Women and Their Relationship with Men in Selected Works of Dostoevsky: A Semiotic and Phonological Approach

Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of “DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY”

by

Inna Smirnov-Oknin

Submitted to the Senate of Ben-Gurion University of the Negev

March 2011 Beer-Sheva

Women and Their Relationship with Men in Selected Works of Dostoevsky: A Semiotic and Phonological Approach

Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of “DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY”

by

Inna Smirnov-Oknin

Submitted to the Senate of Ben-Gurion University of the Negev

Approved by the advisor______Approved by the Dean of the Kreitman School of Advanced Graduate Studies ______

October 2011 Beer-Sheva

This work was carried out under the supervision of

Professor Yishai Tobin

In the Department of Foreign Literature and Linguistics

The Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences

Acknowledgements

There are many people in my life that I would like to acknowledge and to extend by greatest appreciation for their involvement in the completion of this major achievement and without whom this thesis would not have been possible. First, my gratitude and thanks are given to my scientific advisor, Professor Yishai Tobin, who has been my guiding light throughout my doctoral studies. His wisdom, scholarly critique, words of encouragement, untiring support and sense of humor have been invaluable to me and have made this work possible. I would like to thank Ms Vered Shahar from the Kreitman School of Advanced Studies, who guided me through PhD requirements. I am indebted to my friends and colleges who understand and forgive me for being always busy and neglecting them during the years of my work on this dissertation. Finally, I would like to thank my Mother for everything she has ever given to me, for her unconditional love and support, including the chance to make this dream a reality; my husband and children for being right by my side through my academic career, whose faith in my abilities kept me going when I just wanted to stop.

Dedication

This dissertation is dedicated to my grandparents, Efim Shapiro and Bronia Shwartz, who always taught me the value of education and never put a price tag on my academic career. I am extremely appreciative and forever grateful for this gift. I love you and thank you for everything. You are always with me.

Contents Abstract i Introduction 1 Chapter One- Feodor Dostoevsky: his time, his life and his works 5 1.1. Dostoevsky’s life/biography 5 1.2 Dominance hierarchy in Russian culture and society 13 1.3. Dominance hierarchy in literature 14 1.4 Dominance hierarchy in religion and philosophy 16 1.4.1. The Slavophil concept of sex 16 1.4.2. The Rationalistic Philosophy of Sex 17 1.4.3. The Religious Philosophy of Sex 17 1.5. Recent criticism on Dostoevsky’s works 19

Chapter Two- The text and the message 22 2.1. The text 22 2.2. The message 29

Chapter Three- The sign-oriented approach to language: theory and methodology 30

Chapter Four- The model of word systems and its application to the analysis of the relationship between men and women in Dostoevsky’s novels- love and hate word systems 52 4.1. The "Love" word system 76 4.1.1. Morpho-phono-semantic sub-system 76 4.1.2. Semantic-associative sub-system 77 4.1.3. Semantic conceptual sub-system 78 4.2. The "Hate" word system 80 4.2.1. Morpho-phono-semantic sub-system 80 4.2.2. Semantic-associative suffering-related sub-system 81 4.2.3. Semantic-conceptual slavery sub-system 83 4.2.4. Semantic-conceptual death sub-system 83 4.3. The "Love" and "Hate" word systems 84

Chapter Five- The model of word systems and its application to the analysis of the relationship between men and women in Dostoevsky’s novels- fantasy and reality and madness word systems 87 5.1. The "Fantasy" word system 87 5.1.1. Morpho-phono-semantic fantasy sub-system 110 5.1.2. Semantic-associative fantasy sub-system 110 5.1.3. Semantic-conceptual dream sub-system 111 5.2. The "Reality" word system 112 5.2.1. Morpho-phono-semantic reality sub-system 113 5.2.2. Semantic-associative reality sub-system 113 5.2.3.Semantic-conceptual realization/understanding sub- system 114 5.2.4.Morpho-phono-associative truth sub-system 114 5.3. The "Fantasy" and the "Reality" word systems 115 5.4. The "Madness" word system 119 5.4.1. Semantic madness subsystem 138 5.4.2. Semantic-associative illness subsystem 139 5.4.3. Semantic conceptual madness sub-system 140 5.5. Summary 140

Chapter Six- Phonological analysis of the lexicon of "love" versus "hate" in Dostoevsky's novels based on the theory of Phonology as Human Behavior 143 6.1. The distribution of monosyllabic, bi-syllabic and polysyllabic words 148 6.1.1. The distribution of monosyllabic, bi-syllabic and polysyllabic words in the Lexicon of Love- the data 149 6.1.2. The distribution of monosyllabic, bi-syllabic and polysyllabic words in the Lexicon of Hate – the data 150 6.1.3. Discussion 152

6.2. Additional articulators in word-initial position 153 6.2.1. Additional articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Love- the data 155 6.2.2. Additional articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Hate- the data 157 6.2.3. Discussion 160

6.3. Distribution of phonemes of constriction in word-initial position with reference to active articulators 165 6.3.1. Distribution of phonemes of constriction in word- initial position with reference to active articulators in the Lexicon of Love-the data 166 6.3.2. Distribution of phonemes of constriction in word- initial position with reference to active articulators in the Lexicon of Hate- the data 168 6.3.3. Discussion 170

6.4. The distribution of apical consonants in word-final position 172 6.4.1. The distribution of apical consonants in word-final position in the Lexicon of Love-the data 172 6.4.2. The distribution of apical consonants in word-final position in the Lexicon of Hate- the data 174 6.4. 3. Discussion 176

6.5. The distribution of the explosive mobile phonemes 178 6.5.1. The distribution of the explosive mobile phonemes in the Lexicon of Love- the data 178 6.5.2. The distribution of the explosive mobile phonemes in the Lexicon of Hate- the data 180 6.5. 3. Discussion 181

6.6. The distribution of the consonant clusters [R+Consonant] or [Consonant+R] and [Vowel+R+Vowel] or [R+Vowel] 182 6.6.1. The distribution of the consonant clusters [R+Consonant] or [Consonant+R] and [Vowel+R+Vowel] or [R+Vowel] in the Lexicon of Love- the data 182 6.6.2. The distribution of the consonant clusters [R+Consonant] or [Consonant+R] and [Vowel+R+Vowel] or [R+Vowel] in the Lexicon of Hate- the data 184 6.6.3. Discussion 185 6.7. Summary 185 Chapter Seven - Phonological analysis of the lexicon of "reality" versus "fantasy" in Dostoevsky's novels based on the theory of Phonology as Human Behavior 188 7.1. The distribution of monosyllabic, bisyllabic and polysyllabic words 189 7.2. Additional articulators in word-initial position 191 7.3. Distribution of phonemes of constriction in word-initial position with reference to active articulators 197 7.4. The distribution of apical consonants in word-final position 200 7.5. The distribution of the explosive mobile phonemes 202 7.6. The distribution of the consonant clusters [R+Consonant] or [Consonant+R] and [Vowel+R+Vowel] or [R+Vowel] 204 7.7. Summary 205

Chapter Eight- Summary and conclusions 207 Appendix 1- The lexicon of "love" and the lexicon of "hate" 211 Appendix 2- The lexicon of "fantasy" and the lexicon of "reality" 219 Bibliography 223 Abstract in Hebrew i

List of Tables Table page 4.1. Examples of love and hate word systems in A Meek One 54 4.2. Examples of love and hate word systems in The Gambler 57 4.3. Examples of love and hate word systems in The Idiot 61 4.4. Examples of love and hate word systems in The Brothers Karamazov 71 4.5. Morpho-phono-semantic love-related sub-system 76 4.6. Semantic-associative love-related sub-system 77 4.7. Semantic-conceptual love-related sub-system 78 4.8. Morpho-phono-semantic hate-related sub-system 81 4.9. Semantic-associative suffering-related sub-system 81 4.10. Semantic-conceptual slavery-related sub-system 83 4.11. Semantic-conceptual death-related sub-system 84 5.1. Examples of the fantasy and reality word-systems in A Meek One 88 5.2. Examples of the fantasy and reality word-systems in The Gambler 90 5.3. Examples of the fantasy and reality word-systems in The Idiot 94 5.4. Examples of the fantasy and reality word-systems in The Brothers Karamazov 104 5.5. Morpho-phono-semantic fantasy-related sub-system 110 5.6. Semantic-associative fantasy-related sub-system 110 5.7. Semantic-conceptual dream-related sub-system 111 5.8. Morpho-phono-semantic reality-related sub-system 113 5.9. Semantic-associative reality-related sub-system 113 5.10. Semantic-conceptual realization/understanding sub-system 114 5.11. Morpho-phono-associative truth-related word system 115 5.12. Examples of the madness word system in A Meek One 119 5.13. Examples of the madness word system in The Gambler 121 5.14. Examples of the madness word system in The Idiot 126 5.15. Examples of the madness word system in The Brothers Karamazov 134 5.16. Semantic madness- related sub-system 138 5.17. Semantic-associative illness-related sub-system 139 5.18. Semantic-conceptual madness sub-system 140 6.1. The phonetic inventory of Russian 147 6.2. The phonetic characterization of Russian by stricture and airflow 148 6.3. Number of syllables per word- the Lexicon of Love in A Meek One 149 6.4. Number of syllables per word- the Lexicon of Love in The Idiot 149 6.5. Number of Syllables per Word- the Lexicon of Love in The Gambler 149 6.6. Number of Syllables per Word- the Lexicon of Love in The Brothers Karamazov 150 6.7 Number of Syllables per Word- the Lexicon of Love in the Dostoevskian text 150 6.8. Number of Syllables per Word- the Lexicon of Hate in A Meek One 150 6.9. Number of Syllables per Word- the Lexicon of Hate in The Idiot 151 6.10. Number of Syllables per Word- the Lexicon of Hate in The Gambler 151 6.11. Number of Syllables per Word- the Lexicon of Hate in The Brothers Karamazov 151 6.12. Number of Syllables per Word- the Lexicon of Hate in the Dostoevskian text 152 6.13. Number of syllables in the Lexicon of Love as opposed to the Lexicon of Hate in the Dostoevskian text 152 6.14. Number of sets of articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Love – A Meek One 155 6.15. Number of sets of articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Love – The Idiot 156 6.16. Number of sets of articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Love – The Gambler 156 6.17. Number of sets of articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Love – The Brothers Karamazov 156 6.18. Number of sets of articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Love – The Dostoevskian text 157 6.19. Number of sets of articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Hate – A Meek One 158 6.20. Number of sets of articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Hate – The Idiot 158 6.21. Number of sets of articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Hate – The Gambler 158 6.22. Number of sets of articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Hate – The Brothers Karamazov 159 6.23. Number of sets of articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Hate – The Dostoevskian text 159 6.24. Number of sets of articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Love as opposed to the Lexicon of Hate– the Dostoevskian text 160 6.25. Nasal phonemes in comparison to voiced/voiceless phonemes in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Love – the Dostoevskian text 161 6.26. Nasal phonemes in comparison to voiced/voiceless phonemes in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Hate – The Dostoevskian text 161 6.27. The Distribution of the Apical Consonants in Word- Initial Position 163 6.28. Distribution of the Palatalized Consonants in Word-Initial Position in the Lexicon of Love 164 6.29. Distribution of the Palatalized Consonants in Word-Initial Position in the Lexicon of Hate 164 6.30. Active articulators in word-initial position- Lexicon of Love – A Meek One 166 6.31. Active articulators in word-initial position- Lexicon of Love – The Idiot 166 6.32. Active articulators in word-initial position- Lexicon of Love – The Gambler 167 6.33. Active articulators in word-initial position- Lexicon of Love- The Brothers Karamazov 167 6.34. Active articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Love – the Dostoevskian text 167 6.35. Active articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Hate in A Meek One 168 6.36. Active articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Hate in The Idiot 169 6.37. Active articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Hate in The Gambler 169 6.38. Active articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Hate in The Brothers Karamazov 169 6.39. Active articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Hate in the Dostoevskian text 170 6.40. Phonemes of Aperture and Visible Phonemes in Word-Initial position in the Lexicon of Love 171 6.41. Phonemes of Aperture and Visible Phonemes in Word-Initial position in the Lexicon of Love 171 6.42. Active Articulators in word final Position in the Lexicon of Love in A Meek One 173

6.43. Active Articulators in word final Position in the Lexicon of Love in The Idiot 173 6.44. Active Articulators in word final Position in the Lexicon of Love in The Gambler 173 6.45. Active Articulators in word final Position in the Lexicon of Love in The Brothers Karamazov 173 6.46. Active Articulators in word final Position in the Lexicon of Love in the Dostoevskian text 174 6.47. Active Articulators in word final Position in the Lexicon of hate in A Meek One 174 6.48. Active Articulators in word final Position in the Lexicon of Hate in The Idiot 175 6.49. Active Articulators in word final Position in the Lexicon of Hate in The Gambler 175 6.50. Active Articulators in word final Position in the Lexicon of Hate in The Brothers Karamazov 175 6.51. Active Articulators in word final Position in the Lexicon of Hate in the Dostoevskian text 175 6.52. Percentage of Active articulators in word-initial and word-final positions in the Lexicon of Love 177 6.53. Percentage of Active articulators in word-initial and word-final positions in the Lexicon of Hate 177 6.54. Explosive phonemes in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Love in A Meek One 179 6.55. Explosive phonemes in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Love in The Idiot 179 6.56. Explosive phonemes in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Love in The Gambler 179 6.57. Explosive phonemes in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Love in The Brothers Karamazov 179 6.58. Explosive phonemes in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Love in the Dostoevskian text 180 6.59. Explosive phonemes in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Hate in A Meek One 180 6.60. Explosive phonemes in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Hate in The Idiot 180 6.61. Explosive phonemes in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Hate in The Gambler 181 6.62. Explosive phonemes in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Hate in The Brothers Karamazov 181 6.63. Explosive phonemes in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Hate in the Dostoevskian text 181 6.64. ‘R+Consonant’ or ‘Consonant+R’ and ‘Vowel+R+Vowel’ or ‘R+Vowel’ Clusters in the Lexicon of Love in A Meek One 182 6.65. ‘R+Consonant’ or ‘Consonant+R’ and ‘Vowel+R+Vowel’ or ‘R+Vowel’ Clusters in the Lexicon of Love in The Idiot 183 6.66. 'R+Consonant’ or ‘Consonant+R’ and ‘Vowel+R+Vowel’ or ‘R+Vowel’ Clusters in the Lexicon of Love- The Gambler 183 6.67. ‘R+Consonant’ or ‘Consonant+R’ and ‘Vowel+R+Vowel’ or ‘R+Vowel’ Clusters in the Lexicon of Love in The Brothers Karamazov 183 6.68. ‘R+Consonant’ or ‘Consonant+R’ and ‘Vowel+R+Vowel’ or ‘R+Vowel’ Clusters in the Lexicon of Love in the Dostoevskian text 183 6.69. ‘R+Consonant’ or ‘Consonant+R’ and ‘Vowel+R+Vowel’ or ‘R+Vowel’ Clusters in the Lexicon of Hate in A Meek One 184 6.70. ‘R+Consonant’ or ‘Consonant+R’ and ‘Vowel+R+Vowel’ or ‘R+Vowel’ Clusters in the Lexicon of Hate in The Idiot 184 6.71. ‘R+Consonant’ or ‘Consonant+R’ and ‘Vowel+R+Vowel’ or ‘R+Vowel’ Clusters in the Lexicon of Hate in The Gambler 184 6.72. ‘R+Consonant’ or ‘Consonant+R’ and ‘Vowel+R+Vowel’ or ‘R+Vowel’ Clusters in the Lexicon of Hate in The Brothers Karamazov 185 6.73. ‘R+Consonant’ or ‘Consonant+R’ and ‘Vowel+R+Vowel’ or ‘R+Vowel’ Clusters in the Lexicon of Hate in the Dostoevskian text 185 7.1. Number of Syllables per Word- the Lexicon of Reality in the Dostoevskian text 190 7.2. Number of Syllables per Word- the Lexicon of Fantasy in the Dostoevskian text 190 7.3. Number of Syllables per word- the Lexicon of Fantasy and the Lexicon of Reality 190 7.4. Number of sets of articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Reality 192 7.5. Number of sets of articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Fantasy 192 7.6. Nasal phonemes in comparison to voiced/voiceless phonemes in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Reality in the Dostoevskian text 193 7.7. Nasal phonemes in comparison to voiced/voiceless phonemes in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Fantasy in the Dostoevskian text 194 7.8. The Distribution of the Apical Consonants in Word- Initial Position 195 7.9. Distribution of the Palatalized Consonants in Word-Initial Position in the Lexicon of Reality 196 7.10. Distribution of the Palatalized Consonants in Word-Initial Position in the Lexicon of Fantasy 196 7.11. Active articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Reality 198 7.12. Active articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Fantasy 198 7.13. Phonemes of Aperture and Visible Phonemes in Word-Initial position in the Lexicon of Reality 199 7.14. Phonemes of Aperture and Visible Phonemes in Word-Initial position in the Lexicon of Fantasy 200 7.15. Active Articulators in word final Position in the Lexicon of Reality 201 7.16. Active Articulators in word final Position in the Lexicon of Fantasy 201 7.17. Percentage of Active articulators in word-initial and word-final positions in the Lexicon of Reality 201 7.18. Percentage of Active articulators in word-initial and word-final positions in the Lexicon of Fantasy 202 7.19. Explosive phonemes in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Reality 203 7.20. Explosive phonemes in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Fantasy 203 7.21. ‘R+Consonant’ or ‘Consonant+R’ and ‘Vowel+R+Vowel’ or ‘R+Vowel’ Clusters in the Lexicon of Reality 204 7.22. ‘R+Consonant’ or ‘Consonant+R’ and ‘Vowel+R+Vowel’ or ‘R+Vowel’ Clusters in the Lexicon of Fantasy 204

List of Figures Figure page 3.1. The sign-oriented (semiotic) model of language 32 3.2. The sign-oriented model of texts 32 4.1. Word systems in the selective works of Dostoevsky 54 4.2. Love and Hate word systems 84 5.1. Fantasy and Reality word systems 115 i

WOMEN AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP WITH MEN IN SELECTED WORKS OF DOSTOEVKSY: A SEMIOTIC AND PHONOLOGICAL APPROACH

נשים ויחסיהן עם גברים ביצירות נבחרות של דוסטויבסקי: גישה סמיוטית ופונולוגית

Abstract

My thesis Women and Their Relationship with Men in Selected Works of Dostoevksy: A Semiotic and Phonological Approach is based on the theoretical and methodological premises of a semiotic or sign-oriented approach to language and to text. The works of Dostoevsky will be examined to show that the non-random distribution of the language of the text reflects and even motivates the message of the text- love and hate are interconnected to such an extent that sometimes they can be merged, combined and even confused. In other words, I want to discover how the relationship between men and women is reflected in the language of Dostoevsky’s novels. In Chapter One I present Dostoevsky’s biography, including the historical, cultural, literary and religious influences on his life and literary career, as well as the perspective on the position of women during Dostoevsky’s time.

In Chapter Two I review Dostoevsky’s works selected for this study, and elaborate upon the message they share. The specific word systems presented and examined in this thesis and the phonological analysis are applied to the particular literary text originally written in Russian that consists of two short novellas- A Meek One (1876), and The Gambler (1866) - and two novels – The Idiot (1868) and The Brothers Karamazov (1880). The analysis of Dostoevsky's four works will determine the basic invariants of theme and motif which connect each separate novella and novel, thus forming a “continuously developing supra-text” (Somerwil-Aarton, 1988:9). This chapter summarizes the plot of “the supra-text” and postulates the message these works share-love and hate are interconnected to such an extent that sometimes they can be merged, combined and even confused and that these polaric ii

feelings that are present in every relationship can both be real and imagined at the same time. It is this shared message which allows me to view these individual literary works as a single text. Chapter Three provides the theoretical and methodological background for the study. I base my research on the sign-oriented or semiotic definition of language- a flexible and open-ended synergetic "system of systems composed of various sub- systems ( revolving around the notion of the linguistic sign) which are organized internally and systematically related to each other and used by humans to communicate" ( Tobin, 1990a:47). This definition of language suggests the distinction between langue- a complex abstract code composed of linguistic signs, which is shared by a community of speakers- and parole- the concrete realization of this complex abstract code by speakers to communicate specific discourse messages in different linguistic contexts. The sign-oriented concepts of langue and parole were introduced by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure who is considered to be the father of modern linguistics. The chapter further develops the semiotic or sign-oriented concepts of the semantically motivated systems which are used in my research: (a) the linguistic sign as a hypothetical unit of linguistic analysis, composed of an invariant meaning and a signal; (b) markedness- the marked member of the opposition makes a claim for a certain semantic feature, while the unmarked member is neutral for that feature; (c) iconicity, which is viewed as a connection between a signal and its referent. The concept of invariant meaning is viewed as an essential part of the linguistic sign (each signal in language possesses a single, invariant meaning, which distinguishes this sign from the others and motivates the distribution of a linguistic sign in language). Chapter Three also provides the description of the concept of word systems which is used as methodological model in my research. I follow Aphek's and Tobin's (1988) definition of a word system as "a junction where the thematic extralinguistic plane converges with the linguistic plane forming a matrix of words within a spoken or written text with a common denominator which may be semantic, phonological, folk-etymological, conceptual or associative" (Aphek and Tobin, 1988:3). I will show how the methodological model of word systems is exploited by Dostoevsky to produce a message within a specific literary text. This chapter also introduces the theory of Phonology as Human Behavior (PHB), the phonological aspect of the sign-oriented Columbia School of Linguistics. iii

The phonological analysis which I carry out in my research is based on that theory. The application of the methodological model of word systems (introduced in Chapter Three) to the analysis of the relationship between men and women in Dostoevsky's selected works is presented in Chapter Four and Chapter Five. In Chapter Four I apply the model of word systems which was introduced in Chapter Three and illustrate how the plane of the plot and the ideas of the text (the message) converge with the linguistic plane through the use of two polarically opposed word systems- the love word system and the hate word system. The combination of these word systems together with the other word systems (which will be presented in Chapter Five) contributes to the text with a different degree of impact and force and show that Dostoevsky has successfully created a text where the language and the message are inseparable. The Love and Hate word systems intensify the message of the Dostoevskian text. In Chapter Five I present two other major word systems- the Fantasy word system and the Reality word system. These polarically opposed word systems also intensify the message of the "supra-text". Another word system discovered in the Dostoevskian text is the Madness word system. In the state of madness Dostoevsky's characters lose the ability to distinguish between love and hate and even more importantly, to differentiate between fantasy and reality. In Chapter Four and Chapter Five I demonstrate how each of the five word systems in isolation still maintains its significance within the message of the text. In addition, the whole set of word systems and the interrelation between them serve to intensify the message of the text. All of these systems together create a larger system of the language where love and hate are interconnected to such an extent that sometimes they can be merged, combined and even confused and that these polarically opposed feelings that are present in every relationship can both be real or imagined at the same time because only in a state of madness a person loses the ability to distinguish between love and hate to such an extent that fantasy and reality converse.

Chapter Six focuses on a phonological analysis of the lexicon of Dostoevsky's selected works based on the theory Phonology as Human Behavior. In this chapter I examine the distribution of phonemes in lexical items belonging to the iv

semantic field of Love and the semantic field of Hate. I originally hypothesize that there is an iconic connection between form and meaning. First, I assume that the Lexicon of Love is unmarked both in meaning and in form which means that the lexical items from this category will be not only unmarked semantically but also phonologically. On the other hand, I assume that the Lexicon of Hate will be more marked in both meaning and phonological form. Therefore, I assume that the Lexicon of Love represents a larger and more general semantic field than the Lexicon of Hate. While collecting the data I realized that there are more words related to the semantic field of hate and suffering in the relationship between men and women than words related to the semantic field of love and affection. Therefore, I assume that the Lexicon of Hate is just as broad and/or even broader and just as complex or even a more complex category than the Lexicon of Love. In spite of the fact that the data in this chapter partially supported my original assumption that the Lexicon of Hate is more marked semantically as well as phonologically, the message of the text was fully supported. The data in this chapter indicates that phonologically speaking there is often a similarity between the Lexicon of Love and the Lexicon of Hate which reflects the message of the text.

In Chapter Seven I present a phonological analysis of the Lexicon of Fantasy and the Lexicon of Reality based on the theory of Phonology as Human Behavior. I hypothesize that there would be an iconic connection between form and meaning. Therefore, I expect that the Lexicon of Reality and the Lexicon of Fantasy follow the same phonological principles and show the similar skewing of the phonemes. While my hypothesis was not shown to be totally valid, the data gives full support to the message of the text. Chapter Eight provides conclusions and suggestions for further investigation. By applying a sign-oriented approach to a detailed analysis of the different systems of the language of love and hate and fantasy and reality in the Dostoevskian text (the study of word systems and phonological analysis) I have confirmed my hypothesis that there is a non-random distribution of the language of love and hate and fantasy and reality in the Dostoevskian text. I believe that my analysis leads to a better understanding and new interpretations of the works of Dostoevsky. In addition, my work can contribute to a further implementation of a sign-oriented approach on the textual level. v

In Chapter Eight I also present suggestions for further investigation, such as: examining the language of love and hate and fantasy and reality in other works of Dostoevsky as well as applying the theoretical and methodological models of word systems and the theory of Phonology as Human Behavior to English and other translations of Dostoevsky's works.

vi

Key words distinctive features form iconicity invariant meaning linguistic sign meaning marked/unmarked relationship message phoneme semantic feature sign-oriented theory text analysis word systems

1 Introduction ______

Introduction

My thesis Women and Their Relationship with Men in Selected Works of Dostoevsky: A Semiotic and Phonological Approach is based on the theoretical and methodological premises of a semiotic or sign oriented approach to language and to text. It is based on a textual analysis and on the application of the methodological model of word systems (Aphek and Tobin 1988) and the theory of Phonology as Human Behavior (Tobin 1997a) to provide a phonological analysis of the key word systems in a literary text. The text I have chosen to exemplify the concept of word systems in literature and the theory of Phonology as Human Behavior is composed of a number of novels, novellas and stories by F. M. Dostoevsky ( 1821-1881) originally written in Russian. These selected works share the same message and therefore can be viewed as a single text. Several works of Dostoevsky that share the same message were chosen for the analysis- two novellas: A Meek One (1876), and The Gambler (1866), and two novels: The Idiot (1868) and The Brothers Karamazov (1880). All these works can be considered as parts of a whole- as one potential textual complex due to the single message they share. The works of Dostoevsky will be examined in order to show that the non- random distribution of the language of the text reflects and even motivates the message of the text- love is a constant struggle for domination of one over another, never bringing peace and happiness. It turns out that the relationship between men and women is a compromise between love and hate, slavery and despotism, humiliation and submission, devotion and submissiveness, cruelty and tenderness, self abasement and self love, the desire to suffer and to cause suffering to the other, the joy of dominating and the pleasure of torturing. More than that, love and hate are interconnected to such an extent that sometimes they can be merged, combined and even confused. I will examine the concept of dominance in love/romantic relationships between men and women and the juxtaposition and the co-existence of love and patience/forbearance on the one hand and hate/suffering on the other in the relationship between men and women as expressed in the language of the four works 2 Introduction ______of Dostoevsky. In other words, I want to discover how the relationship between men and women is reflected in the language of Dostoevsky’s novels.

In Chapter One of my thesis I present Dostoevsky’s biography, including the historical, cultural, literary and religious influences on his life and literary career, as well as the perspective on the position of women during Dostoevsky’s time.

Chapter Two gives a review of Dostoevsky’s works selected for this study, and elaborates upon the message they share.

In Chapter Three I present the theoretical and methodological backgrounds for my study- the sign-oriented approach. My research is based on a sign-oriented or semiotic definition of language- " a flexible and open-ended synergetic 'system of systems' that is composed of various sub-systems ( revolving around the notion of the linguistic sign) which are organized internally and systematically related to each other and is used by humans to communicate". (Tobin 1990, 1995). Chapter Three also provides the description of the concept of word systems (presented in Aphek and Tobin 1988) which is used as methodological model in my research.

In Chapter Four I apply the methodological model of word-systems (introduced in Chapter Three) to the analysis of the relationship between men and women in Dostoevsky’s text. This chapter concentrates on two major word systems in the literary text under the analysis: the word system related to the realm of love; the word system related to the realm of hate. I demonstrate how each of those word systems (with shared phono-morphological, semantic, or associative common denominators) used by Dostoevsky contributes to the message of the text. In addition, the whole set of word systems and the interrelation between them serve to intensify the message of the text.

Chapter Five presents an analysis of three other word systems revealed in the text under analysis: the word systems related to the realm of fantasy, word system related to the realm of reality, and word system related to the realm of madness. I demonstrate how each of these word systems contributes to the message of the text 3 Introduction ______and how the interrelation between all the word systems in the text serve to intensify the message of the text.

Chapter Six presents a phonological analysis of two semantic groups of words: the Lexicon of Love and the Lexicon of Hate based on the theory Phonology as Human Behavior. My goal is to examine whether each semantic class has specific distinctive phonological characteristics of its own, and if so, whether there is an iconic connection between the form and the meaning. Since romantic relations and love in Dostoevsky is a constant struggle for domination of one over another, never bringing peace and happiness, I assume that the lexical items from the Lexicon of Love are semantically unmarked, and as a result, unmarked phonologically. At the same time, the words in the category of the Lexicon of Hate have more specific meanings, attract more attention and as a result are more marked phonologically and require more effort for their production. On the other hand, since one aspect of the message of the text is that love and hate are interconnected to such an extent that sometimes they can be merged, combined and even confused, I also assume that there won't be any serious differences in the two lexicons as far as the phonology is concerned and that both categories will follow the same principles and will show similar skewing of the phonemes. Both of the assumptions were shown to be partially true, which fully supports the message of the text.

In Chapter Seven I carry out the phonological analysis of two other semantic groups- the Lexicon of Reality and the Lexicon of Fantasy. The polarically opposite feelings of love and hate that are present in every relationship can both be real or imagined at the same time. Therefore, I assume that fantasy and reality are interconnected to such an extent that sometimes they can be merged, combined and even confused. I assume that both lexicons will be marked and there won't be any significant phonological differences between them.

Chapter Eight summarizes the findings, presents my conclusions and suggests topics for further investigation.

4 Introduction ______

The primary tasks to be resolved in this thesis are the following: 1. to postulate the message of Dostoevsky's text 2. to discover the non-random distribution of language in the form of word systems 3. to link the non-random distribution of language to the message of the text 4. to analyze the Lexicon of Love as opposed to the Lexicon of Hate and the Lexicon of Reality as opposed to the Lexicon of Fantasy in relation to the message of Dostoevsky's text based on the theory Phonology as Human Behavior. 5 Chapter 1: Feodor Dostoevsky: his time, his life and his works ______

Chapter One Feodor Dostoevsky: his time, his life and his works 1.1. Dostoevsky‟s life/biography 1.2 Dominance hierarchy in Russian culture and society 1.3. Dominance hierarchy in literature 1.4 Dominance hierarchy in religion and philosophy 1.4.1. The Slavophil concept of sex 1.4.2. The rationalistic philosophy of sex 1.4.3. The religious philosophy of sex 1.5. Recent criticism on Dostoevsky‟s works

An insight into Dostoevsky‟s life is necessary in order to analyze his works. In addition, a study of the Russian social-cultural context can add to a better understanding of Dostoevsky, his time and society and the message of the text. In order to understand the concept of dominance in love/romantic relationships between men and women in Dostoevsky‟s works I will search for the origins of the concept of dominance in Russian society in the nineteenth century in general and in Dostoevsky‟s life in particular. Furthermore, an insight into Russian and world literature dealing with the dominance hierarchy in love relationships will shed light on the type of relationships between men and women depicted in the works of Dostoevsky. Cox suggests that in the novels of F. Dostoevsky the concept of dominance in personal relationships provides “…an axis around which human interaction is organized” (Cox, 1984:9). This chapter attempts at presenting the explanation of the origins for this concept.

1.1. Dostoevsky’s life In this part of the thesis I will sketch out the relevant dimensions of Dostoevsky‟s life. An insight into his life will show that most of Dostoevsky‟s ideas and theories have a background in reality. There have been many biographies written about Dostoevsky. The biographical background that I am going to present in this section is based on the materials from Dostoevsky: The Author as Psychoanalyst (Breger, L., 1989), Three Loves of Dostoevsky 6 Chapter 1: Feodor Dostoevsky: his time, his life and his works ______

