ict. A high per centage of students with fundamental ism scores in the 18-13 range, par ticularly at UTK and Hiwassee Col lege, spoke of rel igious confl ict. How ever, in only 2 out of 10 cases or about 20% of the total number of in stances, did the persons report unusual difficul ty with the confl ict and its resolution. The remainder managed in one way or another to come to terms with the situations of threat or chall enge. The interviews did sug gest quite strongly that rel igious fundamental ism in some instances repre sents the acceptance of theological positions but not deep committment to such so that when contrary opinions or ideas are heard the disturbance is mi n imal .

The sources of rel igious confl ict are the classroom and the broader campus experience. Course content rather than instructor is the cause of confl ict, if indeed there be any. Phil osophy, Geology , Rel igious

2 Funk, 11Survey,11 p. 2569. 164 Studies, Western Civilization, and Anthropology cause more troubl e than any other courses. Quite the contrary. Student's reports indicated a desire and a wi llingness to stay with the situation and fol low it through to some kind of satisfactory conclusion. One person enrol led at UTK ex pressed a strong desire to enroll in Rel igious Studies courses which had been described to her as 11Situations of frequent controversy,11 with the hope of finding there answers or a sol ution to a debate raging wi thin her.

Al l interviewees agreed that one of the main responsibilities of education is to chal l enge the person sufficiently so as to promote disequilibirum and encourage alternative thinking, but at the same time all were in agree ment that it be done in such a way that persons not feel unduly threatened .

To do otherwi se is to take unfair advantage of a structured situation.

Johnson Bible Col lege interviewees stated that what probl ems they experienced were precipi tated by the broader campus experience, spe cifi cally, stringent rules and regulations which in many instances curbed freedoms which they had enjoyed while living at home . One of the ten in terv i ewees at Johnson Bible Col lege indicated that she was not returning for the 1980-81 session for that reason. No person at Johnson Bible Col lege mentioned the clas sroom as the source of rel igious confl ict.

Interv i ewees from the three school s reported a variety of effects upon themselves of the rel igious confl ict. Anger, frustration and confu sion were mentioned more often than any others. Twenty percent of the in tervi ewees told of serious effects of such. One reported disturbing dreams ,

2 told of inexplainable stomach cramps , 1 told of inability to sleep for a long period of time coupled with long hours of discussion wi th the 165 roommate and excessive absenteeism from class , whi le still another spoke about requiring medication for the diffi culty.

As stated earl ier none of the persons fel t the need to withdraw from the classes where they experienced rel igious confl ict. The mo st com

mon reaction was to rema in silent and then discuss the point of contro- · versy wi th trusted friends after the class meeting. One intervi ewee at

UTK told of participating in a rather heated debate duri ng a student dis cussion period followi ng a class lecture. The hesi tancy to speak out in class and chal l enge either the instructor or person presenting the contro versial issue was a common reaction. Many, no doubt, do not have suffici ent confidence in his/her skills to participate in such an exchange. Al l interviewees were asked to hypothesize a situation in which they were re quired to respond to test questions which called for answers that involved ideas or poi nts of view with which the student disagreed. One interviewee noted that this had actually happened to her and went on to compl ain that when she fai led to answer as the teacher fel t she should and even explained why she did not, the teacher marked the answer wrong. Most said they wo uld give the expected answer but somewhere on the test register disa greement in wri ting or supply their own views or bel iefs on the question , or perhaps botho

. The second null hypothesis is not successfully rejected : there is not a statistical ly significant relationship, either positive or nega tive, between rel igious fundamental ism and anxiety as measured at each of the three institutions in the study (Hiwassee, .1027 >.05; Johnson Bible

College, .0545� 005; UTK .6884�.05). There is, however, a statistically significant negative rel ationship between the two variabl es when al l the 166 students in the sampl e are viewed as a group, (.0263 (. 05) , a circumstance which sometimes occurs wi th a large sample but not wi th a small sampl e.

Rel igiously fundamental ist students are no more or no less likely to ex perience anxi ety than are non-fundamental ist students .

Anxiety and mental upset can be triggered by a great number of things in the environment and these anxiety producing things or events or situations may be rel ated to rel igion in a greater or less degree or not at all. This finding is in keeping wi th that of Funk at Purdue University

•• • 1 in 1958: 11 anxiety is unrel ated to orthodoxy 0 1 3

The third null hypothesis is successfully rej ected : there is a significant positive correlation between rel igious confl ict and anxiety as measured at Hiwassee Col lege, Johnson Bible Col lege, and UTK, and when the students in the sample are viewed as a group. These data give clear indication that rel igious confl ict is accompanied by anxiety. As the stu dent recognizes certain ideas and points of view as different and chal l eng ing to his own he experi ences mental turmoil. This turmoil could very wel l vary in its intensity, depending upon the parti cul ar rel igious idea chal l enged , how important the rel igious idea wa s to the person, and per haps the circumsta nces of the chall enge (when viewed , where received , by whom it was issued). The student then moves so as in some way to dispatch the anxiety. Several avenues are open to him but, when viewed from the purpose and stand point of education , the least desirabl e are avoidance/ wi thdrawal . So , in order to achieve optimum effect the mental di stur bance must arouse and chall enge the student but it cannot be of such

3 Funk, 11Survey, 11 p. 2569. 167

proportions as to precipitate defensive reactions on his part. It must not reach interference level . Th is woul d drasti cal ly reduce , perhaps stop

al together, the chances of the person admitting the exi stence of other

points of view much less seriously considering them as viable al ternatives

to his own . Earl ier in thi s summary , in the discussion of rel igious con

fl ict, mention wa s made of the effects of anxiety upon certain individual s

and particul arl y as those persons tried to incorporate new ways of think

ing into their own , in the process, perhaps moving beyond a rel igious sel f

nouri s hed by home and church for a great number of years . Some of these

effects were rather severe whi le others were not. In only 2 of 10 cases

however, were persons agitated to the poi nt where their disturbance mani

fested itsel f as physical ailments or severe mental strain.

The above mentioned finding is similar to that of Ruth Funk in

a study condu cted at Purdue University in 1958 . Though a different in

strument wa s used to measure anxiety--Janet Tayl or's Manifest Anxiety

Scal e--Funk did find that rel igious confl ict wa s positively correl ated

wi th manifest anxiety ( r= .43 ) . 4

While all persons experiencing anxiety did not report rel igious

confl ict, al l of the intervi ewees who repo rted experiencing rel igious con

fl ict indicated anxiety of one degree or another. In some instances this

wa s a rather recent thing , while for others it reached back into the high

school years . Five persons discussed the part which parents and parent

discussions played in re solving the difficul ties. Parents had been sup

portive . of their chi ldren but encouraged them to fol low through on their

4 Funk, 11 Survey, 11 p. 2569. 168

own reasoning. None of the parents had counseled wi thdrawal from class or attacked the teacher or teaching methods .

The fourth nul l hypothesis, 11there wi ll be no signifi cant differences among Hiwassee Col lege, Johnson Bibl e Col lege, and UTK wi th respect to either rel igious fundamentalism, rel igious conflict, or anxiety at 0.05,11 is only partly successfully rejected. Analysis of variance re veal s statistically significant differences among the three institutions as regards the variabl es rel igious fundamentalism (.0001 <.05) and rel i gious confl ict (.0001 <.05) though not anxiety (.0532 ).05). The data in

Tabl es 2-8, pages ll3-l'2G, cl early show statistical ly significant differences between Hiwassee Col l ege and Johnson Bi ble College wi th respect to re ligious fundamental ism (.0004 <.05) and rel igious confl ict (.0001 (0.05) and between Hiwassee Col l ege and UTK with respect to rel igious fundamenta lism (.0001 \.0.05) though not rel igious conflict (.5225 )0.05):. The data further reveals statistically significant differences between Johnson Bible

College and UTK as regards rel igious fundamental ism (.0001 {0.05) and re ligious confl ict (.0001 {.05) . The differences pertaining to anxiety are not analyzed because the analysis of variance of anxi ety is not stati sti cally significant (.0532)'0.05)o .

