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Strategic Culture and Non-Nuclear Weapon Outcomes: the Cases of Australia, South Africa and Sweden University of Southampton Research Repository ePrints Soton Copyright © and Moral Rights for this thesis are retained by the author and/or other copyright owners. A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the copyright holder/s. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given e.g. AUTHOR (year of submission) "Full thesis title", University of Southampton, name of the University School or Department, PhD Thesis, pagination http://eprints.soton.ac.uk UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON STRATEGIC CULTURE AND NON-NUCLEAR WEAPON OUTCOMES: THE CASES OF AUSTRALIA, SOUTH AFRICA AND SWEDEN by STUART EDWARD POORE thesis submitted for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF POLITICS FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES OCTOBER 2000 UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCE Doctor of Philosophy STRATEGIC CULTURE AND NON-NUCLEAR WEAPON OUTCOMES: THE CASES OF AUSTRALIA, SOUTH AFRICA AND SWEDEN By Stuart Edward Poore ABSTRACT This thesis uses a "strategic culture" approach to gain insights into non-nuclear weapon outcomes in Australia, South Africa and Sweden. Strategic culture refers to the ideational and cultural pre-dispositions possessed by states towards military strategic issues. The theoretical aim for this research is to explore the various conceptions of strategic culture offered in the literature and to evaluate the potential benefits of conducting strategic cultural research. Strategic Studies has traditionally been dominated by realist theories, which typically provide rationalist materialist explanations for outcomes. This thesis highlights the relevance of domestic strategic cultural context to strategic decision-making and, in the process, explores the potential inadequacies of non-cultural strategic analysis. It will be contended that strategic culture is ill- suited to provide an alternative theory to explain causes of outcomes. Instead it provides an approach for investigating the "cultural conditions of possibility" for strategic decision-making. These will be seen as constituting the assumptions made by theories that pursue rationalist materialist ontologies. Non-nuclear weapon outcomes are potentially problematic for realist explanations by suggesting instances of states not maximising their power by acquiring the most powerful weaponry. This thesis focuses on non-nuclear decision-making in Australia, South Africa and Sweden. In each case it is possible to identify distinctive strategic cultural proclivities which have shaped perceptions of security-material factors. The aim is therefore to provide a thick description of these cultural tendencies and to explore how they affect nuclear decision-making. This will provide insights into why the non-cultural accounts which dominate the literature on these non-nuclear outcomes, might be inadequate. Equally, it will emphasise the value of pursuing a strategic culture approach. Contents Acknowledgements iii List of Abbreviations and Acronyms iv CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1 1. Strategic Culture 2 2. The Significance of Non-Nuclear Weapon Outcomes 4 3. Choosing Case Studies 9 CHAPTER TWO: CONCEPTUALISING STRATEGIC CULTURE 1. Introduction 10 2. The Need for Strategic Relativism 12 3. Culture and International Relations 14 4. Strategic Culture and International Relations 17 5. Applying Strategic Culture: Early Formulations 20 6. The Emerging Debate: Initial Problems, Broader Questions 22 7. Delimiting the "Second Generation": The Relationship Between Strategic Culture and Behaviour 26 8. Locating a Third Generation of Research? 30 9. The Issue of Methodology 36 10. A Theory of Strategic Culture? 40 11. Conclusion 48 CHAPTER THREE: AUSTRALIA 1. Introduction 52 2. Australian Nuclear History a) Nuclear Energy and British Atomic Tests 54 b) Procuring Nuclear Weapons 57 c) An Indigenous Nuclear Weapons Programme? 62 3. Analysing The Nuclear Option 67 4. Australian Strategic Culture 72 a) The "Frightened Country" 74 b) 'Great and Powerful Friends': The Strategic Culture 80 of Dependence. 5. Fear, Dependence and Nuclear Weapons 88 6. The Evolution of Australian Identity 96 7. The Emergence of a Non-Nuclear Strategic Culture 101 8. The "Good International Citizen": Australia's Contribution to 104 Nuclear Arms Control, Disarmament and Non-Proliferation 9. Conclusion: The Relevance of Strategic Culture to 106 Australia's Non-Nuclear Weapon Outcome CHAPTER 4: SOUTH AFRICA 1. Introduction 109 2. From Acquisition to Dismantlement: The Rise and Fall of South Africa's Nuclear Weapons Programme 111 3. South Africa's Nuclear Strategy 115 4. The Strategy of "Pariah-hood" 120 5. Afrikaner Threat Perceptions and Strategic Assumptions 125 6. Total Strategic Culture 128 7. Rethinking South African Nuclear Strategy 137 8. The Stratification of Afrikanerdom: A New Strategic Culture? 