(Slonim, M, 1957), The Art of Dostoevsky ( Jackson, R.L, 1981), Dostoevsky: The Miraculous Years, 1865-1871( Frank, J., 1997), Dostoevsky: The Years of Ordeal, 1850-1859 ( Frank, J.,1990), Dostoevsky: The Seeds of Revolt, 1821-1849 ( Frank, J.,1979), Dostoevsky: His Life and Art ( Yarmolinsky, A., 1957). Dostoevsky himself gave almost no direct account of his childhood and family years. Evidence about his family consists mostly of a few letters between his parents and some bits of historical material, but the main source is the Reminiscences of Dostoevsky‟s younger brother Andrey. Yet, the most reliable source of information about the family is his novels. Breger claims that Dostoevsky‟s fiction is “a literary transformation of his personal experience” (Breger, 1989:70). Therefore, in trying to construct a picture of Dostoevsky‟s family it is possible to look at images of maternal care, parental authority, sibling relationships and male-female relationships that are present in his novels. Feodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky was born on 30 October 1821. He was the second of seven children born to Dr. Mikhail Andreyvich Dostoevsky, a former military physician and his young wife Maria Nechaeva. The atmosphere in the family was tense, there was little privacy and everyone was involved in everyone else‟s life. The children were educated at home and Dostoevsky himself did not attend school until he was thirteen. As was typical of middle-and upper-class families in the nineteenth century, he was cared for by more than one “mother”. From birth until age one, he was brought up by a peasant wet nurse. A long-term family servant Aliona Frolovna joined the family when the youngest child was born and stayed with them until the father‟s death. Later in life, Dostoevsky‟s positive feeling for the common people can be traced to his wet nurse and his nanny. His natural biological mother, Maria, was always present in his life. He was deeply attached to her. She was the main source of security and love in the family. However, she was burdened by financial difficulties, her angry and jealous husband, and her many pregnancies and children. Thus the father was the demanding authority and the mother the main source of affection. That is why the search for woman‟s love and affection is one of the most prevalent themes in his works, from his first novel, Poor Folk (1846), to the final, The Brothers Karamazov (1880). From early in their lives, the Dostoevsky boys were subjected to strict academic demands; they had to learn Latin, geometry, memorize long texts, and perform for their father, and small mistakes brought forth his rage and insults. He was the authority and demanded obedience and respect. The impact of the father on Dostoevsky was twofold- the relationship between them was characterized by both positive and negative emotions and both reactions were incorporated in 7 Chapter 1: Feodor Dostoevsky: his time, his life and his works ______the son‟s character. Dostoevsky incorporated into his own personality the several sides of his relationship with his father. “ Part of him compiled, submitted, and wished to please, and part rebelled, wished to attack and revenge the insults he had suffered at the tyrant‟s hands” (Breger, 1989:87). As a grown man Dostoevsky is said to have disliked speaking of his father. Perhaps it is here that one must look for the matrix of that emotional ambivalence, the love-hate motif, which is prevalent in his life and in his literary works. The Freudian theory sees the boy as “…a creature torn between love and hatred of his father, the hatred being all the more savage since it was kept under and hidden from his pious and filial self.” (Yarmolinsky, 1957: 60-61). In his literary career, Dostoevsky almost never refers to the theme of fathers until his last novel The Brothers Karamazov (1880). In this novel the old Karamazov displays much of Dostoevsky‟s impulsive, authoritative and tyrannical father. His father‟s death is also relevant to Dostoevsky‟s perception of life. Dostoevsky‟s father was murdered by the serfs, the victims of his cruelty, who eventually reversed the dominance hierarchy and found revenge. The notion of the reverse of dominance hierarchy is very important for understanding the relationship between men and women as depicted in Dostoevsky's works. The only window to a larger and better world for Dostoevsky was literature. “He was studying life at secondhand, through literature” (Yarmolinsky, 1957:28). In this way, Dostoevsky escaped the cramped and isolated apartment through the imaginative world of romance and adventure. The dreamer surrounded by reality, the hero who knows the world of books but not that of real people is a repeated theme in the novels (“fantasy”/”reality “ word system in my analysis of the language of the works of Dostoevsky- Chapter 4). The Dostoevskys were devout Christians and the young Feodor had a good deal of exposure to pictures of Christ and the Virgin Mary. The relationship between the biblical Mary and her son became an ideal, a goal Dostoevsky strove for to the end of his life, as an analysis of his later novels reveals. His mother‟s death of tuberculosis was a huge loss for Dostoevsky, who was fifteen years old at the time. His father took him, along with his brother Mikhail, from their Moscow home to the Academy of Military Engineering in Petersburg where his father decided they would train for practical careers. The young brothers dreamed of poetry instead of military engineering. However, their romantic preoccupations were rudely interrupted when the carriage stopped at an inn. They saw a government courier, a large man in an impressive uniform, drive up, rush into the station house for a glass of vodka, and return to a fresh 8 Chapter 1: Feodor Dostoevsky: his time, his life and his works ______carriage with a new driver, a young peasant. The courier then raised his fist and began beating the young peasant coach driver. The driver responded to this violence against him by lashing the lead horse with his whip. Describing this scene years later in The Diary of a Writer (1876), Dostoevsky expanded the incident. He imagined that the peasant driver‟s friends teased him, and that he again responded by attacking a creature lower than himself in the dominance hierarchy, this time his wife (January 1876, III,1). Life in the academy (like life in general and love depicted in Dostoevsky‟s novels in particular) was very similar to the scene he had witnessed on the way to the academy: upper-classmen who themselves were suffering under the restraints and discipline of their superiors, passed their frustration, anger and tormenting on the students below them. Breger suggests that “[t]he horse-courier scene may be thought of as a nodal point, radiating out in many directions” and that this memory “can also serve as an emblem for many of the events and themes in his own life and work” (Breger, 1989:3). This memory is elaborated in Dostoevsky‟s novels in different forms of a power hierarchy and the reverse of it: the juxtaposition of romantic ideals with harsh reality (“fantasy”/ “reality” word systems- Chapter 5); man‟s violence and cruelty along with feelings of love and sympathy (“love”/ “hate” word systems- Chapter 4). Dostoevsky‟s early literary efforts took the form of romantic dramas. The Gothic novels of Ann Radcliffe, Romeo and Juliet, the works of Schiller, Walter Scott and George Sand had a great influence on young Dostoevsky. He never published his two plays Maria Stuart and Boris Godunov. These unpublished plays were written apparently in the romantic mode of Schiller that so influenced Dostoevsky in his youth. However, Dostoevsky did not continue in this romantic mode for several reasons. First, there were practical considerations. Russian literature in the 1840s was undergoing a renaissance; the new style of the day was social realism. In order to earn a living with his pen, Dostoevsky had to follow the new conventions of social realism. In addition, Gogol‟s short story The Overcoat (1842) and the novel Dead Souls (1842), which were written in the style of social realism, had an enormous impact on Dostoevsky. However, in spite of the fact that Dostoevsky moved away from the romantic form, his fiction can still be considered romantic: his heroes seek the love of women, his characters are idealized in some way, and the characters‟ commitment to emotion is greater than their commitment to reason. Dostoevsky achieved early success as a novelist, but was then arrested, convicted of political subversion, subjected to a mock execution, and sent to prison in Siberia for four 9 Chapter 1: Feodor Dostoevsky: his time, his life and his works ______years (1850-1854). The examination of this period can sharpen our understanding of his political, social, and religious ideas. The charges of which he was ultimately convicted were having taken part in conversations about issues such as atheism, the emancipation of the serfs, women‟s rights, the abolition of corporal punishment and government censorship. The harshness of the sentence, the cruelty of the mock execution and the complete lack of legal rights show that he lived in a cruel and sadistic society, “run by a king ( father figure) whom everyone was required to love and respect, and who could torture his “children” in ways such as this” ( Breger, 1989:131). Notes from the House of the Dead (1860-1862) is the single most important source of information regarding the prison experience where Dostoevsky describes his years as a prisoner in a Siberian camp (1850-1854). In Siberia he found a competitive hierarchy in which roles and behavior were determined by an unwritten code based on personal dominance and submission. It was in Siberia that Dostoevsky discovered that prisoners who were accustomed to assume command on the outside could be meek, weak, and even “womanish” with their superiors within the camp (I,1). He found that they liked their officers to be stern and loved to discuss their rank (I,8; II, 5). However, the same prisoners compensated for this by bullying each other, setting up their own power hierarchy. There were natural leaders who behaved much like foremen on a work crew, but if any man without this status gave a directive he was ridiculed for exceeding his station (I,6). There were others who automatically assumed positions of servitude, who seemed ordained by destiny to wait upon others (I,4; I,5). Dostoevsky was released in 1854, in his early thirties, and began forced service in the army in a small Siberian town Semipalatinsk. It was there that he experienced the first great romantic passion of his adult life. The woman was named Maria (like his mother and like the Virgin Mary), she was married to an alcoholic, had a young son, and the beginning signs of the tuberculosis that would kill her seven years later. All these features- her name, her status as wife and mother, and her disease – were all qualities shared by his mother Maria. Breger (1989) suggests that Dostoevsky‟s love for this woman was a desire and an attempt to return to the early idealized relationships with his mother. After Maria‟s husband drank himself to death in August 1855, Dostoevsky persuaded her to marry him. After the stormy months that had preceded their union, the two tasted peace. However, Maria‟s unstable temperament and Dostoevsky‟s peculiarities, the uncertainties of their finances and of their health disturbed the harmony of their union. This marriage had not proved to be a 10 Chapter 1: Feodor Dostoevsky: his time, his life and his works ______happy one. The real Maria was very different from Maria in his wishful fantasies and the relationship between them was a disaster (“fantasy”/”reality” word systems- Chapter 5- and “love”/”hate” word systems- Chapter 4). There was no complete union. In his book Three Loves of Dostoevsky, Slonim summarizes the so-called union: “They irritated, tortured and exhausted each other in an incessant struggle. Their attacks on each other were succeeded by mutual contrition and self-flagellation; the assurances of infinite love turned into a barren dual of bodies; the dissatisfaction of the flesh consumed both body and soul” (Slonim, 1957:86). From 1861 on Dostoevsky and Maria were frequently living apart. Dostoevsky had a life of his own. He was meeting people, publishing a periodical and writing. Maria was away dying. In 1861 Dostoevsky met Apollinariya Prokofyevna Suslova- Polina. He, a forty year old man, was thrilled to find this girl half his age in love with him. Later on Dostoevsky played every possible variation on the theme of a mature or elderly man falling in love with a younger woman. Thus, in A Meek One (1876), the narrator, the owner of a pawnshop remembers: "I also indulged in various pleasing thoughts such as the notion that she was only sixteen while I was forty-one. This disparity fascinated me; it was gratifying, most gratifying" (282). "I also indulged in various pleasing thoughts such as the notion that she was only sixteen while I was forty-one. This disparity fascinated me; it was gratifying, most gratifying" (282). In The Brothers Karamazov (1880) the old Karamazov falls in love with Grushenka, a young woman. To protect his wife‟s peace of mind, Dostoevsky tried to hide his liaison from her, and he succeeded. Maria died eventually of tuberculosis. Nearly a year after his wife‟s death Dostoevsky was writing to Wrangel about their relationship:”Oh, my friend, she loved me boundlessly. I, too, loved her without measure, but we did not live happily together. I shall tell you everything when we see each other. Now I shall only say that in spite of the fact that we were positively unhappy together (because of her strange, suspicious, and morbidly fantastic character), we couldn‟t stop loving each other. In fact, the more unhappy we were, the stronger our attachment grew.” (Yarmolinksy, 1957: 181). His brother Mikhail, literary collaborator and friend, died unexpectedly a few months after his wife‟s death. Grigoryev, another friend and literary colleague, died a few months later. In addition to these personal losses, went the collapse of The Epoch, the journal that he and Mikhail had worked so hard to establish. Dostoevsky was left with debts and numerous personal obligations. One of the most self-inflicted debts was the debt brought 11 Chapter 1: Feodor Dostoevsky: his time, his life and his works ______about by his gambling addiction. In the new novel Crime and Punishment (1866) he saw the solution to his practical difficulties: he could make money, pay off debts, and reestablish his reputation as a writer. The novel contains a whole series of relations with women that present Dostoevsky's feelings in this sphere. Marmeladov‟s wife Katherine, dying of tuberculosis, is modeled on Dostoevsky‟s mother Maria and his own wife, Maria, as well. Svidrigailov displays an angry need for women in relations with his wife, Raskolnikov‟s sister, Dunia, and several young girls. And Raskolnikov himself is caught up with pairs of women who represent the two sides of his love-hate ambivalence: his landlady and her maid; the old pawnbroker and her innocent half sister, Lizaveta; his actual mother and sister; and Katherine Marmeladov and her step-daughter Sonia. This pattern of ambivalence in the relationship between men and women, and the hatred and love between them can be found almost in every short story and novel by Dostoevsky. Dostoevsky‟s first marriage was a relationship that took an aspect of love and of hatred simultaneously. This ambivalence of emotion is not uncommon in the relationships between the heroes in the novels and novellas under analysis. Thus, the relationship between the man and his wife in A Meek One, between Polina and Alexei Ivanovich and between Polina and her other men in The Gambler, between Rogozhin and Nastasya Filippovna, between the Prince, Nastasya and Aglaya in The Idiot, between Grushenka, Fyodor Karamazov and Dmitry, between Katerina, Dmitry and Ivan in The Brothers Karamazov is always ambivalent and combine both love and hatred. Love in Dostoevsky‟s novels, like love in his own life, also feeds upon mutual unhappiness. The mark left by Maria, his first wife, can be found in many of Dostoevsky's works. Natasha in The Humiliated and Wronged, Marmeladov‟s wife in Crime and Punishment, Nastasya Filippovna in The Idiot, and Katerina in The Brothers Karamazov. Slonim summarizes the similarities between these female characters and Dostoevsky‟s first wife Maria:”…all these images of women with pale cheeks, feverish gaze and impulsive movements were created under the influence of the woman who was his first, his great love.” (Slonim, 1957:168-169). However, the relationship between Polina Suslova and Dostoevsky was a mixture of passion with intense hatred, too. Their relationship gradually transformed itself into a tense struggle. He tormented her and always displayed his desire to dominate. She wanted to inflict pain upon him, to demonstrate that she was stronger than he was and that she had no further need for him. She betrayed him with a younger lover. However, in spite of this fact (or, due 12 Chapter 1: Feodor Dostoevsky: his time, his life and his works ______to this fact), Dostoevsky wanted her even more. The sufferings she caused him were now a delight for him. Polina had not only refused all his proposals of marriage but, after three years of love, infidelities, quarrels and reconciliations, she announced that it was time for them to separate completely since there was no future for them together. Slonim draws connections between Polina and Dostoevsky‟s heroines: “ Apollinaria is amazingly like a heroine from a Dostoevsky novel, and her traits are scattered throughout a succession of Dostoevsky‟s women: a few in Dunia, Raskolnikov‟s sister ( in Crime and Punishment); a few in Nastasya, that blend of Apollinaria and Maria, and Aglaya (both in The Idiot); beyond a doubt in Akhmakova ( in A Raw Youth); in Nathalia, the heroine of The Eternal Husband; in Lisa (The Possessed) and- again partially- in Katerina (The Brothers Karamazov); to say nothing, of course, of Polina in The Gambler. This merely sketchy list shows how truly Apollinaria had “transfixed” Dostoevsky" (Slonim, 1957:161). Dostoevsky decided to engage a stenographer to help him with his plan for Crime and Punishment, which he had to finish by a certain deadline for The Russian Messenger and for The Gambler, for which he had only rough outlines and notes. Anna Grigorievna Snitkina, a young stenographer, was sent for that job. The opportunity of meeting the celebrated writer and even helping him in his literary work made her happy and excited. Actually, her idealized image of him was formed even before their first meeting. She had fallen in love with him at first sight without even realizing the fact. He trusted Anna, he felt she was kind, but he was not in love with her. However, he was ready to marry her following practical considerations. In February 1867 the two married in the Troitsko-Ismailovski Cathedral. When she married him, it is hardly likely that Anna had taken into account what was awaiting her, and only after marriage she grasped the difficulty of the problems confronting her. There were his jealousy and suspiciousness, his passion for gambling, his epilepsy, his relatives and his peculiarities. She was especially humiliated because the marriage had not brought about any real intimacy between them. They didn't understand each other, he thought she was bored with him, while she became offended because he was apparently avoiding her. Love, it seemed, was a lot more difficult than she had supposed, and at the same time it required favorable conditions and a peaceful setting. In the spring of 1867 they decided to go abroad. They spent some time in Berlin; then, travelling across Germany, settled in Dresden. It was there, in Dresden, that their intimacy really began. Still, they seemed to be two totally different individuals in age, temperament, interests and intellect, but they also had a great deal in common and …"the happy combinations of similarities and 13 Chapter 1: Feodor Dostoevsky: his time, his life and his works ______differences assured the success of their married life" (Slonim, 1957:238). On the one hand, she was submitting to him, acknowledging his authority in absolutely everything, on the other hand, it was not a blind subordination- she had a quite definite individuality that developed with the years. She loved him the love of wife and mistress, of mother and daughter. Their relationship was a fusion of different loves. Slonim (1957) sees parallels between their marriage and Dostoevsky's father marriage - "[Anna] was just as fine and devoted a companion to him as his mother had been to Dr. Dostoevsky- the marriage of Anna and Fyodor was a repetition of his father's love-yet at the same time she was so young and inexperienced that he felt stable and fatherly." (Slonim, 1957: 247). Their union had matured and become firmly established during the hardships they endured together- poverty, hard work, loneliness, their life abroad, death of their first daughter Sonia, Dostoevsky's mania for roulette, his seizures - all these had created an attachment which was exceptionally strong and profound. Many years later after her husband's death, in explaining the secret of their successful married life, Anna remarked that "…friendship is often founded on differences and not on similarities" (Slonim, 1957:246). This law of contrast and polarity, love and hatred in the relationships can be clearly seen throughout Dostoevsky‟s union not only with his second wife Anna, but with other women in his life and in the relationships of his literary characters as well.

1.2. Dominance hierarchy in Russian culture and society A strict concept of social hierarchy was characteristic of nineteenth- century Russian society. Thus, by focusing upon this issue, Dostoevsky provides us with insight into the culture in which he lived. Russian society was based on the tyranny of the strong over the weak. The Russian aristocracy, according to Dostoevsky, had been guilty of “an irrational slavish submission…to the European forms of culture”, but had lorded it over the people (Winter Notes, III). The same pattern of dominance was seen by Dostoevsky on an international plane as well, when he suggested the Russian colonization of Asia as a means of developing a sense of national identity. The Russians‟ status as “Europeans” would make them masters in Asia, while their “Asian” status had make them slaves in Europe (The Diary of a Writer, Jan, 1881,II,4). For Dostoevsky, the relationship between aristocracy and the masses, like that between Russia and the West, was characterized by an imbalance in power similar to those in his novels. Thus, by focusing upon this issue, Dostoevsky provides us with 14 Chapter 1: Feodor Dostoevsky: his time, his life and his works ______an insight into the culture in which he lived- his vision of society reflects actual conditions in Russia during the nineteenth century.

1.3. Dominance hierarchy in literature Dostoevsky was not the first writer to deal with bonding hierarchies in literature. His interest in these issues was formed to a considerable extent by the writers he read. The treatment of the dominance hierarchy by Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol and Balzac provide important antecedents to Dostoevsky‟s works. Therefore, I find it helpful to deal with several crucial works by those writers before moving on to the analysis of Dostoevsky‟s own works. In Lermontov‟s A Hero of Our Time (1840) power over women comes easily to Pechorin, the main hero: “I have never become the slave of a woman I loved; on the contrary, I have always acquired an invincible power over their will and hearts without even trying” (May, 16). He finds ways to satisfy his lust for personal dominance in romantic relationships: “There is boundless pleasure in the possession of a young soul, barely unfolded to the world… Ambition is nothing other than a thirst for power, and my greatest satisfaction is to subjugate to my will everything that surrounds me. To arouse a feeling of love, devotion and fear toward myself- isn‟t that the primary sign and the greatest triumph of power?” (June, 3) Pechorin continues along these lines sounding quite like Dostoevsky‟s male characters in the novels and novellas under my analysis- Alexei in his relations with Polina in Dostoevsky‟s The Gambler (1866), as Rogozhin in his relations with Nastasya Filippovna in The Idiot (1868), as Dmitry in his relations with Grushenka and Katerina in The Brothers Karamazov (1880), and as the husband towards his wife in A Meek One (1876). Pechorin‟s delight in arousing the feelings of love and hatred in women while experiencing no emotions himself, his avoidance of the melodramatic passions is heralded by his replay, in French, to Grushinitsky, his rival in love: “ My dear man, I despise women in order to avoid loving them, for otherwise life would be too ridiculous a melodrama” ( May, 11). The long-suffering Russian women have a great literary tradition behind them that goes back to Tatyana in Pushkin‟s Eugene Onegin (1829). Moreover, in real life many noble women followed their husbands, condemned in the Decembrist Revolt, into Siberian exile, thus choosing to suffer together with their husbands. It is necessary to mention that combination of love and hatred is by no means distinctive for Dostoevsky. One can find the examples of this destructive combination 15 Chapter 1: Feodor Dostoevsky: his time, his life and his works ______anywhere in world literature-from Shakespeare to Dreiser. L. Tolstoy, for instance, has it in Kreutzer Sonata, in Anna Karenina (Vronsky and Anna; Anna and her husband), War and Peace (Pierre Besouhov and his wife Helen). Apparently, one can find all these contrasts in Tolstoy as well. However, the characteristic trait of Dostoevsky is not just the combination of love and hate, but rather multiple and persistent switches between the polarities throughout the text. Romanticism is considered a purely Western phenomenon, therefore there seems to be no real romanticizing of love in Russia. Russian literature has “nothing to show like the love sung by the troubadours, no Tristan and Iseult, no Dante and Beatrice, no Romeo and Juliet” (Berdyaev, 1957:112). Nevertheless, at least one non-Russian writer must be included in the prehistory of Dostoevsky‟s concern for dominance hierarchies in the relationship between men and women. Dostoevsky‟s first publication was a translation of Balzac‟s Eugenie Grandet (1833). Balzac‟s view of society had certainly influenced Dostoevsky‟s emerging ideas. The great tools of power in Balzac‟s world are money and scandalous knowledge. These two principles appear in Dostoevsky‟s works as well. The money Dmitry gives Katerina in The Brothers Karamazov (1880), for instance, gives him a moment of power over her, but paradoxically, the power of her submission to him makes him an insect before her in the long run. This, too, comes to be symbolized by money. In another work by Dostoevsky, A Meek One (1876), the pawnbroker is sure of his superiority over his bride and his possession of her because of his economic situation. Likewise in Part I of The Idiot (1868) the large bundle of money which Nastasya Filippovna throws into the fire because of the way it illustrates the power relationship between Nastasya, Ganya, Rogozhin and Myshkin. The competitive hierarchy is felt in the relations of Vautrin in Old Goriot (1835) with women as well: “Ask women what kind of men they run after- „ambitious men‟ is the answer. The backs of the ambitions are stronger, their blood more rich in iron, their hearts warmer than those of other men. And a woman knows herself so happy and so lovely in the hours when she is strong, that she prefers above all the man whose strength is enormous, even though it may mean her destruction” ( Balzac, 1951: 126) As can be seen from the above overview, the interest in dominance hierarchies in Russian and world literature did not begin with Dostoevsky. Neither did it end with him- there are passages in Tolstoy and Turgenev which are quite Dostoevskian in this regard. 16 Chapter 1: Feodor Dostoevsky: his time, his life and his works ______

Thus, in Tolstoy‟s Father Sergius (1898) the competition between a brilliant young officer and his adored Tzar over a woman presents a typical Dostoevskian triangle.

1.4. The Dominance hierarchy in religion and philosophy In this part of the chapter I present the view of Russian philosophy of the 19th century on the relationship between men and women. The subject of sex was being widely discussed by Russian philosophers since as early as the middle of the 19th century. In this chapter I present three different points of view on the subject – 1) Alexis Khomyakov's Slavophil concept of sex, 2) Nikolai Chernyshevsky's rationalistic philosophy of sex, and 3) the religious philosophy of sex. These points of view will be compared and contrasted to Dostoevsky‟s philosophy about the relationship between the sexes.

1.4.1. The Slavophile concept of sex The traditional Russian philosophy developed under the strong influence of the Orthodox Church. Yet, since the middle of the 19th century the separation between the 'Westernists' and the 'Slavophiles' has become clearly distinct. The 'Westernists' emphasized a need for social change in Russia and supported the Emancipation of Women by presenting political and legal reasons. The 'Slavophiles' insisted on the inherent originality of Russia and strongly objected to the emancipation of women appealing to the original Russian virtues such as religion and the patriarchal family. For example, Alexis Khomyakov (1804-1860), one of the leaders of the Slavophile movement, believed that the division of mankind by sex was merely a historical fact and the will of God. He considered the family a divine and God- approved union of sexes aimed at neutralizing sexual antagonism. In emancipation he saw a sure way to lead to the degradation of society. Debating with George Sand, he assessed the emancipation of women as a factor leading to the 'war of sexes'. In his view, only children and families are "the sacred protection to save women's weakness from the violent energy of men's supremacy" (Khomyakov, 1988: 262). His views seem quite typical of that time – sex is just biological sex, while sexual differentiation, antagonism and subordination of women are viewed as a natural and divine reality.

17 Chapter 1: Feodor Dostoevsky: his time, his life and his works ______

1.4.2. The Rationalistic Philosophy of Sex The secular rationalistic philosophy of gender is presented in the works of the philosopher and socialist Nikolai Chernyshevsky (1828-1889). To him, the natural reality of division of people into women and men is the 'damnation' of the human being and a prerequisite for identifying the history of humankind as a history of injustice. He believed that domination of the strong man over the weak woman is the source of all other forms of subordination, suppression and exploitation in society. Denying perceiving the family as a religious sacrament, Chernyshevsky considers it a method of suppressing a woman's personality. That is why he believes it is necessary to "drastically change the relationship between the sexes, and the entire social order as well" (Chernyshevsky, vol I, 401). An example of such a transformation of society is offered in Chenyshevsky‟s novel What Should be Done (1863). Describing a program of a socialist transformation of society, Chernyshevsky reflects in much detail on various aspects of the Emancipation of women, most important of which, he thinks, are the economic independence of women and their deliverance from family suppression. His theory suggests that "some day in the world there will be neither men nor women, just 'people'. And then the people will be happy" (Chernyshevsky, vol, XV, 152). This theory obviously implies overcoming the existing gender roles and stereotypes rather than biological limitations of sex.

1.4.3. The Religious Philosophy of Sex The Russian religious philosophy towards sex is represented by thinkers with quite diverse points of view. Among them are philosophers such as Vladimir Solovyov and Vasiliy Rozanov, and writers such as Leo Tolstoy and Feodor Dostoevsky. In Leo Tolstoy‟s view, sensuality is a reason for the perversion of the world. In his judgment, the woman is enslaved because “people want and …use her as a means of getting pleasure” (Tolstoy, 1987:vol.11, 129). He interprets sex and sexual love as a sign of the imperfection of mankind. In his opinion the objective of human life is to overcome sex, which would manifest the triumph of overwhelming human harmony and love. Woman is identified with “sex”, “sex” is identified with “evil”, which makes women evil as well. On the other hand, identifying the woman with sex makes sensuality and love an evil, as well. A completely different perception of the problem of sex can be seen in Dostoevsky‟s vision of sex. In Dostoevsky's world, there is always a struggle between Christ and Satan, which is interpreted as man's temptation, a bisection of man into the woman- 18 Chapter 1: Feodor Dostoevsky: his time, his life and his works ______embodied “ideal of Madonna” and the “ideal of Sodom”. In his novels, all the thoughts, feelings, and actions of his characters are guided by passionate love, the mysticism of mutual attraction of the sexes. “To love man like oneself, according to the commandment of Christ, is impossible,” Dostoevsky wrote at the bier of his first wife. “The law of personality on Earth binds. The Ego stands in the way” (20:172). In a passage of the deepest relevance for Prince Myshkin‟s unhappy fate, Dostoevsky continues: “Marriage and the giving in marriage of a woman is, as it were, the greatest deviation from humanism, the complete isolation of the pair from everyone else…. The family, that is the law of nature, but [it is] all the same abnormal, egoistical”. Even that “most sacred possession of man on earth”, the family is a manifestation of the Ego, which prevents the fusion of individuals into an all of universal love” (20:173). “The family- this is the most sacred possession of man on earth”, he had noted, “for by this law of nature man attain development (i.e., the succession of generations), the goal. But at the same time, by this very law of nature, in the name of the final ideal goal, man must unceasingly negate it (Duality)”. (20:173). In the same document, Dostoevsky states that Christ had given mankind only one clue to the future nature of his “final ideal goal” of humanity- a clue contained in the gospel of Saint Matthew: “They neither marry, nor are given in marriage, but are as angels in Heaven” (20:173). The “final ideal goal” of humanity is thus the total fusion of the individual Ego with All in a mystic community freed from the constraints and limits of the flesh. Hence, even the most chaste and innocent of earthly love constitutes a violation to the universal law of love, whose realization is man‟s supernatural goal. For Dostoevsky, certain moments of sexual intercourse were as blinding and full of unbearable strain, as the moments preceding his epileptic seizures- and the strictly physical ecstasy of sexual climax gave him a sensation of breading through into eternity. In other words, "[t]o join with a woman he loved in the consonant rhythm of intercourse drew him closer to God and left him with a mystic sense of self-affirmation and self-oblivion. All the tempests of his sensuality were resolved in an instantaneous contact with the ultimate truth: the universe poured in upon him, he became dissolved in the universe; the fusion of bodies led to a re-creation of a disrupted unity. Out of two, one-one flesh …" (Slonim, 1957:252). In this, for Dostoevsky, lay the secret of peace and universal harmony. Vladimir Solovyov (1853-1900), one of Russia‟s famous philosophers, does not share Tolstoy‟s view on sex and love, but rather supports Dostoevsky‟s idea of sexual love. According to Solovyov, only that kind of love can bring about the creation of the “true 19 Chapter 1: Feodor Dostoevsky: his time, his life and his works ______person”, because the “true person in completeness of his ideal personality… can not be either only a man or only a woman, but a higher unity of both” (Solovyov, 1988:513). To him, a complete person is integrity of the masculine and feminine principles, whereas the masculine is the “subject cognizing and active”, and the feminine serves as an “object cognized and passive” (Solovyov, 1911:363). In spite of the high estimation of sexual love, Solovyov‟s theology of sex reproduces the traditional patriarchy‟s logic of the binary opposites of the masculine and the feminine.

1.5. Recent Criticism on Dostoevsky's works Dostoevsky has been the subject of a large number of biographies, biographical studies and literary criticism over the years. Each critic has his own interpretations of both Dostoevsky‟s life and the meaning of his novels. In his essay “Dostoevsky and Parricide” (1928) Freud presents a general explanatory model that ties together childhood history, literary theme, and specific symptoms. He interprets Dostoevsky‟s compulsive gambling and his epilepsy as a form of self-punishment. He also mentions the oedipal theme- rivalry with the father for mother, death wishes toward his father and self-punishment in the form of suffering for his thoughts. Joseph Frank (1976, 1990, 1997) places Dostoevsky in the literary, political and intellectual context of his times. Some critics have noted Dostoevsky‟s preoccupation with the phenomena of dominance in personal relationships. André Gide (1961) observes that Dostoevsky‟s hierarchies are based on degrees of pride and humility. In his essay “A Cruel Talent” (1882), written shortly after Dostoevsky‟s death in 1881, Mikhailovsky discusses the novelist‟s fascination with characters who find delight in tormenting others or subjecting themselves to torment. Kravchenko (1978) mentions other psychologists and writers (Turgenev among them) who have noted a sadistic streak in Dostoevsky‟s creative personality. In Problems of Dostoevsky's Poetics Bakhtin claims that "literature on Dostoevsky has focused primarily on the ideological problems raised by his work… . Critics are apt to forget that Dostoevsky is first and foremost an artist…and not a philosopher or a publicist (Bakhtin, 1984: 3-4). 20 Chapter 1: Feodor Dostoevsky: his time, his life and his works ______

Bakhtin's approach can be sees as an antithesis to a linguistic and sign-oriented theory. Bakhtin's linguistics, as Stewart defines it, is "an anti-linguistics, a systematic questioning and inverting of the basic premises and arguments of traditional linguistic theory" (Stewart, 1983: 266). Ferdinad de Saussure's view on linguistics and language is the antithesis of Bakhtin's: while Saussure is interested in language as "an abstract and ready- made system, Bakhtin is interested only in the dynamics of living speech (Stewart, 1983:267). As far as a sign-oriented approach is concerned, Bakhtin distinguishes between the mechanic and pragmatic functions of signals and the cultural and "polyvocal" functions of signs (Stewart, 1983:271). Bakhtin, as opposed to Saussure, does not see the sign as a part of an abstract system resulting from the structure of psychological perception. In his work, which is considered one of the most provocative studies on Dostoevsky, Bakhtin introduces some important concepts: the concept of unfinalizable self; the idea of the relationship between the self and others/ or other groups, the concept of polyphony, and the concept of carnival. Bakhtin's conception of unfinalizability respects the possibility that a person can change, and that a person is never fully revealed or fully known in the world and emphasizes the importance of an individual's potentially infinite capability, worth and hidden soul. As far as the idea of self-and-others is concerned, according to Bakhtin, every person is influenced by others in an inescapable intertwined way, and consequently no voice is isolated. By polyphony Bakhtin means many voices- each character in Dostoevsky's works represents a voice that speaks for an individual self, distinct from others (including Dostoevsky himself). It is in Dostoevsky's works that Bakhtin finds the polyphonic ideal realized- the author as if "disappears" from the work, his voice is silent and the characters speak for themselves. The notion of carnival was Bakhtin's way of describing Dostoevsky's polyphonic style: each character in Dostoevsky's work is strongly defined, and at the same time each character has a crucial influence on another character. In other words, the voices of others are heard by each character, and at the same time each character shapes the character of the other. Even though Bakhtin's approach to language and text is as an antithesis to a linguistic and sign-oriented theory, his concepts of unfinalizable self, the idea of the relationship between the self and others/ or other groups, the concept of polyphony, and the concept of carnival can be found in all the texts under the analysis. Thus, the message of the text (the interconnection of love and hate to such an extent that sometimes they can be merged, combined and even confused and the idea that the polarically opposed feelings of 21 Chapter 1: Feodor Dostoevsky: his time, his life and his works ______love and hate can both be real or imagined at the same time) is realized in the above concepts. The influence of the characters on each other is reciprocal- each one is influenced by another character and each one influences another character. This polyphony is actually the interconnection between the characters' voices and feelings. In his book Bakhtin also elaborates on the concept of polyphonic truth. For him, truth is not a statement, but rather a multitude of carrying voices. In the text under the analysis, the feelings of love and hate are interconnected, so the characters are not sure whether the feeling they experience is love or hate, and even more, the polarically opposed feelings of love and hate can both be real and imagined at the same time. Catteau's (1989) main reason for writing Dostoevsky and the Process of Literary Creation relates to describing the different tendencies in Dostoevsky criticism. He claims that fragmentation of Dostoevsky criticism is caused by the originality and richness of Dostoevsky himself. "Every critic of Dostoevsky conceals a philosopher, a moralist, or a psychologist, each subconsciously trying to muzzle the others" (Catteaus, 1989:3). The works of Dostoevsky are recognized for their literary merit, and many critics (both Russian and Western) have and are still examining the ideas presented by Dostoevsky. However, no one has produced a comprehensive and systematic study of the forms the dominance hierarchy takes in Dostoevsky‟s works in the romantic relationships between men and women. The present thesis will give an account of the conflict between love and hate that merge together in the relationship between men and women in the works of Dostoevsky.

22 Chapter 2: The Text and the Message ______

Chapter Two The text and the message 2.1. The text 2.2. The message

The specific word systems presented and studied in this thesis are applied to the particular literary text originally written in Russian that consists of two short novellas- A Meek One (1876), and The Gambler (1866) - and two novels – The Idiot (1868) and The Brothers Karamazov (1880). The analysis of Dostoevsky's four works will determine the basic invariants of theme and motif which connect each separate novella and novel, thus forming a “continuously developing supra-text” (Somerwil-Aarton, 1988:9). In the present chapter of my thesis I summarize the plot of “the supra text” and postulate the message these works share. As previously stated, it is this shared message which allows me to view these individual literary works as a single text.

2.1. The text A Meek One (1876)

The short story A Meek One was published in The Diary of a Writer in 1876. The narrator is the owner of a pawnshop, and one of his repeated customers is a young girl of sixteen who always pawns items to earn money to advertise as a governess in the newspaper. He is attracted to the „gentle girl‟ and helps her in different small ways, but he views each encounter as a way of achieving triumph (italics mine) over her. Likewise he speaks of her sincerity as a means of conquering others. He perceives all encounters between human beings as contests and struggle. At the end of Chapter 1 he admits: „The main thing was that I was already regarding her as mine and had no doubts of my power. Do you know it‟s a most delicious feeling when you‟re no longer in doubt” (Dostoevsky, 1971:278). The narrator investigates the girl's background and finds that her two greedy aunts were arranging her marriage to a fat shopkeeper: „ A fat shopkeeper from next door… had already driven two wives into the grave, and was now on the look-out for a third. „She‟s quiet, brought up in poverty, she grew up in poverty…" (Dostoevsky, 1971:279). Once the shopkeeper proposed marriage to the girl, the narrator countered with his own proposal: "I 23 Chapter 2: The Text and the Message ______told her straight out that she would have enough to eat, but as for fancy clothes, theaters and balls, there would be none of that, unless later perhaps when I had attained my goal" (Dostoevsky, 1971:280). This marriage proposal can hardly be perceives as being "romantic." However, the girl decided, after much deliberation, to marry the narrator. The narrator receives his bride into his home with a stern attitude, assured of his superiority. "I also indulged in various pleasing thoughts such as the notion that she was only sixteen while I was forty-one. This disparity fascinated me; it was gratifying, most gratifying" (Dostoevsky, 1971:282). Convinced that a "…loving woman will idolize the vices, even the crimes, of the man she loves" (Dostoevsky, 1971:286), he turns her trusting, loving nature into a hostile and alien presence. People are reduced to objects, and the relationship between them to contest, war and domination. As the girl begins to develop independent thoughts, however, he comes to feel that their positions have been reversed: „This darling, this meek one, this heavenly one- she was a tyrant who cruelly tormented my soul" (Dostoevsky, 1971:287). Gradually, it becomes obvious that she is not so meek a creature as he imagines. The situation changes from one in which he dominates (even if it‟s due to his age and financial superiority), to one in which she is the leader. Finally, in the chapter entitled „The Meek One Revolts‟, the narrator tells us that the girl "…had not been herself at all… . She was "the exact opposite of herself: a violent creature, aggressive, … yet an unbalanced creature eager for turmoil. A creature asking for turmoil (Dostoevsky, 1971:289). Later the narrator observes her meeting with his old army friend, with whom she has an affair, and sees a very different woman than the one he has imagined her to be. He still interprets her actions as springing from meek and girlish character, but suddenly he finds that she is quite able to take care of herself. "I stood listening for a whole hour; for a whole hour I was present at a duel between the noblest and purest of women and a society cad, lecherous and obtuse, with the soul of a reptile. Where, I thought in amazement, where had that naïve, meek and retiring creature learned all that" (Dostoevsky, 1971: 291). The narrator reveals himself and takes her home, but he does not punish or even scold her, as she expects: "…she sat down on a chair and stared at me fixedly. She was exceedingly pale; though her lips instantly curved in a sneer, her look was now solemn and rigidly defiant. I think she sincerely believed during those first few moments that I was going to shoot her with my revolver" (Dostoevsky, 1971:292). The meek creature has „rebelled‟ and 24 Chapter 2: The Text and the Message ______taken on the aggressive attitude appropriate, in the narrator‟s opinion, to the male. He retires on their bed while she goes to sleep on the couch. He awakens to find her standing over him with revolver at his temple: "… I knew with all the power of my being that the moment meant a fight for supremacy between us, a terrifying life and death duel…" (Dostoevsky, 1971:294). He simply closes his eyes again, and he is convinced that he conquered her with his readiness to accept death. She doesn't shoot, however. Once again, the relationship between them is like a battle, duel and not a union of equal individuals. In the second part of the story, after a long illness, she adopts an attitude of complete indifference, ignoring him completely. However, her „sternness‟ seems to redouble his ecstasy: "… I wanted more and more irresistibly to fall at her feet again, and go on kissing the floor her feet had touched, and worship her. 'I shall ask nothing, nothing more of your,' I kept repeating, 'do not answer me, ignore me completely, just let me look at you from afar, make me your thing, your dog…' "( Dostoevsky, 1971:304). She is unwilling to accept her life together with him. However, the reasons for that are not stated clearly – whether because of disgust for his enjoyment of humiliation, shame over her unfaithfulness or lack of the desire for a physical relationship with a man she does not respect and love. In any case, she kills herself by jumping out of the window while holding an icon and the whole story is the husband‟s monologue immediately after her death.

The Gambler (1866) Dostoevsky had begun writing The Gambler beside his first wife's Maria deathbed; the novel dealt with Apollinaria, his lover, and he had finished it with the help of Anna, his second wife, who was his stenographer. Thus, this work "…bound together with strange and invisible threads the three great loves of his life" (Slonim, 1957:225). Polina Alexandrovna has an affair with a Frenchman De Grieux. After the Frenchman abandoned her, she humbly offers herself to the gambler, Alexei Ivanovich, whom she both loves and despises. This dualism of love and hate in her character is realized intensely. On the one hand, she humbles her pride; on the other hand, she reasserts it by convincing herself that she is not to be bought by fifty thousand francs. Alexei Ivanovich goes to the gambling tables and wins the sum in order that his beloved may throw it in the face of the Frenchman. He returns with the money, and they spend the night together. In the morning, however, Polina Alexandrovna, with a sudden revulsion of feeling, throws the money in the face of the hero and leaves him forever. She insults and rejects her despised 25 Chapter 2: The Text and the Message ______lover - the dual nature of Polina is reflected in this action very clearly. Alexei Ivanovich undergoes the same emotional experience and the same mixed feelings towards Polina: "And now once more I asked myself the question, 'Am I in love with her?' And once more I did not know how to answer it, or rather I answered once more, for the hundredth time, that I hated her. Yes, I hated her. There were moments (to wit, at the end of every one of our conversations) when I would have given half my life to strangle her! I swear if it had been possible to bury a sharp knife slowly in her breast, I think I would have seized it with pleasure. And yet I swear by all that's holy that if on the fashionable peak of the Schlangenberg she had indeed said to me, 'Cast yourself down', I would have done so immediately and even enjoyed doing it …." (Dostoevsky, 1966: 27). He willingly submits to mental and physical suffering from the woman he loves. In turn, he demands that Polina humble herself before him and suffer under the cruelty of his pride. He, as well, bows to her slightest caprice and would even commit murder for her. When she cruelly dares him to insult a German baron, at great risk to himself, he immediately carries out her request. On the other hand, however, he feels it his privilege to subject her to his will, to insult her, and at one point he even contemplates murdering her. This love-hate duality, the desire to cause pain to the partner and the desire to be tortured by him/her in return, sometimes even in a sadistic and masochistic manner, dominates the whole relationship between Polina and Alexei. Love seems to be a contradiction- it is never a source of happiness as it should be, but rather a duel, a conflict, a battle, or war. The more you love, the more fiercely you hate the same person- this seems to be the equation of love in this novel (as in all the other works of Dostoevsky that deal with love). Love and hate are interconnected to such an extent that sometimes they can be merged, combined and even confused. Simmons (1950) suggests that the relations of hero and heroine are an intensified version of the relations between Dostoevsky and Polina Suslova on their unhappy „brother- and- sister‟ excursion (Simmons, 1950: 149). Dostoevsky fell passionately in love with a girl half of his age, Polina Suslova, a new type of emancipated women. After weeks of torturing each other, they finally separated. This experience deeply affected Dostoevsky, both emotionally and creatively. Polina Suslova unquestionably contributed to the portrayals of his hating-loving heroines. Polina Suslova wrote in her diary Dostoevsky‟s explanation of her hate for him, which he attributed to the fact that she could not forgive him because she had 26 Chapter 2: The Text and the Message ______once given herself to him. Such may have been the reason for Polina Alexandrovna‟s swift reversal of feeling towards Alexei.

The Idiot ( 1868) It is very difficult to summarize all the twists and turns of the plot of this novel due to its multiple plots. In his notes Dostoevsky writes that there are “three kinds of love in the novel: (1) Passionate and spontaneous love- Rogozhin. (2) Love out of vanity- Ganya. (3) Christian love- the Prince” (9:220). Dostoevsky defined these various types of love earlier as mutations in a single character, but later he assigned them to different individuals: greedy Ganya Ivolgin, ready to sell his soul to marry Nastasya and thereby gain the dowry that will enable him to attain the wealth he craves; Totsky, who does not feel the slightest twinge of conscience at having ruined Nastasya forever, though he behaves well according to his lights in trying to arrange her future; passion-mad Rogozhin, ready to squander a fortune and endure any suffering if only he can win Nastasya‟s love. These different types of love and characters lead to different plots within the novel. Each strand of the plot alternates with another throughout the novel. One continues the Nastasya-Myshkin-Rogozhin relationship. The second is the Aglaya-Myshkin love affair (with a new character, Radomshky, as the third in the eternal triangle). Dostoevsky attempts to link these two plot lines through Nastasya‟s attempt to promote the Aglaya-Myshkin romance.

Prince Lev Myshkin returns to Russia after a long absence. Myshkin suffers from epilepsy – just like Dostoevsky himself – and is prone to blackouts and periods of apparent insanity. His epilepsy has been treated with some success in Switzerland. The Myshkin family line is said to end with him and his cousin. On the train to St. Petersburg, Myshkin meets and befriends the dark and impassioned Rogozhin. The latter tells the prince about his passion for Nastasya Filippovna, a beautiful woman with a bad reputation. Myshkin arrives at the house of General Yepantchin, who is married to the only other living member of the Myshkin line. Myshkin learns that Ganya, a young secretary of the General, wants to marry Nastasya for her dowry. The prince feels an irresistible desire to meet her after hearing about her and even more so when he views a picture of her in the General's office. At Nastasya's name-day party, Myshkin sees Rogozhin arrive drunk and offer the young woman a large amount of money to follow him. The prince perceives the despair of Nastasya and proposes to her in order to save her from her situation. She, believing the prince's offer stems only 27 Chapter 2: The Text and the Message ______from pity, flees with Rogozhin. The two men, formerly bound by friendship, become rivals. Rogozhin even tries to kill his friend with a knife, but is hindered when, due to the stress of the situation, Myshkin falls into an epileptic seizure. Over the course of the novel, Myshkin grows closer to the General's daughter, Aglaya, but he eventually gives her up to save Nastasya, culminating in a final meeting at Rogozhin's home where Aglaya confronts Nastasya. Myshkin moves to leave with Aglaya, but stops when Nastasya questions the fact that he would leave with her and faints into his arms. He decides to marry Nastasya for fear she will return to Rogozhin and never live a healthy life. On the day of the marriage, however, Nastasya again flees with Rogozhin, who then kills her. The novel ends with Myshkin and Rogozhin lying together by the body of Nastasya: Myshkin sinks into total insanity; Rogozhin is sentenced to labor in Siberia; and Aglaya rushes into an unhappy marriage with a man who claims to be a Polish count, who lies to her and soon abandons her.

