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ix TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Acknowledgements iii English Abstract v Thai Abstract vii List of Tables xiii List of Figures and Maps xiv Abbreviations xvi Glossary of Terms xvii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1.1Background: Understanding Laiza 1 1.2 Research Problems 5 1.3 Research Questions 9 1.4 Research Objectives 9 1.5 Research Methodology 10 1.5.1 Research Site Selection and Analysis of Research Site 10 1.5.2 Fieldwork and Methodology 13 1.5.2.1 Household Survey 13 1.5.2.2 Individual and Household Interviews 13 1.5.2.3 Participant Observation 14 1.6 Organization of Thesis 14 CHAPTER II REVIEWING CONCEPTS AND RELEVANT STUDIES 2.1 Introduction 16 2.2 Exploring Border Studies 16 2.3 Border as an Asymmetrically Interdependent Borderland 20 2.4 Livelihood Adaptation and Other Strategies Used in Response to Change 22 x TABLE OF CONTENT (CONTINUED) 2.4.1 Livelihood Strategies 24 2.4.2 Coping Strategies 26 2.4.3 Using Adaptive Strategies 27 2.4.4 Livelihood Strategies in the Borderland Context 32 2.4.4.1 Practices of Subversive Economy in the Borderlands Context 32 2.5 Conceptual Framework 35 CHAPTER III THE EVOLUTION OF THE BORDERLAND AND ITS DEVELOPMENT 3.1 Introduction 38 3.2 China-Myanmar Border Demarcation and Its Overall Development 39 3.3 Evolving Laiza: Historical and Political Context 44 3.3.1 Background History of Laiza: An Insignificant Isolated Village and Its Importance in the Past 44 3.3.1.1 Understanding The Kachins And Their Revolutionary Past 47 3.3.2 Shaping Laiza: The Situation before the Ceasefire Agreement 49 3.3.3 Setting the Scene 51 3.3.4 Traditional Livelihood Strategies and Activities in the Past (before border trade town) 55 3.4 The K.I.O’s Development Policies and Initiatives: Making the Border Town 58 3.4.1 Increasing the Roles of Chinese: Consequences of Development Plans 62 3.4.2 Politics of Market Concession: Influence of Entrepreneurship 65 3.4.3 Taxation and Prices of Commodities Prices 68 3.4.4 Finance and Banking 69 3.4.5 Tourism and Travel 71 3.4.6 Internet and Phone Telecommunication 71 3.5 Uniqueness of Laiza Borderland: Looking at K.I.O as a State within the State 73 3.6 Cultural and Religious Practices in Laiza 77 3.7 Summary 80 xi TABLE OF CONTENT (CONTINUED) CHAPTER IV AN ASYMMETRICALLY INTERDEPENDENT BORDERLAND: UNEVEN DEVELOPMENT TRADE AND ITS CROSS-BORDER RELATIONS 4.1. Introduction 83 4.2 China-Myanmar Cross-Border Relations: Uneven Cross-Border Trade after Border Line Demarcation 84 4.3 Long Journey of Kachin and Chinese Cross-Border Relations: China’s Policy toward Ethnic Kachin 88 4.3.1 Fencing its Relations?: The Case of Constructing the Mini Great-Wall 92 4.4 Interdependent Relations Between Both Local Residents and Their Differences 94 4.5 Summary 99 CHAPTER V THE ADAPTIVE LIVELIHOOD STRATEGIES TO CHANGES: BOUNDARY PRODUCTION PRACTICES 5.1 Introduction 101 5.2 Household Differentiation in the Context of Border Development: Local Economic Activities in the Border Trade Boom 103 5.2.1 Logging Concession as a Coping Strategy: Significant Factor for Inter-Household Differentiation 104 5.3 Changing the Form of Farming Activities 113 5.4 Household Differentiation due to the Use of Authorities 118 5.5 Other Forms of Adaptive Livelihood Strategies 120 5.5.1 Household Rent and Running Guest House 123 5.5.2 Working in the Casino 125 5.5.3 The Experiences of Shop Owners in the Laiza Market and Operating House- Shop 128 5.5.4 Animal Husbandry 131 5.6 Borderlanders and Daily Cross-border Livelihood Activities: Forms of “Armpit Smuggling” 134 5.7 The Importance of Women Roles in the Households 140 5.8 The Experiences of Social Consequences 143 xii TABLE OF CONTENT (CONTINUED) 5.8.1 Social Sufferings of the Laiza Borderlanders Under these Changes 143 5.8.2 Crime, Drug, and HIV/AIDS Epidemic Situation in Laiza After the Border Development 145 5.9 Summary 151 CHAPTER VI CONCLUSION 6.1 Introduction 154 6.2 Research Findings 155 6.3 Theoretical