A careful study of the grouping of rel igious fundamentalism scores strongly indicates that Johnson Bi ble Col lege is the more rel igious ly fundamental ist of the three insti tutions, wi th Hiwassee Col l ege second , and UTK third. Al l of the Johnson Bible Col lege scores were 11 or above whi le only 86% of Hiwassee Col l ege 's and 68% of UTK's scores were as large.

Fi fty-three percent of the students surveyed at Johnson Bible Col lege scored the maximum, 18, whi le 41 % of the Hiwassee Col lege students and 169

14% of UT K students scored 18. Too , scores at Hiwassee Col lege and UTK are spread over a much wider range than those at Johnson Bible Col lege.

Two percent of Hiwassee Col lege's scores were +1 and 1% of UTK's scores were -4. This conclusion is also strongly supported by official state ments and documents of the three institutions, expectations placed upon the student body , and by other things as well. Johnson Bible College in terviewees were much more wi lling to discuss rel igion than interv i ewees at either of the other two school s, and the discussions centered not so much on appraisal of the val idity of Chri stianity or any questions per taining to it as they did on the personal acceptance of rel igious faith and how one goes about sharing this faith with others.

Data indicated that Johnson Bible Col l ege students experience far less rel igious confl ict than students at either of the other two in stitutions. This could be due to the fact that Johnson Bible College is the more fundamenta1 ist of the three and there is a stati stically signifi cant negative rel ationship between rel igious fundamental ism and rel igious confl ict. The higher fundamental ism scores at Johnson Bible Coll ege would coordinate wel l wi th the lower rel igious confl ict scores found there. Al so , the rel igious confl ict which Johnson Bible Col l ege students descri bed to the investigator was qual itatively different from that rel a ted by Hi wassee Col l ege and UTK students . Johnson Bible Col lege student rel igious confl ict wa s rel ated more to whether the student did or did not accept a particular tenet of the Chri stian faith or uncertai nty about interpreta tion of one of the tenets than to serious doubts about the Christian faith.

The two Johnson Bible College students who told of serious rel igious con fl ict , anxiety, and rel ated probl ems , revealed that their difficulti es 170 stemmed from a disagreement over col l ege rules--curfew and dress code- mainly, the interpretation of, and necessity fo r such. Statistical data indicate that Hiwassee Col lege and UTK are very similar to each other with respect to rel igious confl ict.

This, too , was very cl ear from the interviews . The Uni versity of Tennessee, Knoxvi lle student rel igious confl ict, for the most part, was rel ated to classroom experi ences where ei ther the instructor, material , or fel low students had infused the student 's mind with uncertainty about some rel igious bel ief. Much the same was true of the Hiwassee intervi ew ees . However, not one of the Johnson Bible Col lege interviewees gave any indication that the classroom was the source of rel igious confl itt. ·one gathers that the cl assroom at Johnson Bible Col lege is not envi sioned by admi nistration , facul ty, or student, as a forum for serious questioning of rel igious faith, though almost every course at the col l ege is taught from a rel igious perspective.

The data pertaini ng to the variables and the individual pattern of rel ationships among them is evidence of the unique character of each of the three institutions included in the study. They are all different.

Each seeks to ful fill a different purpose which in turn bears heavily on the image it projects , the ty pe of student it recruits, the courses of study it offers , the on and off-campus programs , and campus life in general .

Students are far less likely to experience rel igious confl ict as result of classroom experiences at a Bible col l ege like Johnson Bible

Co llege where the intent is to confi rm persons in the Christi an faith and equi p them to serve as Chri stian mi ssionaries, Christian teachers , or or

Chri stain ministers , than even at a denominational institution like Hiwassee 171 College where education is viewed in somewhat broader terms . The at mosphere of a publ ic university such as UTK wi th its increased student freedom and widely varying student body and facul ty wo uld increase even more the likel ihood of chal lenge and rel igious confl ict.

There are those who disagree with Jrihnson Bible College and school s like it and feel that higher education should be viewed from a di fferent perspecti ve , who bel i eve that chall enge is inherent in the edu cation process. Students should be chal l enged , not confi rmed . Viewed from this perspective the developmental status of the incomi ng freshman is such that the underl yi ng per�onal ity structu re must be shaken and the individual through education led to a . re-examination df his total pers pec tive. When looked at in thi s way , rel igious confl ict is but a part of the over-al l re-examination of ideas and points of view and is consi dered · good and constructive. It is bel i eved that the outcome of such confl ict and re-exami nation wi ll be a stronger, more vital person, a more alive re ligious faith.

In support of this latter view of education it may be noted that the students who reported strong rel igious confl ict and tol d of considera bl e mental consternation and some physical effects , at one and the same time spoke positively about the process. It was their opinion that edu cation shoul d proceed along these lines . Al l po ints of view on matters should be given and the indivi dual al l owed to make the choice. These per sons did request that teachers be sensitive to the dynamics of the situa tion and the di ffi culties which some students would experience.

Earl ier it was reported that Lehman viewed changes in the values of entering col l ege students as "lessening of stereotypes .. and 11tol erance 172 of divers ity.11 5 The rel igious confl ict and its effects on the persons in cl uded in this research could be construed in this manner. Only one in tervi ewee at Johnson Bi ble Col lege said she was not returning for a second year. No one else suggested so drastic step as leaving, or staying out of some cl asses, or avoidi ng certain professors . Neither did anyone sug gest that as result of the rel igious confl ict he had abandoned his rel i gious fa ith.

One thing most apparent from this study is that rel igious funda mentalism is not a monol ithic structure , wel l defined , to which al l adhere and on the same terms. Some rel igious fundamental i sts are quite strong and ri gid in thei r opinions while others are equally strong but less rigid.

Strangely enough, some of the most outspoken and defensive are the least certain of thei.� views , almost as though their defensiveness is a cover for thei r uncertainty. It is indeed amazing how the same statement can mean such widely different things to different individuals. Thi s became most apparent with the intervi ewees as they discussed identical questions but with such variati on. in understanding and interpretation.

Secondary Hypotheses

As may be seen from Table 33, the variables size of church at tended and age bear no signifi cant rel ationship to rel igious fundamental ism, rel igious confl ict, or anxiety as measured at each of the three institutions or when the scores of the sample are total ed. Two others , socio-economi c status and consent to be interviewed , are significant only when the scores

5Lehman, p. 309. TABLE 33

SUMMARY TABLE OF RELATIONSHIPS Ar�ONG THE !-1AJOR AND MINOR VARIABLES: RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTAL ISM, RELIGIOUS CONFLICT, ANXI ETY , CONSENT TO BE INTERV IEWED, RELIGIOUS PREFERENCE, DENOMINATI ONAL PREFERENCE, AGE , STATE OF RESIDENCE, SIZE OF COMMUNITY, SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS , SEX, ATTENDANCE AT CHURCH AND SUNDAY SCHOOL, SIZE OF CHURCH , GRADE POINT AVERAGE ( Hil�ASSEE COLLEGE)

Insti tuti on and �� inor Variahle 1·1ajor Vari abl e .Consent to be Rel igi ous nenomi national Aqe State Size of I ntervi e1-1erl PrefPrF>nce Preference Community

Hiwassee Col lege: 1 4 0£10 <.0381 Rel . Fundamenta lis m . 3 6 1 < .0338 < . 0006 . 1 ( .0001 Rel . Confl ict .7365 .0901 .1857 .Rn27 .S565 .3457 Anxiety .3G12 .3976 .5159 .9189 .4503 . 1 568