The Brothers Karamazov (1880) In Russia The Brothers Karamazov (1880) is regarded as Dostoevsky‟s greatest novel. According to Simmons (1950:263): “[Dostoevsky‟s] most matured art, his wisdom, ideas, faith, and doubts find their fullest expression in this book”. Although it is Dostoevsky‟s longest novel, the bare outlines of the plot may be summed up in a few sentences. The father, Fyodor Pavlovich, is a 55-year-old "sponger" and buffoon who has three sons from two marriages- Dmitry, the child of his first wife, and Ivan and Alyosha, children of his second wife. He never has any interest in his sons, and when their mothers die, he sends them away to be brought up by relatives and friends. He is also rumored to have an illegitimate son, Pavel Smerdyakov, from a retarded mute girl who lived in town as the village idiot. The girl died as she gave birth to the baby, who was taken in by servants of Fyodor Karamazov and forced to work as a servant for him as well. Fyodor took no interest in any of his sons. As a result, they were all raised apart from each other and their father. Dmitry, the oldest son, who is a twenty-eight-year-old soldier, has just returned to his father's town and is soon in a rage with his father over the question of whether he owes Fyodor debts or Fyodor owes him an inheritance. It turns out that they have more to quarrel about than money: they are both in love with Grushenka, a beautiful young woman. Dmitry has left his fiancée, Katerina Ivanovna, to pursue Grushenka, while Fyodor Pavlovich has promised to give Grushenka 3000 rubles if she becomes his lover. Dmitry steals 3000 rubles from Katerina, his former lover, in order to fiancé a lavish trip with Grushenka, and he is now 28 Chapter 2: The Text and the Message ______desperate to pay the money back. He has spent two days unsuccessfully trying to raise the money to pay Katerina the 3000 rubles he owes her. No one will lend him the money, and he has nothing to sell. At last, he goes to Grushenka's house, and when she is not there, he is suddenly convinced that she has gone to be with his father. He rushes to Fyodor's house, but finds that Grushenka is not there. While prowling on the grounds, Dmitry strikes Gregory, the servant, leaving him bloody and unconscious. Then he flees. He returns to Grushenka's house, and learns from her maid that Grushenka has gone to rejoin a lover who abandoned her several years later. Dmitry decides to see Grushenka one last time before he kills himself. He travels out to see Grushenka and her lover. When Grushenka sees him, she realizes that she really loves Dmitry. They begin to plan their wedding. But the police suddenly burst in and arrest Dmitry. Dmitry is accused of the murder of his father, who has been found dead. Due to the large amount of evidence against Dmitry, including the money suddenly found in his possession, he will be made to stand trial. Alyosha, the youngest son, who is about twenty, lives in the town, where he is an acolyte, or apprentice, at the monastery, studying with the renowned elder Zosima. Dmitry sends Alyosha to break off his engagement with Katerina. She became engaged to Dmitry after he bailed her father out of a debt. To Alyosha's surprise, Ivan, the middle brother, is with Katerina, and Alyosha immediately perceives that Ivan and Katerina are in love. Alyosha tries to convince them that they should act on their love for one another, but they are both too proud and reluctant to listen to his advice. Ivan talks to Smerdyakov about Fyodor Pavlovich's death, and Smerdyakov confesses to Ivan that he, and not Dmitry, committed the murder. But he says that Ivan is also implicated in the crime because the philosophical lessons Smerdyakov learned from Ivan, regarding the impossibility of evil in a world without a God, made Smerdyakov capable of committing murder. This statement causes Ivan to become consumed with guilt. After returning home, Ivan suffers a nervous breakdown in which he sees a devil. The apparition vanishes when Alyosha arrives with the news that Smerdyakov has hung himself. At the Dmitry's trial, Ivan madly asserts that he himself is guilty of the murder. To clear Ivan's name, Katerina leaps up and shows a letter she received from Dmitry in which he wrote that he was afraid he might one day murder his father. After the trial, Katerina takes Ivan to her house, where she plans to nurse him through his illness. She and Dmitry forgive one another, and she arranges for Dmitry to escape from prison and flee to America with Grushenka. 29 Chapter 2: The Text and the Message ______

2.2. The message There is a single message shared by each individual work that transforms them into a “supra text”, consisting of these four works of Dostoevsky (A Meek One (1876), and The Gambler (1866), The Idiot (1868) and The Brothers Karamazov (1880). This message combines and balances the polaric concepts of love and hate, slavery and despotism, humiliation and submission, devotion and submissiveness, cruelty and tenderness, self abasement and self love, sadism and masochism, the desire to suffer and to cause suffering to the other, the joy of dominating and the pleasure of torturing. This message further implies that happiness never seems to be achieved through love. In the relationship between men and women in Dostoevsky, love and hate are interconnected to such an extent that sometimes they can be merged, combined and even confused. The message divides the text into two contexts, each of which contains an invariant theme that is realized in different sub-contexts where the non-random distribution of the language (as expressed in word systems) supports the message. The thematic complex of “love” is directly related to its oppositional pole, that is, to the complex of “hate”. Those polaric feelings of love and hate that are present in every relationship can be both real or imagined at the same time: love merges and confused with hate, fantasy merges and confused with reality.

30 Chapter 3: The Sign-Oriented Approach to Language: Theory and Methodology ______

Chapter Three The Sign-Oriented Approach to Language: Theory and Methodology

Linguistics today has branched out into a very wide inter-disciplinary science consisting of many and diverse sub-fields of study such as anthropological linguistics, applied linguistics, socio-linguistics, clinical linguistics, computer linguistics, neuro- and psycho- linguistics, poetics and textual linguistics. These sub-fields are not always clearly defined and often overlap with each other. However, the common denominator of all the linguistic sub-branches is the object of their study, i.e., language. Language not only combines all the variety of fields and sub-fields, but it is also the object of research of different schools and approaches. Therefore, there is more than one way to carry out linguistic analysis. The fact that there are different definitions of language means that there is a wide range of approaches and schools. According to Tobin (1990a:69), “the way a linguist defines language is very often the first step of a linguistic analysis from which all the other theoretical and methodological assumptions naturally follow.” Further, Tobin assumes that every linguistic theory is the direct result of a specific set of theoretical axioms that is related to “how the linguist defines language, defines a linguistic problem, determines the source, kind, and amount of data to be selected and analyzed, chooses a methodology to select and analyze the data, and compares and contrasts the analyses in the light of all the above” (Tobin, 1997:4). In the book Cours de Linguistique Generale (1916) de Saussure first defined linguistics from the point of view of semiology: “A science that studies the life of signs within society is conceivable; it would be a part of social psychology; I shall call it semiology (from Greek sēmeîon „sign‟). Semiology would show what constitutes signs, what laws govern them…. Linguistics is not only one branch of this general science. The laws which semiology will discover will be laws applicable in linguistics, and linguistics will thus be assigned to a clearly defined place in the field of human knowledge” (de Saussure, 1983:15). The present analysis is based on the semiotic or sign-oriented definition of language which is viewed as “ a system of systems composed of various subsystems (revolving around the notion of the linguistic sign) which are organized internally and systematically related to each other and used by human beings to communicate” (Tobin, 1990a:47). This definition of language is based on the linguistic sign, composed of a form (significant) and a single 31 Chapter 3: The Sign-Oriented Approach to Language: Theory and Methodology ______meaning (signifié), as the basic theoretical unit of language. According to de Saussure (1983), the linguistic sign is a single unit inseparably combining an acoustic signal with a concept in the form of an abstract invariant meaning. The value of the linguistic sign as a unit of analysis is in its universal application to any language irrespectively of its size and degree of abstractness: phonemes, morphemes, words, phrases, clauses, sentences, texts, word order, zero morphology, intonation (Tobin 1990a). Therefore, the linguistic sign bridges the gap between the grammar and the lexicon and has a holistic potential to replace the so-called autonomous levels of morphology and syntax, which are actually interdependent and inseparable, the distinction between them being to a great degree artificial and “illusory” (de Saussure, 1959: 136). The introduction of the linguistic sign serves as a common denominator for different categories and language units, such as phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics, etc. Theoretically, this semiotic definition of language presupposes the distinction between langue- an abstract code of language shared by a community speakers- and parole- the concrete realization of this complex abstract code by speakers to communicate specific discourse messages in different linguistic contexts. The sign-oriented concepts of langue and parole were introduced by de Saussure (1959:9-13). Methodologically, the semiotic approach is based on the concrete language data taken from both spoken and written discourse in different linguistic contexts. It means that linguistic data may serve as a source of a semiotic linguistic analysis.

The primary theoretical task of the semiotic or sign-oriented linguist is the postulation of the invariant meanings of linguistic signs (usually in a systematic opposition to other signs) and to explain how these invariant sign meanings are exploited by human beings to communicate specific discourse messages. (Tobin 1995: 8)

According to post-Saussurian linguistics and semiotics the notion of a general structuralist model may be viewed as a theoretical and methodological bridge between the abstract and concrete levels of human and social phenomena, such as language. Diverse models of linguistic and semiotic analysis have been developed to describe, interpret, and explain concrete data in accordance with an abstract theory. Tobin (1990a:48) presents the sign oriented or semiotic view of language in the following figure: 32 Chapter 3: The Sign-Oriented Approach to Language: Theory and Methodology ______

Figure 3.1 The sign-oriented (semiotic) model of language

Abstract Methodological Concrete system model phenomenon

Parole Langue

Non-random A systematic Linguistic and distribution of code composed discourse analysis linguistic signs of linguistic

signs

According to this figure, an abstract system of language (langue), which is composed of linguistic signs, is studied through the linguistic analysis of a spoken and written discourse in order to explain non-random distribution of linguistic signs in concrete discourse (parole). In Chapter Four and Five of my study I apply the semiotic model of language (Figure 3.1) to the analysis of various word systems in a Dostoevskian text. Tobin (1990a:47) defines a literary text in the same way as he defines language (“a system of systems composed of various sub-systems ( revolving around the notion of the linguistic sign) which are organized internally and systematically related to each other and used by human beings to communicate.” Therefore, the same semiotic model of language can also be applied to literary texts (Figure 3.2) Figure 3.2 The sign-oriented model of texts

Abstract Methodological Concrete system model phenomenon

Parole Langue

A non-random Abstract level Word systems distribution of of theories and Strategies of linguistic signs hypothesis of communication in a text textual within a text

messages 33 Chapter 3: The Sign-Oriented Approach to Language: Theory and Methodology ______

As can be seen in Figure 3.2, the reader hypothesizes about what the message of the text is and at least two methodological models (word systems and strategies of communication) can be used to uncover the non-random distribution of language which supports the message. Arrows that go in both directions show the interconnection between the non-random distribution of the linguistic signs and the message: on the one hand, the non- random distribution of the linguistic signs can lead us to the message (the 'from sign to text' bottom-up approach (Tobin, 1990a:XX) ; on the other hand, the message itself can lead to the certain distribution of linguistic signs in the text (the 'from text to sign' top-down approach Tobin, 1990a: XX) In my thesis, based on the semiotic model of language, I will determine the non- random distribution of linguistic sings in the language of specific lexical items systematically exploited by Dostoevsky. By discovering and analyzing these various kinds of word systems I will show how this methodological model is exploited by the writer to produce a message within a specific literary text. I will uncover the non-random distribution of the language (concrete data) in a literary text by Dostoevsky. I will then show how the non-random distribution of the language leads to the abstract hypothesis of the text‟s message which is extra-linguistic. In my analysis of the language in selected novels by Dostoevsky, I apply the sign- oriented linguistic approach to the analysis of different systems of language: phonemes, roots, words, word systems, phrases, contexts, etc. I examine the above systems within the language of Dostoevsky text in order to support the message that the relationship between men and women is a mixture of love and hate, slavery and despotism, humiliation and submission, devotion and submissiveness, cruelty and tenderness, self abasement and self love, sadism and masochism, the desire to suffer and to cause suffering to the other, the joy of dominating and the pleasure of torturing. In other words, love and hate are interconnected to such an extent that sometimes they can be merged, combined and even confused. These polarically opposed feelings of love and hate that exist in every relationship can both be real or imagined at the same time.

The methodological model of word systems has been previously applied in textual analysis of prose and poetry in different languages. Behl Heike Kristina (1995) in her PhD dissertation Ohne Zahl Sind die Strassen: Wege in die Dichtung Paul Celans examines Celan‟s poems and their interpretations. She 34 Chapter 3: The Sign-Oriented Approach to Language: Theory and Methodology ______finds similarity between Celan‟s comments on the multi-valiant meanings of the words and a linguistic study by E. Aphek and Y. Tobin on the use of multi-valiant word-systems. In his MA thesis Um das Wort Ballt Sich der Schnee: Paul Celan’s Use of Snow, Ice and Glacial imagery in his Lyric Poetry, Kerry J. Cox ( 1995) examines the “crystalline” structure of Celan‟s language and finds similarities between the structure of ice and the formation of words and word groupings. Ludmila Kanel (2000), in her PhD thesis Word Systems in Poetry: Theoretical Implications and Problems in Translation, analyzed the poetic texts by the Nobel Prize winner Joseph Brodsky using the method of textual analysis based on word-systems. Inessa Roe-Portianski (2005) in her PhD dissertation The Language of the Natural and the Supernatural in the Novel The Master and Margarita by Mikhail Bulgakov: A Semiotic Approach, found at least eleven word systems with phonological, semantic, etymological or associative denominator which revolve around the concepts chyort/diavol- „the devil‟, head, contrast and negatives, family names, home, turn up-disappear, hell, evil, light and darkness, people’s reaction to the activities of the secret police, and storm. She has demonstrated how each of the eleven word systems contributes to the message of the text-an interconnection of the natural and the supernatural in the novel, sometimes to such an extent that it is impossible to distinguish between them. All of the above works were inspired by Aphek and Tobin‟s (1988) study on word systems. Their concept of word systems is based on Bűber‟s theory of Leitwőrter or “leading words” in the Bible: “recurrent words or word roots both intra- and inter-textual, which connects different texts or parts of the same text and lead the reader to a deeper understanding of the text” (Bűber, 1964: 284). Bűber refers to the connective use of the Hebrew verb anah and its various conjugated forms ('respond, call out; be humbled; be tortured; torture') in the story of the covenant between God and Abraham (Genesis 15:13) and the story of Sarah and Hagar (Genesis 16:7, 9, 11). He also points to the connective use of the Hebrew verb bireh and its various conjugated forms and nominal derivatives ('bless, blessing, greet, greeting, congratulate, praise, thank, gift, benefit') in the story of Jacob ( Genesis 27:4; 8-10,13, 19,24,27,29-30,32-33,37-38,41; Genesis 28:1,4,6; Genesis 32:29-30). Edna Aphek (1979) further developed the notion of Bűber‟s “leading words” and classified them according to their linguistic features: phonological, metathesized, homonymous, orthographic, semantic, conceptual, associative, etc). Aphek was the first to apply the notion of word systems to Modern Hebrew literature, give it linguistic formulation 35 Chapter 3: The Sign-Oriented Approach to Language: Theory and Methodology ______and categorize various kinds of word systems. Aphek and Tobin (1988) applied this notion of word systems to translation of prose, discovered word systems in recorded family therapy sessions, discussed the cognitive implications of word systems in bilingual or multilingual authors and presented the structural and semiological aspects of word systems as part of a stylistic and textual system of systems. Aphek and Tobin (1988) in their book Word Systems in Modern Hebrew: Implications and Applications, demonstrate how the idea of word systems combines both the integral connection between form and meaning in language in connection with the dichotomy between the old and new in the modern world and in Judaism as found in specific texts. They look at word systems found in the texts of the Nobel Prize winning author S.Y. Agnon as a reflection of fundamental Jewish national and religious concepts. Later the authors examine how through the intensive and concentrated use of word systems, the linguistic means of a particular text can be directly related to or even become its message. Using S.Y. Agnon‟s works as their examples, Aphek and Tobin illustrated how the Hebrew writer exploited the triconsonantal (CCC) root structure of the Hebrew language to convey religious, national, ethical, ethic and social issues central to Jews in the modern world. In order to illustrate how the word system analysis works for a specific author and text, I will give a resumé of Aphek‟s and Tobin‟s study of one short story by S.Y.Agnon. The X-Z-R word system revealed by Aphek and Tobin in Agnon‟s „The Lady and the Pedlar‟ (1970:169-189) exemplifies how this word system contributes to uncovering and focusing the main theme/message of the text. Using S.Y. Agnon‟s work as their example, Aphek and Tobin illustrated how the Hebrew writer exploited the triconsonanantal (CCC) root structure of the Hebrew language to convey religious, national, ethical, ethic and social issues central to Jews in the modern world. The story deals with a Jewish pedlar making his rounds (meXaZeR al ptahim) in villages. He meets a woman and they begin a complicated buying and selling ritual where he bows before her repeatedly (XoZeR ve-hishtaxava), takes out and returns (maXZiR) his goods while the lady goes back (XoZeRet) into her house and he returns (XoZeR) into the woods, until he eventually manages to sell her a knife. When their deal is completed, she suggests the pedlar to work for her as a repairman. The man begins to court (meXaZeR) the woman and they become lovers. They live together for a period of time and the pedlar begins to forget his Jewish origins and customs; he gives up his religion and doesn‟t follow the dietary laws. The pedlar notices that the woman has never eaten or drunk in his presence. We also learn that she 36 Chapter 3: The Sign-Oriented Approach to Language: Theory and Methodology ______has had several husbands whose fate remains unknown. As the story develops, it becomes apparent that the woman is a vampire. At some point in the story, there is an emotional argument between the two. The woman laughs in his face and mockingly compares him to a profane pig (XaZiR). The pedlar immediately realizes that he has stayed from his religion and he goes back (XoZeR) into the forest to return (laXZoR) to his religion and God and repent (XoZeR be-tshuva) by reciting the prayer Shma Yisrael. When he returns (XoZeR) to the woman‟s house, he understands that she has wounded herself with the knife she had earlier bought from the pedlar. He tries to save her, but eventually she dies. He puts her in a coffin on the roof. Birds of prey break it open and tear to pieces her corpse. The pedlar then resumes his rounds (XiZeR ve-XiZeR) crying out (maXRiZ) his goods again and again (XoZeR ve- maXRiZ). The semantic notions associated with this particular CCC root in Hebrew include: ‟to return, go back, revert, come again; repeat, do again; regret, repent; withdraw one‟s opposition, reconsider; to go around; to court, to woo; to recur, to retreat, to review, to put back‟. Transliterated forms of the Hebrew words which contain three root consonants X-Z-R and which appear 20 times within the story in Agnon‟s text are: meXaZeR, XaZaR ( 3 times), XaZRa ( 5 times), heXZiRam, yeXaZRu, XoZeR ( 3 times), heXeZiRa, ve-XiZeR ( 2 times) and metathesized forms such as: ve-heXRiZ, ve-hiXRiZ and the phonologically related word XaZiR. The phonological resemblance of these words containing the CCC root XZR and its derivative forms is obvious. Various conjugation forms with different semantic alternations and associative relationships create a fusion of sound and meaning which is the basis of the X-Z-R word system in this text. The character‟s identity ( pedlar-meXaZeR), the lady‟s and pedlar‟s curious reciprocal „courtship‟ ( XiZuR), their break-up revolving around the notion of the „profane pig‟ ( XaZiR), which makes him realize that he must „return‟ ( XoZeR) to “Judaism and „repent‟ ( XoZeR be-tshuva), the lady‟s death, and his „return to his rounds (XiZeR veXiZeR) and „calling out his wares‟ ( maXRiz) are all related to the same CCC root X-Z-R and its metathesized X-R-Z form. We can readily see an intensive merger between the message, theme and the plot of the text with the phonological, etymological, semantic and associative linguistic planes all of which are found within a single compact CCC root (Aphek and Tobin, 1988:10). Aphek and Tobin apply the concept of word systems to translation and show the possible realization of basic polaric universal concepts (life-death, creation-destruction, etc.) within different languages. In their study The Agnonian Text: A Study in Polaric Semiology 37 Chapter 3: The Sign-Oriented Approach to Language: Theory and Methodology ______

Aphek and Tobin ( 1989) showed how through the use of word systems Agnon reduces two polaric opposites into a single unity which is represented linguistically by a nucleus of words revolving around a single triconsonantal ( CCC) root or set of semantically and phonologically related triconsonantal roots. In addition, Aphek and Tobin discovered word systems in family therapy sessions. They apply the notion of word systems to a specific set of family therapy sessions which forms part of a larger series of family therapy sessions. The authors view such family therapy sessions as a complex linguistic system, i.e. a discourse or text that may be analyzed via word systems. The “text” of family therapy sessions was analyzed to discover whether there is “a matrix of tightly connected words which: a) could form a nucleus nurturing the theme or message of that text with a greater intensity than the sum total of the language employed throughout the text, and b) might also reveal the intra- and/or interpersonal processes related to the participants of the family therapy session” (Tobin, Aphek, 1988:122). By the intrapersonal level the authors mean the language of the individual members of the family, and by interpersonal level they mean the interaction between the various members of the family. By examining family therapy sessions and discovering “pivotal” “leading” words which are the basis of word systems, the text of family therapy can be seen as “multi-layered, multi-textured, multi-dimensional structure” or as a “prism, a crystal”, consisting of facets that when observed from different angles can produce new spectra of interpretations and experiences ( Tobin, Aphek, 1988:122-123). The notion of word systems was also applied to the teaching of Hebrew as a foreign language. Tobin and Aphek recommended teaching about Jewish culture and semiological aspects of word systems as a part of a larger intra- and interlinguial linguistic and textual system of systems. They have also demonstrated the concept of „intralingual and interlingual polysemy‟ by the word systems revolving around the Hebrew words makom and olam (1988:79). The authors showed that the meanings of some words in language have developed in the course of history and acquired metaphorical features both in the framework of a single language and across languages. These „polysemeous‟ words may share common meanings as well as intersect with various connotations or additional meanings in different languages. Aphek and Tobin discuss this particular historical development of the words makom and olam in Modern Hebrew, i.e., the „metaphoric‟ extensions of their specific contextual meanings into a wider range of semantic fields on a spatio-temporal-existential-spiritual cline ( Tobin 1990: 61). 38 Chapter 3: The Sign-Oriented Approach to Language: Theory and Methodology ______

Aphek and Tobin defined a word system as “a junction where the thematic extra- linguistic plane converges with the linguistic plane forming a matrix of words within a spoken or written text with a common denominator which may be semantic, phonological, etymological, folk-etymological, conceptual or associative” (Aphek and Tobin, 1988:3). According to their theory, word systems form a junction where the conceptual plane converges with the linguistic plane. A number of words are tightly connected to each other to the point where they form a “tight word system” that contains the essence of the text. Word systems show the nature of the text as a “system of systems” in which through the intensive and concentrated use of word systems, the inner dynamics of a text becomes its message. Different word systems in the text work simultaneously and perform the same communicative function in the text. Word systems, therefore: 1) reveal the theme or message with great intensity; 2) connect different text parts of the same text and reveal the target text as a multi-layered and multi-dimensional structure; 3) unify creative forces throughout the text; 4) lead the reader to a better understanding of the text by serving as an intense, compact, or economical pivotal axis.

The “text” presupposes the material for the linguistic analysis which cuts through a single literary work or a set of literary works and from the semiotic point of view is considered as a semiotic whole, i.e. a sign or a sign system in its own right (Tobin, 1990:19). Moreover, accepting Aphek‟s and Tobin‟s (1988:4) concept of text, the text is viewed as a “plurality of meanings” which forms part of multi-faceted and irreducible whole, i.e. a tight, complex “system of systems”. In Chapter Four and in Chapter Five, using the word system analysis, I examine how Dostoevsky exploits many of the possible resources of the Russian language (morphological, phonological, conceptual, semantic and associative). These word systems create and intensify the message of the text. I base my study on Aphek‟s and Tobin‟s definition of a word system as a matrix of words within a spoken or written text with a common denominator, which may be semantic, phonological, etymological, folk-etymological, conceptual or associative. 39 Chapter 3: The Sign-Oriented Approach to Language: Theory and Methodology ______

Furthermore, in my thesis I allude to Aphek‟s and Tobin‟s claim that word systems may very well be related to and share characteristics with the notions of dream and internal dialogues. Sigmund Freud showed a specific interest in words with polar meanings supposedly found in primitive languages. He used this linguistic phenomenon to connect philology and psychoanalysis and to support one of his most famous hypotheses that “[d]reams show a special tendency to reduce two opposites to a unity or to represent them as a single thing” (Freud 1958: 55). As in dreams, word systems represent the development and reversal of polaric elements (for example, love and hate, fantasy and reality) into a single compact sign or unit. The Russian psychologist Vygotsky (1962: 15, 148) said that a word in internal dialogue is so polysemous that it would require many words in external dialogue to express it. Many qualities of internal dialogue as outlined by Vygotsky, such as: the dominance of „sense‟ over „meaning‟, the many senses associated with a single word, the interconnection between the various elements of different words „flowing‟ together, are found by Aphek and Tobin in the notion of word systems. Particularly, this associative chain of connections, expressed in polaric forms, the dominance of sense over meaning and producing paradoxical message, may very well be part of a larger unconscious process which may be reflected in the word systems in a literary text. Thus, in Shai Agnon's short story Kishrei Ksharim (The Knots of Knots) there are three word systems: kesher (knot, tie, loop, nexus, connection, relation, contact, communication, conjuction; joint, join, plot, conspiracy; group, band; signals ); xever (company, association, staff, organization, league, ensemble; magic, spell, thrall, enchantment, witchery) and xevel (rope, cord; measuring line; portion, lot; region, district; snare, trap). These three word systems are polysemic in meaning and can be either directly or indirectly be connected to the fundamental polaric concepts of life and death through their familiar collocational associations in Hebrew. Aphek and Tobin (1988) explore how "…the paradoxical message of trying to 'tie together, join, and connect' and not succeeding in establishing any kind of connection, either physical or spiritual, is fused within the CCC roots of the pivotal axes of these three leading words" (Aphek, Tobin, 1988:102). My analysis of Dostoevsky‟s works shows that there may be more than one word system in a literary text and that each of the word systems “nurtures with the same degree of intensity the theme and the message of that text” (Tobin, 1985). There are five word systems (the word system related to the realm of love; the word system related to the realm of hate; 40 Chapter 3: The Sign-Oriented Approach to Language: Theory and Methodology ______the word system related to the realm of fantasy; the word system related to the realm of reality; and the word system related to the realm of madness) that are linked to each other and form a system of systems and contribute to the message found in the larger text composed of four selected works of Dostoevsky (see Figure 4.1). Using the methodological model of word systems I will examine how Dostoevsky exploits many of the possible resources of the Russian language- phonological, conceptual, semantic and associative- in order to show that love and hate are interconnected to such an extent that sometimes they can be merged, combined and even confused and that these polarically opposed feelings can both be real or imagined at the same time. In Chapter Six and in Chapter Seven I carry out a phonological analysis in which I focus on the analysis of the language of love versus hate and the language of reality versus fantasy in the selected works of Dostoevsky on the level of the sound system of language- phonemes. My phonological analysis is based on the theory of Phonology as Human Behavior (PHB) , which “may be viewed as part of the historical development of a larger twentieth century structural, functional, and cognitive linguistics” ( Tobin, 1997a:xviii). The crucial role of the phoneme for phonological analysis in general and in sign- oriented linguistics in particular has been demonstrated in the works of de Saussure (1974), Jakobson (1978), Diver (1979), Davis (1987), and Tobin (1997, 2002). The theory of Phonology as Human Behavior accepts the basic definition of the phoneme as the minimal abstract sound unit of language. The phoneme is composed of distinctive articulatory and acoustic features. The model for discovering phonemes is minimal pairs (pin vs bin, pin vs pan, pin vs pit) that determine communicative oppositions. The distribution of phonemes is relatively open and free. Phonemes provide the basic oppositions of morphemes and words; phonemes are actually the building blocks for communication. The theory of Phonology as a Human Behavior is based on the sign oriented or semiotic definition of the language where language is defined as a system of systems composed of various sub-systems which are used by human beings to communicate. This definition was originally established by Ferdinand de Saussure who presented the notion of system, the abstract level of langue against the concrete level of parole. The theory was influenced by the Prague school (Roman Jakobson (1956) and Nikolai Trubetzkoy (1931)). Jakobson and Trubetzkoy introduced the abstract notion of the distinctive phoneme to systematic phonological analysis, thus making the communication aspect of the sound system of the language very important. The Prague School viewed 41 Chapter 3: The Sign-Oriented Approach to Language: Theory and Methodology ______language as a system of oppositions based on the relationship of markedness. This suggests that the linguistic signs establish oppositions based on the compulsory presence or neutrality (possible presence or absence) of a certain semantic feature in their invariant meanings (signifies). The human aspect, on the other hand, was not considered as the central factor in the explanation of the non-random distribution of sounds in the language system. André Martinet (1955) of the Functionalist School added the human factor to phonology through the concepts of "asymmetry" and "economy of effort in phonological change". Martinet believed that the human factor is a very important element in the explanation of the non-random distribution of different sounds and classes of sounds in human language (the principle of minimum effort in human behavior). Le Roy (1967) summarizes the main principles of Martinet's theory: " We must make it clear that by 'economy' Martinet means the principle of 'least effort' (or of 'least expenditure') as well as that of internal organization thanks to which a balance is struck between the fundamental antinomic tendencies he observes between 'man's need to communicate and express himself' and 'his tendency to reduce to a minimum his mental and physical activity. (Roy, 1967: 71- 72). William Diver (1979) of the Columbia School has extended this limited view of the human factor and came up with a more complete theory of Phonology as Human Behavior that takes into account both the communicative and human factors. He agreed with Martinet's view of the human factor as a means of explaining the non-random distribution of phonemes in language and combined it with the needs of communication (presented by de Saussure and the Prague School). Diver claims that there is a constant conflict between our need for maximum communication and our desire for minimum effort (human factor). A direct consequence of this conflict is that there is a similar number of phonemes (20-40) in the languages around the world – the compromise between the communication factor and the human factor. Diver's theory postulates different kinds of distinctive features that are related to human physiology, perception, cognition and behavior. Based on these features, phonemes can be classified according to the degree of difficulty required to perceive and produce them. He extends the understanding of the need of the human factor- in the form of the ability to learn and produce two basic classes of consonants, and proposes two alternative distinctive features- stable versus mobile- that he claims can explain the favoring and disfavoring of the distribution of phonemes: 42 Chapter 3: The Sign-Oriented Approach to Language: Theory and Methodology ______

Stable indicates that the articulatory organ employed in the production of the sound is relatively stationary during excitation of the resonant cavity. Thus, the lip and apex, respectively, are stationary during the production of fff, sss, and lll. Mobile indicates the opposite: the articulator is necessary in motion during sound production. For the stops there is an explosion of the pent-up air, and the lip, apex, and dorsum, respectively, are violently displaced… Returning now to the skewings, in terms of stable versus mobile, we can make the single statement that combinations of sames are favored and combinations of differents are disfavored. (Diver, 1979:171-2)

One of the principles suggested by Diver to explain the non-random skewing of sound units is sames are favored and combinations of differents are disfavored. According to Diver, the combination of mobile+mobile or stable+stable are favored and the combination of stable+mobile is disfavored. The human factor plays a crucial role in this principle- a combination of gestures that are easier to control are preferred over a combination that is more difficult to control. An additional principle suggested by Diver is additional articulators are disfavored. In other words, one articulator (voiceless sounds) is favored; two articulators (voiced sounds) are disfavored. The distribution of sound within the word itself is influenced by this principle, too. Thus, the load of communication is less in word final position. Therefore, we may expect voiceless sounds to be favored in word final position. Sounds that require more effort and a greater degree of control (voiced sounds) will be disfavored. Another of Diver's important principles concerns visible and apical phonemes. He demonstrates that visible phonemes, produced by the lips, are preferred in a word- initial position and apical phonemes, produced by the tip of the tongue, are preferred in a final position. Since the communication load is the highest in word initial position, the phonemes that can be not only heard but can be also seen are preferred at the beginning of the word. In word-final position, where there is the lowest burden of communication, the encoder does not have to invest too much effort. Consequently, it is not surprising that the visible phonemes will not necessarily be disfavored at the end of the word but that there should be a strong preference for apical phonemes which are the easiest to produce. The same principles (similar gestures are preferred; the high communicative role of word-initial position and the lower communicative status of word-final position with the preference for visible phonemes in the first case and the preference for apical in the latter) have been found in other languages, such as Italian (Davis, 1984, 1987), Hebrew (Tobin, 43 Chapter 3: The Sign-Oriented Approach to Language: Theory and Methodology ______

1990b) as well as in more than 40 different languages belonging to diverse language families (Tobin, 2002). Diver (1979) related to the degree of difficulty in the production of phonemes by introducing the notion of quantitative analysis of favored versus disfavored distribution of phonemes. Favored/disfavored distribution of phonemes can be compared with favorings/disfavorings in a person's extra-linguistic behavior, such as performing common daily tasks or sports, which, like language, are learned. He presents a parallel kind of control to his phonological hypothesis: "…in sports such as golf and tennis, such movements (e.g., a hitch in the swing in the baseball) result in a lack of control over the ball and are discouraged" (Tobin, 1997:37). Thus, phonology can be viewed as an example of human behavior.

The theory of PHB was further expanded by Davis (1987) to explain the combinatory phonology of consonant and vowel phonemes in Italian. The following principles concerning phonemes of constrictions were postulated and validated: - additional articulators are disfavored, - co-articulation by near articulators is disfavored, - visible articulations are favored, - explosive phonemes are favored in initial position, - transitions from one distinct constriction to another within a single phoneme are disfavored, - mobile+stable and stable+mobile clusters are more disfavored than clusters of the same mobility and stability. Davis obtained two additional principles regarding phonemes of aperture and the interaction and transitions between phonemes of aperture and phonemes of constriction: -maximal constriction is favored among constrictions and maximal aperture is favored among apertures, - sequences of phonemes with the same articulator are disfavored unless their juxtaposition is, by virtue of some other factor, mutually beneficial. Following Diver (1979) and Davis (1987), some traditional phonetic and phonological characteristics of features have been replaced with distinctive features that are more connected with human behavior, physiology and perception: 44 Chapter 3: The Sign-Oriented Approach to Language: Theory and Methodology ______

- instead of traditional concept of “ place of articulation “ which indicated the passive receptors, such as dental alveolar, the notion of the active articulators which are used to produce sounds is introduced ( e.g. the apex, the dorsum); - the traditional concept of “ manner of articulation” ( stops, fricative) is replaced with the kinds of gestures ( e.g. mobile/stable) that produce sounds, a hierarchy of stricture from 0 to 5 and description of the airflow ( e.g. turbulent, non-turbulent); - instead of the traditional concept of “voiced/voiceless/ nasal/palatalized” the number of sets of articulators that are required to produce sounds are taken into consideration ( e.g. voiceless- one set of articulators, voiced- two sets of articulators, nasals- three sets of articulators, palatalized- an addition of an articulator to the original number of articulators); - the traditional and separate categories of consonants and vowels are replaced with characteristics of sounds based on the degree of stricture and airflow as well as on the types of airflow ( e.g. phonemes of constriction, phonemes of aperture). A single hierarchy of phonemes which includes both consonants and vowels is presented in tables 6.1 and 6.2.

The further development of the theory of Phonology as Human Behavior is presented by Tobin (1990b, 1995, 1997a, 1997b, 2009) in his analysis of the non-random distribution of the phonemes of constriction which form the Hebrew triconsonantal root system, the lexical base of the Hebrew language. In addition, Tobin analyzes the non-random distribution of initial consonant clusters in mono-syllables in Hebrew and Yiddish. In his work Phonology as Human Behavior: Initial Clusters across Languages (2002) Tobin presents the findings concerning the non-random phonotactic distribution of initial consonant clusters for over 40 languages in eight different language families. In Tobin (2006) he applies the theory of PHB to inflectional and derivational morphology. In Tobin (1997) and (2009) he also applies the theory of PHB to first language acquisition and speech and hearing disorders in the fields of developmental and clinical linguistics for several languages. Tobin‟s approach to phonology is based on the definition of language as a system of systems used by human beings to communicate: i.e. a symbolic tool whose structure is 45 Chapter 3: The Sign-Oriented Approach to Language: Theory and Methodology ______molded by its communicative function and the characteristics of its users (Tobin, 2009). In all of his analysis Tobin finds a direct connection between the effort invested by speakers in learning to control the active articulators (that take part in the production of phonemes of constriction) and the specific favoring and disfavoring of these phonemes. Tobin (1997a: 119) discovers certain general tendencies for the Hebrew triconsonantal (CCC) root system: 1. the disfavoring of additional articulators in the phonemic system of Hebrew in general, in C-I and C-III root positions in particular, and in the phonemic oppositions of individual active articulators; 2. the favoring of phonemes with complete stricture in C-I and C-III root positions as well the relation between stricture and the number of active articulators; 3. the avoidance of the use of the same articulators and the repetition of the same phoneme in all triconsonantal ( CCC) root positions; and 4. the general favoring of phonemes of constriction made by the apex in all the above environments with an additional favoring of visible phonemes in C-I and C-I=C-II positions.

In addition to general tendencies for the triconsonantal (CCC) root system in Hebrew presented above, Tobin (1997a: 119-20) also mentions additional principles that can explain the non-random distribution of phonemes of constriction in initial consonant clusters across languages: - stable versus mobile ( likes are favored, differents are disfavored); - additional articulators are disfavored; - the same articulators in adjacent phonetic environments are disfavored; - the same phoneme in adjacent phonetic environments is disfavored; - explosive phonemes are favored in initial position; - visible phonemes are favored in initial position; - apical phonemes are favored in final position; and - additional articulators are disfavored in final position.

The conclusion that can be drawn from these principles is that language in general- and phonology in particular- can be seen as a “mini-max” struggle between the desire to create maximum communication with minimal effort. Tobin (1997a) in the book Phonology as Human Behavior further applies the theory of Phonology as Human Behavior to the problem of the historical occlusive-spirant alternation (BeGeDKeFeT) and gives recommendations for teaching phonetics as human behavior. 46 Chapter 3: The Sign-Oriented Approach to Language: Theory and Methodology ______

In addition, Tobin tests the theory on a poetic text (the poem “Jabberwocky” by Lewis Carroll) which consists of both - the general corpus and neologisms (twenty nine words created by the poet). The principles of the theory of PHB explained the nonrandom distribution of phonemes in the general corpus of the poem and in neologisms. In the final part of the book, Tobin applies the theory of Phonology as Human Behavior to first language acquisition and uses the theory to explain various functional and organic speech disorders in the speech and hearing clinic, including the language of aphasia. The main principles of the theory of Phonology as Human Behavior which form the theoretical basis of Chapter Six and Chapter Seven in my analysis can be summarized as follows: - By means of the communication orientation we can establish the number of distinctive units of a language. - We do not know in advance in exactly what way the human factor will interact with the communication and other factors. - Phonotactic distribution in language is viewed consistently with the human factor against the background of the communication, acoustics and physiology. - Phonology is not random but motivated; the frequencies of the phonological units and the ways they combine are determined both by their phonetic makeup and by the speaker's exploitation of that phonetic makeup in the act of communication. - Gestures helping communicative distinctiveness are favored and gestures which are more articulatorily difficult are disfavored. - There is a conflict between the communicative and the human factors in the search for maximum communication with minimum effort. - This conflict is even more strongly felt in language acquisition, where functional errors and processes may be observed, and even more so in the clinic, where functional and organic errors and processes show an even more extreme conflict between the communication and the human factors. - The theory of Phonology as Human Behavior can explain the connection and interconnection between the phylogeny, ontogeny, and pathology of 47 Chapter 3: The Sign-Oriented Approach to Language: Theory and Methodology ______

the development of sound systems in human language in a principled way.

The theory of Phonology as Human Behavior has been previously applied in textual analysis. Inessa Roe-Portianski (2005) in her PhD dissertation The Language of the Natural and the Supernatural in the Novel Master and Margarita by Mikhail Bulgakov: A Semiotic Approach, focused on a phonological analysis of the lexicon of Bulgakov‟s novel based on the theory Phonology as Human Behavior. She examined the lexicon from the point of view of the two key opposed forces found in the message of the text: the Natural versus the Supernatural. Her assumption was that the lexicon of the Natural is unmarked both in meaning and in form and that the lexical items will be not only unmarked semantically but also phonologically. She assumed that the lexicon that deals with the Supernatural will be more marked both in meaning and phonological form as well. She also discovered a third category of words- words that denote the realms of both the Natural and the Supernatural simultaneously. Her phonological analysis included three semantic groups of words from the text of Master and Margarita: the Lexicon of the Natural (100 words that denote only the realm of the natural), the Lexicon of the Supernatural (100 words that denote only the realm of the supernatural), and the Lexicon of both the Natural and the Supernatural (100 words that denote the realms of both the natural and the supernatural). She examined these three classes of words to see whether each class has specific distinctive phonological characteristics of its own, and if so, whether there is an iconic connection between the form and the meaning. The analysis demonstrated that the words from the two groups (the Lexicon of Supernatural and the Lexicon of both the Natural and the Supernatural which are marked for more specific meaning) are more marked in their phonological form in comparison with the unmarked forms of the Lexicon of the Natural. In my thesis (Chapters Six and Seven) I will apply the theory of Phonology as Human Behavior (PHB) to two groups of polarically opposite semantic fields of Love and Hate and Reality and Fantasy in the lexicon of the Dostoevskian novels. The phonological analysis is semantically motivated by the message of the text. In Chapter Six I assume that there is an iconic connection between form and meaning. First, I assume that the lexical items from the Lexicon of Hate are more semantically marked, and as a result, marked phonologically. The phonological analysis 48 Chapter 3: The Sign-Oriented Approach to Language: Theory and Methodology ______performed in this chapter supported my assumption only partially. My second hypothesis is that phonologically speaking there is a similarity between the Lexicon of Love and the Lexicon of Hate which reflects the message of the text that love and hate are interconnected to such an extent that sometimes they can be merged, combined and even confused. As a result, I expect that similar skewings of the phonemes will be present in both lexical categories. The analysis demonstrates that there is an iconic connection between the message of the text and the same phonological principles that two lexical categories of Love and Hate share. In Chapter Seven I assume that the Lexicon of Reality and the Lexicon of Fantasy share the same phonological characteristics, thus reflecting the interconnection between two polarically opposite feelings of love and hate that can be both real or imagined at the same time. My hypothesis was proved to be true regarding most of the principles of the theory of Phonology as Human Behavior. I base my research on the semiotic or sign-oriented concepts and principles of the semantically motivated systems- markedness and iconicity, based on marked or unmarked semantic features originally found in the work of Roman Jakobson (1978) and further developed and applied in Tobin (1990, 1995).