Discussion 161 BIBLIOGRAPHY 168 CURRICULUM VITAE 176 xiii LIST OF TABLES TABLES PAGE 3.1 The Waves of Migration 49 3.2 The Official Census of Laiza (2008) 51 3.3 School Information of Laiza Town 54 3.4 Shops and Owners in the Border Town Laiza 64 3.5 The Peak Year of Increasing Shops 65 4.1 Border Trade Flows between Myanmar and Yunnan Province (as % of Myanmar’s total border trade) 87 4.2 China’s Border Trade with Myanmar (USD million) 87 5.1 Timeline of the Local Livelihood Strategies 102 5.2 Household Survey of Monthly Income per Household of Laiza Borderlanders (Renminbi /Yuan), Jan 2009 108 5.3 Borderlander Households Classification in Different Economic Status 112 5.4 HIV/AIDS patients in Local Clinic 148 5.5 Household Survey on Drug Impact 151 xiv LIST OF FIGURES FIGURES PAGE 1.1 Research Site 12 1.2 View of Laiza Town with China Side 12 2.1 Conceptual Framework 37 3.1 Kachin-China Border Gates Map 44 3.2 Board with Written the Price of Different Vehicles 53 3.3 Operating Petrol Stations by Chinese 53 3.4 Seeing Immigration, Custom, Security Gates 53 3.5 Petrol Station Under Construction 53 3.6 Laiza Bus Station 53 3.7 Scene Entering into Laiza 53 3.8 Trucks Carrying Watermelon Crossing Border Gate 55 3.9 Local Market Seeing from the Above 55 3.10 The K.I.O and Chinese Border Gates Viewed from Kachin Side 55 3.11 Laiza Map Showing Location of Hotels and Guest Houses 61 3.12 Local Bank Owned by Chinese 70 3.13 K.I.O Owned Local Government Bank 70 3.14 Money Launder, Exchange Own by Burmese Chinese 70 3.15 K.I.A Soldiers and Civil Staff entering Manau Compound 79 3.16 1,000 K.I.A Soldiers in Morning Parade on the Revolutionary Day 79 4.1 Kachin Independence Organization Controlled Borderline Areas (source: Global Witness 2005) 89 4.2 Fencing the Border along the Laiza Brook (mini great-wall), a view from Laiza Side 94 4.3 Jingpo Women at Laiza Manau Festival (Jingpo gumgai ni rai ga ai) 97 xv LIST OF FIGURES (CONTINUED) 4.4 Manau poi Festival Participants Jingpo Group from China Waiting for a Bus on their Way Back to their Villages (manau poi sa Jingpo ni) 98 5.1 Official Letter for Logging Permission 106 5.2 Agreement between Owner of Permit Letter and Buyer 107 5.3 Showing Households Economic Status Chart 111 5.4 A Local Woman Harvests Vegetables but not in Her Own Land. 115 5.5 Women Selling their Farm Products at Church Festival 115 5.6 Women Selling their Farm Products at Church Festival 115 5.7 Day to Day Cross-border Trade Interaction 122 5.8 Long-term Cross-border Interaction 122 5.9 Front View of Casino Compound in Laiza (Saying Cin Shin Travel Company) 128 5.10 Cleaning Manau compound for daily wages 128 5.11 Arriving whole sale marketers from Myitkyina at vegetable market, Laiza 131 5.12 Pigsty built in the back yard 133 5.13 Collecting fodders for pigs in her rent farm 138 5.14 Household’s Backyard Used for Jade Dealers 140 5.15 Women Cleaning In Church Activities 143 5.16 A Poster in front of Laiza Hotel, “be aware of human traffickers” 146 xvi ABBREVIATIONS AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes CNY Chinese Yuan HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus HU Health Unlimited IDUs Intravenous Drug Users K.B.C Kachin Baptist Convention KIWA Kachin Independence Women Association K.I.A Kachin Independence Army K.I.C Kachin Independence Council K.I.O Kachin Independence Organization KNG Kachin News Group MEIS Myanmar Exports and Imports Services SPDC State Peace and Development Council U.W.S.P United Wa State Party VCT Voluntary Counseling and Testing xvii GLOSSARY OF TERMS Kachin and Burmese Language Duwas Chieftains Jingpo Kachin people from China manau poi Traditional Manau Festival Ning Baw Kaba a shagrau sha-a man hkrum lu sha hpawng Dinner of K.I.O’s Chairman Ninggawn Shadip Manau Poi Ninggawn Shadip Manau festival Numri Pan Clinic NGO clinic phyet lay phyet (Burmese Language) Four Cuts Thin Jan (Burmese Language) Water Festival Nay Pyi Taw Capital of Myanmar .
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