Johnson Bible Colle ge : Rel . Fundamenta lism . 1 6114 .91180 . 0 72 7 .251 7 < .()290 0 1 .4681 Rel . Confl ict .291 fi .1868 .7 8 . 34 57 Anxi ety .. 01320 <..o3l fi .21 7 3 .071 1 < .0194

The University of Tennessee . Y-noxvi lle .2958 . 11 ()5 Rel . Fundamental ism .1779 <.o382 .1643 .6032 Rel . Confl ict .5516 .36t14 <. .rll73 .0907 .488 3 .4079 5 Anxiety . 321 9 . 9 66 .5956 .2063 .2700 .5039

Total Sampl e: ()001 < Rel . Fundamental ism . 96 7() < .0001 <. .9CJ95 <.0002 .0025 Rel . Confl ict .701 9 .4356 <. .0001 .6727 .0620 .082 0 Anxiety .9602 .1895 . 1314 <.0375 .1119 . 21 71 __, -.....1 w TA8LE 33 (continued)

Institution and t�inor Variable �1ajor Vari ab1 e Socio-economic Sex Attendance at Church Size of Grade Point 2 Status and Sunday School Church Averaae Hiwassee Col lege: . 8 9 1 8 <.nOR3 .8450 .3650 Rel . Fundamental ism 1 4 . 9 1 670 .1163 0094 Rel . Confl ict .2899 .4 <.002C) < . .3765 .4150 18 < . 33 Anxiety <.'1035 . 90 0 4 Johnson Bible Col lege: .5332 5 .7385 . 1 7 Rel . Fundamentalism . 84 3 6 2 Rel . Confl ict Anxiety .1633 .601 1 .l69R .9378

The University of Tennessee, Knoxville: Rel . Fundamental ism . 672() .997fi <.ono1 . 1 523 Rel . Confl ict .0521 . 1138 .2823 .4622 Anxiety .281 0 .5929 .9736 .2752

Total Sample: Rel . Fundamental ism .2538 .5836 .(.0001 .6374 0119 .0650 .8578 Rel . Confl ict < • < .0001 Anxiety (.0370 <-.0210 .26 19 .4068

l rndicates statistical signifi cance at the .05 level

2 rnfonnation availahle only at Hiwassee Col l e9e 17S

fo r the sampl e are total ed ( consent to be interv i ewed and anxiety , .037S

<. OS; socio-economic status and rel igious confl ict, .0119 <.OS; anxiety

.0370 (os).

Rel igious preference is signifi cantl y related to rel igious funda

mental ism at Hiwassee College (.0338 (. 05) and rel igious fundamental ism

of the total sampl e (.0001 (.OS). No rel ationship between these variabl es

wa s establ ished for Johnson Bible Col lege. Denominational preference is

significantly rel ated to rel igious fundamentalism at Hiwassee Col l ege

(.0006 <.os), UTK (.0382 <. os), and to the scores of the total sampl e

(.0001 ( .OS); to anxiety at Johnson Bi ble Col l ege (.031 6 (.OS) ; and re

ligious confl ict at UTK (.0173 (.OS) and the total sample (.0001 (.OS).

State of residence is signifi cantly rel ated to rel igious funda mental ism at Hiwassee Col l ege (.0001 (.OS) and the enti re sample (.0002

<(.OS). A significant rel ationship exi sts between rel igious fundamenta

lism and size of area from which the students come at Hiwassee Col l ege

(.0381 <.OS) and Johnson Bible College (.021 0 (.OS), though not at UTK

( .11 OS /.OS). These may be understood in.l igbLof where the schools are

located, the fact that they are smal l, are denominational ly rel ated , are

located in rural areas, have limited course offerings, and attract a rather

select cl ientel e. The university on the other hand would have a more

heterogenous student body .

Sex of the student is signifi cantly rel ated to anxiety at Hiwas

see Col lege (.003S <.OS) , and for the entire sample (.021 0 <.OS) , and re

lig ious confl ict at Johnson Bible Col lege (.OOS7 <. 0S). Attendance at church and Sunday School is significantly rel ated to fundamental ism at 1 76 Hiwassee Col lege, (.0083 <.05), UTK, (.0001 <.05), and the totaled scores fo r the sample ( .0001 <.05).

Data pertaining to grade point average were available only from

Hiwassee College. Rel igious confl ict (.0094 �.05) and anxiety (.0034� .05) are significantl y negatively correl ated with grade point average . As anxie ty and rel igious confl ict decrease the grade point average increases. If indeed the data be accurate and true of al l students, indications are that confl ict over rel igious ideas produce sufficient anxiety within the indi vidual student to interfere with performance within the cl assroom. One mi ght hypothesize that part of the difficulty whi ch the freshman encounters as he/she moves into the col lege experience and tries to perform academi cal ly is attributabl e to confrontation in the classroom and on campus of new ideas and chal l enges to ways of thinking brought from home. Time and effort spent in deal ing with these are time and effort away from studying.

As result the grade-point average goes down . Yet some of the most impor tant personal growth is taking place as the individual is chall enged and forced to confront new ideas and views . Maybe in extreme cases persons wi ll avoid those classes where it is known such chall enges exist lest the individual be disturbed and grade point average suffer. This in itself might account for the rel ati vely small percentage (20%) of the students reporting major rel igious disturbance resul ting from classroom or broader campus experiences. Perhaps some who might othewise be in this category chose courses or instructors where the likel ihood of such happening was mi nimal .

These data suggest that, in a real sense, the very thing which is good for the student is at one and the same time bad for the student. 177

Confl ict which comes from a reappraisal of rel igious ideas and perspective could be interpreted as indicative of prying open the student's mind and chall enge and reappraisal of other areas as well, which is thought of by many as the real aim of education and educational experience. This activi ty , however, has an adverse effect upon grades. The grade-po int average decl ines. Anxi ety is likewi se statistical ly negatively rel ated to grade point average� In this case it is difficult to determine which is cause and which is effect. Is anxiety the cause and lowered grade-point average the effect or is the reverse true? In view of the known positive rel a tionship between rel igious confl ict and anxi ety , the strongly rel igious student greatly concerned over grades , perhaps one who looks towa rd grad uate or professional school and must be conscious of admi ssion require ments , mi ght wel l learn how to compartmentalize his rel igion, not subject it to scrutiny. That person may never al low chal lenging questions to sur face in his thinking. He may even avoid those courses where such discus sions are reputed to take pl ace or those teachers who favor such activities or utilize such pedagogical procedures.

The secondary nul l hypothesis which asserts that the variables sex , age, etc. show no significant difference in the hypothesized rel ation ships among rel igious fundamental ism, rel igious confl ict, and anxiety at the three institutions in the study , is not successfully rejected with respect to rel igious fundamentalism--religious confl ict, rel igious funda mental ism--anxiety, except for the variabl e size of community of residence, nor rel igious confl i ct--anxiety, except for the variabl es attendance at church and Sunday School and age. The reader is referred to Tabl e 30, page

152 for data relating to the above . 178

Thi s wri ter suggest that of the eleven variabl es a defi nite rel ationship does indeed exist between the re l igious fundamental ism and attendance at churc h and Sunday School . One of the ways in which the fundamental ist expresses his rel igious faith is to align himsel f with other bel i evers and meet with them on a regular basis. His very presence among them says something to all who see. It is not even necessary that he discuss his faith. Hi s participation in organized activity can be viewed as sufficient evidence of the rel igious devotion and faithfulness to same .