Markedness

According to the sign-oriented approach, language is a system of oppositions based on the relationship of markedness. The linguistic sign which is marked for a certain feature makes a specific claim for the presence of that feature; the linguistic sign which is unmarked is neutral with regard to that feature; it does not make any specific claim for that feature. It is either present or absent (neutral). The more highly marked the sign, the more specific its meaning, and the greater its size. There is an iconic connection between the form of the sign and its meaning. Unmarked signs contain the simplest of the most basic aspects of distinctive features, while marked sounds contain features which are more complex and more difficult to produce (for example, voiceless sounds are unmarked, they require one set of oral articulator, while voiced and nasal sounds are marked because they require two or more sets of articulators ( voiced=oral+vocal folds, nasal=oral+vocal folds and/or uvula). The phenomenon of markedness was investigated in detail by Edwin L. Battistella (1996). In his book The Logic of Markedness he writes:"…the term markedness refers to the 49 Chapter 3: The Sign-Oriented Approach to Language: Theory and Methodology ______relationship between the two poles of an opposition; the terms marked and unmarked refer to the evaluation of the poles; the simpler, more general pole is the unmarked term of the opposition while the more complex and focused pole is the marked term (Battistella 1996:15). Later in his book he continues that "[i]t was in the context of the search for correlations among phonemes that the terms marked-unmarked were first proposed. Trubetzkoy‟s Letter and Notes, published in 1975 under Jakobson‟s Editorship, are often cited as containing the first use of the terms marked-unmarked… Trubetzkoy went on to characterize the marked members of the correlation as “ positive” and “active” and the unmarked members of the correlation as “negative” and “ passive”(Ibid: 19,139). The important trait of the Jakobsonian view of markedness is that the marked member of an opposition is regarded as making a special claim for the semantic feature in focus, while the unmarked member does not necessarily signalize the absence of this semantic feature, but rather is neutral for it, i.e. may either possess it or not. The frequency of the distribution of the unmarked sounds is greater than of the marked sounds. However, this frequency is context-dependent as well. Tobin (1995: 368) relates to the distribution of the marked/unmarked members in the following way:

There are many misconceptions concerning the concept of markedness. The first is that unmarked forms must be more frequently used than marked forms. The implication that frequency determines markedness values is not an absolute rule. In semantic markedness in particular messages being conveyed in particular contexts… the use of different kinds of texts with different kinds of messages can predict whether a marked or unmarked form will be more prevalent one in a text or set of texts.

In my thesis I use the concept of markedness in the phonological analysis of the lexicons of love and hate and reality and fantasy in the Dostoevsky‟s novels. I assume that there is an iconic connection between form and meaning: i.e. on the one hand, semantically unmarked (U) signs will be unmarked (U) phonologically, but, on the other hand, when the signs are marked (M) semantically they should also be more marked phonologically. First, I assume that the lexical items from the Lexicon of Love are semantically unmarked, and as a result, unmarked phonologically. The words in the marked category of the Lexicon of Hate have more specific meaning, attract more attention and are more marked phonologically, require more effort for their production. The phonological analysis performed in Chapter Five supported my assumption only partially. As a result, I assumed that the 50 Chapter 3: The Sign-Oriented Approach to Language: Theory and Methodology ______

Lexicon of Hate is just as broad and/or even broader and just as complex or even a more complex category than the Lexicon of Love. Therefore, my second hypothesis was that phonologically speaking there is a similarity between the Lexicon of Love and the Lexicon of Hate which reflects the interconnection between love and hate to such an extent that sometimes they can be merged, combined and even confused and that these polarically opposed feelings present in every relationship can both be real or imagined at the same time. Second, I assume that the Lexicon of Reality and the Lexicon of Fantasy will share the same phonological characteristics and will be both marked phonologically, thus supporting the message of confusion and even merging between the feelings of love and hate ( Chapter Six) and between fantasy and reality ( Chapter Seven).

Iconicity and Arbitrariness

The notion of the linguistic sign is related to the concept of iconicity. This concept implies a mimetic connection between a signal and its referent, between any given feature of a language and its meaning. According to Tobin there is “the inseparable connection between the signal and the invariant meaning, the signifier and the signified, of the linguistic sign” (Tobin, 1990: 249). In other words, the form and the meaning are related. Thus, for example, signs indicating the plural (more than one) will be more complex in meaning and their form will usually be larger than those indicating the singular (one): girl- girls, child- children. The principle of iconicity reflects the systematic correspondence of form and meaning, which is one of the general properties of human languages (Tobin 1990a). Iconicity can be defined in the following way:

The signs which are marked for the more complex or specific meaning are usually larger and more complex in their signal or form while the signs which are unmarked and are simpler and less specific in their meaning are usually simpler in their signal or form as well.

(Tobin 1995: 74)

Arbitrariness means that there is no necessary connection between a form and its meaning. It refers to the signal and the form within the sign itself but the connections between signs in systems tend to be more iconic. 51 Chapter 3: The Sign-Oriented Approach to Language: Theory and Methodology ______

In my thesis the principle of iconicity (the connection between form and meaning) will be applied in the phonological analysis of the language of love and hate and of the language of fantasy and reality in the novels by Dostoevsky. In Chapter Six, I originally hypothesize that there is an iconic connection between form and meaning. First, I assume that the lexical items from the Lexicon of Love are semantically unmarked, and as a result, unmarked phonologically. The words in the marked category of the Lexicon of Hate have more specific meaning, attract more attention and are more marked phonologically, require more effort for their production. The phonological analysis performed in this chapter supports my assumption only partially. The analysis of the data demonstrates that there is an iconic connection between the message of the text and the same phonological principles that two lexical categories of Love and Hate share. In Chapter Seven I hypothesize that there is an iconic connection between form and meaning. Therefore, I expect that the Lexicon of Reality and the Lexicon of Fantasy follow the same phonological principles and show the similar skewing of the phonemes. While my hypothesis was not shown to be totally valid, the data gave full support to the message of the text.

In the following chapters I apply the above theoretical and methodological principles of the sign-oriented approach to the analysis of the relationship between men and women in the language of the Dostoevsky‟s novels. 52 Chapter 4: The Model of Word Systems-Love and Hate Word Systems ______

Chapter Four The Model of Word Systems and its Application to the Analysis of the Relationship between Men and Women in Dostoevsky’s Novels-Love and Hate Word Systems

4.1. The "Love" word system 4.1.1. Morpho-phono-semantic sub-system 4.1.2. Semantic-associative sub-system 4.1.3. Semantic conceptual sub-system 4.2. The "Hate" word system 4.2.1. Morpho-phono-semantic sub-system 4.2.2. Semantic-associative suffering-related sub-system 4.2.3. Semantic-conceptual slavery sub-system 4.2.4. Semantic-conceptual death sub-system 4.3. The "Love" and "Hate" word systems

In this thesis I present the notion of word systems in the literary text which consists of four selected works of Dostoevsky: A Meek One (1876), The Gambler (1866), The Idiot (1868) and The Brothers Karamazov (1880) according to the specific messages they convey with regard to what they have to say about love and hate in the relationship between the two sexes. This approach allows me to distance myself form the plot of the novels and concentrate on the specifics of the semantic-pragmatic network in the form of word systems. The semiotic model of language and text (Figure 3.1 and Figure 3.2) is applied to the analysis of various word systems within the text. In my analysis I follow Aphek‟s and Tobin‟s (1988) definition of a word system as a “matrix of words within a spoken or written text with a common denominator, which may be semantic, phonological, etymological, folk-etymological, conceptual or associative”. Analyzing the word systems of the literary text, I show that there is more than one word system in the literary text under the analysis and that each of these word systems “nurtures the theme and message of a text with a great intensity” (Aphek, Tobin, 1988:4). I demonstrate that there are words and expressions which are linked to each other and form a system of systems. This system creates the message of the text. 53 Chapter 4: The Model of Word Systems-Love and Hate Word Systems ______

The same word systems were found in each of the components of the literary text under the analysis. I have found five word systems in the literary text ( Figure 4.1) through which the message – love and hate are interconnected to such an extent that sometimes they can be merged, combined and even confused and these polarically opposed feelings that are present in every relationship can both be real or imagined at the same time- is created. The following word systems were revealed: the word system related to the realm of love; the word system related to the realm of hate; the word system related to the realm of fantasy; the word system related to the realm of reality and the word system related to madness. In this chapter I illustrate how the plane of the plot and the ideas of the text (the message) converge with the linguistic plane through the use of love and hate word systems: morpho-phonological, associative, semantic and conceptual. While the morphological component can be ignored and /or reduced to phonology and synthetic semantics in English, this is hardly possible in Russian, since Russian is a highly inflected synthetic language.

In the transliterated Russian quotations presented as examples in the following chapters I use the following symbols instead of some of the IPA symbols:

IPA symbols ž j ts t š ju ja

Symbols used in the study zh y ts ch sh iu ia

In all the examples presented in this study the italicized, underlined and words in bold are mine.

54 Chapter 4: The Model of Word Systems-Love and Hate Word Systems ______

Figure 4.1 Word systems in the selected works of Dostoevsky

Word systems

Love word Hate word system system Fantasy word Reality system word system Reality word system Madness word system

In Tables 4.1.-4.4. I present the examples of love and hate word systems as they appear in the four texts under the analysis. I randomly chose 100 examples from the four works of Dostoevsky containing either love or hate word system, or, as in the majority of the examples, both word systems together.

Table 4.1. Examples of the “love” and “hate” word systems in A Meek One Transliterated Russian Text English Translation The author‟s note about the husband:

1. On i opravdyvaet sebja, i obvinjaet ee, i He both justifies himself and accuses her, puskaaetsja v postoronnie raz‟jasnenija: tut i then goes into irrelevant explanations: grubost’ mysli i serdza, tut i glubokoe coarseness of heart and mind is mingled chuvstvo. (378) with depth of feeling. (271) 2. Tak kak ona prihodila uzhe posle Since this was the day following her revolt, I vcherashnego bunta, to ja vstretil ee met her sternly.With me sternness means strogo. Strogost' u menja- eto suhost'… dryness….I was annoyed. She blushed 55 Chapter 4: The Model of Word Systems-Love and Hate Word Systems ______

Zol byl. Ona opjat' vspihnula, vyslushav eto again at this for you, but said nothing; she did dlja vas, no smolchala, ne brosila deneg… A not throw the money back at me… Oh, how kak vspihnula! Ja ponjal, chto ukolol. A she had blushed! I had hurt her pride, I knew. kogda ona uzhe vyshla, vdrug sprosil sebja: When she left I suddenly asked myself: was tak neuzheli zhe eto torzhestvo nad nej stoit my triumph over her really worth two dvuh rublej? ( 381) rubles? ( 274) 3. Tut-to ja dogadalsja, chto ona dobra i It was then I perceived that she was gentle krotka. Dobrye i krotkie nedolgo and meek. The gentle and the meek have soprotivljajutsja … (382) poor resistance… ( 275) 4.-Vy mstite obzhestvu? Da?-perebila ona "Revenging yourself on society, are you?" menja vdrug s dovol'no edkoj she suddenly interrupted me with this rather nasmeshkoj, v kotoroj bylo, vprochem, caustic remark which, however, had much mnogo nevinnogo…(383) that was guilteless in it. ( 276) 5.I glavnoe, ja togda smotrel uzh na nee kak The main thing was that I was already na moju i ne somnevalsja v moem regarding her as mine and had no doubts of moguzhestve. (385) my power. ( 278) When the husband tries to propose the girl in the presence of Lukeria:

6.Ja i posle vspomnil pro to s I know it‟s stupid, but even afterwards I naslazhdeniem, hot‟ eto i glupo: Ja delighted in recalling it; I told her straight prjamo ob‟javil togda, bez vsjakogo out, without any embarrassment, that for one smuzhenija, chto, vo pervyh, ne osobenno thing I was not particularly gifted or clever, talantliv, ne osobenno umen, mozhet byt‟ not even particularly kind perhaps, and dazhe ne osobenno dobr, dovol‟no deshevyj something of a cheap egoist…and it was quite egoist … i chto ochen, ochen‟ mozhet byt‟ possible that there was much that was zakljuchaju v sebe mnogo neprijatnogo i v unpleasant in me in other respects as well… It drugih otnoshenijah. … Ja videl, chto ona goes without saying that I had sufficient good poka ezhe uzhasno boitjsa, no ja ne taste to forebear listing my good points after smjagchil nichego, malo togo, vidja, chto making a clean breast of my shortcomings… I boitjsa, narochno usilil… Etot strogij ton could see that she was terribly afraid still, reshitel‟no uvlekal menja. ( 387) but I did not tone down anything; on the contrary seeing that she was afraid I purposely made it harder… I was quite carried away by this sternness of mine. (279-280) 7.Nravilis' mne tozhe raznye misli, naprimer, I also indulged in various pleasing thoughts chto mne sorok odin, a ej tol'ko chto such as the notion that she was only sixteen shestnadcat'. Eto menja plenjalo, eto while I was forty-one. This disparity ozhuzhenie neravenstva, ochen' fascinated me; it was gratifying, most sladostno eto, ochen' sladostno. ( 389) gratifying. ( 282) 8.Glavnoe, ona s samogo nachala, kak ni The main thing was that from the very first, krepilas‟, a brosilas‟ ko mnne s ljubov’ju, though she tried to curb the impulse, she vstrechala, kogda ja priezzhal po vecheram, s offered her love to me impetuously, vostorgom, rasskazyvala svoim lepetom ( welcoming me eagerly when I came to call ocharovatel’nym lepetom in the evening, prattling happily 56 Chapter 4: The Model of Word Systems-Love and Hate Word Systems ______nevinnosti!) vse svojo detstvo, (charming, innocent prattle!) about her mladenchestvo, pro roditel‟skij dom, pro otza childhood and babyhood, her parents‟ home, i mat‟. No ja vse eto upoenije tut zhe obdal her father and mother. But I instantly srazu holodnoj vodoj. Vot v tom-to i byla dashed cold water on all that rapture of moja ideja, na vostorgi ja otvechal hers. It was dictated by the idea I had, you molchaniem, blagosklonnym, konechno…Vo see. I responded to her transports with silence, pervyh, strogost’- tak pod strogostju i v gracious silence of course… First and dome ejo vvel. ( 389-390) foremost- sternness. I kept it up until after the wedding. ( 282-283) 9.Prinimaja ee v dom svoj, ja hotel polnogo Since I was bringing her into my home I uvazhenija. Ja hotel, chtob ona stojala wanted her absolute respect. I wanted her to predo mnoj v mol’be za moi stand in awe of me for my sufferings-it stradanija-I ja stoil togo. ( 391) was my due. (283) 10.Snachala sporila, uh kak, a potom She argued with me at first, oh, so hotly, and nachala primolkat', sovsem dazhe, tol'ko then she began to say less, grew completely glaza uzhasno otkryvala, slushaja, bol'shie, silent and only opened her eyes terribly wide bol'shie takie glaza, vnimatel'nye. I…i krome listening to me, such big observant eyes. togo, ja vdrug uvidal ulybku, And…and what was more, I suddenly caught nedoverchivuju, molchalivuju, a smile upon her face, a mistrustful, silent, nehoroshuju. Vot s etoj'to ulybkoj ja i bad smile. She wore that smile when I vvel ee v moj dom. ( 391) brought her into my home. ( 284) 11.Ja skazal, chto vvel ee v dom pod I had already told you that I affected strogost’ju, odnako s pervogo zhe shaga sternness when I brought her into my home, smjagchil. ( 392) but I toned it down immediately. ( 284) 12.S ee storony raz ili dva byli poryvi, As for her, she had one or two outbirsts brosalas‟ obnimat’ menja; no tak kak when she threw herself into my poryvi byli boleznennye, istericheskie, a arms; but since the outbursts were mne nado bylo tverdogo schastja, s morbid and hysterical, while I wanted solid uvazheniem ot nee, to ja prinjal happiness, respectful on her part, I holodno. Da i prav byl: kazhdyj raz posle responded coldly. And I was quite right, for poryvov na drugoj den‟ byla ssora. (392) these outbursts were inevitably followed by a quarrel the next day. ( 285) 13.A zhenzhina ljubjazhaja, o, zhenzhina And a loving woman, oh, a loving woman ljubjazhaja- dazhe poroki, dazhe will idiolise the vices, even the crimes, of zlodejstva ljubimogo suzhestva the man she loves. ( 286) obogotvorit. ( 393) 14.Slushaite: v ljubvi ee ja byl togda Listen: I was certain of her love then. She uveren. Ved‟ brosalas’ zhe ona ko mne did come flying to me and threw herself itogda na sheju. Jubila, znachit, vernee- on my neck, didn‟t she? Therefore she zhelala ljubit’. Da, vot tak to i bylo: loved me, or rather-she wanted to love. zhelala ljubit’, iskala ljubit’. A glavnoe Yes, that was it: she wanted to love, longed ved‟ v tom, chto tut i zlodejstv nikakih takih for someone to love. What is more, there ne bylo, kotorym by ej prishlos‟ podyskivat‟ was no such crime in evidence here for opravdanija. ( 393) which she would have had to find excuses. 57 Chapter 4: The Model of Word Systems-Love and Hate Word Systems ______

(286) 15.Eta prelest, eta krotkaja, eto nebo- ona This darling, this meek one, this bila tiran, nesterpimij tiran dushi mojej i heavenly one- she was a tyrant, who muchitel. ( 394) cruelly tormented my soul. ( 287) 16.Prosto metalos‟ suzhestvo, chtoby She was simply casting about for a way to oskorbit’ menja chem by to ni bylo, no, insult me with whatever means she had, but reshivshis‟ na takuju grjaz’, ne vyneslo the sordidness of what she had set out to do besporjadka.I ee li, bezgreshnuju i had repelled her. And could one as chistuju, imejuzhuju ideal, mog prel‟stit‟ immaculate and innocent, one who Efimovich ili kto hotite iz etih velikosvetskih cherished an ideal, be attracted to tvarei. ( 399) Yefimovich or any other society rotter? ( 201) When husband is present when his wife has a meeting with Efimovich:

17.O, konechno, ja slishkom ubedilsja v tom, Oh, yes, of course, that scene more than skol‟ ona menja nenavidela, no ubedilsja I convinced me of her hatred for me, but it v tom, skols ona neporochna. ( 399) equally convinced me of her purity. (292) 18.No nenavist' moja nikogda ne mogla But never was hatred able to ripen and take sozret' i ukrepit'sja v dushe moej… Naprotiv, root in my heart….She seemed to me so v moih glazah ona byla tak pobezhdena, vanquished, so humbled and crushed byla tak unizhena, tak razdavlena, chto that I pitied her poignantly at times, albeit ja muchitel'no zhalel ee inogda, hotja mne positively liked the thought of her pri vsem etom reshitel'no nravilas' inogda humiliation. I like the idea of this ideja ob ee unizhenii. Ideja etogo inequality of ours. ( 300) neravenstva nashego nravilas'… ( 407) 19.Uzhasno ljubopytno: uvazhala li ona I am most curious to know whether or not she menja? Ja ne znaju, prezirala li ona menja, respected me. I don‟t know whether or not ili net? Ne dumaju, chtob prezirala. Stranno she despised me. I do not think she uzhasno: pochemu mne ni razu ne prishlo v despised me. Strange, isn‟t it, that it never golovu, vo vsju zimu, chto ona menja once occurred to me in all those winter preziraet? ( 417) months that she despised me! ( 310)

Table 4.2. Examples of the “love” and “hate” word systems in The Gambler Transliterated Russian Text English Translation Alexei about Polina:

20.Izredka ja vzgljadyval na Polinu Occasionally I glanced at Polina Aleksandrovnu; ona sovershenno ne Aleksandrovna; she took absolutely no primechala menja. Konchilos' tem, chto ja notice of me. I ended by getting annoyed razozlilsja i reshilsja grubit'. (286) and making up my mind to behave badly. ( 21) 21.Polina prosto rasserdilas', kogda ja Polina was really angry when I gave her peredal ej vsego tol'ko sem'sot gul'denov. only 700 gulden. ( 24) 58 Chapter 4: The Model of Word Systems-Love and Hate Word Systems ______

(289) In the conversation between Polina and Alexei:

22.-A vi sami k chemu ob etom 'And why are you interested in all this?' asked interesuetes'?-sprosila Polina, pogljadev na Polina, looking at me with cold severity. menja surovo i suho. (289) (25) 23.Poline uzhasno ne nravilis' moi voprosy, Polina very much disliked my questions, and i ja videl, chto ej hotelos' razozlit' menja I could see she wanted to annoy me by the tonom i dikostiju svoego otveta… ( 290) tone and wildness of her answer. ( 25-26) Polina to Alexei:

24.-Chto'zh, menja deistvitel'no 'Well, they way you fly into a temper razvlekaet, kak vi besites'. Uzhe za really amuses me. You ought to be made to odno to, chto ja pozvoljaju vam zadat' takie pay for the mere fact that I allow you to ask voprosy i dogadki, sleduet vam rasplatitsja. such questions and make such suppositions'. (291) (26)

Polina to Alexei:

25.Vy mne nenavistny,- imenno tem, chto 'I hate you-precisely because I have allowed ja tak mnogo vam pozvolila, i ezhe you so much, and even more because I need nenavistnee tem, chto tak mne nuzhny. you so much. But for the time being I need No pokamest vy mne nuzhny- mne nado you- I must cherish you'…She had been vas berech’… Ona govorila s speaking with irritation. Recently she has razdrazheniem. V poslednee vremja ona always finished a conversation with me full of vsegda kochala so mnoj razgovor so zloboju ill-nature and irritation, and the ill-nature i razdrazheniem, s nastojazheju zloboju. is real. ( 26) (291) Alexei about his love to Polina:

26.…v doroge, i toskoval kak sumashedshij, …during my journey I had been as metalsja kak ugorelyj, i dazhe vo sne melancholy as a madman, rushing about like pominutno videl ee pred soboj…I ezhe raz one possessed and seeing her constantly teper‟ ja zadal sebe vopros: ljublju li ja ee? before me, even in my sleep…. And now I ezhe raz ne sumel na nego otvetit‟, to est‟, once more I asked myself the question,” Am I luchshe skazat‟, ja opjat‟, v sotyj raz, otvetil in love with her?‟ And once more I did not sebe, chto ja ee nenavizhu. Da, ona byla know how to answer it, or rather I answered mne nenevistna. ( 292) once more, for the hundredth time, that I hated her. Yes I hated her. ( 27) Alexei about Polina‟s love to him:

27.Ona ne skryvaet tozhe ot menja, chto ja ej She has not the least with to conceal her dlja chego-to nuzhen i chto ona dlja chego- dislike of me; I can see that. In spite of that, to menja berezhet. Mezhdu nami she does not conceal either that for some ustanovilis‟ kakie-to strannye otnoshenija, vo reason. I am necessary to her or that she is 59 Chapter 4: The Model of Word Systems-Love and Hate Word Systems ______mnogom dlja menja neponjatnye,- vzjav v sparing me for some reason. The soobrazhenie ee gordost’ i nadmennost relationship that has been established between vo vsem. Ona znaet, naprimer, chto ja us is strange and to me largely ljublju ee do bezumija, dopuskaet menja incomprehensible, considering her pride and dazhe govorit‟ o moej strasti- i uzh, arrogance towards everybody. She knows, konechno, nichem ona ne vyrazila by mne for example, that I am insanely in love with bolee svoego prezrenija, kak etim her, and even allows me to talk about my pozvoleniem govorit‟ ej besprepjatstvenno i passion- and, of course, nothing could more beszenzurno o moej ljubvi. ( 298-299) completely express her contempt than this permission to speak freely and without censorship of my love. ( 33) 28.Razumeetsja, to unizhenie i rabstvo, v Of course, the humiliating subjection in kotoryh ona menja derzhit, mogli by mne dat' which she keeps me might give me ( ves'ma chasto dajut) vozmozhnost' grubo i (extremely often does give me) the possibility prjamo samomu ee rassprashivat'. Tak kak ja of crudely and directly questioning her. dlja nee rab i slishkom nichtozhen v ee Since I am her slave and altogether glazah, to nechego ej i objzhatsja grubym insignificant in her eyes, she feels no reason moim ljubopytstvom. ( 300) to be offended by my boorish curiosity. ( 34) Alexei to Polina:

29.Nu da, da, mne ot vas rabstvo- Well, yes, yes, I do enjoy being enslaved naslazhdenie. Est‟, est‟ naslazhdenie by you. There is, there really is enjoyment v poslednej stepeni prinizhennosti i in the utmost degree of humility and nichtozhestrva!... No ja hochu, mozheet insignificance… But perhaps I want to try byt‟, popytat‟ i drugih naslazhdenij. other enjoyments as well. ( 46) (312) 30.Za chto ja vas ljublju-ne znaju. Znaete li, Why I love you, how I love you, I don't chto mozhet byt', vy vovse ne horoshi? know. Do you know, perhaps you're not Predstavte sebe, ja dazhe ne znaju, good at all? Imagine, I don't know whether horoshili vy, ili net, dazhe licom? Cerdce, you're good or not, even to look at! You navernoe, u vas nehoroshee; um probable have a bad heart and an ignoble neblagorodnij; eto ochen' mozhet byt'. ( mind; that's very likely' (47) 314) Alexei to Polina:

31.Ja ljublju bez nadezhdy i znaju, chto My love is hopeless, and I know that posle jetogo v tysjacu raz bol‟she budu afterwards I should love a thousand times ljubit’ vas. Esli ja vas kogda-nibud‟ ub’ju, more. If I ever kill you, you know, I shall to nado ved‟ i sebja ubit’ budet; nu tak-ja have to kill myself as well; well, I shall try for sebja kak mozhno dol‟she budu ne ubivat’, as long as possible not to kill myself, so as to chtob etu nesterpimuju bol’ bez vas savour the unbearable pain of being ozhutit‟. Znaete li vi neverojatnyju vezh: ja without you. Do you know an incredible vas s kazhdym dnem ljubl'ju bol‟she, a ved thing? Every day I love you more, and that‟s eto pochti nevozmozhno. ( 315) almost impossible, you know. (48)

60 Chapter 4: The Model of Word Systems-Love and Hate Word Systems ______

Alexei about Polina's relationship with De- Grie:

32.…v poslednie dni ja zametil v nej …recently, however, I have noticed a definite reshitel'noe otvrazhenie i dazhe prezrenie dislike and even contempt for him in her, k nemu, a on dazhe i ne smotrel na nee, and he has ignored her, has been downright dazhe prosto byval s nej rude to her…So she is simply in his power, nevezhliv…Znachit, on prosto vladeet he has some kind of hold over her. ( 65) eju, ona u nego v kakih-to cepjah… (332) 33.Ja znaju navernoe, ja eto tverdo zametil,- I know it to be true, I noticed quite definitely, ej bylo prijatno, vyslushav i razdrazhiv that-she found it agreeable, after listening menja do boli, vdrug menja ogoroshit‟ to me and working me up hurtfully, to kakoju-nibud‟ vihodkoj velichajshego disconcert me suddenly by some trick that prezrenija i nevnimanija. I ved‟ znaet zhe showed the utmost contempt and lack of ona, chto ja bez nee zhit’ ne mogu. Vot consideration. And of course she knew that teper‟ tri dnja proshlo posle istorii s baronom, I could not live without her. Now a ja uzhe ne mogu vinosit‟ nasheij razluki. three days had passed since the episode of the Kogda ja ee vstretil seichas u voksala, u Baron, and I could not endure our separation menja zabilos’ serdze tak, chto ja any longer. When I met her near the station, poblednel. No ved‟ i ona zhe bez menja ne my heart began to beat so heavily that I prozhivet! Ja ej nuzhen i- i neuzheli, turned pale. But surely she can’t go on neuzheli tol‟ko kak shut Balakirev? ( 389) living without me, either? She needs me, and-can it really be only as her court buffoon? ( 121) Polina to Alexei about De-Grie:

34.Ja narochno udvoila moe k nemu I deliberately redoubled my contempt for prezrenie… On mne byl davno, davno him…I have found him detestable for a nenavisten….O, s kakim by schastiem ja long, long time… O, with what joy I would brosila emu teper', v ego podloe lico, eti have flung that fifty thousand in his nasty pjat'desjat tysjach' i pljunula by… i rasterla face now, and spit at him…and ground it in! by plevok! ( 395) (126-127) 35.I vdrug ona opjat' celovala i Suddenly she was kissing and obnimala menja, opjat' strastno i embracing me again, and tenderly and nezhno prizhimala svoe lico k moemu. Ja passionately pressing her face to mine. I uzh bole ni o chem ne dumal i nichego ne no longer thought of anything or heard slyshal. Golova moja anything. My head was spinning…I zakruzhilas'…So strahom prihodilo mne wondered what would happen now and how it v golovu:chto zhe teper' budet i chem eto would all end. Suddenly she raised herself konchitsja? Vdrug ona podnjalas' s okna, from the window, walked to the table and , podoshla k stolu i, smotrja na menja s looking at me with an expression of infinite vyrazheniem beskonechnoj nenavisti, s loathing, her lips trembling with fury, drozhavshimi ot zlosti gubami, skazala said: mne: 'Well, now give me my fifty thousand francs!' -Nu, otdaj zhe mne teper' moi pjat'desjat (137) tysjach frankov! ( 405-406) 61 Chapter 4: The Model of Word Systems-Love and Hate Word Systems ______

36.Blanche ochen' ne ljubila menja v pervie Blanche greatly disliked me for the first two dve nedeli, ja eto zametil; Pravda, ona odela weeks, I noticed; true, she dressed me menja zhegol'lski i sama ezhednevno foppishly and tied my tie with her own hands povjazyvala mne galstuk, no v dushe every morning, but in her heart she genuinely iskrenno prezirala menja. (414) despised me. ( 145) 37.I chem bol'she nenavidit ona And the more she hates the present de tepershnego De-Grie, tem bol'she toskuet o Grieux, the more she hankers after the only prezhnem, hot' prezhnij i suzhestvoval tol'ko one, although the old one only existed in her v ee voobrazhenii. ( 430) imagination. (160)

Astley to Alexei:

38.Da, neschastnyj chelovek, ona ljubila Yes, you unhappy man, she loved you, vas, i ja mogu vam eto otkryt', potomu chto and I can tell you so because you are a lost vi-pogibshij chelovek! Malo togo, esli ja soul!Moreover, even if I tell you that she dazhe skazhu vam, chto ona do sih por vas loves you to this day, you know you will stay ljubit, to- ved' by vse ravno zdes' ostanetes'! here all the same!Yes, you have destroyed Da, vi pogubili sebja.(431) yourself.(160)

Table 4.3. Examples of the “love” and “hate” word systems in The Idiot Transliterated Russian Text English Translation Description of Rogozhin:

39.Osobenno primetna byla v etom lice ego The most striking thing about his face was mertvaja blednost', pridavavshaja vsej its deathly pallor, which in spite of his rather fisionomii molodogo cheloveka sturdy build, gave the young man a look of iznemozhdennij vid, nesmotrja na dovol'no utter exhaustion and, at the same time, of krepkoe slozhenie, i vmeste s tem chto-to something agonizingly passionate, strasnoe, do stradanija, ne which seemed to be out of keeping with his garmonirovavshee s nahal'noju i gruboju coarse and insolent smile and his surly and ulybkoj i s rezkim, samodovol'mym ego self-satisfied expression. ( 27-28) vzgljadom. ( 6) About General Yepachin's relationship to his wife:

40.…suprugu svoju do togo uvazhal i do …and he respected his wife so much, and togo inogda bojalsja ee, chto dazhe ljubil. was sometimes so much afraid of her, that ( 19) he could be said to love her. (40) Ganya to Prince:

41.-A Rogozhin zhenilsja by? Kak vi 'And would Rogozhin marry her? What do dumaete? you think?' 62 Chapter 4: The Model of Word Systems-Love and Hate Word Systems ______

-Da chto zhe, zhenit'sja, ja dumaju, i 'Well, there's no difficulty about zavtra zhe mozhno; zhenilsja by, a chrez marrying a person: one could do it any nedelju, pozhaluj, i zarezal by ee. ( 42) time. He might marry her to-morrow and, perhaps, murder her a week later.' (62) 42.Ganya hotja i deistvitel‟no strastno Ganya had been passionately set on a dobivalsja pobedi nad Nastaejei Filipovnoj conquest over her, he grew to hate her prezhde, no kogda oba druga reshilis‟ like poison the moment the two friends ekspluatirovat’ etu strast’, decided to exploit the passion both of nachinavshujus‟ja s obeih storon …to on them were beginning to feel for one another voznenavidel ee kak svoj koshmar. V to their advantage… Passion and hatred ego dushe budto bi stranno soshlis‟ strast’ i seemed to be strangely mingled in his nenavist… ( 58) heart… (76) 43.A emu, knjazju, ljubit’ strastno etu For him, the prince, to love that woman zhenshinu- pochti nemislimo, pochti bilo passionately, was almost unthinkable. It zhjestokostju, beschelovechnostju. would be almost equivalent to cruelty, to (261) inhumanity. (263) About the relationship between General Yepachin and his wife:

44.…suprugu svoju do togo uvazhal i do …and he respected his wife so much, and togo inogda bojalsja ee, chto dazhe ljubil was sometimes so much afraid of her, that (19) he could be said even to love her. ( 40) When Ganya asks Prince whether Rogozhin would marry Nastya, Prince answers:

Well, there‟s no difficulty about 45.” Da chto zje, zhenit’sja, ja dumaju, i marrying a person: one could do it any zavra zhe mozhno; zhenilsja by, a cherez time. He might marry her to-morrow and, nedelju, pozhaluj, i zarezal by ee.” (42) perhaps, murder her a week later. ( 62) The change in Nastya in relation to Totsky:

…her character was quite different from 46.…eto byl sovershenno ne tot harakter, kak what he had known, that is to say, there was prezhde, to est‟ ne chto-to robkoe, not a trace left of her former timidity and pansionski neopredelennoe, inogda schoolgirlish uncertainty, which had been ocharovatel’noe po svoei original‟noi sometimes so delightful in its unaffected rezvosti i naivnosti, inogda grusnoe i playfulness and ingenuousness and zadumchivoe, udivlennoe, nedoverchivoe, sometimes so melancholy and pensive, plachuzhee i bespokoinoe. Net, tut hohotalo astonished, mistrustful, tearful, and restless. pred nim i kololo ego jadovitejzhimi Oh, no! It was quite a surprising and unusual sarkazmami neobuknovennoe i creature who laughed at him and taunted neozhidannoe suzhestvo, prjamo zajavivzjee him with her bitter and sarcastic emu, chto nikogda ono ne imelo k nemu v words, who told him to his face that she svoem serdtze nichego, krome had never felt anything but the deepest glubochaisshego prezrenija, prezrenija do contempt for him- nauseating 63 Chapter 4: The Model of Word Systems-Love and Hate Word Systems ______toshnotu, nastupivhego totchas zhe posle contempt which she had felt immediately pervogo udivlenija. Eta novaja zhenzhina after her first shock. This new woman objavljala, chto ej v polnom smysle vse ravno declared that she did not care in the least if budet, esli on sejchas zhe I na kom ugodno he married at once anyone he liked, but that zhenitsja, no ch to ona priehala ne pozvolit‟ she had come to prevent this marriage, and emu etot brak, i ne pozvolit‟ po zlosti, to prevent it out of spite, simply because edinstvenno potomu, chto ej tak hochetsja, i she chose to do so, and that therefore it must chto, sledstvenno, tak i bit‟ dolzhno,- “ nu, be so-“ if only to have a good laugh at you, hot‟ dlja togo, chtobi mne tol‟ko posmejatsja darling, for now, at last, I too want to laugh ( nad toboj vvolju, potomu chto teper‟ i ja, 68) nakonez, smejatsja hochu.( 49) About the relationship between Nastya and Totsky:

47. Tut, ochevidno, bylo chto-to drugoe, There was evidently something else here, podrazumevalas' kakaja-to dushevnaja i some storm of the heart and mind, serdechnaja burda,-chto-to vrode kakogo-to something in the nature of romantic romanticheskogo negodovanija bog indignation, goodness only knows why zanet na kogo i za chto, kakogo-to and against whom, a sort of insatiable nenasytimogo chuvstva prezrenija, feeling of contempt that was completely sovershenno vyskochivshego iz merki… (50) unaccountable… (69) About Nastya‟s and Ganya‟s relations:

48.…[ Totsky] slyshal za vernoe, chto …he [Totsky] was told for a fact that Nastasjya Fillipovna budto by v vysshej Nastasya Filippovna was perfectly aware stepeni znaet, chto Ganja zhenitsja tol‟ko that Ganya was marrying her only for na den‟gah, chto u Gani dusha chernaja, her money; that he had a wicked, rapacious, alchnaja, neterpelivaja, zavistlivaja i impatient, envious, and quite inordinately neobjatno, ne proporzional‟no ni s chem. selfish nature; that though at first he had Samoljubivaja; chto Ganja hotja I been passionately set on a conquest deistvitel‟no strasno dobivalsja pobedy over her, he grew to hate her like poison nad Nastasjej Fjilipovnoj prezhde, no kogda the moment the two friends decided to oba druga reshilis‟ ekspluatirovat’ etu exploit the passion both of them were strast’, nachinavshujusja s obeih storon, v beginning to feel for one another to their svoju pol‟zu i kupit‟ Ganju prodazhej emu advantage and to buy Ganya by selling him Nastasja Filipovny v zakonyje zhenu, to on Nastasya Filippovna as his lawful wife. voznenavidel ee kak svoj koshmar. V Passion and hatred seemed to be ego dushe budto by stranno soshlis‟ strast' i strangely mingled in his heart, and though nenavist’, i on hotja i dal, nakonez posle after painful hesitations he had given his muchitel’nyh kolebanij, soglasie consent to marry the “fallen” women, he zhenitsja na “skvernoj zhenzhine”, no sam swore in his heart to wreak his pokljalsja v dushe gor‟ko otomstit’ ej za eto vengeance upon her and “wipe the i “doehat’” ee potom, kak on budto by floor with her” afterwards, as he was said sam vyrazilsja. (58) to have put it himself ( 75-76) The Prince about his love to Marie:

64 Chapter 4: The Model of Word Systems-Love and Hate Word Systems ______

49.A ja vsego odin raz pozeloval ee…. And I only kissed her once… …it was not …tut vovse ne bylo ljubvi. Esli by vy znali, a question of love at all. If only you knew kakoe eto bylo neschastnoe sozdanie, to what an unhappy creature she was, you‟d vam by samim stalo ee ochen‟ zhal’, kak i be sorry for her as I was. ( 95) mne. ( 79)

…I chto zeluju ja ee ne potomu, chto …that I kissed her not because I was in vljublen v nee, a potomu, chto mne ee love with her but because I was very sorry ochen‟ zhal’ i chto ja s samogo nachala ee for her, and that I had never, from the very niskol‟ko za vinovatuju ne pochital, a tol‟ko beginning, thought of her as guilty, but only za neschastnuju. ( 81) as a poor, unhappy girl. ( 97-98)

I did not undeceive them by telling them that Ja ne razuverjal ih [detei], chto ja vovse ne I did not love Marie, that is to say, that I ljublju Mari, to est‟ ne vljublen v nee, chto was not in love with her, but that I was mne ee tol‟lo ochen‟ zhal’ bylo ( 83) merely very sorry for her ( 99) The Prince about his feelings to Marie:

