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Ethnic Diversity in Burma

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Ethnic Diversity in Burma An important contribution to understanding the ethnic factor in present-day Burma Gravers While the image of modern Myanmar/Burma tends to be couched Exploring in human rights terms – and especially of a heroic Aung San Suu Kyi opposing an oppressive military regime – in reality there are several conflicts with ethnic and religious dimensions, as well as political Ethnic Diversity and ideological differences between the opposition and the ruling military regime. This is not surprising in a country where 30% of the Ethnic Diversity in Burma Exploring population and much of the land area are non-Burman, and where contradictory tendencies towards regional separatism versus unitary in Burma rule have divided the people since before independence. In what is probably the most comprehensive study of Burma’s ethnic minorities to date, this volume discusses the historical formation of ethnic identity and its complexities in relation to British colonial Edited by Mikael Gravers rule as well as to the modern state, the present situation of military rule and its policy of ‘Myanmarification’. Changes of identity in exile and due to religious conversion are also analysed and discussed. Finally, the book deals with relevant and recent anthropological and sociological theoretical discussions on the ethnic identity, bound- aries and space of all the main ethnic groups in Burma. It probes into the complexity and diversity of ethnicity in Burma and it provides more details and up-to-date information than previously collected in one volume. ‘[A] much-needed interdisciplinary addition to Southeast Asian Studies in general, as well as Burma studies in particular, as it unites the work of eight scholars of Burma to discuss the various issues of ethnic categorisation, politics and conceptualisation in the country.’ – Jane Ferguson, Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 40 (3) ‘A well-informed academic volume such as this on ethinicity in Burma has been much needed, and any audience will find the chapters richly informative and many of them stimulating.’ – Hayami Yoko, Southeast Asian Studies, 46 (3) ‘[S]imply a must for scholars concerned with Burmese society as well as for anyone interested in the future of this country or the complexities of ethnic identification.’ – Roland Mischung, Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs, 28 (4) www.niaspress.dk Gravers_reprint-cover.indd 1 22/07/2010 16:21 EXPLORING ETHNIC DIVERSITY IN BURMA NIAS STUDIES IN ASIAN TOPICS 20 M. C. Hoadley & C. Gunnarsson (eds) The Village Concept in the Transformation of Rural S.E. Asia. Studies from Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand 21 Lisbeth Littrup (ed.) Identity in Asian Literature 22 O. Bruun & O. Odgaard (eds) Mongolia in Transition. Old Patterns, New Challenges 23 S. Tønnesson & H. Antlöv (eds) Asian Forms of the Nation 24 Vibeke Børdahl (ed.) The Eternal Storyteller. Oral Literature in Modern China 25 I. Reader & M. Söderberg (eds) Japanese Influences and Presences in Asia 26 Leif Manger (ed.) Muslim Diversity. Local Islam in Global Contexts 27 J. Koning, M. Nolten, J. Rodenburg & R. Saptari (eds) Women and Households in Indonesia. Cultural Notions and Social Practices 28 S. Sparkes & S. Howell (eds)The House in Southeast Asia. A Changing Social, Economic and Political Domain 29 P. P. Masina (ed.) Rethinking Development in East Asia. From Illusory Miracle to Economic Crisis 30 L. Manderson & P. Liamputtong (eds) Coming of Age in South and Southeast Asia Youth, Courtship and Sexuality 31 Li Narangoa & R. Cribb (eds) Imperial Japan and National Identities in Asia, 1895–1945 32 C. E. Goscha & S. Ivarsson (eds) Contesting Visions of the Lao Past. Lao Historiography at the Crossroads 33 M. Beresford & Ngoc Angie (eds) Reaching for the Dream. Challenges of Sustainable Development in Vietnam 34 O. Bruun & Li Narangoa (eds) Mongols from Country to City. Floating Boundaries, Pastoralism and City Life in the Mongol Lands 35 V. Børdahl, Fei Li & Huang Ying (eds) Four Masters of Chinese Storytelling. Full-length Repertoires of Yangzhou Storytelling on Video 36 C. Derichs & T. Heberer (eds) The Power of Ideas. Intellectual Input and Political Change in East and Southeast Asia 37 B. Sellato & P. Sercombe (eds) Beyond the Green Myth. Borneo’s Hunter-Gatherers in the 21st Century 38 M. Janowski & F. Kerlogue (eds) Kinship and Food in Southeast Asia 39 M. Gravers (ed.) Exploring Ethnic Diversity in Burma 40 G. Helgesen & S. Risbjerg Thomsen (eds) Politics, Culture and Self: East Asian and North European Attitudes 41 M. Thunø (ed.) Beyond Chinatown EXPLORING ETHNIC DIVERSITY IN BURMA edited by Mikael Gravers NIAS Studies in Asian Topics Series, 39 First published in 2007 by NIAS Press NIAS – Nordic Institute of Asian Studies Leifsgade 33, DK-2300 Copenhagen S, Denmark tel (+45) 3532 9501 • fax (+45) 3532 9549 email: [email protected] • website: www.nias.press.dk © NIAS – Nordic Institute of Asian Studies 2007 While copyright in the volume as a whole is vested in the Nordic Institute of Asian Studies, copyright in the individual chapters belongs to their authors. No chapter may be reproduced in whole or in part without the express permission of the author or publisher. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Exploring ethnic diversity in Burma. - (NIAS studies in Asian topics ; 39) 1.Ethnicity - Burma 2.Ethnicity - Burma - Religious aspects 3.Minorities - Burma I.Gravers, Mikael 305.8’009591 ISBN-10: 87-91114-96-9 ISBN-13: 978-87-91114-96-0 Typeset by NIAS Press Printed and bound in the United Kingdom Publication of this work was supported by a generous grant from the Danish Research Council for Humanities. CONTENTS Preface • vii Acknowledgements • xiii Contributors • xiv Abbreviations • xviii 1. Mikael Gravers Introduction: Ethnicity against State – State against Ethnic Diversity? • 1 2. Mandy Sadan Constructing and Contesting the Category ‘Kachin’ in the Colonial and post-Colonial Burmese State • 34 3. Sandra Dudley Reshaping Karenni-ness in Exile: Education, Nationalism and Being in the Wider World • 77 4. F. K. L. Chit Hlaing Some Remarks upon Ethnicity Theory and Southeast Asia, with Special Reference to the Kayah and the Kachin • 107 5. Karin Dean Mapping the Kachin Political Landscape: Constructing, Contesting and Crossing Borders • 123 6. Ashley South Ceasefires and Civil Society: the Case of the Mon • 149 7. Takatani Michio Who Are the Shan? An Ethnological Perspective • 178 8. Lian H. Sakhong Christianity and Chin Identity • 200 9. Mikael Gravers Conversion and Identity: Religion and the Formation of Karen Ethnic Identity in Burma • 227 References • 259 Index • 279 v MAPS 0.1. Ethnic groups in Burma • xx 1.1. Excluded areas, 1946 • 15 7.1. The geographic distribution of Shan möng • 185 FIGURES 0.1. Karen children in a music school in a refugee camp, Thailand • ix 0.2. Karen Muslims in front of the EU office in Mae La • xi 1.1. & 1.2. Karen children rehearsing a dance in Mae La refugee camp, Thailand • 25 2.1. Kachin cultural symbol, the manau posts in Putao • 43 2.2. Shatapru Baptist Church in Myitkyina • 49 2.3. Leaders of the manau dance (one of them a Baptist pastor) in Kachin State • 56 3.1. Mae La refugee camp, Thailand • 82 5.1. Manifestation of the SPDC territoriality: Kachin manau festival in Myitkyina under the Myanmar flag • 125 5.2. Kachin cultural symbols (the manau posts – manau shadung ) in Myanmar • 132 5.3. Kachin cultural symbols (the manau posts – manau shadung ) in China • 132 5.4. Typical Kachin feast in a village in China • 135 5.5. Typical Kachin feast in a village near Myitkyina in Myanmar • 135 5.6 . Symbol of Kachin culture: an animistic burial site in China • 139 5.7 Symbol of Kachin culture: a Catholic home in a village near Myitkyina • 139 7.1 Announcement at Kachin State museum noticeboard • 188 7.2. Shan people at Bawgyo Pagoda festival in Northern Shan State, March 2000 • 191 7.3. Opening ceremony of Shan New Year Festival celebrated in Hsipaw (Thibaw), December 2001 • 195 9.1. A young Karen girl playing a harp in Mae La refugee camp • 231 9.2. A young Karen weaver, Thailand • 241 9.3. Mae La refugee camp, Thailand • 249 vi PREFACE Today, issues of ethnicity and ethnic identity are of global concern. This is especially so with regard to the nation-state, which in recent years has come under increased pressure – both from globalizing and from localizing processes. In Burma as in other countries there has been discussion about the role of ethnicity either as a source of conflicts (and constituting a threat to the nation-state) or as an essential element in democratic development. This is not a simple conundrum to resolve. However, it is the aim of this volume to take the analysis beyond such generalizations and probe into the complexity, the multiple voices and the historical dimensions of ethnic classification and identification in Burma. It has not been possible to cover all ethnic groups or aspects of ethnicity in Burma/Myanmar in this volume. More than one third of Burma’s population, estimated at about fifty million, belongs to ethnic minorities or, more precisely, to non-Burman ethnic groups; at least 100 different languages and dialects are spoken in the country. Moreover, this volume focuses on the major ethnic (minority) groups and their respective situations and representations, whereas the Burman angle is underrepresented. This, however, is not done out of disrespect but in part because scholarship is subjected to a division of labour that sometimes may inhibit a more holistic perspective and partly because it is impossible to cover all aspects of the complex ethnic situation in Burma within the covers of a single volume. Paradoxically, the armed forces (Tatmadaw) and its ruling body, the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC), regard political claims based on ethnicity as a major problem for the stability of the state; in contrast, the non-Burman ethnic groups, particularly their elites, consider the lack of ethnic rights and democracy to be the main problem.
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