A Portrait of the Rel igiously Fundamental ist Col l ege Student

A rel igiously fundamental ist student may be found enrol led in many different types of institutions of higher learning--a publ icly owned uni versity, a smal l privately owned four-year col lege, or a smal l denomi national ly owned and operated two-yea r col l ege. The student may be mal e or femal e and of any age. His/her home resi dence may be a large city or smal l community, located in any state , and represent any social cl ass from the highest to the lowest. The rel igiously fundamental ist student may be

Cathol ic, Greek Orthodox, or Protestant. While he/she may bel ong to a church of any size in any Protestant denomination the fundamental ist stu dent wi ll more than likely participate in a church which resembl es as closely as possible what he bel ieves the New Testament Christian Church was like. The fundamentalist student will be a regular attender and sup porter of the church•s services and try to infl uence others to join him in his bel iefo His rel igious interests lie mo re in the direction of read ing and studying what is consi dered to be Gou •s final vJord to man , the Bi ble, and applying its teachings to everyday life than in debating its 179 veracity or eng�ging in critical activity with regard to it. Occasional- ly he finds himsel f in a situation or set of circumstances where for one reason or another a chal l enge to the basic premi se whereon his rel igious structure is erected is fel t. The chal l enge and response, of course, will vary with the individual . In a smal l percentage of cases the chall enge and the reaction to it will be of considerabl e magni tude and force and the person will experience mental turmoil which may manifest itself in physical symptoms as he/she seriously evaluates it. This, however, de pends upon whether or not the chall enge registers in the conscious and is seriously considered . From this point on several different avenues of action are open to the individual as he/she seeks to come to terms with the situation.

Time as wel l as help from others may be required to resolve this confl ict. The resolution process may result in growth and maturity for the person.

. .· . CH.t\PTER VI I

P1PLICATIONS OF TI!E STUDY

Impl ications fo r the Institutions Concerned

t\1 1 three institutions invol ved in the study, �,h,assee Col leqe ,

lJohnson 8ib1e Colleqe, and The University of Tennessee , Knoxvi lle,

should be aware that, general ly speaking, students feel that they are

treated fairly and responsibly by al l col l e9e personnel . Fundamentalist

and non-fundamentalists alike are quite satisfied with the treatm�nt

w�ich each receives . Though certain courses were named as being occa

sions and situations in which chal l enge to rel igious bel ief had been fel t, at no time dirl the student feel he/she was dealt �ith unfairly or

not given the chance to respond. In only one instance , that being at

The University of Tennessee , Knoxville, was speci fi c referPnce made to

a teacher who gave students the impression that he was intentionally challenging their rel igious perspecti ve . In fact, these situations of

chall enge V.le re mentioned wi th appreciation by the students . Johnson Bible Col l eqe is indeed a speciali zed insti tution

training persons to serve the Chri stian re liqion in one capacity or

another. Students are guided into a deeper understandin0 of and

personal commi ttment to the Chri stian rel igion. There appears to

be a measurable deqree of mal content among Johnson Pible Col l ege

students about campus rules and regulations , especially those pertaininj

to curfew and dress code. Students know of these requl ations in

' advance of their comi ng to the campus but are not aware of their strin

gent nature unti l their arri val on camrus . One mi ght wi sh for a

180 181 broader aporoach to education to he taken by t11e insti tution but t�ere is every inrlication that students are av1are of the type program offe red by the col l eqe before enrol ling.

Al though Hiwassee Col l ege �as a re qui red weekly chapel progra� and a requi rement that al l graduates shal l successful ly comolete six hours in rel igi ous stud ies, there were no voiced compl aints from students at Hiwassee Col l ege on these points.

Campus rel igi ous grours and area churches appear to meet adequately the rel igi ous needs of UTK students . Several re l igi ous groups and organizations fun�tion on or adjacent to the campus and some of these have rather extensive programs fo r students incl udi ng

Cihle study , servi ce projects , and social occasions. A number of professors complained about the fundamentnlist outl ook and acti vi ties of many of these grouns , feel ing that in some instances this contri buted to the unwillingness of some students to view subjects and certain points of view wi th an open mind.

Profi les of enteri ng freshman students coul d be of qreat value to each of the insti tutions. This coul d be extremely hel pful in recruiting new students : in knowing the type of students to approach , location of such , and perhaps those aspects of the col l ege or univer sity to stress wi th these students . The researcher bel i eves that fliwassee Coll ege shoul d be aware of the high percentage of Baptists and low percentage of �ethodists enrol led in a �ethodist-owned and supported insti tution . 182

Imnl ications for Further Research

The fi ndings of the present study sugqest several research possibilities which may prove beneficial in provi ding additional insights into the unique problems faced hy the rel iqi ously fundamental ist student in hiqher education as wel l as a �reater understanding of religious fundamental ism.

In light of the spiraling popul ari ty and infl uence of rel igious fundamentalism in America and around the worl d the tim� is far overdue for a seri ous effort by rel igious fundamentalist and non fundamentalist to understand the position of the other. At present neither seems to understand or aopreciate the other. From all indica tions non-fundamentalists do not have a clear understanding of the historical circumstances w�ich produced rel igious fundamental ism and the positions its now affi rms . The same could be said of fundamenta l ists wi th resoect to the non-fundamentalist stance.

Now that the rel ationships between religious confl ict, religious fundamentalism, and anxiety have been establ ished in two sepa rate investigations , that of Ruth Funk at Indiana University in

1958 and the present study, it woul d seem that the next step would be case studies of rel igious fundamental ist students and their rel igious confl ict, especially the thinking nrocesses of these persons as they experi ence the confl ict and anxiety.

Other impl icati ons for further research are :

1. A study of the role of the teacher and fellow students in rel igi ous confl ict and anxiety and the resol ution of such ;

2. Studies leading to the development of pedagogical 183 method ( s ) whereby potential ly disturbi ng materi al can be presented in such a way that the opini ons currently held by students are chal l enged ye t not to the degree that they become defensive and cl ose their mi nds to any serious consideration of the alternate ideas and materi al s;

3. A study to dete rmi ne the dynami cs of the classroom that contri bute to the onset of re ligious confl ict and anxiety;

4 . Longitudinal studi es to determi ne the long-term effe cts of relig ious confl ict and anxiety upon the student ;

5. Studies of termi nol ogy to determine if there is a language that woul d al low fo r the presentation and discussion of subject ma tter wi th a high potential fo r unduly arousing the sensibilities of the re l igiously fundamental ist student ;

6. Studies to determi ne if t�ere is a rel ationship between rel igious fundamenta lism and a certain personal ity type , authori tari an, fo r example;

7. Repl icate this study using high school students to see if the rel igious confl ict has its roots earl y in the education experience and at the same time to see if there is a connection between a parti cul ar educational theory and the diffi cul ties experi enced by fundamen tal ist students ;

8. Investi gate the role of the home in precipi tating rel igious confl ict and helping the student re sol ve it;

9. Studies into the impl ications of Eri k Eri kson 1s Psycho

Social Theory fo r understanding the probl ems of rel igiously fundamental ist students . 184

Imol i cations fo r Cl assroom Instructi on

Instructors at Hiwassee Col l eqe and UTK , especi al ly, need to be awa re that some students enrol led in their classes experience rel igious confl ict and anxiety; that indeed it is a probl em fo r some , a serious prohl em fo r a fe\'·1. In some instances , it can prove to be an interference in the parti cul ar course where it ari ses and in others it can affe ct overal l academi c perfo rmance . It would be of immense value if the ins tructor coul d ascertain in advance whether or not certain parts of the subject matter are potential ly disturbing to the students . If such can be dete rmined in advance then a di fferent method of instruction can be empl oyed , perhaps leading the students to discover the desired or al ternate sol uti ons or expl anations to a probl em or issue. The session mi ght be preceded by a more detailed explanation than usual , sayi ng something like, "Today \'!e are deal ing \'d th an issue that has been viewed and expl ained in di fferent ways by di fferent persons . We shal l present several suggested sol utions noti ng the strengths and weaknesses of each ." Too , there need to be structured situations and opportunities for a student to express di sagreement and not rely solely on those tiiT'es vthen he raises his haru tor · s peaks out i n cl ass objecting to some opinion or materi al . There must be 9enuine re spect and appreciation on the part of al l, teacher and fellow students , fo r al l poi nts of view whether they are fundamentalist or non-fundamen tal ist. Certainly, as noted previ ously, both perspectives--non-fundamen tal ist and fundamental i st--coul d benefi t from a lucid, informed unders tanding of the other1S position. BIBLIOGRAPHY RIELIOGRAPHY