50.…tut vovse ne bylo ljubvi, Esli by vi …it was not a question of love at all, If znali, kakoe eto bylo neschastnoe sozdanie, to only you knew what an uhappy creature she vam by samim stalo ee ochen' zhal', kak i was, you'd be sorry for her as I was. (95) mne.(79) 51.…celuju ja ee [Marie] ne potomu, chto …I kissed her not because I was in love vljublen v nee, a potomu, chto mne ee with her but because I was very sorry for ochen' zhal' i chto ja s samogo nachala ee her, and that I had never, from the very niskol'ko za vinovatuju ne pochital, a tol'ko beginning, thought of her as guilty, but only za neschastnuju. Mne ochen' hotelos' tut as a poor, unhappy girl. I was very zhe i uteshit' i uverit' ee, chto ona ne anxious to comfort her and to assure her dolzhna sebja takoju nizkoju schitat' pred that there was no reason why she should vsemi, no ona, kazhetsja, ne ponjala. (81) consider herself beneath everyone, but I don't think she understood me. (97-99) Rogozhin, when asking about Nastasya‟s marriage to Ganya:

52.Rogozhin zadal svoj vopros kak Rogozhin asked his question like a man in poterjanyj, kak bozhestvu kakomu-to, despair, addressing himself to her as no s smelost'ju prigovorenogo k kazni, though she were some deity, but with the kotoromu uzhe nechego terjat'. V smertnoj recklessness of a man sentenced to toske ozhidal on otveta. Nastasja Filipovna death who has nothing more to lose. He obmerial ego nasmeshlivym i waited for her answer in deadly anguish. vysokomernym vzgljadom… ( 132) Nastasya Filippovna looked him up and down haughtily and ironically… ( 143) Ganya to Prince about his relations with Nastya:

53.G: Ej hotelos' pokazat' sebja i vse svoe '…She wanted to show off and to show her 65 Chapter 4: The Model of Word Systems-Love and Hate Word Systems ______prenebrezhenie k nim…nu, i ko mne; eto contempt for them and –well, for me, too, pravda, ja ne otricaju…A vse-taki za menja I suppose. That's true, I don't deny it. But vijdet. Vi I ne podozrevaete, na kakie she will marry me all the same. You have fokusi chelovecheskoe samoljubie sposobno: no idea the sort of tricks hjuman vanity is vot ona schitaet menja podlecom, za to, capable of. She, you see, thinks I'm a rotter chto ja ee, chuzhuju ljubovnicu, tak because I'm marrying her, another man's otkrovenno za ee den'gi beru, a i ne znaet, mistress, so openly for her money, but she chto inoj bi ee ezhe podlee nadul: pristal bi k doesn't realize that another man would have nej i nachal bi ej liberal'no-progressivnie cheated her in a more rotten fashion; he vezhi rassipat', da iz zhenskih raznih would have followed her about spouting voprosov vitaskivat' tak ona bi vsja u nego v liberal and progressive ideas, dragging in the igol'noe ushko kak nitka proshla. woman question, so that in the end she Uveril bi samoljubivuju duru (i tak legko!), would have been completely in his chto za 'blagorodstvo serdca i za power. He would have made the conceited neschastja' tol'ko beret, a sam vse-taki na fool believe (and so easily, too!) that he den'gah bi zhenilsja. Ja ne nravljus' tut, married her only because of her noble heart potomu chto vlijat' ne hochu; a nado bi. A and her misfortune, while he really would chto sama delaet? Ne to zhe li samoe? Tak za have married her for her money alone. I'm chto zhe posle etogo menja preziraet da igri not liked because I don't want to play a eti zatevaet? Ottogo cho ja sam ne sdajus' da double game, though I ought to. But what is gordost' pokazivaju. Nu, da uividim! she doing herself? Isn't it just the same? P: Neuzheli vi ee ljubili do etogo? Why, then, does she despise me in that G: Ljubil vnachale. Nu, da dovol'no…Est' case? Why does she get up to all those zhenshini, kotorie godjatsja tol'ko v tricks? Why? Because I refuse to give in and ljubovnici i bol'she ni vo chto. Ja ne govorju, because I show some pride. Oh, well, we chto ona bila moeju ljubovnicej. Esli shall see!' zahochet zhit' smirno, i ja budu zhit' smirno; 'Surely, you couldn't have loved her till esli zhe vzbuntuetsja, totchas zhe broshu, a this happened, could you?' den'gi s soboj zahvachu… 'I did love her at first. Well, never mind that. P:Mne vse kazhetsja,-ostorozhno zametil There are women who are only good for knjaz', chto Nastasja Filipovna umna. K mistresses and nothing else. I don't say that chemu ej, predchuvstvuja takuju muku, v she's been my mistress. If she wants to live zapadnju idti? Ved' mogla bi i za drugogo quietly, I shall live quietly; but if she shows vijti… fight, I'll leave her at once and take the G: A vot tut-to i raschet! Vi tut ne vse znaete, money with me…' 'I can't help feeling,'the prince observed knjaz…ona ubezhdena, chto ja ee ljublju do cautiously,'that Nastasya Filippovna is sumashestvija, kljanus' vam' i znaete li, ja clever. Why should she walk into a trap krepko podozrevaju, chto i ona menja , ljubit when she can see the agony it will mean to po-svoemu, to est', znaete pogovorku:"Kogo her? She could marry someone else, couldn't ljublju, togo i bju".Ona vsju zhizn' budet she?.. menja za valeta bubnovogo schitat' (da 'Ah, but, you see, she has her reasons for eto-to ej, mozhet bit', i nado) i vse-taki that! You don't know everything, Prince. ljubit' po-svoemu… ( 141) You see-besides, she's convinced that I'm madly in love with her. I swear, she is, and, you know, I strongly suspect that she loves me too, in her own way, of course. 66 Chapter 4: The Model of Word Systems-Love and Hate Word Systems ______

You know the saying:"Whom he loveth, he chasteneth". She will treat me like dirt all her life (and perhaps that's what she wants) and she'll love me in her own way all the same… ( 151-152) Ganya to Prince:

54. Ja, knjaz' ne po raschetu v etot mrak 'It isn't entirely from mercenary motives idu,- prodolzhal on, progovarivajas', kak that I'm embarking on this horror', he went ujazvlennij v svoem samoljubii molodoj on, letting the can out of the bag like a chelovek,-po raschetu ja bi oshibsja young man whose vanity is stung. 'If I were naverno, potomu i golovoj i harakterom ezhe impelled only by mercenary motives, I ne krepok. Ja po strasti, po vlecheniju should most certainly have come a cropper, idu, potomu chto u menja cel' kapital'naja for I'm still far from strong mind and est'.(143) character. No, sir, I'm driven by my passion and inclination, for the goal I'm aiming at is a very important one. ( 154) Ganya and Prince about Nastya:

55. G: … vam Nastasja Filipovna chto-to G: Was I right in imagining that you liked slishkom nravitsja, a? Nastasya Filippovna very much yourself, or P: Da…nravitsja. wasn‟t I? G: Vljubleny? P: Yes, I like her. P: N-net. G: Are you in love with her? G: A ves‟ pokrasnel i stradaet. ( 144) P: N-no. G: Why, you‟re blushing all over and you look unhappy. ( 155) Nastasya Filippovna to Ganya:

56.-I dobro bi ti s golodu umiral, a ti ved' 'I could understand it if you were starving, zhalovan'e, govorjat, horoshee poluchaesh! but I'm told you're getting a good salary! Da ko vsemu-to vpridachu, krome pozora- And in addition to it all, in addition to the to, nenavistnuju zhenu vvesti v dom! disgrace of it, to bring a wife you hate (Potomu chto ved' ti menja nenavidish', ja into your house (for you do hate me, I eto znaju!) (187) know that)! ( 194) Prince about his love to Nastya:

57.…ja ee “ne ljubovju ljublju, a I loved her not because I was in love zhalost’ju. (236) with her, but because I pitied her. ( 240) Rogozhin to Prince about Nastya:

58.Ti vot zhalost’ju, govorish‟, ee ljubish’. You say you love her because you pity her. Nikakoj takoj vo mne net k nej zhalosti. Da i Well, there ain‟t no such pity for her in me. nenavidit ona menja puzhe vsego. Ona mne And, besides, she hates me, too, more than teper‟ vo sne snitsja kazhduju noch: vse, chto anything. I dream of her every night now: 67 Chapter 4: The Model of Word Systems-Love and Hate Word Systems ______ona s drugim nado mnoj smeetsja. Tak she‟s always laughing at me with another ono, brat, i est‟. So mnoj k vencu idjot, a man. That‟s how it is, man. She‟s going to i dumat‟-to obo mne ipozabyla, tochno marry me, but she never gives me a bashmak menjaet…. Malo ona menja thought, she don‟t. Just as if she was sramila… ( 237) changing her shoes… She‟s humiliated me enough… (240-241) Rogozhin about his love to Nastasya:

59.“ Umru, govorju, ne vyidu, poka ne “I shall die,” I say, “but I won‟t go away till prostish’, a prikazhesh‟ vyvesti- utopljus’; you forgive me, and if you tell them to potomu-chto ja bez tebja teper’ throw me out, I‟ll go and drown myself, budu?” Tochno sumashedshaja ona byla for-what should I be without you ves‟ tot den‟, to plakala, to ubivat’ menja now?” She was like a crazy woman the sobiralas‟ nozhom, to rugalas’ nado whole of that day: she wept, she mnoj” ( 239) threatened to knife me, she called me all sorts of names.” ( 242) Rogozhin about Nastya's attitude toward him:

60.Togda vot mne v golovu i prishlo, chto do It was them that it occurred to me that she togo ona menja nizko pochitaet, chto i thinks so little of me that she can‟t even zla-to na mne bol’shogo derzhat’ ne feel much resentment against me. ( mozhet. ( 240) 243) Prince to Rogozhin about Rogozhin‟s love to Nastya:

61.Chto zhe, tvoju ljubov’ ot zlosti ne “Well”, the prince smiled, "your love otlichish‟,-ulybnulsja knjaz‟…Nenavidet’ cannot be distinguished from malice… budesh‟ ochen‟ ee za ety zhe tepereshnjuju You‟ll have her bitterly for having loved ljubov’, za vsu etu muku, kotoruju teper‟ her so much now, for the terrible agony prinimaesh‟. (241) you‟re going through now". ( 245) Nastya to Rogozhin when looking at his father‟s portrait:

62.… u tebja… Parfen Semenych‟, sil‟nye "You‟ve got powerful passions, Parfyon,” strasti, takie strasti, chto ty kak raz by s she says,” such passions as might have nimi v Sibir‟, na katorgu, uletel, esli b u landed you in Siberia if you weren‟t tebja tozhe uma ne bylo, potomu chto u tebja intelligent as well, for,” she says, “ you‟ve bol‟shoj um est‟…” (242) got a lot of intelligence”…( 246) Lizaveta Prokofjevna to Prince about her daughter Aglaya:

63.Devka samovlastnaja, sumashedshaja, Don‟t be angry. She‟s headstong, crazy, spilt izbalovannaja,- poljubit, tak nepremenno girl- if she ever falls in love with a man, branit’ vsluh budet i v glaza izdevat’sja; ja she‟ll most certainly call him all sort of tochno takaja zhe byla. ( 361) names and laugh at him to his face. I 68 Chapter 4: The Model of Word Systems-Love and Hate Word Systems ______

was just the same. ( 354) About Prince‟s love to Nastya:

64.Esli by, ljubja zhenzhinu bole vsego na If, loving a woman more than anything in svete ili predvkushaja vozmozhnost‟ takoj the world, or anticipating the possibility of ljubvi, vdrug uvidet‟ ee na cepi, za such a love, one were suddenly to see her zheleznoju reshetkoi, pod palkoi chained to a wall behind iron bars smotritelja,- to takoe vpechatlenie bylo by with a warder standing over her with neskokl‟ko shodno s tem, chto ozhutil teper‟ a stick, such a feeling would be somewhat knjaz‟. ( 396) similar to the feeling the Prince had now. (386) About Prince's feelings towards Aglaya:

65. Esli bi kto skazal emu v etu minutu, chto If anyone had told him at that moment that on vljubilsja, vljublen strasnoju he was in love, that he was ljubov'ju, to on s udivleniem otverg bi etu passionately in love, he would have misl', i mozhet bit', dazhe s rejected the idea with surprise, and perhaps negodovaniem. I esli bi kto pribavil k even with indignation. And if anyone had tomu, chto zapiska Aglai est' zapiska added that Aglaya's letter was a love- ljubovnaja, naznachenie ljubovnogo letter, and appointment for a love svidanija, to on sgorel bi so stida za togo assignation, he would have blushed with cheloveka i, mozet bit', vizval bi ego na shame for that man, and perhaps even duel'….Vozmozhnost' ljubvi k nemu, "k challenged him to a duel… He would have takomu cheloveku, kak on", on pochel bi thought it monstrous that anyone could be delom chudovizhnim. ( 410) in love with him-with 'a man like him'. (399) Prince to Rogozhin:

66. …znaesh‟ li ty, chto ona tebja teper‟, Do you realize that she probably loves you mozhet, bol‟she vseh ljubit, i tak dazhe, now more than anyone else- so much, chto chem. Bol‟she muchaet, tem bol‟she i indeed, that the more she torments you the ljubit. … Znaesh‟ li, chto zhenzhina more she loves you…. Do you know that a sposobna zamuchit‟ cheloveka woman is capable of inflicting unspeakable zhestolostjami i nasmeshkami i ni razu cruelties and mockeries on a man ugryzenija sovesti ne pocuvstvuet, potomu without once feeling any qualms of chto pro sebja kazhdyj raz budet dumat‟, conscience, because every time she is smotrja na tebja: “Vot teper‟ ja ego thinking to herself as she is looking at you: “ izmuchaju do smerti, da zato potom emu I‟m driving him to distraction now, but I ljubov’ju moeju naverstaju…” ( 413) shall make up for it later with my love…” (402) Prince to Aglaya about his love to Nastasya:

P: „Oh, I loved her, I loved her very 67. P: O, ja ljubil ee, ochen‟ ljubil…no much- but later-later-later she guessed potom…potom…potom ona vse ugadala. everything‟‟ A: Chto ugadala? „What did she guess?‟ 69 Chapter 4: The Model of Word Systems-Love and Hate Word Systems ______

P: Chto mne tol‟ko zhal’ ee a chto ja…uzhe „That I only pitied her, but that I…I didn’t ne ljublju ee. ( 493-494) love her any more‟. ( 474) Prince to Aglaya about his love to Nastasya:

I cannot sacrifice myself, though I wanted 68. Ja ne mogu tak pozhertvovat’ soboj, to once and –perhaps, I want to still. But I hot‟ ja i hotel odin raz i…mozhet byt‟, i know for a fact that with me she will be teper‟ hochu. No ja znaju naverno, chto ona ruined, and that‟s why I am leaving so mnoj pogibnet, i potomu ostavljaju her…. In her pride she‟ll never forgive ee…. V svoej gordosti ona nikogda ne me for my love- and we shall both perish! prostit mne ljubvi moej,- i my oba This, I suppose, is unnatural, but everything pogibnem! Eto neestestvenno, no tut vse here is unnatural. You say she loves me, neestestvenno. Vy govorite, ona ljubit but is this love? Can there be such love, menja, no razve eto ljubov’? Neuzheli after what I’ve through? No, it‟s mozhet byt‟ takaja ljubov’, posle togo, chto something else, not love! (475) ja uzhe vyterpel! Net, tut drugoe, a ne ljubov’! ( 495) Nastya in her letter to Aglaya about Rogozhin:

69. On vse molchit; no ved‟ ja znaju, chto on He is always silent; but I know that he do togo menja ljubit, chto uzhe ne mog ne loves me so much that he can‟t help voznenavidet’ menja… Ja by ego ubila so hating me…. I would kill him from fear, strahu… No on menja ub’et prezhde… but he will kill me first… ( 496) (517-518) Ganya to his sister Varya about Aglaya‟s love to Prince:

70. Znaesh‟, ja pochemu-to dumaju, chto tam You know, I can‟t help thinking that this deistvitel‟no chto-to ser‟eznoe, dazhe s ee time it really is serious, even on her part. storony. Nad knjazem ona, govorjat, I‟m told she laughts at the prince from smeetsja izo vseh sil, s utra do nochi, morning till night, but that‟s merely to chtoby vidu ne pokazat‟, no uzh naverno conceal the fact that she most certainly umeet skazat‟ emu kazhdyj den‟ chto-nibud‟ manages to say something to him secretly potihon‟ku, potomu chto on tochno po every day, for he looks as though he were nebu hodit, sijaet…(531) walking on air. He is radiant with happiness… ( 508) Prince and Aglaya:

71. Knjaz‟, vorotivshis‟ domoj ot Aglai, The Prince, who had returned home osmejanyj i izgnanij eju, sidel uzhe s ridiculed and banished by Aglaya, sat polchasa v samom mrachnom otchajanii, for half an hour in the blackest despair, kogda vdrug javilsja Kolja s ezhem… when Kolya suddenly appeared with the Vyhodilo, stalo byt‟, chto Aglaja prozhaet hedgehog….It seemed clear that Aglaya i knjazju opjat‟ mozhno idti k nej segodnja forgave him and that he could go and see zhe vecherom, a dlja nego eto bylo ne tol‟ko her again that evening, and that was not only 70 Chapter 4: The Model of Word Systems-Love and Hate Word Systems ______glavnoe, a dazhe i vse. (578) the most important thing for him- it was everything. ( 552) 72. Krome pritvornogo udivlenija, They could get nothing out of Aglaya except negodovanija, hohota i nasmeshek nad feigned surprise, indignation, loud knjazem i nado vsemi doprashivavshimi,- laughter, and sneers at the prince and those nichego ot Aglai ne dobilis'. ( 579) who questioned her. (552) The general to Aglaya:

73. G: …Tak ti, stalo bit', ljubish' 'So you love this-this young man, do you?' etogo…molodogo cheloveka?.. 'No, I don't, I don't! I can't stand your- A: Ni-ni-ni! Terpet' ne mogu…vashego young man. I can't stand him!' Aglaya molodogo cheloveka, terpet' ne mogu!- cried, suddenly losing her temper and vdrug vskipela Aglaja i podnjala raising her head… ( 556) golovu…(583) About Prince‟s feelings to Nastasya:

74. Esli on staralsja zabyt‟ o neij v poslednee If he had tried to forget her lately, it was vremja, to edinstvenno potomu, chto solely because he was afraid of her. Well? bojalsja ee. Chto zhe: ljubil on ety Did he love that woman or did he hate zhenzhinu ili nenavidel? (638) her? (606) Aglaya about her love to Prince:

75. Ja dogadalas‟ posle ego slov, chto vsjakij, I realized after what he had told me that kto zahochet, tot i mozhet ego obmanut’, i anyone who wished could deceive him, kto by ni obmanul ego, on potom vsjakomu and that whoever deceived him, he would prostit, i vot za eto-to ja ego i forgive afterwards, and that is why I fell poljubila… (642) in love with him…. (611) Radomsky to Prince about Aglaya:

76. I tak unizit’ ee pred ee zhe sopernicei, And how could you so humiliate a girl you brosit’ ee dlja drugoj, v glazah toj zhe are in love with before her rival, throw drugoj, posle togo kak uzhe sami sdelali ej her over for another before the very eyes of chestnoe predlozhenie…a ved‟ vy sdelali that other woman after- you had yourself ij predlozhenie, vy vyskazali ej eto pri make her an honourable proposal of roditeljah i pri sestrah! ( 653) marriage-and you did propose to her, you know- you did so in the presence of her parents and her sisters! ( 624-625) Prince about his love to Nastasya:

77. On sovershenno spravedlivo skazal He had quite truthfully told Radomsky that Evgeniju Pavlovichu, chto iskrenno i vpolne he loved her truly and sincerely, and in his ee ljubit, i v ljubvi ego k nej zakljuchalos‟ love for her there really was a sort of dejstvitel‟no kak by vlechenie k kakomu- attraction to some sick, pathetic child, to zhalkomu i bol‟nomu rebenku, kotorogo whom it was difficult and even impossible trudno i dazhe nevozmozhno ostavit’ na to leave to its own devices. (633-634) svoju volju. ( 667) 71 Chapter 4: The Model of Word Systems-Love and Hate Word Systems ______

Table 4.4. Examples of the “love” and “hate” word systems in The Brothers Karamazov Transliterated Russian Text English translation Rakitin to Alyosha about Dmitry's relationship with Grushenka:

78. I preziraet, da otorvatsja ne He despises her, but he can't tear mozhet. (103) himself away from her. ( 90) Dmitry's thought on his way to Katerina:

79. Obraz ee vspominalsja emu, kak He remembered her as a beautiful, proud, krasivoj, gordoj i vlastnoj devushki. No and imperious girl, Yet, it was not her ne krasota ee muchila ego, a chto-to beauty that troubled him, but something drugoe. Vot imeno eta neobjasnimost' ego else. And it was just the inexplicable nature straha i usilivala v nem teper' etot strah. of his fear that increased the fear itself. Celi etoj devushki byli blagorodnejshie, The girl's aims were of the noblest- he on znal eto; ona stremilas' spasti brata ego knew that: she was trying to save his Dmitrija, pred nej uzhe vinovatogo, i brother Dmitry, who had treated her stremilas' iz odnogo lish' velikodushija. I badly, and she was doing so out of sheer vot, nesmotrja na soznanie i na spravedlivost', magnanimity. And yet, in spite of the kotoruju ne mog zhe on ne otdat' vsem etim fact that he could not but appreciate these prekrasnym i velikodushnym beautiful and magnanimous chuvstvam, po spine ego prohodil feelings of hers, a chill ran down his moroz, chem blizhe on podvigalsja k ee spine the nearer he drew to her house. domu. ( 131) (116) Dmitry tells to his brother Alyosha:

80. Odnogo tebja, da ezhe odnu „podluju’, v No one but you, and one other person, a slut kotoruju vljubilsja, da s tem i propel. No I‟ve fallen in love with to my own vljubitsja ne znachit ljubit'. Vljubitsja undoing. But to fall in love doesn‟t mean moshno i nenavidja (134). to love. One can fall in love with a woman and hate her at the same time.(119) Dmitry about his relationship with Katerina:

81. Vizhu, ona menja raz obmerila One evening at the battery commander's I vzgljadom, u batarejnogo komandira eto saw her sizing me up with her eyes, but I bylo, da ja togda ne podoshel: didn't go up to her- not interested! I went prenebregaju, deskat', znakomitsja. up to her only a few days later, also at a Podoshel ja k nej uze neskol'ko spustja, party. I said a few words to her, but she tozhe na vechere, zagovoril, ele barely glanced at me. pogljadela, prezritel'nye gubki Compressed her lips scornfully. "Ah," slozhila, a, dumaju, podozhdi, I said to myself,"you wait! I'll get my own 72 Chapter 4: The Model of Word Systems-Love and Hate Word Systems ______otomzhu!.. Glavnoe, to chuvstvoval, back one day!" I was an awful boor at at chto "Katen'ka" ne to chtoby nevinnaja the time when faced with a situation like institutka takaja, a osoba s harakterom, this, and I was aware of it myself. What I gordaja i v samom dele dobrodetel'naja, a felt was that"dear Katya" was not a silly puzhe vsego s umom i obrazovaniem, a u little schoolgirl, but a person of intellect and menja ni togo, ni drugovo. Ti dumaesh', education, while I had neither the one nor ja predlozhenie hotel sdelat'? Nimalo, the other. You think I wanted to propose prosto otomstit' hotel za to, chto ja takoj to her? Not a bity of it. I just wanted to molodec, a ona ne chuvstvuet. (142) revenge myself on her for not realizing what a fine fellow I was. (127-128) From Dmitry's conversation with Alyosha about Katerina:

82. Verish' li, nikogda etogo u menja ni s I tell you this sort of thing never kakoj ne bivalo, ni s edinoj zhenzhinoj, happened to me with any woman before, chtobi v etakuju minute ja na nee gljadel s not with one. I mean that I should look at nenavistju,-i vot krest kladu: ja na etu her at such a moment with hatred-and I gljadel togda sekundi tri ili pjat' so strashoju swear to you I looked at her just then for nenavistju,-s toju samoju nenavist'ju, ot three or five seconds with terrible kotoroj do ljubvi, do bezumnejshej ljubvi- hatred- with the sort of hatred that's odin volosok! (146) only a hair's-breadth removed from love, from the most insane love! (132) In her letter to Dmitry Katerina writes:

83. “…ljublju, deskat, bezumno, pust' vi “I am badly in love with you… I don‟t menja ne ljubite- vse ravno, budte tolko care if you don’t love me. It makes no moim muzhem. Ne pugaites- ni v chem vas difference, only be my husband. Don‟t be stesnjat' ne budu, budu vasha mebel', budu afraid, I‟m not going to be in your way. I tot kover, po kototomu vi hodite… shall be your furniture, I shall be the Hochu ljubit' vas vechno, hochu spasti carpet under your feet… I want to vas ot samogo sebja… “ ( 149) love you always. I want to save you from yourself.” (134) Alyosha to Dmitry about Katerina:

84. -Ti budesh' s neju schastliv, no mozhet 'You will be happy with her, but bit'…nespokojno schastliv. perhaps not- serenely happy'. -To-to brat, takie takimi i ostajutsja, oni ne 'There you are, old man! Such women smirjautsja pred sud'boj. Tak ti dumaesh', always remain the same. They never chto ja ne budu ee vechno ljubit'? give in to fate. So you don't think that I -Net, mozhet bit', ti budesh' ee vechno shall love her for ever?' ljubit', no, mozhet bit', ne budesh' s neju 'I don't know. Perhaps you will, but vsegda schasliv… ( 184-185) perhaps you won't be always happy with her…'. (169) Mrs. Khokhlakov to Alyosha about Ivan and Katya:

85. I esli bi vi tol'ko poverili, chto mezhdu Oh, if you knew what's happening 73 Chapter 4: The Model of Word Systems-Love and Hate Word Systems ______nimi teper' proishodit,-eto uzhasno, eto, ja between them now! It's simply awful! vam skazhu, nadriv, eto uzhasnaja It's a heartache, I tell you. It‟s like skazka kotoroj poverit' ni za chto nel'zja: some frightful folk-tale which it's oba gubjat sebja neizvestno dlja chego, sami quite impossible to believe: they're both znajut pro eto i sami naslazhdajutsja ruining themselves, goodness only etim. (227) knows why. They realize it themselves and they seem to enjoy it. ( 211)

86. Alyosha chuvstvoval kakim-to Alyosha felt by some sort of instinct that instinktom, chto takomu harakteru, kak a woman like Katerina had to exert Katerina Ivanovna, nado bilo vlastvovat', a her power over people, and that she vlastvovat' ona mogla bi lish' nad takim, could do so only with a man like Dmitry kak Dmitri, i otnud' ne nad takim, kak Ivan. and most decidedly not with a man like Ibo Dmitrij tol'ko…mog bi smirit'sja, Ivan. For only Dmitry could … submit nakonec, pred neju 'k svoemu zhe to her at last 'for his own schastiju' …, no Ivan net, Ivan ne mog bi happiness'…, but not Ivan. Ivan pred neju smirit'sja, da i smirenie eto ne could never submit to her, and, besides, dalo bi emu schastija. ( 234) submission would not have made him happy. ( 217) Katerina to Alyosha about her love to Dmitry:

87. Slyshaite, Aleksei Fedorovich, ja dazhe Listen, Alexey. I don‟t even know that I ne znaju, ljublju li ja ego teper'. On mne stal love him now. I‟m sorry for him, and zhalok, eto plohoe svideltelstvo ljubvi. that‟s a bad sign so far as love is Esli b ja ljubila ego, prodolzhala ljubit, to concerned. If I‟d loved him, if I‟d gone on ja, mozhet bit, ne zhalela bi ego teper, a, loving him, I shouldn‟t perhaps have been naprotiv, nenavidela… (236) sorry for him now. I should have hated him…(219)

Alyosha to Katerina about her love to Ivan:

88. …vi muchaete Ivana, potomu tol'ko, …you are torturing Ivan only because you chto ego ljubite…a muchaete potomu, love him- and you torture him because, chto Dmitrija nadrivom having worked yourself up into an emotional ljubite…vnepravdu ljubite…potomu chto state of headache, you imagine that you uverili sebja tak… (241) love Dmitry, but you don’t love him- you‟ve only persuaded yourself that you do…(223)

Ivan to Katerina about her love to Dmitry:

89. …Vi deijstvitel'no ljubite tol'ko ego. I …you really love only him. And the more po mere oskorblenij ego vse bol'she i insults he heaps on you, the more you love 74 Chapter 4: The Model of Word Systems-Love and Hate Word Systems ______bol'she. Vot eto i est' vash nadriv.Vi imeno him. That is your heartache. You love ljubite ego takim, kakim on est', vas him just as he is. You love him while he oskorbljajuzhim ego ljubite. Esli b on insults you. If he reformed, you'd at once ispravilsja, vi ego totchas zabrosili bi i throw him over and fall out of love with razljubili vovse. No vam on nuzhen, chtobi him entirely. But you need him in order to sozercat' besprerivno vash podvig vernosti be able to contemplate continually your i uprekat' ego v nevernosti. I vse eto ot great act of faithfulness and to vashej gordosti. O, tut mnogo prinizhenija i reproach him for his unfaithfulness. unizhenija, no vse eto ot gordosti… ( 241) And all this because of your pride….Oh, there's a lot here of humiliation and humility, but it's all because of your pride…. (224)

Alyosha to Lise:

90. Vidite, ja znal, chto vi menja…kazhetsja, You see, I suspected that-that you perhaps ljubite, no ja sdelal vid, chto vam verju, cared for me, but I pretended to believe chto vi ne ljubite, chtobi vam you so (hate) that you-you shouldn't feel bylo…udobnee…(274) uncomfortable. ( 255) Ivan to Alyosha during their encounter:

91. … ja vljubilsja v baryshnju, v …I fell in love with a young lady, a institutky. Muchilsja s nej, i ona menja boarding-school miss. I had an awful muchila. Sidel nad nej… i vdrug vse time with her, and she, too, gave me an sletelo. Davecha ja govoril vdohnovenno, awful time. Spent hours with her, and a vyshel i rashohotalsja… ( 291) suddenly it's all over! This morning I spoke on the spur of the moment, but as soon as I got away I burst out laughing… ( 271) Ivan to Alyosha about Katerina's feelings:

92. …eij [Katerine] nuzhno, mozhet byt', let …it will take her [Katerina] perhaps pjatnadcat' al' dvadcat', chtobi dogadat'sja, fifteen or twenty years to realize that she chto Dmitrija ona vovse ne ljubit, a ljubit didn't love Dmitry at all, that she tol'ko menja, kotorogo muchaet. (292) loved only me, whom she only tortures. ( 271) 93. Grushenka hot' i ljubila ego chasochek Though Grushenka had, it is true, istinno i iskrenno, eto Ppravda, no i muchila loved him for a brief hour genuinely zhe ego v to zhe vremja inoj raz dejstvitel'no and sincerely, she sometimes also zhestko i bespozhadno. Glavnoe v tom, tortured him cruelly and chto nichego-to on ne mog razgadat' iz ee mercilessly. The trouble was that he namerenij; vimanit' zhe laskoj ili siloj ne could not make out what her real bilo tozhe vozmozhnosti… ( 453) intentions were; to get them out of her by force or kindness was also quite impossible… ( 428) 75 Chapter 4: The Model of Word Systems-Love and Hate Word Systems ______

Dmitry about his love to Grushenka:

94. Zhenzhinu ja ljublju, zhenzhinu! Chto 'I love a woman, a woman! What is a est' zhenzhina? Carica zemli! Grustno mne, woman? The queen of the earth! I feel grustno…(506) sad, I feel sad…' ( 478) 95. "Da neuzheli odin chas, odna minuta ee 'Isn't one hour, one minute of her love [Grushenka's] ljubvi ne stojat vsej ostal'noj worth a lifetime of disgrace and zhizni, hotja bi i v mukah pozora?" Etot agnoy?' That wild question clutched at dikij vopros zahvatil ego [Mitya's] serdce. his heart. (514) (544) Grushenka to Dmitry:

96. Celuj menja, celuj krepche, vot tak, Kiss me, kiss me harder-so! If we are ljubit' tak uzh ljubit'! Raba tvoja teper' to love one another, then let's love budu, raba na vsju zhizn'! Sladko raboj properly! I shall be your slave now, bit'!...Celuj! Pribej menja, muchaj menja, your slave for the rest of my life. It is sdelaj chto nado mnoj…Oh, da i vprjam' sweet to be a slave! Kiss me! Beat menja nado muchit'…Stoj! Podozhdi, me, torture me, do what you like with potom, ne hochu tak…-ottolknula ona ego me…Oh, I deserve to be vdrug.-Stupai proch', Mit'ka… (546) tortured…Stop! Wait, later, I don't want now,' she pushed him away suddenly. 'Go away, Mitya…' (516) Dmitry to Grusha:

97. Prosti, Grusha, menja za ljubov' moju, 'Forgive me for my love, Grusha, for za to, chto ljubov'ju moeju i tebja sgubil! ruining you by my love!' (599) (632) About Ivan's love to Katerina:

98. …kogda Ivan Fedorovich, idja…nochju s …on leaving Katerina that night with Aleshej ot Katerini Ivanovi, skazal emu: "Ja- Alyosha, Ivan said to him: 'I am not to do nee ne ohotnik",-to strashno lgal v very keen on her,' he was telling a tu minutu: on bezumno ljubil ee, hotja terrible lie at that moment: he was madly pravda i to, chto vremenami nenavidel ee in love with her, though it is quite true do togo, chto mog dazhe ubit'. ( II-129) that at times he hated her so much that he could have killed her. ( 717) About Ivan's relations to Katerina:

99. …otnoshenija ego k Katerine Ivanovne …his relations with Katerina became obostrilis' do krajnej stepeni. Eto bili kakie- acutely strained. They seemed like two to dva vljublennih drug v druga vraga. ( bitter enemies in love with one II-140) another. (727) 100. …Za mnogoe mi drug druga Dmitry to Katerina: nenavideli, Katya, no kljanus', kljanus', ja tebja i nenavidja ljubil, a ti menja-net! …We've hated each other for many (II-230) things, Katya, but I swear, I swear I 76 Chapter 4: The Model of Word Systems-Love and Hate Word Systems ______

loved you even while I hated you, but you never loved me!' (811)

4.1. The “love” word system The primary word system in the language of the Dostoevskian text, which "nurtures the theme and message of the test" (Aphek and Tobin 1988:3), is a network of terms which creates the framework of love and affection in the relationship between men and women throughout the entire text, from sign to text, based on semantic, morpho-phonological, conceptual and associative notions which help build concepts of love, care, passion, consideration, respect, desire, affection, etc. The “love” word system can be sub-divided into three sub-systems: 1. the morpho-phono-semantic sub-system which includes words and expressions morphologically, phonologically and semantically related to the concept of “love”, 2. the semantic- associative sub-system revolving around words and expressions associatively related to the notion of “love”, and 3. the semantic- conceptual sub-system which includes words and expression that create a feeling of passion and love.

4.1.1. Morpho-phono- semantic sub-system The morpho-phono-semantic sub-system includes words and expressions morphologically, phonologically and semantically related to the concept of “love”.

Table 4.5. The morpho-phono-semantic love-related sub-system Transliterated English Translation Examples Russian Text 1.ljubov' love 8, 14,27,49,50,57,61,64,65,66,68,77,82, 87, 95, 97 2. ljubit' to love, to care 26,27,30,31,38,40,43,44,53,57,58,66,67,68,69,73,74,77, 80, 83,84, 87, 88, 89,90, 92, 93,94, 96, 98, 100 3.ljubjazhaja loving, caring 13 77 Chapter 4: The Model of Word Systems-Love and Hate Word Systems ______

4.vljubit'sja to fall in love 49,51,55,65, 80,91 5.vljublennij in love 99 6.poljubit' to fall in love, to be 63,75 in love

4.1.2. Semantic-associative sub-system The semantic- associative sub-system revolves around words and expressions associatively related to the notion of “love”. Table 4.6. The semantic-associative love-related sub-system Transliterated English Translation Examples Russian Text 1.nravitsja to like 55 2.strast' passion 27,42,54,48 3.strastno passionately 35,39,42, 43, 48,62,65 4.vlechenie inclination, attraction 54,77 5.zhena wife 56 6.celovat' to kiss 35,49,51, 96 7.zhenitsja to marry 41,45, 48 8.idti k vencu to marry 58 9.vijti to marry 53 10.obnimat' to throw onesef into one's arms, embrace 12,35 11.chuvstvo feeling 1, 79 12.dobra gentle 3 13.naslazhdenie delight 6,29 14.naslazhdat'sja to enjoy 85 15.nevinnost' guiltless, innocence 4,8 16.uvazhenie respect 9, 12,19,40,44 17.romanticheskoe romantic 47 18.ocharovate'na charming, delightful 8, 46 19.brosat'sja na sheju to throw oneself on one's neck 14 20.prelest' darling 15 21.nuzhen need, necessary 25,27, 33 22.berech' cherish, spare 25,27 78 Chapter 4: The Model of Word Systems-Love and Hate Word Systems ______

23.horoshij good 30 24.nezhno passionately 35 25.uteshit' to comfort 51 26.uverit' to assure 51 27.ljubovnaja zapiska love letter 65 28.svidanie love assignation 65 29.predlozhenie marriage proposal 76, 81 30.laska kindness 93 31.krasota beauty 79 32.velikodushie magnanimity 79

4.1.3. Semantic-conceptual sub-system The semantic- conceptual sub-system includes words and expression that create a feeling of passion and love in the Dostoevsky's text.

Table 4.7. The semantic-conceptual love-related sub-system Transliterated Russian Text English Translation Examples 1. hodit' po nebu walking on air 70 2.sijat' radiant with happiness 70 3.bozhestvo deity 52 4.blagorodstvo noble 53 5.blagorodnejshaja noblest 79 6.ulibka smile 10 7.smjagchit' tone it down 11 8.schast'e happiness 12, 86 9.schastliv happy 84 10.obogotvorit' idiolize 13 11.ideal ideal 16 12.chistaja innocent 16 13.plenjat' to fascinate 7 14.sladostno gratifying 7 15.nebo heavenly 15 79 Chapter 4: The Model of Word Systems-Love and Hate Word Systems ______

16.s vostorgom happily 8 17.poriv outbirst 12 18.bezgreshanaja immaculate, pure 16 19.neporochna pure 17 20.razvlekaet amuses 24 21.prijatno agreeable 33 22.bez nee zhit' ne mogu couldn't live without her 33 23.zabilos' serdce heart began to beat 33 24.golova zakruzhilas' head was spinning 35 25.toskovat' to miss 37 26.robkaja timid 46 27.chto ja bez tebja teper' budu what should I be without you 59 28.prostit' to forgive 59,71,75 29.sladko sweet 96 30.vdohnovenno entusiastically 91 31.skazka fairy tale 85 32.vernost' faithfulness 89 33.prekrasnij beautiful 79 34.spasti to save 79, 83 35.ne mozhet ororvat'sja can't tear himself away from her 78

Dostoevsky's men are in love with their women. In The Gambler, Alexei Ivanovich fells passionately in love with Polina. Rogozhin is madly in love with Nastasya Filippovna, Ganya Ivolgin wants to marry Nastasya (eventhough for his greedy reasons), Myshkin adores Nastasya and at the same time gets closer to Aglaya. In The Brothers Karamazov, Fyodor Karamazov and his eldest son Dmitri are both in love with Grushenka, a beautiful young woman. Katerina Ivanovna had a relationship with Dmitry before he decided to pursue Grushenka. Katerina also has feelings towads Ivan, the middle brother. Alyosha's and Lise's line is another love line in the novel. The husband in The Meek One is sure that his wife "…loved [him], or rather-she wanted to love, longed for someone to love" (286) However, not only love is present in all those relationships. One cannot analyze the relationship between men and women in Dostoevsky's works without referring to another strong feeling experienced by his characters towards each other- hate. 80 Chapter 4: The Model of Word Systems-Love and Hate Word Systems ______

4.2. The “hate” word system

As well as the “love” word system, the “hate” word system is of a particular significance in creating the message of the Dostoevskian text. The role of the "hate" word system is important in intensifying the message of the text because almost every time that love is mentioned, the polaric concept of hate is mentioned as well (see Tables 4.1.-4.4.). The “hate” word system is a network of terms which creates a framework of hate, torturing, suffering, humiliation, slavery, domination and dominance hierarchy in the personal relationships between men and women in the entire literary text under the analysis, based on semantic, morphological, phonological, conceptual and associative notions:

1. the morpho-phono-semantic sub-system which combines the words and expressions morphologically, phonologically and semantically related to „hatred‟, 2. the semantic-associative sub-system which refers to the words and expressions related associatively to the notions of 'suffering', 'humiliation' and 'fear'; 3. the semantic-conceptual sub-system which consists of words and expressions that form conceptual semantic field dealing with the notion of „slavery‟, and 4. the semantic-conceptual sub-system which consists of words and expressions that form conceptual semantic field dealing with the notion of 'death'.