142 9. Anti-Apartheid Resistance 146 10. Conclusion: The Relevance of Strategic Culture to South Africa's Non-Nuclear Weapon Outcome 153 CHAPTER 5: SWEDEN 1. Introduction 158 2. Swedish Nuclear History a) The Initiation of a Nuclear Programme 160 b) The Rise and fall of the Nuclear Weapons Option 161 c) An Inevitable Outcome? 167 3. Nuclear Disarmament and Non-Proliferation 171 4. The Swedish Strategic Culture of Neutrality 173 5. The Armed Neutral 179 6. Sweden as an International Activist 181 7. Compromise and Consensus Within the Swedish 184 Political Context 8. The Swedish Military 192 9. An Unofficial Alignment? 196 10. Secret Nuclear Intentions? 201 11. Conclusion: The Relevance of Strategic Culture 204 to Sweden's Non-Nuclear Outcome CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION 209 1 Strategic Culture and Non-Nuclear Decision-Making 211 2. Threats and Allies 213 3. Material Constraints on Nuclear Decision-Making 220 4. The Impact of Nuclear Weapons 223 5. The Implications for Strategic Cultural Research 227 6. The Value of a Strategic Culture Approach 233 BIBLIOGRAPHY 237 Acknowledgements I wish to thank my supervisor, Darryl Howlett for his constant advice and support. His commitment to helping me with strategic culture research has been invaluable for the completion of this thesis. I would also like to thank my friends and colleagues at the Mountbatten Centre for International Studies, who provided me with essential research material, frequent advice and a place to work: Angela Murphy, Tanya Ogilvie-White, Mark Smith, John Simpson, Emily Taylor and Angela Woodward. I am very grateful for the help I have received from academics during the course of the research. Thanks must go to: Lars Van Dassen, Theo Farrell, John Glenn, Jacques Hymans, Alaistair lain Johnston, T.V. Paul, Jan Prawitz, Alan Macmillan, Terry McNamee and Jim Walsh. I would like to especially thank Alexander Wendt for assisting me with the theoretical aspects of this research and for providing me with welcome encouragement during moments of doubt. I wish to extend gratitude to my friends at Southampton University who made my "PhD experience" a more pleasant one: Peter Clegg, Cor Datema, Sarah Hamiduddin, Nikos Ladis, Sonja Lawrence and Julie Reeves. I am also indebted to my friends outside of academia who have helped me to maintain a sense of perspective throughout. I also wish to thank the ESRC for providing me with three years of funding. Finally, I would like to thank my family, whose love and support made it all possible. List Of Abbreviations and Acronyms AAEC Australian Atomic Energy Commission AEB Atomic Energy Board AEC Atomic Energy Commission ALP Australian Labour Party ANC African National Congress ANU Australian National University ANZAC Australia and New Zealand Armed Corps ANZUS Australia-New Zealand-United States Treaty Armscor Armaments Development and Production Corporation CD Conference on Disarmament CTBT Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty ENDC Eighteen Nation Disarmament Committee FOA Swedish National Defence Research Institute GNP Gross National Product HEU Highly Enriched Uranium HIFAR High-Flux Materials Testing Reactor IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency IISS International Institute for Strategic Studies MPLA Movimento Popular de Libertaccao de Angola NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation NNWS Non-Nuclear Weapon State NPT Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty NSG Nuclear Suppliers Group NWFZ Nuclear Weapons Free Zone NWS Nuclear Weapons State PNE Peaceful Nuclear Explosion PTBT Partial Test Ban Treaty RAAF Royal Australian Airforce SADF South African Defence Force SAP Social Democrat Party SEATO South East Asia Treaty Organisation SIPRI Stockholm International Peace Research Institute SPNWFZ South Pacific Nuclear Weapon Free Zone SSC State Security Council SWAPO South West African Peoples' Organisation UCOR Uranium Enrichment Corporation UN United Nations UK United Kingdom UKAEA United Kingdom Atomic Energy Agency US United States USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics IV Chapter One: Introduction "We are cultural beings, endowed with the capacity and the will to take deliberate attitude toward the world and to lend it significance".1 Max Weber Can cultural analysis tell us anything significant about strategic outcomes? This question seems to have been ignored by strategists who base their analysis primarily on rationalist materialist explanations.
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