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\·li l son , P. F. "Re 1 i gi ous Orientati on and Anxiety." Unpub 1 ished t·1aster's Thesis, Middle Tennessee State University, 1976. l�i thal l, John . "The Development of a Technique fo r the Measurement of Socio-Emo tional Cl imate in the Classroom. " Journal of Experimenta l Education , 17 ( September, 1948) . Renorted in 11 Valda Robinson , The Cl imate of Learnin 0: Hi stori cal Perspectives and Impl ications for the Learner. " In Geral d S. vJ inter and Eugene M. Nuss ( eds . ) The Young Adul t. Glenview, Illinois: Scott , Foresman and Co ., 1969. /\PPD!DI XES APPENDIX A

INTERVIEH SCf-lEDULF. FOR TH E If1TERVIEW PHASE OF THE STUDY

I. �1a ke the student feel at ease by revievli ng sorr.e of the personal data and asking other questions such as size of fa�i ly, future pl ans , re lati ons wi th siblin qs , etc .

II. Val idate Vauqhan 1S Socio-economi c Status Scal e.

Expl ain the meaning of the nu�eri cal score .

III. Vnlidn.te the Rel_Lqious Confl ict Scale. Begin by expl ainin g the scori ng of the test: true answe rs to any of the auestions indicates a degree of confl ict. Read some of the questi ons aloud and have the person veri fy his a. ns1·:ers . If possible, have the nerson to exnl ain his answers .

Encourage the person to di scuss freely his answers and comment uoon the subject ma tter. Ideas and opinions freely expressed are to be preferred. Reviewi ng scores on the vari ous tests , as much as anything, wi ll provi de a spri ngboard fo r el iciting opinions and discoveri ng true feel ings on all the areas of concern to the investi - gator. If possible, at thi s point guide the person into a discussion of his rel igious confl ict if scores indicate the presence of such.

IV. Val i date the 11arti n-\!estie Re l ioious Func'amental ism

Scal e. Begi n �i th an expl anation of how the scale places persons on a continuum running from stron0 fundamental ist bel ief to none at all.

The higher the score the greater the deqree of fundamental ism, the lower the score the less the degree of fundamental ism. As in Section

196 197

III read some of the questions aloud anrl have the person ve ri fy his answers and if possibl e expl ain the�.

V. Va lidate the IPAT Sel f An�lvsis Scale score . Explain that scores in the ranqe of 0-14 a re typically found in unusual ly rel axed , secure indivi dual s, 15-38 inrli cates an averaae level of anxiety, 39-44 indi cates a oerson whose anxi ety level woul d be getti ng s eri ous , and 45-88 are scores fo und in only 1 of 28 cases. Enco urage the person to discuss the presence or absence of anxiety in his -1 ife and if the scores indi cates the presence of a hioh deqree of anxiety ask the person to suggest n reason fo r such . Ask specifical ly if a confl ict invol ving re l igion is directly or indirectly rel ated to the anxiety.

VI . To assist in securi ng complete accurate da�a about relig ious viewpoint , rel ioious confl ict, and anxiety, the fo llowi ng speci fic questions have been formul ated. If in the course of the interview the oerson provides an answer to any or all of the questions there is no need to p ursue the matter any further. If, however, the intervi ewee is unusual ly hesitant to tal k about any of the tests and test data beyond gi vi ng yes or no answe rs to the interviewer•s questi ons , then to ma ke sure that the person •s oni nions are ful ly known , the intervi ewer wi ll seek specific answe rs to the following questions. These questions were uti lized in the oi lot study and the researcher fee ls that they served qui te ,,,ell and yi el ded the tyoe of

information that was beina- souoh.J t.

1. Oo you feel that it is the role of education to present al l points of vi ew on a problem or situati on or question or issue even 198 though some of t�e vi ewooints expressed may antagonize the students .

Yes No Pl ease expl ain your answe r.

2. Do you feel that teachers have the ri ght or responsibility to suggest answers to questions that are potential ly upsetting to students in an effort to sti�ul ate students • thinking? Yes No

Please expl ain your answer.

3. Do you bel i eve that students should be confi rmed or disturbed in th�i r re l iqious belie fs ? Yes No Please expl.ain your ans\•Je r.

4. Do you see yoursel f changing wi th re gard to re l igious beliefs? f!as your position shifted somewhat since enrol ling in col l ege?

Yes No Pl ease explain your answer.

5. �ere you wo rri ed about col l ege because you we re afraid

that this woul d happen? Yes_ No_ Did other people express opinions

that this mi ght happen to you? Yes_ flo

6. What are the courses in which you have fe lt rel igi ous

confl ict the strongest? Socioloqy_ Psychology_ Philosophy_

Religious Studies_ Biol ogy_ _ _ Cher1i str.v Enql ish His tory_

Education Other ------

7. Have you ever fe lt the need to discuss the re l iqious confl ict which you are experi encing wi th anyone else? Yes No

Pl ease expl ain your answer.

8. How do you handle a course/class where some of the materi al confl icts wi th what you hel i eve? How do you reply to questions on tests that cal l for answers that invol ve materi al and ideas that are clearly in opposition to your bel i efs? 199

9. Have you ever tri ed to defend your rel igious beliefs

in cl ass? Do you object in cl ass to particul ar ideas expressed by

teacher or student that confl ict your re lig ious bel iefs? Yes

No Pl ease comment on your ansi·Je r.

10. Have you investi 9ated your re lig ious beliefs more

cl osely since comi ng to ? Pl ease expl ain your answer.

11. Is the source of your rel igious confl ict something

other than the classroom situation? Yes No Please expl ain

your anslf1er.

12. How have you come to te rms vlith the re l igious confl ict

( i.e. , how have you handled it) ? Fo r example, do you not listen in

cl ass? Did you drop the cl ass? APPENDIX B

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THE SURVEY PHASE OF THE STUDY

Madi sonvi lle, Tennessee

Dear Parti cipant :

He unders tand that the information you are asked to gi ve is of a confi dential nature . Many oe�ple are hesitant to re veal thei r re lig ious bel iefs . Re assured, however, that thi s information wi ll be hel d in strictest confi dence . This exerci se re lates to a oro.iects whose eventual aim is to di scover ways in which potentially disturbinq ideas anrl materi al can be taught so as to produce a mi nimal emotional response on the part of the student, a response that coul d defi nitely interrupt the learning process.

Today you are asked to suooly certa in hiograrhical information and ma rk your answe rs on three short tests . �·'e woul d appreciate yo u gi vi n9 your name and address a 1 so as the second phase of thi s project invol ves col l ecting a diffe rent sort of data and in order to obtain this information a number of you wi ll �e interviewed oers onal ly. As wa s stated above , al) information you furnish and your riame s and addresses wi ll be hel d stri ctly confi denti al . The name s wi ll be used only to contact persons fo r the interview . Parti cipation in the interview ohase of the study wi ll be vol untary though it is hoped that you wi ll indicate 1·li llin qness to do so by furnishina your name and addre ss .

After the tests have been scored and the information tabulated you may see the re s ults . Those who are asked to partici pate in the intervi ew phase wi ll have ooportunity at that time to survey the test fi ndinqs .

Thank you fo r your wi llin gness to participate .