4.2.1. The morpho-phono-semantic sub-system

The morpho-phono-semantic sub-system combines the words and expressions morphologically, phonologically and semantically related to the term of „hatred‟.

81 Chapter 4: The Model of Word Systems-Love and Hate Word Systems ______

Table 4.8. The morpho-phono- semantic hate-related sub-system Transliterated English Translation Examples Russian Text 1. nenavidet' to hate 17, 26, 37, 56, 58, 61, 74, 80, 87, 98, 100 2.nenavist' hatred, loathing 18, 35, 42, 82 3.nenavistnij hated, detestable 25, 26, 34, 56 4.voznenavidit' to hate 42,48, 69

Characters in Dostoevsky's novels openly hate each other and don‟t even try to conceal it. Thus, Alexei in The Gambler reflects on his feelings to Polina: "… I hated her. Yes I hated her" (Dostoevsky, 1966:27). The husband in The Meek One says: "Oh, yes, of course, that scene more then convinced me of her hatred for me…" (Dostoevsky, 1971:292). In The Idiot, Ganya "…grew to hate [Nastasya] like poison…" (Dostoevsky, 1970:76). Rogozhin knows that Nastasya "… hates [him] … more than anything" (Dostoevksy, 1970:240). Dostoevsky writes about Myshkin's feelings towards Nastasya in the following way: "Did he love that woman or did he hate her?" (Dostoevsky, 1970:611). Dmitry reveals his feelings towards Katerina in his conversation with Alyosha: "I tell you this sort of thing never happened to me with any woman before, not with one. I mean that I should look at [Katerina] at such a moment with hatred-and I swear to you I looked at her just then for three or five seconds with terrible hatred…" (Dostoevsky, 1958: 132). Katerina, in her turn, also feels hatred towards Dmitry, as she tells Alyosha: "I should have hated him…" (Dostoevsky, 1958: 223).

4.2.2. The semantic-associative sub-system The semantic-associative sub-system refers to the words and expressions related associatively to the notion of suffering, humiliation and fear.

Table 4.9. The semantic-associative suffering-related sub-system Transliterated Russian Text English Translation Examples 1. stradanija, stradat' sufferings, agony 9, 39, 55 2.zlodejstva crimes 13, 14 3.muchitel'no cruelly tormented, poignantly 15, 18 82 Chapter 4: The Model of Word Systems-Love and Hate Word Systems ______

4.muchit' to torture, to give awful time 88, 91, 92, 93, 96 5.oskorbit' to insult 16, 89 6.ssora quarrel 12 7.pobezhdena vanquished 18 8.unizhenija humbled, humiliation 18, 76, 89 9.razdavlena crushed 18 10.presirat' to despise 19, 36, 5378 11.prezrenie contempt 33, 46, 47 12.zloba, zlost' ill-nature, annoyance, malice 25, 2, 46, 61 13.razdrazhenie irritation 25 14.razozlit' to annoy, contempt 20,23, 27,32, 34 15.rasserdica to get angry 21 16.grubit' to behave badly, crudely 20, 28 17.otvrazhenie dislike 32 18. ne ljubit' to dislike, not to love 36, 49, 67,83, 90, 92 19.razljubit' fall out of love 89 20.otomstit', mstit' to wreak one's vengeance upon someone, to 4, 48, 81 revenge 21.muka agony 53, 61, 95 22.sramit' humiliate 58 23.prenebregat' not interested, to ignore 53, 81 24.terpet' ne mogu can't stand 73 25. obvinjaet accuses 1 26.grubost' misli I serdca coarsness of heart and mind 1 27.nesterpimaja bol' unbearable pain 31 28.bojat'sja afraid 6,40, 44, 74 29.strah fear 69, 79 30.kolot' jadovitejshimi to taunt someone with one's bitter and 46 sarkazmami sarcastic words 31.muchitel'nie kolebanija painful hesitations 48 32.vskipiet' to lose one's temper 73 33.moroz po spine a chill ran down one's spine 79 34.mebel' furniture 83 35.kover po kotoromu vi hodite carpet under your feet 83 36.szhat' prezritel'nie gubki to compress one's lips scornfully 81 37.ne bit' schastlivoj not to be happy 84 38.nizko pochitat' think so little of someone 60 39.do nee ne ohotnik not very keen on her 98 40.strogost', strogij ton sterness 2, 6, 8, 11 41.obdat' holodnoj vodoj to dash cold water on someone 8 42.grjaz' sordiness 16 43.ne smotret' to ignore 32 44.suhost' dryness 2 45.ukolot' to hurt 2 46.edkaja nasmeshka sarcastic remark 4 47.nedoverchivij mistrustful 10 48.molchalivij silent 10 49.nehoroshij bad 10 50.holodnij cold 12 51.poroki vices 13 52.opravdanija excuses 14 83 Chapter 4: The Model of Word Systems-Love and Hate Word Systems ______

53.ne primechat' no notice 20 54.surovo i suho with cold severity 22 55.dikost' wildness 23 56.ne nravitsja dislike 23 57.nicytozhestvo insignificance 28, 29

4.2.3. The semantic-conceptual slavery sub-system The semantic-conceptual sub-system consists of words and expressions from conceptual- semantic field dealing with the notion of „slavery‟.

Table 4.10. The semantic-conceptual slavery-related sub-system Transliterated Russian English Translation Examples Text 1.neravenstvo inequality, disparity 7, 18 2.v cepjah to have hold over someone 32 3.rabstvo enslaved, subjection, slavery 28, 29 4.rab slave 28, 96 5.na cepi chained to a wall 64 6.za zheleznoj reshetkoj behind iron bars 64 7.pod palkoj smotritelja with a warder standing over her wit a stick 64 8. bunt revolt 2 9.torzhestvo triumph 2 10.soprotivljat'sja to resist 3 11.moguzhestvo power 5 12.zhestokost' cruelty 43 13.beschelovechnost' inhumanity 43 14.pobeda conquest 48 15.ekspluatirovat' to exploit 48 16.prigovorenij k kazni sentenced to death 52 17.vrag enemy 99 18.stojat' v mol'be stand in awe of someone 9 19.tiran tyrant 15 20.vzbuntuetsja fight 53 21.idti v zapadnju walk into a trap 53 22.vlastnaja imperious 79 23.sila force 93

4.2.4. The semantic-conceptual death related sub-system The semantic-conceptual sub-system consists of words and expressions that form conceptual semantic field dealing with the notion of 'death'.

84 Chapter 4: The Model of Word Systems-Love and Hate Word Systems ______

Table 4.11. The semantic-conceptual death-related sub-system Transliterated Russian Text English Translation Examples 1.umeret' to die 59 2.ubivat', ubit' to knife, to kill 59, 69, 98 3.izmuchit' do smerti to drive to distraction 66 4.pogibnut' to ruin 68 5.bespozhadno mercilessly 93 6.sgubit' to ruin 97 7.pribit' to beat 96 8. utopitsja to drown 59

The feelings of hatred that Dostoevsky's characters experience towards each other are so extreme, that they want to kill, beat, ruin their loved ones and then die by themselves. Thus, Rogozhin is ready to die if Nastasya doesn't forgive him. Nastasya, on the other hand, threatens to knife him. In the end, it is Rogozhin who murders Nastasya out of his mad, insane love.

4.3. “Love” and “hate” word systems

The two major word systems in the language of “the supra text” under the analysis which “nurture the theme and message of the text” (Aphek and Tobin, 1988:2) are two polaric word systems- “love” word system and “hate” word system (Figure 4.2).

Figure 4.2 Love and hate word systems

“Love” word “Hate” word system system

85 Chapter 4: The Model of Word Systems-Love and Hate Word Systems ______

These two polaric word systems are based on the morpho-phonological, morpho- phono-semantic, semantic conceptual and semantic associative variations of the concepts of “love” and “hate”. It is very difficult to differentiate between these two word systems, because their variations appear most of the time in the same context or/and utterance, as can be seen from the examples in Tables 4.1.-4.4. Most of the examples (86 out of 100) contain words and expressions that refer to both word systems- "love" word system and "hate" word system. The merger and convergence of those two word systems is very important in intensifying the message of the text – love and hate are interconnected to such an extent that sometimes they can be merged, combined and confused- because almost every time that love is mentioned, the polaric concept of “hate” is present as well. The theme of a love-hate rivalry for a woman recurs in the novels and short stories of Dostoevsky. In The Idiot it is Myshkin and Rogozhin in competition for Nastasya, with Rogozhin eventually murdering her. The Brothers Karamazov contains several variations on the theme: Dmitry and his father in relation to Grushenka, Dmitry and his brother Ivan in relation to Katerina and others. In The Gambler it is Polina and Alexei who love each other and hate each other at the same time. In A Meek One the husband's relationships to his wife reflect love-hate dualilty of the relations between men and women in the works of Dostoevsky. In all these relationships the same unstable mixture of possessive, mad, insane love, murderous jealousy and self-sacrifice can be found. Dostoevsky's characters are characters of emotional extremes, capable of loving and hating, of tenderness and coldness, of giving and tormenting. Men and women in Dostoevsky behave like "…two bitter enemies in love with one another" (Dostoevsky, 1958:727). They feel a combination of need and rage towards their partners. They experience the need for love on the one hand, while on the other hand they feel the powerful need for revenge, the irresistible urge to pay back a hurt with more hurt, to pass cruelty down the line. Ivan Karamazov puts it that way: "To love a man, it's necessary that he should be hidden, for as soon as he shows his face, love is gone… Theoretically it is still possible to love one's neighbours, and sometimes even from a distance, but at close quarters almost never" (Dostoevsky, 1958, 276-277). In this chapter I have presented the notion of word systems which is defined as “a number of words connected to each other to the point at which they create a tight word system which contains the essence of the text” (Aphek and Tobin, 1988:3). 86 Chapter 4: The Model of Word Systems-Love and Hate Word Systems ______

The message of the Dostoevskian text is integrally connected to the specific language of the text based on the morphological, phonological, semantic, conceptual and associative common denominators of the discovered word systems. The word systems discussed in this chapter include: 1. the "love" word system which is sub-divided into a) morpho-phono-semantic sub- system, b) semantic-associative sub-system and c) semantic- conceptual sub-system; 2. the "hate" word system which consists of a) morpho-phono-semantic sub-system, b) semantic-associative suffering-related sub-system, c) semantic-conceptual slavery sub- system and d)semantic-conceptual death sub-system. The "love" and "hate" word systems presented in my work serve the same communicative functions throughout the Dostoevskian text in order to create the message- love is a constant stuggle for domination of one over another, never bringing peace and happiness- to support the idea that love and hate are interconnected to such an extent that sometimes they can be merged, combined and confused.

87 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

Chapter Five The Model of Word Systems and its Application to the Analysis of the Relationship between Men and Women in Dostoevsky’s Novels- Fantasy and Reality word systems

5.1. The "Fantasy" word system 5.1.1. Morpho-phono-semantic fantasy sub-system 5.1.2. Semantic-associative fantasy sub-system 5.1.3. Semantic-conceptual dream sub-system 5.2. The "Reality" word system 5.2.1. Morpho-phono-semantic reality sub-system 5.2.2. Semantic-associative reality sub-system 5.2.3.Semantic-conceptual realization/understanding sub-system 5.2.4.Morpho-phono-associative truth sub-system

5.3. The "Fantasy" and the "Reality" word systems 5.4. The "Madness" word system 5.4.1. Semantic madness sub-system 5.4.2. Semantic-associative illness sub-system 5.4.3. Semantic conceptual madness sub-system 5.5. Summary

5.1. The “fantasy” word system

The "fantasy" word system is a network of terms which creates the framework of fantasy, imagination and lack of reality in the text.

In Tables 5.1.-5.4. I present the examples of fantasy word system and reality word system (discussed in section 5.2) as they appear in the four texts under the analysis. I randomly chose 100 examples from the larger text which consists of four selected works of Dostoevsky containing either reality or fantasy word system or, as in the majority of the examples, both word systems together.

88 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

Table 5.1.

Examples of the “fantasy” and “reality” word systems in A Meek One Transliterated Russian Text English Translation

1. No ja distvitel'no zanjat byl etoj But this short novel has really kept me povest'ju bol'shuju chast' mesjaca. ( 378) busy for the best part of a month. ( 271) 2. Ja ozaglavil [rasskaz] „fantasticheskim’, I called it (the story) „fantastic’, although I togda kak schitaju ego sam v vishei stepeni consider it real in the highest degree. realnim. No fantasticheskoe tut est' However, actually, there is in it an deistvitelno (378) element of the fantastic…(271) 3.Malo-pomalu on dejstvitel'no ujasnjaet By degrees he does take it all in and sebe delo i sobiraet "misli v tochku". Rjad "focuses his thoughts". A train of memories bysvannyh im vospominanj neotrazimo he has called up bring him at last irresistibly privodit ego nakonec k pravde; Pravda to the truth, and truth irresistibly neotrazimo vozvishaet ego um i serdce…. ? ennobles his heart and mind…. The truth Istina otkryvaetsja neschastnomu dovol'no is revealed to the poor man quite clearly jasno i opredelitel'no, po krajnej mere and definitely, sufficiently for dlja nego samogo. ( 379) himself to see at least. (271)

4.Vot eto predpoloshenie o Now, this supposition relative to the zapisavsheshem vse stenografe i est to, chto ja stenographer who had recorded everything nazivaju v etom raskaze fantasticheskim. is what I denote as fantastic in this story. No otchasti podobnoe uzhe ne raz dopuskalos However, something partly similar to this v iskustve: Viktor Gugo, naprimer, v svoem has been resorted to several times in art. For shedevre upotrebil pochti takoi zhe priem, i example, Victor Hugo in his masterpiece has hot' i ne videl stenografa, no dopustil eshe resorted to an almost identical device; and bolshuju nepravdopodobnost', although he did not portray a stenographer, predpoloshiv, chto prigovorenij k kazni nevertheless he has introduced a still greater moshet vesti zapiski ne tolko v poslednii den unreality when he presumed that a man svoi… . No ne dopusti on etoj fantazii, ne condemned to death would have been able sushestvovalo bi i samogo proizvedenija, - to keep a diary not only on his last day... samogo realnijshego i samogo However, had he not resorted to this fantasy, the work itself would have been pravdivejshego proizvedenija iz vseh im nonexistent- the most and napisanih.(379) realistic verisimilar of all his writings (271).

5.-Vidite,- zametil ja totchas zhe polushutlivo- "You see", I quickly put in half-jokingly and polutainstvenno.- "Ja-ja esm' chast' toj half-mysteriously, "I am part of that chaste celogo, kotoraja hochet delat' zlo, a whole which wants to do evil but does tvorit dobro…" ( 384) good…". (277)

6. Postoite, gospoda, ja vsu shizn nenavidel Just a moment, gentlemen, I have hated the etu kassu sud pervii, no ved v sushnosti, hot' i pawnshop all my life more than anybody smeshno govorit samomu seve tainstvenimi else could, and though it really is absurd to 89 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______frazami, a ja ved 'mstil zhe obzhestvu' talk to oneself in veiled phrases, I was deistvitelno, deistvitelno, really 'revenging myself on society', I deistvitelno! … Nu, a kosvennym was, I was, I was!... Besides, I saw that I namekom' pustiv tainstvennuju frazu, could play on her imagination with a okazalos', chto mozhno podkupit' vague hint here and a mysterious voobrazhenie. ( 387) sentence there (280).

7. Da i nel'zja bylo inache, ja dolzhen byl But then I could not have acted differently, I sozdat' etu sistemu po neotrazimomu was compelled to evolve that system obstojatel'stvu,-chto zh ja, v samom dele, because of one extraordinary circumstance- klevezhu-to na sebja! Sistema byla but really, why am I piling calumny upon istinnaja. (390) myself? The system was correct. ( 283)

8. V zhenzhinah net original'nosti, eto-eto There is no originality in women, that's aksioma, dazhe teper' dlja menja self-evident; it's evident to me even aksioma! Chto zh takoe, chto tam v zale now. What if she is lying on the table there? lezhit: istina est' istina… (393) Truth is truth… (286)

9.Chto zh, ja skazhu pravdy, ja ne pobojus' Very well, I shall speak the truth, I shall stat' pred pravdoj licom k licu: ona not shrik from facing the truth; she was to vinovata, ona vinovata!..(395) blame, she was to blame! (287)

10.Vsja pravda podnjalas' iz ee dushi, i All that was sterling in her soul was negodovanie vyzvalo iz ee serdca roused, and indignation called forth sarcasm sarkazm….Ja kak budto vstretil odno from her heart…It was like encountering znakomoe. Ja kak budto shel zatem, chtob something I already knew. It was as if I had eto vstretit'. Ja shel, nichemu ne verja, expressly gone there to encounter it. I went nikakomu obvineniju, hotja i vzjal revol'ver v there believing nothing, none of the karman,-vot pravda! I mog razve ja accusations, although I did put a revolver in voobrazit' ee druguju? ( 399) my pocket, but it is the truth. Could I have thought of her differently? ( 291-292)

11.Ja prosnulsja razom s polnum I was wide awake at once, with all my soznaniem i vdrug otkrul glaza…i bdrug ja senses alert. I opened my eyes….And vizhu, chto ona stala podvigat'sja ko mne s suddenly I saw her coming towards me, revol'verom v rukah. Ja bistro zakrul glaza i revolver in hand. I quickly closed my eyes pritvorilsja krepko spjazhim. ( 400) pretending I was fast asleep. ( 293)

12.Da, neverojatno. No ona vse-taki mogla Yes, it was incredible. Still, she may have ugadat' i pravdu,-eto-to i blesnulo v ume guessed the truth- this flashed through my moem vdrug, vse v to zhe mgnovenie. (401) mind in the same fleeting instant. ( 293)

13.O, diko, diko! Nedorazumenie! Oh, it's crazy, crazy! It's a Nepravdopodobie! Nevozmozhnost'! misunderstanding! Incredible! …A razve net? Razve eto Impossible!.. Isn't it? Isn't it incredible? 90 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______pravdopodobno? Razve mozhno skazat', Could anyone say that a thing like that was chto eto vozmozhno? Dlja chego, zachem possible? Why did that woman die, what umerla eta zhenzhina? (416) for? ( 309)

14.Net, vse eto-mgnovenie, odno lish' No, it was nothing but a moment, an bezptchetnoe mgnovenie. Vnezapnost' I unaccountable moment. Impulse and fantasija! (418) imagination! ( 311)

Table 5.2.

Examples of the “fantasy” and “reality” word systems in The Gambler Transliterated Russian Text English Translation Alexei to Polina about the grandma:

15.A: Mne kazhetsja, vam ochen' mnogo A: I should think you'll get a great deal dostanetsja,-skazal ja utverditel'no. of money, I said positively. -Da, ona menja ljubila; no pochemu vam P: Yes, she was fond of me; but why eto kazhetsja? (289) should you think so?(24) Polina to Alexei:

16.-Chto'zh, menja deistvitel'no 'Well, the way you fly into a temper razvlekaet, kak vi besites'. Uzhe za odno to, really amuses me. You ought to be chto ja pozvoljaju vam zadat' takie voprosy made to pay for the mere fact that I allow i dogadki, sleduet vam rasplatitsja. ( 291) you to ask such questions and make such suppositions'. ( 26) 17.V poslednee vremja ona vsegda kochala Recently she has always finished a so mnoj razgovor so zloboju i conversation with me full of ill-nature razdrazheniem, s nastojazheju zloboju. and irritation, and the ill-nature is real. (291) (26) 18. Strannoe delo: mne bylo o chem It was strange: I had plenty to think razdumat'sja, a mezhdu tem ja ves' about, and yet I was absorbed in pogruzilsja v analiz ozhuzhenij moih analyzing my feelings for Polina. chustv k Poline. Pravo, mne bylo legche Really, it had been easier for me v eti dve nedeli otsutstvija, chem teper', v during my two weeks' absence than now, den' vozvrazhenija, hotja ja, v doroge, i on the day of my return, although during toskoval kak sumashedshij, metalsja kak my journey I had been as melancholy as ugorelij, i dazhe vo sne pominutno videl a madman, rushing about like one ee pred soboj. Raz (eto bylo v Shvejcerii), possessed and seeing her constantly zasnuv v vagone, ja, kazhetsja, before me, even in my sleep. Once (this zagovoril vsluh s Polinoj… (292) was in Switzerland), falling asleep in a railway-carriage, I apparently began talking out loud to her… ( 26-27) 19. Vse eto ona udivitel'no ponimaet, i She understands all this very well 91 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

mysl' o tom, chto ja vpolne verno i indeed, and the idea that I recognize otchetlivo soznaju ispolnenija moih with full certainty and clarity all fantazij,-eta mysl', ja uveren dostavljaet her inaccessibility to me, all the ej chrezvychainoe naslazhdenie… impossibility of realizing my fantastic (292) dreams- that ida, I am convinced, gives her extraordinary pleasure… (27) 20. P: Dve nedeli nazad vi sami mne P: 'You talked to me for a long time govorili odnazhdy, mnogo i dolgo, o tom, once, two weeks ago, about how you chto vi vpolne uvereny v vyigryshe zdes' were completely convinced you na ruletke, i ubezhdali menja, chtob ja would win here at roulette, and tried to ne smotrela na vas kak na bezumnogo, ili vi persuade me not to think you were togda shutili? No ja pomnju, vi govorili tak mad; or were you joking?-but I ser'ezno, chto nikak nel'zja bylo prinjat' remember you were so serious about it za shutku. that nobody could have taken it for a joke'. A: Eto pravda,-otvechal ja zadumchivo,- ja do sih por uveren vpolne, chto A: 'That's true,' I answered viigraju. ( 311) thoughtfully,'and I'm still completely convinced I shall win'. (44-45) 21. Znaete li vi neverojatnuju vezh': ja Do you know an incredible thing? vas s kazhdym dnem ljublju bol'she, a ved' Every day I love you a thousand times eto pochti nevozmozhno. I posle etogo more, and that's almost impossible, mne ne byt' fatalistom? ( 315) you know. After that, how can I help being a fatalist? (48) 22.I kak ni nelep, kak ni neverojaten And however absurd and unlikely all bil ves' nash razgovor, no serdce u menja our talk had been, my mind wavered. drognulo. ( 317) (50) 23. V poslednee vremja, edak nedeli dve, Recently, for some two weeks, or even dazhe tri, ja chuvstvuju sebja nehorosho: three, I have been feeling unwell: ill, bol'nym, nervnym, razdrazhitel'nym, nervy, irritable, fanciful, and sometimes fantasticheskim i v inyh sluchajah, quite unable to control myself. (55) terjaju sovsem nad soboju volju. (322) Alexei about De-Grieux and Frenchmen in general:

If, for example, he sees the necessity of 24. Esli, naprimer, vidit neobhodimost' byt' being eccentric, not commonplace, fantastichnym, original'nym, original, out- of- the- ordinary, his poneobydennee, to fantazija ego, samja eccentricity, of the silliest and most glupaja i neestestvennaja, slagaetsja iz unnatural kind, will be made up of zaranee prinjatyh i davno uzhe previously adopted and long-since oposhlivshihsja form. Natural'nij zhe vulgarized formulas. The natural francuz sostoit iz samoj mezhanskoj, Frenchman consists of the most melkoj,obydennoj bourgeous, petty, everyday polozhitel'nosti…(326) stodginess…(59) 25.… deijstvitel'no v poslednee vremja …as recently I really had been feeling 92 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

ja chuvstvuju sebja nezdorovym, unwell, unsettled and, so to speak, rasstroennym i, tak skazat', fanciful… (61) fantasticheskim…(328) Alexei about Polina's relationship with De-Grieux:

Of course, the relations between them 26. Konechno, ih otnoshenija i vsegda dlja have always been enigmatic to me menja byli zagadkoju s samogo nachala, from the very beginning, from the time s teh por kak ja ih znat' nachal. (332) when I first knew them. (64-65) Alexei to Astley about his relationship to Polina:

27.…Polina i vsegda byla dlja menja …Polina has always been an enigma to me- so much so that now, for example, zagadkoj,- do togo zagadkoj, chto, having embarked on telling Mr. Astley naprimer, teper‟, pustivshis‟ rasskazyvat‟ the story of the whole course of my love, vsju istoriju moej ljubvi misteru Astleju, ja I had been struck by the fact that I could vdrug, vo vremja samogo rasskaza, byl say hardly anything and porazhen tem, chto pochti nichego ne mog precise skazat‟ o moih onoshenijah s neju positive about my relations with her. On the contrary, it was all fanciful, tochnogo i polozhitel‟nogo. Naprotiv strange, insubstantial and not even togo, vse bylo fantasticheskoe, remotely like anything else. (67) strannoe, neosnovatel’noe i dazhe ni na chto ne pohozhee. (335) 28.Polina nikogda ne byla so noju vpolne Polina has never trusted me completely. doverchiva. Hot' i sluchalos', pravda, Even though it is true that at times she chto ona otkryvala mne podchas, kak by has chanced to open her heart to me, nevol'no, svoe serdce, no ja zametil, chto involuntarily, as it were, yet I have chasto, da pochto i vsegda, posle etih noticed that often, indeed almost always, otkrytij ili v smeh obratit vse skazanooe, after such relations she will either turn all ili zaputaet i s namereniem pridast vsemu she has said into a jest or deliberately lozhnij vid. O! Ona mnogoe skryvala! Vo give it an appearance of falseness and vsjakom sluchae, ja predchuvstvoval, chto confusion…In any case, I felt that the podhodit final vsego etogo denouement of this whole tense and tainstvennogo i naprjazhennogo mysterious situation was approaching. sostojanija…. O svoej uchasti, tozhe vo (98) vsem zainteresovannyj, ja pochti ne zabotilsja. ( 366) Alexei about Polina:

29.Mne hochetsja proniknut' v ee tajny; I want to fathom her secrets, I should mne hotelos' by, chtoby ona prishla ko like her to come to me and say, 'I love mne i skazala:"Ved' ja ljublju tebja", a esli you,' and if not, if that is inconceivable net, esli eto bezumstvo nemyslimo, to madness, then…well, what do I wish for? togda…mu, da chego pozhelat'? Razve ja How am I to know what I want? I am znaju, chego zhelaju? Jas am kak helpless and hopeless; I only know I must poterjanij; mne tol'ko by byt' pri nej, v ee be near her, in her aura, in her 93 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

oriole, v ee sijanii, navechno, vsegda, radiance, always, for ever, all my life. vsju zhizn'. ( 367) (98-99) 30.Katastrofa, priblizhenie kotoroj ja togda The catastrophe, the imminence of which predchuvstvoval, nastupila I then foresaw, really did occur, but it dejstvitel’no, no vo sto raz kruche i was of an infinitely more violent and neozhidannee, chem ja dumal. Vse eto unlooked-for-kind than I expected. It bylo nechto strannoe, bezobraznoe i was all strange, ugly and even tragic, at dazhe tragicheskoe, no po krajnej mere so any rate for me. Certain things happened mnoj. Sluchilis‟ so mnoju nekotorye to me that were almost miraculous; at proisshestvija- pochti chudesnye; tak po least that is how I still think of them, krajnej mere ja do sih por gljazhy na nih,- although from another point of view, and hotja na drugoj vzgljad i osobeno sudja po especially in relation to the dizzu whirl krugovorotu, v kotorom ja togda kruzhilsja, of events in which I was involved at the oni byli tol‟ko chto razve ne sovsem time, they were no more than a little obyknovennye. No chudesnee vsego out of the ordinary. But the most dlja menja to, kak ja sam otnessja ko vsem extraordinary thing for me is my own etim sobytijam. Do sih por ne ponimaju attitude to all those happenings. I still sebja! I vse eto proletelo kak son,- dazhe don‟t understand it to this day! And it all strast‟ moja, a ona ved‟ byla sil‟na i passed like a dream, even my passion, istinna, no… kuda zhe ona teper‟ delas‟? and it really was strong and sincere, (382-383) but…what has become of it now? (114) 31.Tochno uzh tak dorogi mne etot As though that formless dream and all bezobraznyj son i vse ostavshiesja po nem the impressions it has left behind was so vpechatlenija, chto ja dazhe bojus' dear to me that I am afraid to let it be dotronut'sja do nego chem-nibud' novym, touched by anything new, lest it should chtoby on ne razletelsja v dym! ( 383) vanish into thin air!(115) 32.U nij tajna- eto jasno! ( 389) She has a secret- that's plain. ( 121) 33.Da, inogda samaja dikaja mysl‟, Yes, sometimes the wildest notion, the samaja s vidu nevozmozhnaja mysl‟, do most apparently impossible idea, takes togo sil‟no ukrepljaetsja v golove, chto ee such a firm hold of the mind that at prinimaesh, nakonez, za chto-to length it is taken for something osuzhestvimoe…Malo togo: esli ideja realizable… More than that: if the soedinjaetsja s sil'nym, strastnym idea coincides with a strong and zhelaniem, to, pozhaluj, inoj raz primesh‟ passionate desire, it may sometimes be ee, nakonez, za nechto fatal‟noe, accepted as something predestined, neobhodimoe, prednaznachenoe, za nechto inevitable, fore-ordained, something takoe, chto uzhe ne mozhet ne byt’ i that cannot but exist or ne sluchit’sja! Mozhet byt‟, tut est‟ ezhe happen! Perhaps there is some reason chto-nibud‟, kakaja-nibud‟ kombinazija for this, some combination of predchuvstvij, kakoe-nibud‟ presentiments some extraordinary neobyknovennoe usilie voli, exertion of will-power, some self- samootravlenie sobstvennoj fantaziej ili intoxication of the imagination, or ezhe chot-nibud‟,- ne znaju; no so mnoju v something else- I don‟t know: but on that etot vecher( kotoryj ja nikogda v zhizni ne evening (which I shall never forget as pozabudu) sluchilos‟ proisshestvie long as I live) something miraculous chudesnoe. Ono hot‟ i sovershenno happened to me. Although it is opravdyvaetsja arifmetikoju, no completely capable of mathematical tem ne menee- dlja menja ezhe do sih por proof, nevertheless to this day it chudesnoe. I pochemu, pochemu eta 94 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

uverennost‟ tak glubolo, krepko zasela remains for me a miraculous togda vo mne, i uzhe s takih davnih por? happening. And why, why, was that Uzh, verno, ja pomyshljal ob etom,- certainty so strongly and deeply rooted in povtorjau vam,- ne kak o sluchae, kotoryj me, and from such a long time ago? I mozhet byt’ v chisle prochih ( a stalo used, indeed, to think of it, I repeat, not byt‟, mozhet i ne byt’), no kak o chem- as one event among others that might to takom, chto nikak uzh ne mozhet ne happen (and consequently might also sluchit’sja! ( 396-397) not happen), but as something that could not possibly fail to happen! ( 128) 34.Pomnju tol'ko, kak vo sne, chto ja uzhe I only recall, as if it was a dream, that I viigral, kazhetsja, tysjach' shestnadcat' had already won, I think, about sixteen florinov…(399) thousand florins…(130) 35. I chem bol'she nenavidit ona And the more she hates the present de tepershnego De-Grie, tem bol'she toskuet o Grieux, the more she hankers after the prezhnem, hot' prezhnij i suzhestvoval old one, although the old one only tol'ko v ee voobrazhenii. ( 430) existed in her imagination. (160)

Table 5.3.

Examples of the “fantasy” and “reality” word systems in The Idiot Transliterated Russian Text English Translation 36.A ved' glavnaja, samaja sil'naja bol', Yet the chief and the worst pain is mozhet, ne v ranah, a vot chto vot znaesh' perhaps not inflicted by wounds, but by naverno, chto vot cherez chas, potom your certain knowledge that in an cherez desjat' minut, potom cherez hour, in ten minutes, in half a minute, polminuty, potom teper', vot seijchas- now, this moment your soul will fly out dusha iz tela viletit, i chto chelovekom uzh of your body, and that you will be a bol'she ne budesh', i chto eto uzh human being no longer, and that that's naverno; glavnoe to, chto naverno. certain-the main thing is that it is Vot kak golovu kladesh pod samij nosh i certain. Just when you lay your head slishish', kak on skliznet nad golovoj, vot under the knife and you hear the swish of eti-to chetvert' sekundy vsego i strashnee. the knife as it slides down over your Znaete li, chto eto ne moja fantazija, a head- it is just that fraction of a second chto tak mnogie govorili? Ja do togo etomu that is the most wawful of all. Do you verju, chto prjamo vam skazhy moe realize that is not only my imagination, mnenie. (26) but that many people have said the same? I am so convinced of it that I will tell you frankly what I think. ( 47) 37.Na portrete byla izobrazhena The portrait was indeed of an dejstvitel'no neobyknovennoj extraordinarily beautiful woman. ( 56) krasoty zhenshina. ( 35) 38.On [General Yepanchin]dazhe dostig He [general Yepachin] even succeeded in togo, chto sklonil i Lizavety Prokofjevnu k persuading his wife to accept his 'system', 95 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

svoej sisteme, hotja delo voobzhe bylo though it was a difficult business trudnoe,-trudnoe potomu, chto i altogether, difficult because it was so neestestvennoe; no argument generala unnatural; but the general's arguments byli chrezvichajno znachitelni, were extremely impressive, being based osnovuvalis' na osjazaemyh faktah… No on palpable facts….But among all these sredi vseh etih neotrazimyh faktov incontestable facts, another fact nastupil i ezhe odin fakt: starshej docheri, confroned the fond parents: their eldest Alexandre, vdrug i sovsem pochti daughter Alexandra suddenly and almost neozhidanno…minulo dvadcat' pjat' let. quite unexpectedly…reached the age (44) of twenty-five. (64) 39. On [Totsky] pripominal, vprochem, i He [Totsky] remembered, though, that prezhde mgnovenija, kogda inogda before, too, there were moments when, strannye mysli prihodoli emu pri for instance, strange thoughts occurred vzgljade, naprimer, na eti glaza: kak by to him as he looked at those eyes; he predchuvstvoval v nih kakoj-to glubokij i seemed to feel the presence of some deep tainstvennij mrak. Etot vzgljad gljadel- and mysterious darkness in them. Her tochno zadaval zagadku. ( 51) eyes looked at him as though they were asking a riddle. ( 70) 40. Emu [to Totsky] pokazalos' It seemed to him that there was only one vozmozhnym odno tol'ko objasnenie, possible explanantion, namely, that the chto gordost' 'oskorblennoj i pride of that 'humiliated and fantastic fantasticheskoj zhenzhiniy' dohodit woman' had reached such a pitch of uzhe do takogo isstuplenija, chto ej skoree frenzy that she would much rather prijatnee viskazat' raz svoe prezrenie v express her contempt for him by a refusal otkaze, chem navsegda opredilit' svoe than regularize her position and achieve a polozhenie i dostignut' nedosjagaemogo state of unrivalled magnificence. (71) velichija. (52) From the Prince's conversation with Yepachin's daughters:

'Modest, aren't you?' said Aglaya, 41.-Skromno!- skazala Aglaja, pochti looking almost irritated. razdrazhajas'. 'But how brave you are! You're laughing, -A kakie, odnakozhe, vi hrabrie, bot vi but I was so struck by that man's story smeetes', a menja tak vse eto porazilo v that I dreamt about it afterwards, I ego rasskaze, chto ja potom vo sne videl, mean, of those five minutes…' (88) imenno eti pjat' minut videl…(71-72) 42. Mari vse vremja bila v dremote, son Marie was drowsy all the time, her u nej byl bespokojnij: ona uzhasno sleep was restless; she coughed kashljala. ( 84-85) dreadfully. (100)

43.-Krasotu trudno sudit'; ja ezhe ne 'It is difficult to pass judgement on prigotovilsja. Krasota-zagadka. beauty. I'm afraid I am not ready yet. Beauty is a riddle.' -Eto znachit, chto vi Aglae zagadali zagadku,-skazala Adelaida,-razgadaj-ka, 'That means that you've set Aglaya a Aglaja. (89) riddle,'said Adelaida. 'Guess it, Aglaya!' (105) 96 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

44. U nego [Prince] nachinala mel'kat' A strange, though still rather vague, odna strannaja ideja, vprochem ezhe ne idea was beginning to take shape in his sovsem jasnaja. (90) head. (106) 45. Dolzhno bit', on [Gavrila] He did not apparently draw his salary dejstvitel'no ne darom bral zhalovan'e from the joint-stock company for iz akcionernogo obzhestva. ( 91) nothing. (106) About Prince's reaction to Nastasya's portrait:

He seemed anxious to solve some 46. Emu kak bi hotelos' razgadat' chto-to mystery that was hidden in that face skrivavsheesja v etom lice i porazivshee and that had struck him before. The ego davecha. Daveshnee vpechatlenie impression it had made on him had pochti ne ostavljalo ego, i teper' on speshil scarcely left him, and he seemed to be in kak bi chto-to vnov' proverit'. Eto a hurry to verify it. He was even more neobiknovennoe po svoej krasote i struck now by the extraordinary ezhe po chemu-to lico sil'nee ezhe porazilo beauty of her face and by something else ego teper'. ( 92) in it. (107) 47. Delo nevozmozhnoe! Delo dazhe, The whole case was absurd! Indeed, I'll mozhno skazat', tainstvennoe… …no go as far as to say that it was a real sluchaij neozhidanij, pochti mystery!.. … the whole thing was quite nevozmozhnij. (112-113) unexpected, almost impossible, in fact. (125-126) From the conversation between Nastasya Filippovna and Prince:

'And how did you recognize me?' 48.N: A kak zhe vi menja uznali, chto eto ja? 'From the portrait and …' P: Po portretu i… 'And?' N: I ezhe? 'And also because I imagined you to be P: I ezhe potomu, chto takoju vas imenno i like that….I, too, seemed to have seen you somewhere.' voobrazhal…Ja vas tozhe budto videl gde-to. 'Where? Where?' N: Gde?Gde? 'I seem to have seen your eyes P: Ja vashi glaza tochno gde-to videl…da somewhere-but that's impossible! I'm afraid I-you see, I've never been here etogo bit' ne mozhet! Eto ja tak… Ja before. Perhaps in a dream… (134) zdes' nikogda i ne bil. Mozhet bit', vo sne… (122)

49.V etu samuju minute proishodilo to, What was happening now had for the chto snilos' emu v eti dva mesjaca tol'ko past two months been his nightmare, po nocham, v vide koshmara, i ledenilo sending an icy chill down his spine and ego uzhasom, szhigalo stidom: proizoshla making him burn with shame: at last the 97 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

nakonec, semejnaja vstrecha ego roditelja s meeting between his father and Nastasya Nastasjej Filipovnoj. ( 123) Filippovna had taken place. (135) When Rogozhin comes to visit Ganya and meets unexpectedly Nastya there:

„Hello, Ganya, you dirty dog!‟ Rogozhin 50.- Zdrastvuj, Gan‟ka, podlez! Chto, ne repeated on reaching the drawing-room, zhdal Parfena Rogozhina?- povtoril stopping in the doorway before Rogozhin, dojdja do gostinnoj i Ganya.‟Didn‟t expect to see Parfyon ostanavlivajas‟ v dverjah protiv Gani. No v Rogozhin, did you?‟ But at that moment etu minutu on vdrug razgljadel v gostinoj, he caught sight of Nastasya Filippovna, prjamo protiv sebja, Nastas‟ju Filipovnu. who sat facing him in the doorway. It had Ochevidno, u nego i v pomyslah ne bylo clearly never occurred to him that he vstretit‟ ee zdes‟, potomu chto vid ee might meet her there, for the sight of her proizvel na nego neobyknovennoe produced an extraordinary impression vpechatlenie; on tak poblednel, chto dazhe upon him; he turned so pale that his lips guby ego posineli.- Stalo byt‟, pravda!- went blue. „So, it‟s true,‟he said quietly progovoril on tiho i kak by pro sebja, s as though to himself, looking utterly sovershenno poterjannymvidom, konez! ... confounded. „That‟s the end! Well,‟he Nu…Otvetish‟ zhe ty mne teper‟! – snarled suddenly, looking at Ganya in a proskezhetal on bdrug, s neistovoju zloboj towering rage,‟I‟ll make you pay for this! smotrja na Ganju. ( 131) Oh- damn!‟(142) 51.On [Ganya] vorotilsja smuzhenij, He came back, looking confused and zadumchivij; tjazhelaja zagadka thoughtful; a heavy perplexity lay on lozhilas' emu na dushu… (136) his heart…(147) About Nastasya Filippovna:

52.S kakoj zhe vi stati skazali ej prjamo v What then made you tell her to her face glaza, chto ona 'ne takaja'. I, kazhetsja, that she was not 'like that'? I believe you ugadali. Okazalos', cjto i dejstvitel'no, are right. It seems she really isn't like mozhet bit', ne takaja. ( 138) that. (149) Ganya to his sister about Nastasya:

53.Ona ved' ne takaja. Ona vidish' kakie 'But she isn't at all like that. You see the zagadki zagadivaet! Fokusi!- i Ganja sort of riddles she poses. It's all zlobno zasmejalsja. (139) tricks !' - and Ganya laughed spitefully. (150) 54.Mne kazhetsja, chto vi govorite I think that what you say is true, only pravdu, no tol'ko ochen' you exaggerate a lot', said the prince, preuvelichivaete,-skazal knjaz', who really was blushing for some deijstvitel'no otchego-to pokrasnevshij. reason. (176) (168) 55.-A ja-to emu davecha dvadcat' pjat' 'And I gave him a loan of twenty-five celkovih ssudil, bednjazhke, ha-ha-ha! roubles this morning-the poor fellow, ha, Fantasmagorija, da i tol'ko!-pochti ha, ha! It's fantastic!' cried the general, oshelomlenij ot izumlenija progovoril almost thunderstruck with 98 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

general…Delo, stalo bit', predstavljalos' amazement…The whole thing therefore uzhe vtroe bolee sumashedshim i became three times as mad and neobiknovennim, chem prezhde. (192) extraordinary as before. ( 198) Myshkin after an encounter with Rogozhin:

He took a ticket for Pavlovsk and waited 56.On vzjal bilet v Pavlovsk i s impatiently for the train; but there could neterpeniem speshil uehat‟; no, uzh be no doubt that he was being followed, konechno, ego chto-to presledovaolo, i eto and this was no longer a delusion, as he byla , a ne fantazija, dejstvitel’nost’ had been inclined to think, but a kak, mozhet byt‟, on naklonen byl dumat‟. . (256) (254) reality Myshkin‟s thoughts about his epilepsic condition:

These vague expressions seemed to him 57.V tom zhe, chto eto deistvitel’no very comprehensible, though rather “krasota I molitva”, chto eto weak. But that it really was „beauty and dejstvitel’no “vysshij sintez zhizni”, v prayer‟, that it really was „the highest etom on somnevat‟sja ne mog, da i synthesis of life, he could not doubt, not somnenij ne mog dopustit‟. Ved‟ ne even admit the possibility of doubt. For it videnija zhe kakie-nibud‟ snilis’ emu v was not abnormal and fantastic visions etot moment, kak ot gashisha, opiuma ili he saw at that moment, as under the vina, unizhajuzhie rassudok i influence of hashish, opium, or spirits, iskazhajuzhie dushu, nenormal‟nyje i which debased the reason and distorted nesuzhestvujuzhie? Ob etom on the mind. He could reason sanely about zdravo mog sudit’ po okonchanii it when the attack was over and he was boleznennogo sostojanija. ( 256) well again. ( 258-259) 58.…ego cgto-to presledovalo, i eto bila …this was no longer a delusion, as he deistvitelnost, a ne fantasia, kak had been inclined to think, but a moshet bit, on naklonen bil dumat. (258) reality. 59. Bilo tut, v etih slishkom vnezapnih There was something very mysterious slovah ego nechto slishkom and very subjective in these sudden tainstvennoe i slishkom words, something that he perhaps did not subjectivnoje, moshet bit i emu samomu understand himself, but that undoubtedly nejasnoje, no uzhe nesomneno ego worried him. muchivshee. (277) About Myshkin‟s thoughts:

60. I pust', pust' zdes' sovsem zabudut ego. And let them- let them all forget him O, eto dazhe nuzhno, dashe luchshe, esli b entirely here. Oh, that was indeed i sovsem ne znali ego i vse eto videnie necessary, and it would have been better bilo bi v odnom tolko sne. Da i ne vse li if they had not known him at all and if all ravno, chto vo sne, chto najavu. ( 392) this had been just a dream. But was it not the same whether it was real or a 99 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

dream? ( 383) About Prince‟s meeting Rogozhin:

61. No minutu spustja on vdrug bistro i But a minute later he suddenly began bespokoino stal ozirat‟sja krugom; eto looking round rapidly and uneasily; the pervoe videnie moglo bit‟ predvestnikom first appartition might be the i predshestvennikom vtorogo videnija. forerunner of the second. That was Eto dolzhno bylo bit‟ naverno. ( 393) almost certain to be so. (384) From the conversation between the Prince and the General:

'…how do you suppose it can be 62 G: Chem zhe eto objasnit', po –tvoemu, explained except that half of it is a krome togo, chto napolovinu delo-mirazh, delusion and doesn't exist, that it is ne suzhestvuet, vrode togo, kak, something like-er-moonshine or-other naprimer, svet luni…ili drugie kinds of specters.' prividenija. 'She is mad', murmured the prince, P: Ona pomeshannja,-probormotal knjaz, suddenly remembering with pain all that vdrug pripomniv, s bol'ju, vse davneshnee. had happened recently. (393) ( 404)

From the Ippolit's letter:

63. V tom zhe, chto eto deijstvitel'no That it really was Rogozhin and not a sam Rogozhin, a ne videnie, ne bred, ja phantom or a hallucination I had no snachala niskol'ko ne somnevalsja… doubt whatever at first. Indeed, the idea Vdrug mne predstavilas' misl': chto esli eto of doubting it never occurred to me. ne Rogozhin, a tol'ko videnie? …Suddenly the idea occurred to me: what if it isn't Rogozhin but just a Ni v bolezni moej i nikogda prezhde ja ne phantom? videl ezhe ni razu ni odnogo prividenija; no mne vsegda kazalos', ezhe kogda ja bil Neither during mu illness nor before it mal'chikom, i dazhe teper', to est' nedavno, have I ever seen a ghost; but I always chto esli ja uvizhu hot' raz prividenije, to felt, even as a boy and even now-that is, tut zhe na meste umru, dazeh nesmotrja na quite recently- that if I ever saw a ghost, to chto ja ni v kakie prividenija ne verju. I should die on the spot, though I don't (465-466) believe in ghosts. ( 448-449) 64. Kogda Keller obhvatil Ippolita, tot upal When Keller seized Ippolit, that latter emu na ruki, tochno bez pamjati, mozhet collapsed into his arms, as though he bit' deijstvitel'no voobrazhaja, chto were unconscious, and perhaps really on uzhe ubit. ( 477) imagining that he was killed. ( 459) 65. On [Prince] zabilsja na skamejke, no He dropped off on the seat, but his trevoga ego prodolzhalas' i vo sne…. Emu anxiety did not leave him in his prisnilos' ochen' mnogo snov, i vse sleep…He dreamt many dreams; all trevozhnih' ot kotorih on pominutno of them were troubled, and they made vzdragival. (481) him start every moment. (463) 100 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

Aglaya and Myshkin about Aglaya‟s relations with Ganya:

„I love Ganya,‟ she said, speaking 66. A: Ja ljublju Gavrily rapidly, but almost inaudibly, and Ardalionovicha…- progovorila ona lowering her head still more. skorogovorkoj, no chut‟ slyshno i ezhe bol‟she nakloniv golovu. „That‟s not true,‟the prince said, also almost in a whisper. M: Eto nepravda,- progovoril knjaz tozhe pochti shepotom. „So I‟m lying, am I? It is true. I -A: Stalo bit‟, ja lgu? Eto pravda; ja promised to marry him the day before yesterday on this very seat.‟ dala emu slovo, tret‟ego dnja, na etoj samoj skamejke. The prince was startled, and thought for a moment: Knjaz‟ ispugalsja i na mgnovenie zadumalsja. „That‟s not true,‟ he repeated, M: Eto nepravda,-povtoril on decisively. „You‟ve just make it all reshitel‟no,- vi vse eto vidumali. ( 490- up’. (471) 491) Aglaya to Myshkin about her lies about her relationship to Ganya:

67.-Znaete, dlja chego ja seichas „You know why I told you that lie just now? She suddenly turned to the prince solgala?-vdrug obernulas‟ ona k knjazju s with child-like trustfulness and her lips samoju detskoju doverchivost‟ju i ezhe so still quivering with laughter. „Because if, smehom, drozhavshim na ee gubah,- when you tell a lie, you skillfully put in potomu chto kogda lzhesh’, to esli lovko vstavish‟ chto-nibud‟ something not quite ordinary- something eccengtric, I mean, something, ekszentricheskoe, nu, znaete, chto- nibud‟, chto uzh slishkom rezko ili dazhe you know that very rarely or even never sovsem ne byvaet, to lozh’ stanovitsja happens- it sounds much more . I‟ve noticed that. Only it gorazdo verojatnee. Eto ja zametila. U plausible menja tol‟ko durno vyshlo, potomu chto ja didn‟t come off with me because I didn‟t ne sumela… ( 491) know how to do it.‟ (472) Aglaya and Myshkin:

68.- Tak eto pravda? Vi „So it‟s true? You really could talk to deistvitel’no mogli s neju (Nastasya her about me and-and how could you Fillipovna) obo mne govorit‟ i… i kak have fallen in love with me when you had mogli vi menja poljubit‟ kogda vsego odni only seen me once?‟ raz menja videli? -Ja ne znaju kak. V moem togdashnem „I don‟t know how. In that murky mrake mne mechtalas’…merezhilas’, darkness I dreamed-I seemed to mozhet bit’, novaja zarja. Ja ne znaju kak catch a glimpse of a new dawn. I don‟t podumal o vas ob pervoj. Ja pravdu vam know how it was that I thought of you togda napisal, chto ne znaju. Vse eto byla first of all. It was the truth I wrote you 101 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

tol‟ko mechta, ot togdashnego uzhasa… then that I didn‟t know. It was all just a dream- a way of escape from the horror … of that time…

…

„If you say,‟ she began in an unsteady -Esli by govorite,-nachala ona netverdym voice,‟if you youself believe that that- golosom,-elsi vy sami verite, chto woman of yours is- is mad, then I have eto…vasha zhenzhina…bezumnaja, to mne nothing to do with her insane ved‟ dela net do ee bezumnyh fantazij… delusions… … … -Vi ne mozhete tak chuvstvovat‟…eto „You can‟t feel like that-it‟s not true!‟ nepravda!-bormotal on. „It‟s true! True!‟ screamed Aglaya, -Eto Pravda! Pravda!- vskrichala almost beside herself. Aglaya, pochti ne pomnja sebja. „What is it? What is true?‟ a frightened -Chto takoe pravda? Kakaja pravda?- voice near them asked. razdalsja podle nih ispuganij golos. Mrs. Yepachin stood before them. Pred nimi stojala Lizaveta Prokof‟evna. „It‟s true that I‟m going to marry Mr -To pravda, chto ja za Gavrilu Ivolgin! That I love Mr Ivolgin and I‟m Ardalionovicha zamuzh idu! Chto ja going to elope with him to-morrow!‟ … Gavrily Ardalionovicha ljublju i begu s (475-476) nim zavtra zhe iz domu!... ( 496) Nastasya‟s letters to Myshkin:

69. Eti pis‟ma tozhe pohodili na son. The letters were also like a bad dream. Inogda snjatsja strannye sny, Sometimes one dreams strange nevozmozhnie i neestestvennye; dreams, impossible and grotesquie probuzhdajas’, vi pripominaete ih dreams; on waking you remember jasno i udivljaetes‟ strannomu faktu: them distinctly and you are amazed at vy pomnite prezhde vsego, chto razum a strange fact. To begin with, you ne ostavljal vas vo vse prodolzhenije remember that your reason never vashego snovidenija…No pochemu zhe deserted you all through the dream… v to zhe samoe vremja razum vash mog But why does your reason at the same pomirit‟sja s takimi ochevidnymi time reconcile itself with such obvious nelepostjami i nevozmozhnostjami, absurdities and impossibilities with kotorimi, mezhdu prochim, bil splosh‟ which, among other things, your dream napolnen vash son?...Vi usmehaetes‟ was crowded? … You smile at the neleposti vashego sna i chuvstvuete v to absurdity of your dream, and at the zhe vremja, chto v spletenii etih same time you feel that in the nelepostej zakluchaetsja kakaja-to intermingling of those absurdieties mysl‟, no mysl‟ uzhe dejstvitel’naja, some idea lies hidden, but an idea that is nechto prinadlezhazhee k vashej real, something belonging to your true nastojazhej zhizni, nechto life, something that exists and has suzhestvujuzhee i vsegda always existed in your heart… ( 492) suzhestvovavshee v vashem serdze… 102 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

(513-514) 70. On [The Prince] poshel po doroge, He walked along the road skirting the ogibajuzhej park, k svoej dache. Serdce park towards his own house. His heart ego stuchalo, misli putalis', i vse krugom was pounding, his thoughts in a tangle, nego kak bi pohodilo na son. I vdrug, tak and everything round him seemed to be zhe kak i davecha, kogda on oba raza like a dream. And suddenly, just before prosnulsja na odnom i tom zhe videnii, when he had twice awakened at the to zhe videnie opjat' predstalo emu… same apparition in his dream, the 'Net, eto ne videnie!' ( 519) very same apparition again appeared before him…'No, it is not an apparition!' (497) 71. Pisateli v svoih romanah i In their novels and stories writers povestjah bol'sheju chastiju starajutsja mostly try to pick out certain social types brat' tipi obzhestva i predstavljat' ih and represent them imaginatively and obrazno i hudozhestvenno,-tipi, artistically-types one rarely comes chrezvichaino redko vstrechajuzhiesja v across in real life in the way they are dejstvitel'nosti celikom, i kotorie tem represented in fiction and which ne menee pochti dejstvitel'nee samoj nevertheless are more real than real dejstvitel'nosti. ( 521) life. (499) 72.-O, eto tak!-vskrichal knjaz',-eta misl' i 'Oh, that's true! Cried the prince. 'I too, menja porazhala i dazhe nedavno. Ja znaju was struck by the same thought quite odno istinnoe ubijstvo za chasi, ono recently. I know of a genuine case of uzhe teper' v gazetah. Pust' bi vidumal eto murder for the sake of a watch-it's in the sochinitel',-znatoki narodnoj zhizni i papers now. If some novelist had kritiki totchas zhe kriknuli bi, chto eto invented it, the critics and experts on neverojatno; a prochtja v gazetah kak the life of our peasants would at once fakt, vi chuvstvuete, chto iz takih-to have cried out that it was improbable. imenno faktov pouchaetes' russkoj But when you read it in the newspapers as a , you can't help feeling that dejstvitel'nosti. ( 562) fact such facts give you an insight into Russian life. (537) 73. Mozhet bit'…ona [Varvara], Perhaps…she had divined what was predugadala to, chto dolzhno bilo bound to happen in the near future; sluchit'sja v blizkom buduzhem; mozhet perhaps disappointed about her dream bit', ogorchivshis' iz-za razletevsheisja (in which she didn't, as a matter of dimom mechti ( v kotoruju i sama, po fact, believe herself) which had pravde, ne verila), ona, kak chelovek, come to nothing, she, being human, ne mogla otkazat' sebe v udovol'stvii… ( could not deny herself the pleasure… ( 572) 546) 74. Davneshnie "fantasticheskie" misli i His recent 'fantastic' notions (after his opasenija ego [Prince] (posle razgovora s conversation with Lebedev) seemed to Lebedevim) kazalis' emu teper', pri him now, when he recalled them again vnezapnih, no chastih pripominanijah, and again, an inconceivable, takim nesbitochnim, nevozmozhnim i impossible, and even absurd dream! dazhe smeshni snom! (I bez togo pervim, (And, anyway, his first, though hotja i bessoznatel'nim, zhelaniem i unconscious, impulse and desire all day vlecheniem ego, davecha i vo ves' den', had been to do everyting in his power to 103 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

bilo-kak-nibud' sdelat' tak, chtobi ne disbelieve that dream!) (579) poverit' etomu snu!) ( 609) 75. Mozhno li poverit', chto posle It seems incredible, but after what Agaya vcherashnih slov Aglai v nego [Prince] had told him the night before, he was vselilos' kakoe-to neizgladimoe obsessed by a sort of unshaken ubezhdenie, kakoe-to udivitel'noe i conviction, a sort of curious and nevozmozhnoe predchuvstvie, chto on absurd presentiment that he would most nepremenno i zavtra zhe razob'jet etu certainly break the vase… (589) vazu… ( 619) Nastasya‟s and Aglaya‟s meeting:

76. Knjaz‟, kotorij ezhe vchera ne The prince, who the day before would poveril by vozmozhnosti uvidet‟ eto not have believed it possible to see dazhe vo sne, teper‟ stojal, smotrel i it even in a dream, now stood, looked slushal, kak bi vse eto on davno uzhe and listened as though he had foreseen it predchuvstvoval. Samij fantasticheskij long ago. The most fantastic dream son obratilsja vdrug v samuju jarkuju i became suddenly transformed into the rezko oboznachivshujusja most vivid and sharply defined dejstvitel’nost’. (640-641) reality. (609) After Prince‟s decision to marry Nastasya and leave Aglaya:

The story was so richly embellished with 77. Anekdot do togo stanovilsja izukrashen scandalous details, so many well-known skandalalmi, do togo mnogo vmeshano and eminent people were involved in it, bylo v nego izvestnyh i znachitel‟nyh liz, do togo pridano bylo emu raznyh and so many fantastic and enigmatic twists were given to it, while on the other fantasticheskih i zagadochnyh hand, it was presented with such ottenkov, a s drugoj storony, on predstavljalsja v takih incontroversible and convincing neoproverzhimyh i nagljadnyh facts, that the general interest and faktah, chto vseobzhee ljubopytstvo i gossip were, of course, very pardonable. ( 617) spletni byli, konechno ochen‟ izvinitel‟ny. ( 649) 78. Knjaz‟ , odnakozhe, ne umer do svoej The prince did not, however, die before svad‟by, ni najavu, ni „vo sne’, kak his wedding, either when awake or „in predskazal Evgeniju Pavlovichu. ( 661) sleep’, as he predicted to Radomsky. (628)

104 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

Table 5.4. Examples of the “fantasy” and “reality” word systems in The Brothers Karamazov Transliterated Russian Text English translation

79.…Alesha bil dazhe bol'she chem kto- …Alyosha was more of a realist than nibud', realistom. O, konechno, v anyone. Oh, of course, in the monastery monastire on sovershenno veroval v he fully believed in miracles, but in my chudesa, no, po-moemu, chudesa opinion miracles will never confound a realista nikogda ne smutjat. Ne realist. It is not miracles that make a chudesa sklonjaut realista k vere. realist turn to religion. A true Istinij realist, esli on ne verujushij, realist, if he is an unbeliever, will vsegda najdet v sebe silu i sposobnost' ne always find the strength and the ability poverit i chudu, a esli chudo stanet pred not to believe in a miracle, and if faced nim neotrazimim faktom, to on skoree with a miracle as an undeniable fact, ne poverit svoim chuvstvam, chem he will sooner disbelieve his own senses dopustit fakt. Esli zhe i dopustit ego, to than admit the fact. And if he does dopustit kak fakt estestvenij, no admit it, he will admit it as a natural dosele lish bivshij emu neizvestnim. V fact hitherto unknown to him. In a realiste vera ne ot chuda rozhdaetsja, a realist faith does not arise from a chudo ot veri. Esli realist raz poverit, miracle, but the miracle from faith. to on imeno po realizmu svoemu Just because of his realism, a realist, dolzhen nepremeno dopustit i chudo. ( once he believes, must admit a miracle 35) (25-26) Feodor Karamzov about Father Zosima:

80.-Vsju zhizn predchuvstvoval, chto 'All my life I've had a feeling that it nepravda!-s uvlecheniem voskliknul wasn't true!' Karamazov cried with Fedor Pavlovich.-Ja vam, gospodam zato enthusiasm. 'But I'll tell you the whole vsju pravdu skazhu: starec truth, gentlemen. Great elder, forgive velikij!Prostite, ja poslednee, o krezhenii- me, I invented my last story about to Diderota, sam sijchas prisochinil… Dederot's christening just now… (44) (55) Father Zosima to Feodor Karamazov:

81. Glavnoe, samomu sebje ne lgite. Above all, don't lie to yourself. A man Lguzhij samomu sebe i sobstvennuju who lies to himself and who listens to his lozh' svoju slushajuzhij do togo dohodit, own lies gets to a point where he can't chto uzh nikakoj pravdi ni v sebe, ni distinguish any truth in himself or in krugom ne razlichaet, a stalo byt', vhodit v those around him, and so loses all respect neuvazhenije i k sebe i k drugim. Ne for himself and for others. uvazhaja zhe nikogo, perestajut ljubit', a Having no respect for anyone, he ceases chtoby, ne imeja ljubvi, zanjat' sebja i to love, and to occupy and distract 105 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

razvlech', predajotsja strasjam i grubym himself without love he becomes a prey sladostjam i dohodit sovsem do skotstva v to his passions and gives himself up to porokah svoih, a vse ot bespreryvnoj lzhi i coarse pleasures, and sinks to bestiality in ljudajm i sebe samomu. Lguzhij sebe his vices, and all this from continual lying samomu prezhde vseh i obidetsja to people and to himself. A man who mozhet….I ved' znaet chelovek, chto nikto lies to himself can be more easily ne obidel ego, a chto on sam sebe obidu offended than anyone else… . And yet he navydumal i nalgal dlja krasi, sam knows that no one has offended him and preuvilichil, chtoby kartinu sozdat',… that he has invented the offence (58) himself, that he has lied just for the beauty of it… (47) Alyosha to Lise:

82. Vzapravdu vy govorite? Nu teper', Do you mean what you say? Well, posle takogo vashego priznanija, ja now after such a confession I believe veruju, chto vy iskrenni i serdcem that you are sincere and good at heart. dobry. Esli ne dojdete do schastija, to If you do not achieve happiness, you vsegda pomnite, chto vy na horoshej must always remember that you are on doroge, i postarajtes' s nee ne shodit'. the right path and try not to stray from it. Glavnoe, ubegajte lzhi, vsjakoj lzhi, lzhi Above all, run from lies, any lies, and sebe samoj v osobennosti. Nabljudajte especially from self-deception. Watch svoju lozh i vgljaduvaijtes' v nee kazhdyj over your lies and examine them every chas, kazhduju minutu. Brezglivosti hour, every minute. Avoid, too, a feeling ubegaite tozhe i k drugim i k sebe: to, chto of aversion towards others and towards vam kazhetsja vnutri sebja skvernum, uzhe yourself: what seems to you ban in odnim tem, chto vi eto zametili v sebe, yourself is purified by the very fact that ochizhaetsja. Straha tozhe ubegaijte, hotja you've noticed it in yourself. Avoid fear, strah est' lish posledstvie vsjakoj lzhi. Ne too, though fear is only the consequence pugajtes' nikogda sobstvennogo vashego of every sort of lie. Never be afraid of malodushija v dostizhenii ljubvi, dazhe your own cowardliness in attaining love, durnyh pri etom postupkov vashih ne and do not be too much afraid of your pugajtes' ochen'. Zhaleju, chto ne mogu bad actions, either. I'm sorry I cannot say dkazat' vam nichego otradnee, ibo ljubov' anything more conforting to you, for dejatel'naja sravniteln'no s compared with romantic love, active mechtatel'noju est' delo zhestokoe i love is something severe and ustrashajuzhee. (75 ) terrifying.(63)

About Katerina:

83. Alesha ponjal s perogo vzgljada na Alyosha realized at the first glance at her, nee, s pervih slov, chto ves' tragizm ee from the first words she uttered, that the polozhenia otnositelno stol' ljubimogo ee whole tragedy of her position in regard to cheloveka dlja nee vovse ne tajna, chto the man she loved so much was no ona, mozhet bit', uzhe znaet vse, reshitel'no secret to her and that she probably knew vse… everything, absolutely everything… -Ja potomu tak zhdala vas, chto ot vas ot 'I was so anxious to see you because I can odnogo mogu teper' uznat' vsju pravdu- learn the whole truth only from you- 106 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

ni ot kogo bol'she! ( 185) from you and no one else!' ( 170) Katerina about Grushenka:

84. Eto samoe fantasticheskoe iz She's one of the most fantastic of fantasticheskih sozdanij! ( 188) fantastic creatures! ( 172) Mrs. Khokhlakov to Alyosha about Katerina:

85. …eto uzhas, eto samaja …It's dreadful! It's a most fantastic comedy. You see, she loves your brother fantaticheskaja komedija: ona ljubit Ivan, but she does all she can to persuade vashego brata Ivana Fedorovicha i herself that she loves your brother uverjaet sebja izo vseh sil, chto ljubit Dmitry. ( 216) vashego brata Dmitrija Fedorovicha. (233) 86. Slovo 'nadriv', tol'ko chto The word 'heartache' which Mrs proiznesennoe g-zhoj Hohlakovoj, Khokhlakov had just used, almost made zastavilo ego [ Alyosha] pochti vzdrognut', him start, because it was during the potomu chto imenno v etu noch, previous night, half awake at daybreak, poluprosnuvshis' na rassvete, on vdrug, that, as though in reply to a dream he verojatno otvechaja svoemu snovideniju, had had, he had said aloud: "Heartache, proiznes:" Nadriv, nadriv!" Snilas' zhe heartache!" He had dreamt all night of emu vsju noch' vcherashnaja scena u the scene at Katerina's. (217) Katerini Ivanovni. ( 234) Alyosha to Lise:

87. -Vidite, ja znal, chto vi 'You see, I suspected that-that you menja…kazhetsja, ljubite, no ja sdelal perhaps cared for me, but I pretended vid, chto vam verju, chto vi ne ljubite, to believe you so that you-you shouldn't chtobi vam bilo…udobnee…(274) feel uncomfortable.' ( 255)

88. -Ja nichego ne ponimaju,-prodolzhal 'I understand nothing', Ivan went on as Ivan kak by v bredu,-ja i ne hochu teper' though in delirium, 'and I don't want to nichego ponimat'. Ja hochu ostavat'sja pri understand anyting now, I want to stick to fakte. Ja davno reshil ne ponimat'. Esli ja facts. I made up my mind long ago not zahochu chto-nibud' ponimat', to totchas to understand. For if I should want to zhe izmenju faktu, a ja reshil understand something, I'd instantly alter ostavat'sja pri fakte… ( 305) the facts and I've made up my mind to stick to the facts…' ( 285) From the conversation between Ivan and Alyosha:

'I'm afraid I don't quite understand it, 89. A: Ja ne sovsem ponimaju, Ivan, chto Ivan,' said Alyosha, who had been eto takoe?-ulibnulsja vse vremja molcha listening in silence all the time, with a slushavshij Alyosha,-prjamo li smile. 'Is it just a wild fantasy, or has bezbrezhnaja fantazija, ili kakaj-nibud' 107 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

oshibka starika, kakoe-nibud' the old man made some mistake, some nevozmozhnoe qui pro quio? impossible qui pro quo?' I:Primi hot' poslednee,-rassmejalsja Ivan,- 'You can assume it to be the latter,' esli uzh tebja tak razbaloval sovremennij laughed Ivan, 'if our modern realism realism, i ti ne mozhesh' vinesti nichego has spoilt you so much that you can't bear fantasticheskogo-hochesh qui pro quo, anything fantastic. If you prefer a qui pro to pust' tak i budet. Ono pravda,- quo, then let it be so. It is true, ' he rassmejalsja on opjat,-stariku devjanosto lauged again,' the old man was ninety and let, i on davno mog sojti s uma na svoej he might have long age gone mad about idee. Plennik zhe mog porazit' ego svoeju his fixed idea. He might, finally, have naruzhnost'ju. Eto mog bit', nakonec, been simply delirium…What difference prosto bred, videnije…No ne vse li does it make to us whether it was a qui ravno nam s toboj, chto qui pro quo, chto pro quo or a wild fantasy? ( 293) bezbrezhnaja fantazija?.." (314) From the conversation between Ivan and Alyosha:

'…And, besides, there could never have 90. I: …Da i sovsem ne mozhet bit' takogo been such a fantastic person as your fantaticheskogo lica, kak tvoj Inquisitor…Your suffering Inquisitor is inkvizitor…Tvoj stradajuzhij inkvizitor nothing but a fantasy…' odna fantazija… 'Wait, wait,' Ivan lauged,'don't be so -Da stoj, stoj,-smejalsja Ivan,- kak ti excited! You say it's a fantasy-very razgorjachilsja. Fantazija, govorish' ti, well, I don't deny it. Of course it's a pust'! Konechno, fantazija. No pozvol', fantasy. But, look here, you don't odnako: neuzheli ti v samom dele dumaesh', chto vse eto katolicheskoe really think that the Catholic movement dvizhenie poslednih vekov est' i v in the last few centuries is really nothing but a lust for power for the same samom dele odno lish' zhelanie vlasti of some filthy gains…. (306) dlja odnih tol'ko grjaznih blag…. ( 327- 328) 91. Grushenka hot' i ljubila ego chasochek Though Grushenka had, it is true, loved istinno i iskrenno, eto pravda, no i him for a brief hour genuinely and muchila zhe ego v to zhe vremja inoj raz sincerely, she sometimes also tortured dejstvitel'no zhestko i bespozhadno. him cruelly and mercilessly. The trouble Glavnoe v tom, chto nichego-to on ne mog was that he could not make out what her razgadat' iz ee namerenij; vimanit' zhe real intentions were; to get them out of laskoj ili siloj ne bilo tozhe her by force or kindness was also quite vozmozhnosti… ( 453) impossible… ( 428) 92. Samij fantasticheskij vihr' podnjalsja A most fantastic confusion arose in his v golove ego (Mitya) seijchas posle togo, head immediately after his parting form kak on tret'ego dnja rasstalsja s Aleshej, i Alyosha two days before and played sputal vse ego milsi. Takim obrazom havoc with all his thoughts. It thus vishlo, chto nachal on s samogo dikogo happened that he hit upon a perfectly predprijatija. Da, mozjet bit', imenno v wild enterprise. And, indeed, the most etakih polozhenijah u etakih ljudej samie impossible and fantastic enterprises nevozmozhnye i fantasticheskie appear most practical to such men in predprijatija predstavljautsja pervimi 108 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

vozmozhnejshimi. ( 457) such circumstances. ( 432) Dmitry and Mrs Khokhlakov:

93. K: Znaju, chto po naivazhnejshemu 'I know you've come on a most important delu, Dmitri Fedorovich, tut ne business, and it's not a case of mere predchubstvija kakie-nibud', ne presentiment, not some half-hidden, retrogradnye popolznovenija na retrograde desire for miracles… It's chudesa…, tut, tut matematika: vi simply a case of a mathematical ne mogli ne prijti, posle togo kak calculation: you could't help coming after proizoshlo vse eto s Katerinoj Ivanovnoj, all that has happened to Katerina. You ni ne mogli, ne mogli, eto matematika. couldn't, you couldn't! It's mathematically demonstrable!' D: Realizm deijstvitel'noj zhizni, sudarinja, vot chto eto takoe!.. 'The realism of actual life, madam, that's what it is! But let me explain, K: Imenno , Dmitrtij Fedorovich. realism please'. Ja teper' vsja za realism, ja slishkom prouchena naschet chudes. ( 478) 'Yes, sir, realism, indeed. I'm all for realism now.

I've been taught a lesson so far as miracles are concerned.' (452) Dmitry in the court:

94. No kto zhe ubil otca, kto zhe ubil? Kto But who has killed my father, who has zhe mog ubit', esli ne ja? Chudo, killed him? Who could have killed him if nelepost', nevozmozhnost!.. (569) not I? It's a mystery, an absurdity, an impossibility!' (538) Dmitry at the court:

95. -Vidite, gospoda,-progovoril on vdrug, 'You see, gentlemen,' he said suddenly, s trudom peresilivaja sebja,-vidite. restraining himself with difficulty,' you Slushaju ja vas, i mne merezhitsja…ja, see-I listen to you and I seem to be vidite, vizhu inogda vo sne odin haunted by a dream-you see, sometimes son…odin takoj son, i on mne chasto have such a dream-a curious kind of snitsja, povtorjaetsja, chto kto-to za mnoj dream- I often dream it-it keeps on gonitsja, kto-to takoj, kotorogo ja uzhasno recurring-that someone is chasing me- bojus', gonitsja v temnote…Teper' uzh ne someone I'm terribly afraid of –chasing son! Realizm, gospoda, realism me in the dark, at night…But now it isn't dejstvitel'noj zhizni! Ja volk, a vi a dream! It's realism, gentlemen, the ohotniki, nu i travite volka. ( 584-585) realism of actual life! I'm the wolf and you're the hunters. So you're just hunting the wolf down!' ( 552-553) 96. Nachalos' nechto sovsem dlja Miti What followed was something quite neozhidannoe i udivitel'noe. (598) unexpected and surprising to Mitya. (566)

109 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

Kolya to Alyosha:

97. -Ja slishal, vi mistik i bili v monastire. 'I've heard you are a mystic and that Ja znaju, chto vi mistik, no…eto menja ne you've been in a monastery. I know you ostanovilo. Prikosnovenie k are a mystic but-that hasn't put me off. deijstvitel'nosti vas izlechit…(II-57) Contact with reality will cure you… (648) About Ivan's love to Katerina:

98. …kogda Ivan Fedorovich, …on leaving Katerina that night with idja…nochju s Aleshej ot Katerini Ivanovi, Alyosha, Ivan said to him: 'I am not skazal emu: "Ja-to do nee ne ohotnik",-to very keen on her,' he was telling a strashno lgal v tu minutu: on bezumno terrible lie at that moment: he was ljubil ee, hotja pravda i to, chto madly in love with her, though it is vremenami nenavidel ee do togo, chto mog quite true that at times he hated her dazhe ubit'. ( II-129) so much that he could have killed her. ( 717) Ivan to the Devil:

99. Ni odnoj minuti ne prinimaju tebja za 'Never for a moment have I taken you real'nuju pravdu,-kak-to jarostno for reality,' Ivan cried with a sort dazhe vskrichal Ivan.-Ti lozh', ti bolezn' of fury. 'You're a lie, you're my moja, ti prizrak…ti moja gallucinacija. illness, you're a phantom…You are ( II-163) my hallucination. (749) The Devil to Ivan:

100. …v snah, i osobenno v …in dreams and particularly in koshmarah, nu, tam ot rasstrojstva nightmares, caused by indigestion zheludka ili chego-nibud', inogda vidit or whatever you like, a man chelovek takie hudozhestvennie sni, sometimes sees such artistic things, takuju slozhnuju i real'nuju such a complex and actual dejstvitel'nost'… ( II-166) reality… (752)

The "fantasy" word system can be sub-divided into three sub-systems:

1. the morpho-phono-semantic sub-system which includes words and expressions morphologically, phonologically and semantically related to the notion of "fantasy", 2. the semantic-associative sub-system revolving around words and expressions related associatively to the notions of the "unreal" and "fantastic", 110 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

3. the semantic-conceptual sub-system which includes words and expressions that form conceptual semantic field dealing with the notion of "dream".

5.1.1. The morpho-phono-semantic sub-system

The morpho-phono-semantic sub-system includes words and expressions morphologically, phonologically and semantically related to the notion of "fantasy".

Table 5.5. The morpho-phono-semantic fantasy-related sub-system

Transliterated Russian English Translation Examples Text 1. fantasticheskij fantastic, fanciful, eccentric 2, 4, 23, 24, 25, 27, 40, 74, 76, 77, 84, 85, 89, 90, 92 2.fantasija fantasy, imagination, fantastic 4, 14, 19, 24,36, 53, 56, dreams, eccentricity, delusion 58, 68, 89, 90 3.fantasmagorija fantamagoric 55

5.1.2. The semantic-associative sub-system The semantic-associative sub-system revolves around words and expressions related associatively to the notion of "unreal" and "fantastic".

Table 5.6. The semantic-associative fantasy-related sub-system

Transliterated Russian English Translation Examples Text 1. predpolozhenie supposition 4 2.nepravdopodobnost' unreality, incredible 4, 15 3.polutainstvenno half-mysteriously 5 4.tainstvennij mysterious 6 5.voobrazhenie,voobrazit' imagination, to imagine 6, 10,35 111 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

6.neverojatno incredible 12, 21 7.nevozmozhno impossible, absurd 15, 21, 53, 47, 69, 74, 75, 89, 92, 94 8.neestestveno unnatural 24, 38 9.zagadka enigma, riddle, perplexity 26, 27, 51, 77 10.chudesa miracle 30, 33, 79, 93, 94 11.taijna, tainstveno secret, mysterious 29, 32, 39, 47, 59,83 12.neobiknovenij extraordinary 46,50, 55 13.prividenie ghost, specters 62, 63 14.mechta, mechtat' a dream, to dream 68, 73 15.galluzinacija hallucination 99 16.merezhitsja to seem 95

5.1.3. The semantic-conceptual dream sub-system The semantic-conceptual sub-system consists of words and expressions which form conceptual semantic field dealing with the notion of „dream".

Table 5.7. The semantic-conceptual dream-related sub-system

Transliterated Russian Text English Translation Examples 1. son sleep 18, 31, 34, 42, 65, 69,70, 74, 76, 95, 100 2. zasnut' fall asleep 18 3.videt' vo sne to dream 41 4.vo sne in a dream 48,60, 65, 78 5.snit'sja nightmare 49, 69, 86, 95 6.snovidenija dream 69, 86 7.prisnit'sja to dream 65 8.prosnut'sja awakened 70 9.poluprosnut'sja half awake 86

The term „dream‟ can be used in several senses. There are actual dreams, to which only the dreamer has access. Breger (1989) suggests that most of the time 112 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

Dostoevsky doesn‟t refer to actual dreams in their normal sense, but rather uses the term dreams analogically – "novel as a shared series of dreams" ( Breger, 1989:19).

According to Freud, "dreams show a special tendency to reduce two opposites to a unity or to represent them as a single thing" (Freud 1958:55). The semantic-conceptual dream word system serves the same function in the Dostoevskian text- sometimes the characters act in a dream as if they are awake and the opposite, in a state of total awakeness, they act as if they are asleep. Fantasy and reality meet in dreams. More than that, love and hate are interconnected to such an extent that sometimes they can be merged, combined and even confused and these polarically opposed feelings that are present in every relationship can both be real and imagined at the same time.

5.2. The “reality” word system

The "reality" word system is a network of terms which creates the framework of reality, truth, awareness and reasoning throughout the entire text, from sign to text, based on morphological, phonological, semantic, associative and conceptual notions which help build concepts of reality, facts, truth and realization. In Tables 5.1.-5.4. I presented the examples of fantasy word system (discussed in section 5.1) and reality word system as they appear in the four texts under the analysis. I randomly chose 100 examples from the larger Dostoevskian text which consists of four selected works containing either reality or fantasy word system or, as in the majority of the examples, both word systems together.

The reality word system can be sub-divided into four sub-systems: 1. The morpho-phono-semantic sub-system which includes words and expressions morphologically, phonologically and semantically related to the word "real", 2. the semantic-associative sub-system, revolving around the words and expressions semantically and associatively related to the notion of "reality", 113 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

3. the semantic-conceptual sub-system revolving around words and expressions which form conceptual-semantic field dealing with the notions of "realization" and "understanding", 4. the morpho-phono-associative sub-system which includes words and expressions morphologically, phonologically and associatively related to the realm of "truth".

5.2.1. The morpho-phono-semantic reality sub-system The morpho-phono-semantic sub-system includes words and expressions morphologically, phonologically and semantically related to the word "real/reality".

Table 5.8. The morpho-phono-semantic reality-related sub-system

Transliterated Russian English Translation Examples Text 1. dejstvitel'no, really, actually, indeed 1,2,3, 6, 16, 25, 30, 37, 45, 52, 54, 57, dejstvitel'nij 63, 64, 68, 71, 91, 93, 95 2. dejstvitelnost' reality, real life 56,58, 71, 72, 97, 100

5.2.2. The semantic-associative reality sub-system The semantic-associative sub-system revolves around the words and expressions semantically and associatively related to the notion of "reality".

Table 5.9. The semantic-associative reality sub-system

Transliterated Russian English Translation Examples Text 1. realist realist 79 2.realism realism 89, 93, 95 3.istina truth, really, genuine 3, 7,8, 30, 71,79, 91 4.nastojazhij real 17 114 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

5.natural'nij natural 24 6.fakt fact 38, 69, 72,77,79, 88 7.razletet'sja dimom come to nothing 73 8.estestvennij natural 79 9.neoproverzhimij incontroversible 77

5.2.3.The semantic-conceptual realization/understanding sub-system

The semantic-conceptual sub-system revolves around words and expressions which form conceptual-semantic field dealing with the notion of "realization" and "understanding". Table 5.10 The semantic-conceptual realization/understanding sub-system

Transliterated Russian English Translation Examples Text 1. jasno clearly, plain 3, 32 2.s soznaniem alert 11 3.osoznovat' realize 19 4.razum reason 69 5.verit' to believe 68,82, 87 6.ponimat' understand 19 7.uveren convinced 20

5.2.4.The Morpho-phono-associative truth related sub-system The morpho-phono-associative sub-system includes words and expressions morphologically, phonologically and associatively related to the realm of "truth".