200 201

GENERAL INFORMATION DATA SHEET

Name ------

Address ------

Tel ephone No . ______I wi ll aqree to be interviewed_ I vJi ll not agree to be interviewed Age_ r1a1e Female

Religious preference : Jew Cathol ic Protestant Other

I bel ong to a church/synagoque_ I do not belong to a church/synago�ue

but I attend �1y denomi national preference is______

The approximate size of my church is This is quarter ----- mv

in school . ��Y student classificat�on is ------�

�� home state is My home is located in:

rural area small town ( incorporated to 2500) large tO\'tn (2500-

15,000) city (15,000-

I attend church and Sunday School : every Sunrlay_ one time a month

h:o ti mes a r.1onth on hol i days_ occasion a 11y_ never_

I hold an offi cial position ( whether elected or apoointed ) in the

church : yes_ no

Religious considerations did did not enter into my decision to

attend this school . 202

SCALE FOR ASSESSING SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS

1, Are you or is some body el se the chief wa oe earner in your home?

2. ( About the chief wa rr earner) �hat is ( your, his, her) occuoation? ( Pl ease re cord the occuration of chief waqe earner in

__ detail. by type of \.'to rk and position ) ______

3 . ( P. bout the chief vm qe earner) About hovJ fa r di d (you , he , she ) go in school ? 8th grade or less ; 1-2 years of �iqh school compl eted high school ; some col l ege_; compl eted col leqe_

4. Is there a car in your home? Yes No (If Yes ) How many?- ( If one car only ) Has it bouqht nev! or used?New Used

5. Is there a teleohone in your home ? Yes No Party line Private line

6. Do you rent or own the ol ace where you are living? Rent Own 203

0F ATTITIIDES TOLIJ\Rf"l RELIGION P, SURVEY AND PHI LOSOPHY OF LIFE

This inventory consists of nur.1hered statements . Read eac h statement and dec ide whether it is true as applied to you or fa lse as applied to you. You are to ma rk your answe rs on this sheet . If a TRUE MOSTLY TRUE , T. statement is OR as aopl ierl to you, circl e If the Ffl.LSE" NOT USIJf,LLY F. statement is f)P. TRUE , as ar.rl ied to ynu, circl e

T F 1. I cannot decide what to bel ieve about rel iaion .

T F I 2. sometimes wonder just what life is al l a�out and why we are here .

T F 3. I am acti vely tryi ng to decide by re ading or other mea ns , what the truth is ahout rel igion .

T F t1 At times I have f'elt 9ui Hy hecause of my re 1 i elious upbri nging.

T F I 5. sornetir:es feel di sloyal to r.y parents b�cause I cannot enti rely accept thei r re l igi ous be liefs.

T F I 6. I wi sh wa s perfectly sure of my bel ief in God .

T F I 7. I am not as stri ct in my rel igious practices as feel I shoul d he.

T F 8. My church is too stri ct .

T F 9. There are too many thinns about re l igion I don 1t understa nd.

T F 10. I am in danger of losing my fa ith.

T F 11. Sometimes I feel gui lty because of my lack of fai th .

T F 12. Education has led me to question some tea chings of my church .

T F 13. Someti�es I believe in He ll and somet imes I don 1t.

T F I 14. I l'li sh coul d be sure my re li�ious bel iefs are correct.

T F 1 5 . Contradi ctory rel igious irleas make one vJOnrler I

T F I 16. I feel that I shoul c!n 1t question my rel iqion , but sometimes do , anyi•Jay .

T F 1 7 . I feel that I sho ul d be mo re re l igious than I am . 204

T F 18. I mi qht be happier if I did not bel i eve in �Y re l igion.

I T F 19. I ':!i sh I did not bel ieve in !!e ll , but do .

T F 20. I some times \•/o nder vthy God lets terri ble thinqs happen to people.

T F 21 . It is hard to reconcile science wi th re l iqion.

T F 22. ,1\l though bnsical ly I hel i eve in my rel iaion , r1y f'a ith often vJ a vers . 205

Please answe r the fol lowi ng questions in li0ht of the descri ptions gi ven : SA denotes stronq agreement ; A denotes agreement ; U denotes undecided ; 0 denotes disaqreement ; SO �enotes stron9 di s agreement. Please ci rcle the answer wh ich best descri bes your atti tude toward the question .

SA A U 0 SD The Cih le is the insoi red word of God.

S/'1. A U D SD The rel iqious irlea of heaven is not muci-J r1ore than supers ti tion .

SA A U D SO Christ was a mo rtal , historical person , hut not a supernatural or di vi ne bei ng.

Sft A U D SO Chri st is a divine heing, the Son of God . -

S/1, A !J D SO The stori es in the Bib le ahout Chri st heal ing sick and lame persons by !lis touch are fi cti tious and mythical .

SA A U D SO Someday Chri st wi ll return .

SA A U 0 SO The idea of life afte r death is simply a my th .

Sl\ A U 0 SO If more of the people in this country vm ul d turn to Chri st we would have a lot less crime and corruption .

SA A U D SO Since Chri st brought the dead to life, He qave eternal life to al l who have fai th . 206

On the following cages you wi ll find 40 auPstinns de�l inq wi th diffi culties that most people experience at one time or another.

It wi ll hel p a lot in sel f-understanding if you check Yes , No , etc. , to each one , frankly and truthful ly, to describe any problems you may have . Please rerr.ember as you ansvter:

1. �lever pass over an i tern but �live some nns\•ter to every singl e one. Your answers will he enti rely confidential .

2. Do not spend time ponderi nq. Answer each immediately, the way you want to at this moment (not last week or usually) . Answer them as you feel now. 207

1. I fi nd that � interests , in peonle and amuse Tnae h bohfHD Fat.. ments , tend to chanoe fai rly rani dly 0 0 0

2. If peopl e think poorly of me I can still qo on Tnl• h botwHD Fat.. quite serenely in my ni nd 0 0 0

3. I like to v1a it ti ll I am sure that "'�at I am sayi no is correct, before I put forward an argument

s...... 4. I am inclined to let my actions qP.t swayed by tl,... Seldom Nner feel ings of jealousy 0 D 0

5. If I had my life to live over aClain I vJOul d: (A) plan very di fferently, (R) \·1ant it the A In betweeft B same 0 0 0

T• In bohfM�> No 6. I admi re my parents in al l irrmortant matters 0 0 0

Tnaa h belwHn Fa'lae 7. I fi nd it hard to "take 1 no 1 for an ansv:er" , even when I know what I ask is impossible 0 0 0

8. I doubt the honesty of neonl e who are more fri endly than I wo ul d naturally expect them Trwe In bohfotll FaiN to he D 0 0

9. In demandinq and enforcinq obecience my Parents (or quardians) we re : (f.) nh1ays very reason A In betwocn B able, (B) often unreasonable 0 0 0 Rarely Som•timea Oftoa 10. I need my friends mo re than they seem to need me 0 D 0

11. I feel sure that I coul d "pul l mysel f toqether" Ahra,.. Oi't.ll !kldo,. to deal wi th an emergency 0 0· D Oft.D Bom�tim.. Nnar 12. As a child I wa s afraid of the dark 0· D D

· Tn Un

14. If peopl e take advanta9e of my fri endl iness I: (A) soon forget and forgi ve , (B) resent it and A In betwe.n B hol d it aqainst them D 0 D

15. I find myself unset rather than heloed by the Olton O«aaion&lly Nner kind of personal criticism that many oeool e ma ke 0 0 0

Tnae h betwc•n Fa! .. 16. Often I get an�ry wi th people too quickly D 0 0

17. I feel restl ess as if I wa nt something but do not Of tea know \'/hat 0 208

18. I sometimes doubt whether peopl e I am tal king Tno h t..t-.H'tl Jl'alae to are real ly interested in what I am saying D 0 0

19. I have always been free from any vague feel ings of ill-heal th, such as obscure pains , di gesti ve Tnt Une�Tt&l.a Fal .. upsets , a�areness of heart action , etc. 0 D 0

s. .... 20. In discussion wi th some people, I get so annoyed tla• J!.a,....17 N_.,. that I can hardly trust my sel f to speak 0 D 0

21 . Through oetti nq tense I use up m9re energy than T"'• Un�Tt&ln Fat.. most peopl e in 0ettinq thi nqs done 0 D 0

22. I �ake a point of not being ahsent-mi nded or Tn1o Uceort&ln Fain forgetful of details 0 D 0

23. However di fficult and unol easant the obstacles , T• In brlwH.D No I ahJays sti ck to my ori ginal intenti ons 0 0 0

24 . I tend to r,Jet over-exci ted and 11 rattl e d 11 in upsettinq situations

25. I occasion al ly have vi vi d drea�s that di sturb YH In b�hnen No my sleen 0 D D

26. I always have enough energy when faced wi th y., In b•twHn No di ffi cul ti es D 0 D

Truo Unc•rt.o.in 27. I sometimes feel compel led to count things for Falae no parti cul ar ournose 0 0 0

True Unetrtaln Fa!.. 28. r-1ost people are a little queer me ntal ly, thou9h they do not like to admi t it D D D

29. If I make an awkward social mi stake I can soon y.. In betwHn No forget it D D D

30 . I feel grouchy and just do not v1ant to see A In between B peopl e: (A) occasionally, (8) ra ther often 0 0 D

Very Somo- 31 . I am brought almost to tears by having things N.,... rai"<'IJ' tlmeo go v1rong D D 0

32 . In the mi dst of social grouns I am nevertheless sometimes overcom� by feel ings of lonel iness Y• In betwHD No and worthl essness D 0 D

33. I v1a ke in the ni oht and , through �>lo rry , have Oft.o.a So01dimeo Nner some diffi cul ty in sleeping again 0 0 0 209

34 . 11y spi ri ts generally stay hiq h no ma tter Y• In b•tw� ND how many troubl es I meet D 0 0

Y• In b.t ....,n No 35. I sometiDes o,et feel incs of quilt or remorse over quite snal l ma tters D 0 0

3f . '1y nerves 9ct on eclqe so t�at certa in sounds , e.g. , a screechy hinqe , are unbearabl e .and Ottoa Som�tlm• Nner give me the shivers D D 0

37 . If something ba dly upsets me I general ly calm Tnle Uno:nUID P'a!H down again quite quickly D D 0

38 . I tend to trembl e or perspi re when I think of a di ffi cul t task ahead

39. I usual ly fal l aslf'eD quickly, in a few . Y• InhrlwHn Ne Mi nutes �hen I go to bed 0 D 0

Tnoe Un

PILOT STUDY

Intervi ew conducted : July 10, 1979

Length of intervi ew : 50 mi nutes

The subject of the interview is a 30 year ol d woman , marri ed, mo ther of 3 chi l dren , and a fo urth quarter student at Hiwassee Col lege .

The husband wo rks as an auto parts dis tri butor and is oart owner- of the fi rm where he is empl oyed. Kenne 's home state is Ohio and she ranked her fami ly as lower mi ddle class according to Vaughan 's defi nitions of social class. Her father is Roman Cathol ic and her mo ther belongs to the Church of the Brethren . As a child Kenne was allowed to choose which of the two re l igious grouos she wanted to join and she chose that of her mo ther, Church of the �rethren .

Rel i gious Ideol ogy

This pilot study may be construed as 111ustrati v� of one of the significant ways in which re ligious confl ict can be handled. Kenne scored 96 on the Rel igious Ideol ogy Scal e which placed her on the border line of a fundamental ist. The interview did indicate that she deserved the label fundamental ist. On the General Information Data Sheet Kenne ra ted hersel f a modernist according to defi nitions provided. In the course of the interview Kenne remarked , "As I look more closely at my bel i efs I real ize that I am probably mo re fundamental ist than I thought." As noted above , as a chi1 d Kenne was al 1 ov1ed to choose between the re ligion of her fa ther and her mother and she chose that of

210 211 her mo ther , Church of the Prethren , which rlefi ni tely woul d be cl assed as ul tra-conservative if not fundamental ist in outl ook . Kenne•s travel s and experi ences as a membe r of the arme d fo rces as we ll as education have no douht served to mo d ify her re l igious fundamental ist outl ook .

Rel igious Confl ict

Kenne •s score of 13 on the Rel igious Confl ict Scale pl aces her on the upper end of the me di um ranee of scores on this test and indicates the presence of mi ld rel iqious confl ict. In the interview she rema rked that she wa s not aware of any rel igious confl ict in the sense that her rel igious bel i efs v1ere be ing chal l enged or contradicted by

ideas and concepts expressed in the classroom or the larger col l eoe envi ronment. There is rel igious confl ict but the ori gin of this confl ict

is not ideologi cal hut rather the situation in which she lives. The husband is of fundamental ist Bapti st background and this fundamental ism encompasses a great deal mo re than rel igion. Education beyond learning to read the Bible and vtri te one •s name is unnecessary, the woman •s pl ace

is at home wi th the chil dren , wi ves are subservi ent to their husbands , are illustrati ve of the husband •s great conservatism. In the fami ly church located just down the road , the wi ves and children sit together and the men and boys over twel ve sit in a room by themsel ves . Kenne and

her husband were ma rried when both we re in the armed fo rces and they

lived in Texas for a long period of time after that. While living in

Texa s they attended church , took thei r chil dren , sat to9ether in church as a fami ly, parti cipated in a husband-wi ves church school cl ass , and 212 were quite happy. The husband had planned to ma ked the armed fo rces a career but became di s illusioned , obtained a re lease , and �oved the fami ly back to his home area in Tennessee . Thi s was the beginning point fo r Kenne •s problems . Once back in the home situation the husband came under far.1i ly infl uence and his extreme conservatism re asserted itsel f. Kenne was given a choice of three churches to attend , all Bapti st and al l extremely fundamental ist. Her rel igi ous upbri nging and denomi national ties were made light of and she was told 11everyone around here is Dapti st.•• Her effo rts to further her education we re attacked. She was shamed by her husband •s fami ly fo r her rel i0ious bel iefs . When she rebel led at this sort of treatment

Ke nne wa s harassed. She was tol d that she is go inp to hel l and ta king her chi l dren wi th her. She asked her husband to go wi th her and the chi l dren to a different Bapti st church or church of another denomi nation but he refused because to do so woul d mean opposing his fa mi ly. Kenne has now stopped asking to attend other churches and on Sun day mo rnings listens wi th her chil dren to rel igious broadcasts , usual ly Methodi st, taking time to tal k wi th the children about rel igious thi n9s , Bi ble stories, and to 11Say prayers 11 • The husband •s atti tude has modi fi ed somewhat lately. He does encourage her in her education and occasion al ly wi ll join Kenne and the children in thei r Sunday mo rning rel igious time.

The subject remarks that she has never considered droppin9 a course or not taking a parti cul ar course or a parti cular teacher because she fel t that to do so \1/oul d endanger her religious fa ith or \·JO ul d be 21 3 offended by what she heard . She bel i eves that the role of education is to make students awa re of al l sides of a question or issue .

In re sponse to the questi on , "Do you feel that it is the rol e of education to present all points of view on a problem or situation or question or issue even though som� of the viewpoints exnressed may antagoni ze the students?" Kenne remarked , "Yes , hecause in education you need to have a broad knowl edge , not just what you bel i eve in but gi ven the fa cts and then let yo u decide what you bel i eve in. Maybe you bel i eve something hecause you 've never heard the other side of it." In her thou9ht education has the responsibility to present all points of vi ew, all sioes to an i s sue and the student shoul d encounter these but in the 1 ong run the student 111 i 11 not change very much as resul t of the exneri ence . The bel ief system that he bri ngs wi th him from chil dhood 1·.ti ll remain oretty much intact. "Their rel igious bel i efs shoul d come from their fami ly and what they bel i eve when they leave school wi ll be the same as what they bel i eved when they entered school . Al l they'll get in school is a touch of what someone el se bel i eves but it is not go ing to change them . Change? No ! You

1·10n' t chanqe , " asserted Kenne. This sounds a bit strange . Persons are to hear new ideas , other views in school . These are interesti ng to know , to hear, but these ideas wi ll not change the oerson or the way the person thinks or bel ieves .

Kenne 's rel igi ous confl ict has interfered wi th the teaching and learning process. only in the sense that lack of support and encouragement from the husband and verbal barbs from in-laws interrupt the subject 's concentration and we igh heavily upon her thoughts . If she 214

does deci de to quit school this wi ll he the reason and not because

confl icting opinions and ideas upset or offend her.

Kenne has �anaqed to avoid rel igious confl ict by re fusing to

consider questions or rel igious ideas di fferent from her own on any but

an i nte 11 ectua 1 1 eve 1. The i ntervi e1A1e r posed the question . "�:o�>.' do

you handle a cl ass/course 1·1here some of the ma teri al confl icts \·li th

\'/hat you be l i e ve? " The exampl e used \·!a s that of the evol utionary idea

of creation as mi ght '-le encountered in P.iology , Chef'li stry, or Physics .

Kenne ' s oui ck resoonse v1as , "I knov1 1vhat I be 1 i eve and vJ hen things

like this come up I simply say . 'This is w�at the textbook says but

this is not v1 hat I rel ieve. '" She stated that it did not upset her to

hear such ideas or to discuss them. Kenne 's sol ution to this probl em

has been to close her mi nd to ideas that confl ict wi th her bel ie�s and

ther2"y avoi d any confl ict o� mental angui sh. When this wa s poi nted out

to her she rema rked that this was not al to qether accurate , that she did

learn about these new thinas but that wa s about as fa r as it went. �hen

asked tf-Je question , \·'oul d you he vlillin9 to reassess your re l igious

vie1·1s in light of ne•t1 irleas? her response 1·1as a quick , ''�lo !" fo l l ov•ed by

a launh .

r'lenta 1 An qui sh

The investigator asked Kenne to descri be the mental turmoi l she was exoeriencinq, particul arly in terms of its effects upon her life and

her rel ationships . The fi rs t thing she �entioned was the re lationship

Wi th her husband . ",A lot of cl oseness has been lost 1·!i th r1y husband."

Hhen she tries to discuss the prorl er:� 1·ti th him he "just laurJhS and says 215 that vJe must �o to a Bantist church or none at al l." 11He vli ll not give any and I just can 1t qi ve anymore ." Kenne remarked that "if thinqs continue as they are, and I don 1t see any way to resol ve it, it might even reach the ooint of dividing the �arri aae . It ma y even split us up." Her husband does not try to defend her vd th his fami ly. If he did " I think I1d faint." Sometimes things gP.t so intense that "I storm out of the house and qo for a �al k. I have this one spot up on Turkey Pen where it1s just rne and God . I just say, 1If I1m 'rrrong show me the \·1ay , but if I 1m ri oht stand by r::P..1 Then I 1ll cool off, go hack to the house and keep it to nyself." It has reached the poi nt now where she and her husband seldom tal k about rel ioion .

Thi s has occas ioned prohlems between Kenne and her parents . She spoke of an occasion not lono aoo when after four years of deal ing with her mother on a nersonal problem her mother came for a visit. Kenne re�arked that her own fami ly has no use for Eapti sts , refe rri ng to them as "holy rol lers". At the time of the visit the remark �t1as made to her mother, "You ought not to keep your dauqhter froli� the revival . She needs it.11 Kenne 1S mother got very upset at the remark.

The children want to attend the Raptist church nearby but

Kenne says "I just can't say v/e 1re goi nq over there." The chil dren do not always understanrl why they cannot po where their relatives attend church.

!·'hat has al l this clone to Kenne oersonally? "I have lost my appeti te many times ," she reol ied. Also, "I am very uneasy around

11 any of my husband 1 s fami ly. Kenne asserted that it has not made it 216

hard to concentrate at school because she has become "extremely inde-

pendent in the past coupl e of years."

Summa ry

Kenne has strong re lig ious bel i efs wh ich we re instilled in

her whi le she was qui te young. She believes that the ro le of education

is to present all points of view, all sides to an issue or orobl em , to

expose the student to new and different , even oppos ing, i rleas . flowever,

this is not to be done in order to change the pers on or his thought but

only to make him awa re of the exi stence of these other ideas and vi ews .

The indi vidual is not likely to change as re sul t of his exoosure to

opposing opinions . The outl ook which he wi ll continue to hol d has been

instilled in him in his early years . Kenne avoi cs rel igious confl ict in

the academi c arena by closing her mi nd to those ideas and points o f

view that confl ict wi th her own . She re fuses to gi ve them credence or

status above that of interesting ideas and opinions . By her own admi ss

ion she wi ll not reassess any of her rel iqious positions. The

considerable rel igious confl ict and mental anguish she exreriences comes

from the situation at home . She fo resees no res olution of this in the

near future . The mental anguish which she has exoeri enced has had very

noticeabl e effects upon her and all her rel ationships : with her husband ,

in-laws , her own fami ly, and her chi l dren.

Near the close of the session the interviewer restated the

point that the present re l igious confl ict anrl mental angui sh stemmed

. . from Kenne 's home re l igious situati on ra ther than the cl assroom or other

insti tutional circumstances . Kenne 's response to this wa s , "I don 't 217

know if it woul d be any different in class if I didn't have this

behind me . I douh.t it." \-!hen osked to cl ari fy \!.'hat v1a s meant by the

statement, Kenne repl ied, "If I 1·1as a Elaptist and \va s in a school \•.'here

rel igion �<'laS being taught by Cathol ics it mi ght ma ke a di fference . I mi ght say, 'That's not quite ri ght or how can you say that . I bel i eve

something el s e. ' But I fi rmly bel i eve that if this wa s a Bapti st col l ege and someone said, 'This is the way Bacti sts do it, th is is the way it is,' I'm afraid I'd be thrown out of here . I'd most defi nitely stomp my feet, jump up and dovm , yel l and hol ler and say, 'You're IAJrong,

it's like this. "' Ke nne seens to suggest two things by these remarks .

The fi rst is that the situation in which the teaching and learning take pl ace has a great effe ct upon whether or not the person experiences mental angui sh. The ideological confl ict is probably unavoidable but

adaptation to it can be greatly infl uenced by the learning situation ,

in this case Hivtassee Col l ege where , by her ovm admi ssion , " !1ethodi st

re l igion v1as not crammed down her throat." A second thing suggested by Kenne 's remarks is that the prejudi ces or outl ook upon a situation or circumstances , in this case an educational insti tution , pl ays a

dete rmi ning role in what the person fi nds in a situation or experiences

in a given set of ci rcumstances . In Kenne 's hypothetical case , her prejudices toward the Baptists woul d have been the occasion fo r mental angui sh--stomping the fl oor, yel ling, hol leri ng , probably getting thrown out of the pl ace--and this woul d possibly have been true even if the presentations had been made and the discussions hel d in a non-prejudi ci a 1 manner. VITA

Clarence Victor McCal l, Jr. was born in Chatham Hil l,

Virginia on February 14, 1933, attended elementary school in

Tazewell, Virginia, and was graduated from Tazewell High School in May 1949 . In September 1949 he entered West Virginia Busi ness

Coll ege and remained there for one year of study. In August 1950 he entered Hiwassee Col l ege and received the Associate in Arts degree in r�ay 1952 . �1r. �1cCall enrolled at Emory and Henry Col lege in August 1952 where he majored in history and foreign languages , receiving the BA degree in 1·1ay 1954. From 1954-1 948 he was enrolled at Emory University where he received the BD degree in 1957 and MA AA degree in 1965. Mr. McCall received the Ed.D. degree in Curri culum and Instruction from The Uni versity of Tennessee, Knoxvi lle

December 11, 1981 .

The author is married to the former Ella Casey of Richlands, Virginia and is the father of two daughters.

218