115 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

Table 5.11 Morpho-phono-associative truth related sub-system

Transliterated Russian English Examples Text Translation 1. pravda truth, true, reality 3, 9, 10, 12, 20, 28, 50, 54, 66, 68, 80, 81, 83, 89, 91, 98, 99 2.pravdivijshij verisimilar 4 3.pravdopodobno real 13 4.pravo really 18 5.opravdivaetsja proof 33 6.po pravde as a matter of fact 73 7.vzapravdu really 82

5.3. The “Fantasy” and “Reality” Word systems

Two additional major word systems in the language of “the supra text” under the analysis which “nurture the theme and message of the text” (Aphek and Tobin, 1988:2) are , in addition to 'love' and 'hate' polaric word systems presented in Chapter Four, two other polaric word systems- 'fantasy' word system and 'reality' word system (Figure 4.3).

Figure 5.1 Fantasy and reality word systems

'fantasy' word 'reality' word system system

These two polaric word systems are based on the morphological, phonological, semantic, conceptual, associative variations of the concepts of “fantasy” 116 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______and “reality”. It is very difficult to differentiate between these two word systems, because their variations appear most of the time in the same context or/and utterance, as can be seen in Tables 5.1-5.4. in 60 out of 100 examples both entities of fantasy and reality are present in the same context.

The 'fantasy' and the 'reality' word systems create both juxtaposition and co- existence of these two concepts in the works of Dostoevsky. The clash between romantic ideals (fantasy) and life in the real world (reality) is a core issue for Dostoevsky. The fantasies of his characters come to wreck on the rocks of reality. In addition, from the characters' actions and behavior it is not always clear whether it happens in reality or in their minds. Real may be the embodiment of a nightmare and a dream, and in this case, a nightmare and a dream (even hypothetically) can be the embodiment of real.

These two polaric word systems of 'fantasy' and 'reality' fit into the message of the "supra-text"- love and hate are interconnected to such an extent that sometimes they can be merged, combined and confused and that these polarically opposed feelings of love and hate can both be real or imagined at the same time.

In their study The Agnonian Text:A Study in Polaric Semiology (1989) Aphek and Tobin introduced and further applied the notion of “polaric semiology” by two specific stories by S.Agnon. They define the notion of "polaric semiology" in the following way: "By polaric semiology we mean phenomenon where two antithetical notions (e.g., life and death, creation and destruction, putting together and taking apart) are conjoined within a single sign-unit or set of sign-units to systematically form a text of oppositions (Aphek and Tobin 1989:215).They showed how through the use of word systems Agnon reduces two polaric opposites into a single unity which is represented linguistically by a nucleus of words revolving around a single tri-consonantal (CCC) root or set of semantically and phonologically related triconsonantal roots.

Similarly, in the text under the analysis, Dostoevsky creates his own polaric word systems revolving around the notions of love and hate and fantasy and reality to intensify the message of the text. 117 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

Dostoevsky seems to have a different conception of reality- fantastic reality or realistic fantasy. His reality is as fantastic as a dream, and his dream is as realistic as reality. In one of his letters to Maikov, Dostoevsky writes: “Oh, my friend! I have a totally different conception of reality and realism than our novelists and critics. My idealism is more real than their realism. God! Just to narrate sensibly what we Russians have lived through in the last ten years of our spiritual development- yes, would not the realists shout that this is fantasy! And yet this is genuine, existing realism. This is realism, only deeper, while they swim in the shallow waters… Their realism cannot illuminate a hundredth part of the facts that are real and actually occurring. And with our idealism, we have predicted facts. It happened.” (PSS, 28/Bk 2:329; December 11/23, 1868).

Frank suggests that Dostoevsky sees his own realism as becoming fantastic because it “delves beneath the quotidian surface into the moral-spiritual depths of the human personality, while at the same time striving to incarnate a more-than- pedestrian or commonplace moral ideal” (Frank, 1997: 308-309).

In a letter to his niece, Dostoevsky writes:

I have my own particular view of reality (in art), and that the majority calls almost fantastic and exceptional, for me sometimes constitutes the very essence of the real. The ordinariness of events and a routine view of them is not realism in my view, and even the opposite. In every issue of a newspaper you run across and account of actual, most surprising facts. For our writers, they are fantastic; they pay no attention to them, and yet they are reality because they are facts. Who notices them, explains them, and sets them down? They occur all the time and every minute, and are by no means exceptional… We just let reality pass by our nose. Who will note the facts and delve into them?.. Is not my fantastic idiot reality, yes, and the most ordinary! Just right now such characters must exist in the strata of our society detached from their soil- strata which has in truth become fantastic!

(PSS, 19; February 26/ March 10, 1869).

Miller (1981) characterizes Dostoevsky's narrative as a combination of “enigma with explanation” (Miller, 1981:79), and cites Dostoevsky‟s notes in which he indicates his wish to balance one with the other.

The “fantastic facts” of Dostoevsky's theory of realism, as they are referred to by Simmons (1950), are actually taken from real life rather than from imagination. Thus, behind the murders in Crime and Punishment (1866), The Idiot (1868), The 118 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

Possessed (1872) and The Brothers Karamazov (1880) are real crimes which Dostoevsky had read about in newspapers of his time. As far as the “unreal realism” is concerned, Simmons suggests that on the one hand, nothing in human experience as we are used to it will explain the exaggerated motives and actions of his characters. On the other hand, the same exaggeration is not expected in fiction as well: “the ordinary meaning of realism is not broad enough to justify such creations” (Simmons, 1950: 267).

In the period of writing the eleventh book of The Brothers Karamazov, including hallucinations and the nightmare of Ivan , Dostoevsky wrote on the fantastic in art: "Fantastic should be in contact with the real, that you would almost believe it (Dostoevky, Letters, vol, IV, p.178). We believe in the Devil from Ivan's nightmare. The Devil, who has rheumatism, referred to as a "gentleman" and his description is more than human. He is aware of the fact that it is his humanity and realism which make him so fantastic. When Ivan refuses to believe in him, he says: "You are really angry with me because I haven't appeared to you in a red glow, in thunder and lightning, with scorched wings, but have introduced myself in so modest a form (Dostoevsky, 1958:761).

The boundaries between the fantastic and the realistic are not stable. What seems real and true, is very often a fantasy, a delusion and the involuntary or a deliberate lie. On the other hand, what seems fantastic and false is nonetheless an undeniable fact (for example, in The Brothers Karamazov the fact that it is not Mitya, but Smerdyakov, who killed Feodor Karamazov). Real may be the embodiment of a nightmare and a dream (like in Mitya's dream) and a nightmare and a dream (even hypothetically) can be the embodiment of real (like the Devil in Ivan‟s nightmare).

It is important to mention that Dostoevsky was not the only Russian writer to confuse, merge and blur the boundaries between fantasy and reality. In The Queen of Spades, Pushkin makes us believe that Hermann really had a vision, and it is consistent with his worldview, and yet at the end of the story we don‟t know what to decide, either it was a vision of Herman, or he really came into contact with another world.

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5.4. The “Madness” word system

The madness word system acts as a joining link between two polaric sets of word systems discussed above – love and hate word systems and fantasy and reality word systems. The madness word system refers to a network of terms which creates the framework of madness, insanity, illness and disturbed state of mind in the Dostoevskian text. In Tables 5.12.-5.15. I present the examples of madness word system as it appears in the four texts under the analysis. I randomly chose 100 examples from the larger Dostoevskian text containing this word system.

Table 5.12.

Examples of the “madness” word system in A Meek One Transliterated Russian text English Translation 1. S ee storony raz ili dva byli As for her, she had one or two poryvi, brosalas‟ obnimat‟ menja; no outbirsts when she threw herself tak kak poryvi byli boleznennye, into my arms; but since the istericheskie, a mne nado bylo outbursts were morbid and tverdogo schastja, s uvazheniem ot nee, hysterical, while I wanted solid to ja prinjal holodno. Da i prav byl: happiness, respectful on her part, I kazhdyj raz posle poryvov na drugoj responded coldly. And I was quite den‟ byla ssora. ( 392) right, for these outbursts were inevitably followed by a quarrel the next day. ( 285) 2. Ona vdrug vskochila, vdrug vsja All at once she leapt up, shaking all zatrjaslas' i… vdrug zatopala na over, and…suddenly began to menja nogami; eto byl zver', eto byl stamp her feet at me. She was a pripadok, eto byl zver' v wild beast; it was a fit; she was a pripadke. ( 395) wild beast in a fit. (288) 3.Mne vdrug, smotrja na nee, vletela Suddenly, as I looked at her, it struck togda v golovu ideja, chto ves' etot me that all that last month, or rather poslednij mesjac ili, luchshe, dve all that last fortnight, she had not poslednie nered nim nedeli ona byla been herself at all; I should even sovsem ne v svoem haraktere, say the exact opposite of herself: a mozhno dazhe skazat'-v obratnom violent creature, aggressive, I haraktere, javljalos' suzhestvo should not exactly say shameless, yet 120 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

bujnoe, napadajuzhee, ne mogu an unbalanced creature eager for skazat' besstidnoe, no besporjadochnoe turmoil. A creature asking for i samo izhuzhee smjatenija. turmoil. Her meekness, however, Naprashivajuzheesja na smjatenie. stood in the way. When one of her Krotkost' odnakozhe, meshala. Kogda kind goes wild you can see, even etakaja zabujstvuet, to hotja by i though she has ever stepped all limits, pereskochila meru, a vse vidno, chto that she is merely forcing herself to it, ona sama sebja tol'ko lomit, sama sebja urging herself on… (289) podgonjaet… ( 397) After an encounter with her husband:

4.Noch'ju s neju sdelalsja bred, a She was delirious during the night, nautro gorjachka. Ona prolezhala and acute fever set in towards shest' nedel'. (403) morning. She was ill for six weeks. (295) 5. Ja prjamo podoshel i sel podle na I came straight up to her and sat close stul, vplot', kak pomeshanij. (410) beside her, I was like one crazed. (303) 6. Nastupala isterika, ja eto videl… She was becoming hysterical, I saw… …I vdrug ona zarydala i …She suddenly burst into sobs zatrjaslas'; nastupil strashnij and began to shake; she had a pripadok isteriki. (411) dreadful fit of hysterics. (303- 304) 7. Ja ne sporju, ja ne budu I am not denying it, I shall make no protivorechit', podobno crazy contradictions… (305) bezumnomu… ( 413) 8.Voobzhe ja govoril bol'sheju chast'ju Altogether I spoke as in a fever kak v gorjachke. Ona sama brala most of the time. She took my hands menja za ruki i prosila perestat': "vy in hers of her own accord and begged preuvelichivaete…vy sebja me to stop. "You are muchaete",- I opjat' nachinalis' slezy, exaggerating…you are tormenting opjat' chut' ne pripadki!(413) yourself", and then she began to cry again, and again it ended in something like a fit. (306) 9.Slushaite i vniknite: ved' kogda my Listen and try to understand: when we soshlis' davecha u samovara (eto posle met at breakfast this morning (after vcherashnego-to pripadka), to ona last night's fit, mind you) she quite dazhe sama porazila menja svoim amazed me by her composure… (308) spokojstviem… ( 415) 10.Tut ja vskochili kak bezumnij I leapt to my feet and embraced her obnjal ee! ( 415) madly. (308) 121 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

Table 5.13.

Examples of the “madness” word system in The Gambler 11. Pravo, mne byklo legche v eti dve Really, it had been easier for me nedeli otsutstvija, chem teper', v den' during my two weeks' absence than vozvrazhenija, hotja ja, v doroge, i now, on the day of my return, toskoval kak sumashedshij, although during my journey I had metalsja kak ugorelyj; i dazhe been as melancholy as a madman, vo sne pominutno videl ee pred soboju. rushing about like one (292) possessed and seeing her constantly before me, even in my sleep.. (26-27) Polina to Alexei:

12.U menja byla bezumanaja i I had a strange, mad idea that I strannaja mysl', chto ja nepremenno should be certain to win at roulette vyigraju, zdes', na igornom stole.(310) here. (44) Polina to Alexei:

13.Dve nedeli nazad vy sami mne You talked to me for a long time govorili odnazhdy, mnogo i dolgo, o once, two weeks ago, about how you tom, chto vy vpolne uvereny v were completely convinced you vyigryshe zdes' na ruletke, i ubezhdali would win here at roulette, and tried menja, chtob ja ne smotrela na vas kak to persuade me not to think you were na bezumnogo… ( 311) mad…(44-45) Polina:

14.-Ponimaju, no ne vpadat' zhe v I understand that, but one mustn't let takoe sumashestvie, ih zhelaja wanting it make one mad! You [deneg]! Vy ved' tozhe dohodite do know you let yourself be driven to isstuplenija, do fatalizma. ( 312) absolute frenzy and fatalism yourself ( 46) Alexei to Polina:

15. Nu da, da, mne ot vas rabstvo- Well, yes, yes, I do enjoy being naslazhdenie. Est', est' naslazhdenie v enslaved by you. There is, there really poslednej stepeni prinizhennosti i is enjoyment in the utmost degree of nichtozhestva!- prodolzhal ja bredit'. humility and insignificance,' I (312) rambled on. (46) Alexei to Polina:

122 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

16. Ne serdites' na moju boltovnju. Vy Don't be angry with me for rambling ponimaete, pochemu na menja nelzja on. You know why you can't be angry serditsja: ja prosto sumashedshij. ( with me: I'm mad. ( 48) 314) Alexei to Polina:

17.…nam vdvoem hodit' opasno: It is dangerous for you to walk alone menja mnogo raz nepreodolimo tjanulo with me: many times I have felt an pribit' vas, izurodovat', irresistible longing to beat you with zadushit'. I chto vi dumaete, do my fists, disfigure you, strangle etogo ne dojdet? Vi dovedete menja do you. And do you think it won't come gorjachki…skazhite slovo, i ja to that? You will drive me soskochu v etu bezdnu. ( 314-315) crazy….say a word, and I will leap into that abyss! (48) Alexei to Polina:

18. Da skazhete i ivy mne, nakonec, "Will you at least tell me what's going chto takoe zdes' poroishodit!-vskrichal on?"I exclaimed…"Let me at least ja…-Po krajnej mere chtob ja znal; know; otherwise I shall go mad on inache ja zdes' pomeshajus' i chto- the spot and do something desperate. nibud' sdelaju. ( 316) (49-50) 19. Ja ne umeju sebe dat' otcheta, I can't realize what has happened chto so mnoj sdelalos', v to me, whether I am indeed in a isstuplennom li ja sostojanii state of frenzy or have simply nahozhus' v samom dele, ili prosto s left the road I am running wild until I dorogi soskochil i bezobraznichaju, am restrained. Sometimes I think poka ne . Poroj mne svjazhut my mind is disturbed. (51) kazhetsjam chto u menja um meshaetsja. ( 318) Alexei to Polina:

20. I ne ponimaju, ne ponimaju, chto v And I don't know, I don't even know nej horoshego! Horosha-to ona, what there is attractive about her! vprochem, horosha; kazhetsja, horosha. And yet she is pretty, she is; I think Ved' ona i drugih s uma svodit. ( she's pretty. After all, she drives 318) other men mad as well. (52) 21. V poslednee vremja, edak nedeli Recently, for some two weeks, or dve, dazhe tri, ja chuvstvuju sebja even three, I have been feeling nehorosho: bol'nym, nervnym, unwell: ill, nervy, irritable, razdrazhitel'nym, fanciful, and sometimes quite fantasticheskim… I v inyh sluchajah, unable to control myself… In 123 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

terjau sovsem nad soboju short, these are symptoms of illness. volju… Odnim slovom, eto priznaki (55) bolezni. (321-322) Alexei with Grandmamma in the gambling house:

22. Ja sam byl igrok; ja pochuvstvoval I was a gambler myself; I realized it eto v tu samuju minutu. U menja at that moment. My arms and ruki-nogi drozhali, i v golovu legs were trembling and my udarilo. (361) head throbbed. ( 93) 23. Ja vyshel ot babushki kak I was in a sort of daze when I left odurmanennij… Fact pojavlenija Grandmama… The fact that babushki, vmesto ozhidaemoj s chasu Grandmamma had appeared instead na chas telegrammi ob ee smerti (a of the telegram, expected at any stalo byt', i o nasledstve), do togo moment, with the news of her death razdrobil vsju sistemu ih namerenij i (and consequently of the money she prinjatyh reshenij, chto oni s had left), had so shattered their whole reshitel'nym nedoumeniem i s kakim-to framework of plans and intentions nashedshim na vseh that their attitude towards her further stolbnjakom otnosilis' k dal'nejshim exploits at roulette was one of podvigam babushka na ruletke. ( 365) positive bewilderment and a sort of stupor that affected them all alike. (97) Alexei about Polina:

24. Mne hochetsja proniknut' v ee I want to fathom her secrets, I should tajny; mne hotelos' by, chtoby ona like her to come to me and say, 'I love prishla ko mne i skazala:"Ved' ja you,' and if not, if that is ljublju tebja", a esli net, esli eto inconceivable madness, bezumstvo nemyslimo, to then…well, what do I wish for? How togda…mu, da chego pozhelat'? Razve am I to know what I want? I am ja znaju, chego zhelaju? Jas am kak helpless and hopeless; I only know I poterjanij; mne tol'ko by byt' pri nej, v must be near her, in her aura, in her ee oriole, v ee sijanii, navechno, radiance, always, for ever, all my life. vsegda, vsju zhizn'. ( 367) ( 98-99) Grandmamma to Alexei:

25.-Vizhu, chto vse ushli [den'gi],- 'I can see it's all gone,'she said, with a progovorila ona v kakom-to spokojstvii kind of calm madness…(105) beshenstva… (373) When Alexei refuses Grandmamma 124 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

to gamble:

26.-Eto pochemu? Eto chto ezhe? 'Why not? What's all this? Have you Beleny, chto li, vy vse objelis'! all gone crazy? ( 113) (381) Alexei's thoughts:

27.Pravo: net-net, da mel'knet inoj raz Indeed, from time to time the thought teper' v moej golove:"Uzh ne soshel li run through my mind,"Surely I must ja togda s uma i ne sidel li vse eto have been out of my mind then? vremja gde-nibud' v Did I spend all that time in a sumashedshem dome, a mozhet madhouse somewhere, and am I byt', i teper' sizhu,- tak chto mne vse still perhaps there- so that it all only eto pokazalos' i do sih por tol'ko seemed to happen, and still only kazhetsja…" ( 383) seems to have happened?... ( 114) 28.Pridja domoj, v poryve When I reached home, in an access beshenstva, ja shvatil pero i of rage I seized a pen and scribbled nastrochil ej sleduzhee:… (390) the following lines to her:… (212) During Polina's visit to Alexei:

29.Odna dikaja mysl' blesnula v A wild idea flashed into my mind. moej golove( 396) (128) 30. Ja byl kak v gorjachke i dvinul Feeling as though I were delirious vsju etu kuchu deneg na krasnuju… with fever, I moved the whole pile Beshenstvo ovladelo mnoju: ja of money to the red…Possessed shvatil poslednie ostavshiesja mne dve by frenzy, I seized the 2000 tysjachi florinov i postavil na florins I had left and staked them on dvenadcat' pervuh… (398) the twelve first numbers… ( 129-130) 31. Ja delal glupye oshibki. Viski moi I made gross mistakes. My temples byli smocheny potom i ruki were damp with perspiration drozhali. (399) and my hands trembled. ( 131) 32. No ja, po kakomu-to strannomu But I, with strange perversity, svoenraviju, zametiv, chto krasnaja deliberately went on staking on red vyshla sem' raz srjadu, narochno k nej after noticing that it had turned up privjazalsja…; mne hotelos' udivit' seven times running…. I clearly zritelej bezumnym riskom… remember that even without any Krugom krichali, chto eto bezumno, prompting of vanity I really was chto krasnaja uzhe vyhodit suddenly overcome by a terrible chetynadcatyj raz! ( 401) craving for risk…The bystanders exclaimed that this was madness, 125 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

and that red had already won fourteen times! (132) Chapter 15, when Alexei wins two hundred thousand franks and brings it to Polina, she is described in the following way:

Then all at once she covered her face 33. Tut ona zakryla vdrug rukami lico, with her hands and became i s neju sdelalas' isterika. Ja brosilsja hysterical. I rushed to her. I knew k nej. something must have happened in my absence. She seemed not to be in Ja ponjal, chto s neju chto-to bez menja her right mind at all. sluchilos'. Ona byla sovsem kak by ne v svojom ume. 'Buy me! Would you like to? Would you? For fifty thousand francs, like de -Pokupai menja! Hochesh'? Hochesh'? Grieux?' She sobbed za pjat'desjat tysjach frankov, kak De- . I put my arms Grie?- vyrvalos' u nej s convulsively round her, kissed her hands and feet, . Ja sudorozhnymi rydanijami fell on my knees before her. obhvatil ee, celoval ee ruki, nogi, upal pred neju na koleni. Her hysterical fit was passing… Her face wore a troubled and ee prohodila… Kakaja-to Isterika thoughtful expression. I feared for zabota i vdumchivost' javilis' v lice ee. her; I definitely thought her Ja bojalsja za nee: mne reshitel'no mind . Then suddenly kazalos', chto u nej um was wandering she began to draw me gently towards . To vdrug nachinala ona mechaetsja her; a trustuful smile played over her tiho privlekat' menja k sebe; face; then all at once she pushed me doverchivaja ulybka uzhe bluzhdala v away and again began gazing at me ee lice; i vdrug ona menja ottalkivala i with a shadowed look…I felt opjat' omrachennym vzgljadom prinimalas' v menja vsmatrivat'sja… Ja feverish myself. I remember she began talking to me, but I could sam bil kak . Pomnju, v lihoradke hardly understand anything she said. ona nachinala mne chto-to govorit', no It was a kind of ja pochti nichego ne mog ponjat'. Eto delirious …. I had never before seen byl kakoj-to bred, kakoj to lepet…. chatter Ja ezhe nikogda ne vidal ee v etih her in these fitful moods of pripadkah nezhnosti i ljubvi; tenderness and love; it is true, of course, that his was , pravda, eto, konechno, byl bred, no… delirium ( 403-404) but…(135-136) 34.Ja znaju, ona, konechno, v tu minutu I know, of course, that she was out byla ne v svoem ume, hot' ja i ne of her mind at the time, although I ponimaju etogo vremennogo do not understand this temporary pomeshatel'stva. Pravda, ona ezhe madness, It is true that even now, a i do sih por, mesjac spustja, ezhe 126 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

bol'na. ( 406) month later, she is still ill. (137) Alexei about Paris:

35.Chto ja skazhu o Parizhe? Vse eto What can I say about Paris? Of course bylo, konechno, i bred i durachestvo. it was all delirium and foolishness. (412) (143)

Table 5.14.

Examples of the “madness” word system in The Idiot Transliterated Russian text English translation Description of Rogozhin:

36. Osobenno primetna byla v etom The most striking thing about his face lice ego mertvaja blednost', was its deathly pallor, which in pridavavshaja vsej fisionomii spite of his rather sturdy build, gave molodogo cheloveka the young man a look of utter iznemozhdennij vid, nesmotrja exhaustion and , at the same time, na dovol'no krepkoe slozhenie, i of something agonizingly passionate, vmeste s tem chto-to strasnoe, do which seemed to be out of keeping stradanija, ne garmonirovavshee s with his coarse and insolent smile and nahal'noju i gruboju ulybkoj i s rezkim, his surly and self-satisfied expression. samodovol'mym ego vzgljadom. ( 6) ( 27-28) From the first conversation between the Prince and Rogozhin:

37.Otvechaja, on [Myshkin] objavil, In answering them, he incidentally mezhdu prochim, chto dejstvitel'no disclosed the fact that he really had dolgo ne byl v Rossii, …, chto been away a long time from Russia…, that he had been sent abroad otpravlen byl za granicy po bolezni, for , because of po kakoj-to strannoj nervnoj reasons of health strange , bolezni, vrode paduchej ili nervous disease something in the nature of vittovoj pljaski, kakih to epilepsy or , some kind of drozhanij i sudorog. ( 7) St Vitus's dance convulsive spasms and twitching. (29)

He seemed still to be in a fever or, 38. Kazalos', chto on do sih por v at least, running a 127 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

gorjachke, i uzh po krajnej mere v temperature. (33-34) lihoradke. ( 12) Rogozhin about his first encounter with Nastya:

39. Ja, pravda, hotel bylo togda zhe v To tell the truth, I'd half a mind to vody, domoj ne zahodja, da throw myself into the river without dumaju:'Ved' uzh vse ravno', i kak going home first, but I thought to myself, It's all one, anyways, and I vorotilsja domoj. (15) okajannij went back home like I was damned'. (37) Rogozhin:

40.…da poshel potom po kabakam na …then off I went from pub to pub and poslednie, da v beschuvstvii vsju noch spent all the money I had on drinks, na ulice i provaljalsja, a k utru and afterwards lay dead drunk in the gorjachka, a tem vrementem za street all night. By the morning I was noch ezhe sobaki obgryzli. Nasily in a raging fever, and during the ochnulsja. ( 16) night the dogs had worried me. How I came to I don't know. (37) 41. Privedite i postavte soldata protiv Take a soldier and put him in front of samij pushki na srazheii i streljajte v a cannon in battle and fire at him and nego, on ezhe vse buder nadejatsja, no he will still hope, but read the same prochtite etomu samomu soldatu soldier his death sentence for certain, prigovor naverno, i on s uma sojdet and he will go mad or burst out ili zaplachet. Kto skazal, chto crying. Who says that human nature is chelovecheskaja priroda v sostojanii capable of bearing this without vynesti eto bez sumashestvija? madness? (47-48) (27) The Prince to Epachin:

42. Ja goda chetyre v Rossii ne byl, s You see, sir, I haven't been in Russia lishkom; da i chto ja by ehal:pochti ne for over four years and I really can v svoem ume!(29) hardly say that I ever left it, for when I did leave it I was scarcely in my right mind. (50) The Prince to Epachin about his state:

43. Chastye pripadki ego bolezni His frequent fits had made almost an sdelali iz nego sovsem pochti idiot of him (the prince actually idiota… On raskazal, nakonec, chto used the word 'idiot'). Finally he 128 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

Pavlizhev vstretilsja odnazhdy v said that one day in Berlin Berline s professorom Shneiderom, Pavlishchev had met Professor kotorij… lechit po svoej metode Schneider, …who specialized in those holodnoju vodoj, gimnastikoj, lechit ot particular diseases…[and] treated idiotizma i ot sumashestvija… ( patients suffering from idiocy and 32) insanity according to his own methods, consisting of a cold-water cure and exercises… ( 53) Myshkin about Ganya:

'I don't know how to tell you,' replied 44. Ne znaju, kak vam skazat',- otvetil the prince. 'Only I did feel that there knjaz', tol'ko mne pokazalos', chto v was a good deal of passion in him, a nem monogo strasti, i dazhe kakoj-to sort of morbid passion. And he bol'noj strasti.Da on i sam ezhe seemed to be quite ill, too. (57) sovsem kak budto bol'noj. (36)

He stared straight at the general with 45. On (Ganya) gljadel svoim feverish eyes, as though anxious

vospalennym vzgljadom that he should read there all that was prjamo v glaza generalu, kak by dazhe in his mind. (58) zhelaja, chtoby tot prochel v ego vzgljade vsju ego mysl'. ( 37)

A conversation between the Prince and Ganya:

'But would you marry such a woman?' Ganya went on, without taking his 46.-A zhenilis' by by na takoj feverishly burning eyes off zhenzhine?-prodolzhal Ganya, ne him. spuskaja s nego svoego vospalennogo vzgljada. 'I can't marry anyone,'said the prince. 'I'm a man'. (62) -Ja ne mogu zhenit'sja ni na kom, ja sick nezdorov,- skazal knjaz'. (42)

It is of course a well-known fact that 47.Vprochem, izvestno, chto chelovek, a man who allows himself to be slishkom uvlekshijsja strastju, carried away by passion, especially if osobenno esli on v letah, sovershenno he is getting on in years, becomes slepnet i gotov podozrevat' nadezhdu totally blind and is ready to see hope tam, gde vovse ee i net; malo togo, where there is none; what is more, he i dejstvuet kak terjaet rassudok loses his reason and acts like a glupyj rebenok…Nakanune dnja foolish child…On the day of Nastasya rozhdenija Nastasji Filippovny on Filippovna's birthday he [general [general Yepachin] byl kak v Yepachin] was in a state of 129 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

lihoradke…(59) great agitation… (76)

Mrs. Yepachin about the Prince:

He's quite a child; such a pathetic- looking fellow, too. He seems to have 48. Sovershennij rebeok I dazhe takoj some kind of nervous fits. ( 78) zhalkij; pripadki u nego kakie-to boleznennye… (60)

That was after a long series of violent 49. Eto bylo posle rjada sil'nyh i and painful attacks of my illness, muchitelnyh moej pripadkov and I always relapsed into a state of , a ja vsegda, esli bolezni bolezn' complete stupor when my illness usilivalals' i pripadki povtorjalis' became worse and I had several neskol'ko raz srjadu, vpadal v polnoe attacks on the same day. I lost my otuplenie, terjal soversheno pamjat', a memory and, though I was fully um hotja i rabotal, no logicheskoe conscious, the logical sequence of my techenie myslki kak by obryvalos'. (65) thoughts seemed to be broken. ( 82)

Alexandra Yepachin:

…the Prince spoke very interestingly about his and how the shock 50.…knjaz' rasskazal ochen' interesno illness of seeing the donkey make him like svoj sluchaj i kak vse boleznennyj everything around him. I've always emu ponravilos' chrez odin vneshnij been interested to know how people tolchek. Mne vsegda bylo interesno, go mad and then recover again. kak ljudi i potom shodjat s uma (84) opjat' vyzdoravlivajut. (67)

There was one patient in 51. Tam byl odin v zavedenii bol'noj Schneider's clinic, a very unhappy Shneijdera, odin ochen' neschastnyj man. His was such a terrible cheloek. Eto bylo takoe uzhasnoe misfortune that I doubt if there can be neschastie, chto podobnoe vrjad li i anything like it. He had been sent mozhet byt'. On byl otdan na izlechenie there to be treated for insanity. In ot ; po-moemu, on pomeshatel'stva my opinion, he was not insane, but byl ne pomeshannij, on tol'ko uzhasno was greatly distressed- that was all stradal,-vot i vsja ego byla. ( bolezn' that was the matter with him. ( 95) 78)

She [Marie] seemed 52. Ona [Marie] byvala kak beside herself with excitement and delight. (100) bezumnaja, v uzhasnom volnenii i vostorge. ( 84) 130 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

About Nastasya's portrait:

53.-V etom lice…stradanija mnogo…- 'Because, you see, there is so much progovoril knjaz' kak bi nevol'no, kak suffering in that face,'the prince said, bi sam s soboju govorja, a ne na vopros as though involuntarily, as though otvechaja. speaking to himself and not in answer to her question. -Vi, vprochem, mozhet bit', bredite,- reshila general'sha i nadmennim 'I daresay you're talking zhestom otkinula ot sebja portret na nonsense,'Mrs. Yepanchin declared stol. (93) firmly, throwing down the portrait on the table with a haughty gesture. (108)

It's all your fault,'Ganya snarled, 54.-Eto vi,-zaskrezhetal Ganja, vdrug flinging himself upon the prince as nabrasivajas' na knjaza, tol'ko chto vse soon as everyone had gone. 'It was vishli,-eto vi razboltali im, chto ja you who blabbed to them about my zhenjus'!-bormotal on skorym getting married,'he muttered in a rapid polushepotom, s beshenym licom i undertone, hiw face working zlobno sverkaja glazami,- furiously and his eyes flashing besstidnij vi boltunishka! (96) angrily.'You're a shameless blabber, sir!' (111)

Ganya stamped his foot with 55. Ganja topnul nogoj ot impatience. His face neterpenija. Lico ego dazhe turned …Ganya was pochernelo ot beshenstva… purple with fury Neizmerimaja zloba ovladela Ganej, i overcome by ungovernable rage and beshenstvo ego prorvalos' bez his fury burst out without vsjakogo uderzhu. (99-100) restraint. (115) (113) Ganya's father:

Suddenly, without the slightest 56. A to molchat..drug, -i eto bez warning, mind you, without as much malejshego, ja vam skazhu, as a by your leave, just as though she preduprezhdenija, to est' bez had gone out of her mind, the samomalejshego, tak-taki sovershenno light blue one snatched the cigar out kak bi s uma spjatila,- of my hand and flung it out of the svetlogolubaja hvat' u menja iz ruki window. The train was flying along. I sigaru i za okno. Vagon letit, gljazhu just stared at her like-like a half- kak poloumnij. Zhenzhina dikaja; wit. A wild woman, I mean, as dikaja zhenzhina, tak-taki though she had just emerged from a sovershenno iz dikogo wild state… (139) sostojanija… (127) 131 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

Nastasya Filippovna laughed as 57.Nastasja Filipovna hohotala kak v though she were in hysterics. isterike. (129) (140)

…the whole scene had a very 58.…na Ninu Aleksandrovnu vse eto painful effect on Mrs. Ivolgin; she podejstvovalo boleznenno; ona was trembling and seemed to be drozhala, i kazalos', totchas on the point of fainting. (145) upadet v obmorok. (133)

…seeing that Nastasya Filippovna 59.…uvidja, chto Nastasija Filipovna was really going this time, he etot raz dejstvitel'no uhodit, kak pounced on Varya like a madman brosilsja na Varju i v isstuplennij and seized her by the hand. (145) beshenstve shvatil ee za ruku. ( 134)

…if some madman or some fool 60. Kakoj –nibud' , ili sumashedshij or some scoundrel slaps a man's face durak, ili zlodej v sumashedshem in a fit of madness, that man is vide dast pozhechinu, i vot uzh supposed to be dishonoured for life, chelovek na vsju zhizn' obeschezhen, i and he can't wipe it out except with smyt' ne mozjet inache kak krovju… blood…(148) (137)

Ganya about Nastasya Filippovna:

…she's convinced that I'm madly in 61.…ona [Nastya] ubezhdena, chto ja love with her. I swear, she is… (152) ee ljublju do sumashestvija, kljanus' vam… (141)

Nastasya Filippovna also took a glass 62. V stranih zhe, inogda ochen' rezkih and decraled that she would drink i bistrih vihodkah Nastasji Filipovni, three that evening. But it was very kotoraja tozhe vzjala vina i objavila, difficult to make any sense of her chto segodnja vecherom vip'et tri strange and sometimes very sharp and bokala, v ee istericheskom i unexpected outbursts or of her bespredmetnom smehe, hysterical, aimless laughter, peremezhajuzhemsja vdrug s alternating suddenly with silent, even molchalivoju i dazhe ugrjumoju sullen, fits of depression. Some of her zadumchivost'ju, trudno bilo i ponjat' guests suspected that she was chto-nibud'. Odni podozrevali v nej feverish… lihoradku… - U vas kak budto malen'kaja 'Are you feeling a little feverish?' lihoradka?- sprosila bojkaja 132 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

barinja. asked the sprightly lady. - -Dazhe bol'shaja, a ne malen'kaja, ja dlja togo i v mantilju zakutalas',- 'Not a little, but very much,'replied otvetila Nastasja Filipovna, v Nastasya Filippovna. That's why I've samom dele stavshaja blednee i wrapped myself up in my cloak.' kak budto po vremenam She looked, as a matter of fact, much sderzhivavshaja v sebe sil'nuju paler, and at times she had to drozh'. ( 163) suppress a violent shiver.(172)

Nastasya Filippovna was always 63. V zhelanijah svoih Nastasja and inexorable Filipovna vsegda bila irrepressible where her own desires were i bespozhadna… . I neuderzhima concerned….And now, too, she teper' ona bila kak , v isterike seemed to be nervous and suetilas', smejalas' , sudorozhno hysterical, laughing … . (165) pripadochno convulsively…. (174)

'Nastasya 'Filippovna! Nastasya 64.-Nastasja Filippovna, Nastasja Filippovna!' they all cried. Everyone Filippovna!- poslishalos' so vseh was excited, everyone got up from his storon. Vse zavolnovalis', vse vstali s seat; they all surrounded her, they all mest; vse okruzhili ee, vse s listened uneasily to her , bespokojstvom slushali eti abrupt , words. ( 187) porivistye, lihoradochnie, feverish frenzied isstuplennie slova… (180)

'What do you think, Totsky?' the 65.-Kak vi dumaete, Afanasij general managed to whisper to him Ivanovich,-naskoro uspel shepnut' emu hurriedly. 'She hasn't gone off her general,-ne soshla li ona [Nastasya head, has she? I don't mean it Filippovna] ? To est, bez s uma metaphorically, but in a strictly allegorii, a nastojazhim medicinskim medical sense.' ( 189) manerom,a ? (182) 66. Robko i poterjano smotrel on [Rogozhin] neskol'ko sekund, ne He gazed uneasily and timidly at otvodja glaz, na Nastasju Filipovnu. Nastasya Filippovna for a few Vdrug, kak bi poterjav ves' seconds, without taking his eyes off her. Then, suddenly, as though rassudok i chut' ne shatajas', podoshel on k stolu… ( 185) taking leave of his senses and almost staggering, he went up to the table… ( 191)

'What's that? What's that? ' the 67.-Da chto takoe, chto takoe?- general cried, deeply impressed with spohvatilsja general, smotrja na vseh the news and looking at them all as 133 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

kak poloumnij,-da neuzhto though he had lost his senses. 'Is it nasledstvo? (190) really an inheritance?' (197)

…Don't come near!' Rogozhin bawled 68-…Ne podhodi!-zavopil Rogozhin v in a frenzy, seeing Darya isstuplenii, uvidja, chto Darja Alexeyevna approaching Nastasya Alekseevna podhodit k Nastasje Filippovna. 'She's mine! Everything's Filippovne.-Moja! Vse Moe! Koroleva! mine! My queen! That's the end!' Konec! (196) (203)

Yes, I used to spend hours dreaming 69.Da tak, bivalo, razmechtaesh'sja, like that and it nearly drove me chto s uma sojdesh'… (197) crazy. ( 204)

Prince about Nastasya:

'She's mad! Mad! I assure you!' the prince replied in a 70.-Ona sumashedshaja! trembling , for some reason holding out Pomeshannaja! Uverjau vas!- voice his to him. (388) otvechal knjaz' drozhazhim shaking hands golosom, protjanuv k nemu dlja chego-to svoi drozhazhie ruki. (398)

…I think you're the most honest and 71.…ja vas schitaju za samogo truthful man I know- more honest and chestnogo i za somogo pravdivogo truthful than anyone, and if people cheloveka, vseh chesnee i pravdivee, i say about you that your mind- I mean, esli govorjat pro vas, chto u vas that you sometimes suffer from um…to est' chto vi inogda bol'ni mental illness, it's unfail. ( 467) umom, to eto nespravedlivo…(486)

'It's madness, it's proof of her 72.-Eto sumashestvie; madness,' said the prince, and his dokazatel'stvo ee bezumija,- lips . progovoril knjaz', i gubi ego quivered zadrozhali. ( 495)

How could she write about that, and 73. Kak mogla ona ob etom pisat', i kak how could such an insane, fantastic mogla takaja mechta bezumnaja idea have enered her head?..Why, of zaroditsja v ee golove?.. Da, konechno, course, it was a dream, a nightmare, eto bil son, koshmar i insanity…For several hours he bezumie…Neskol'ko chasov srjadu seemed to be jaunted by what he 134 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

on kak budto bredil tem, chto had read, every minute recalling prochital…(515) scraps of it… (493)

Aglaya glared sternly at her laughting 74. Aglaja grozno bilo posmotrela na sisters, but a second later she, too, rassmejavshihsja sester, no i sekundi could no longer control herself and sama ne viderzhala i zalilas' samim burst into a mad, almost sumashedshim, pochti hysterical laughter… ( 555) istericheskim hohotom… ( 582)

The prince was in a fever all night. 75. Knjaz' bil vsju noch v It was strange that he should have . Stranno, uzhe neskol'ko lihoradke been feverish for several nights. nochej srjadu s nim bila . lihoradka This time, in a half-delirious V etot zhe rav, v polubredu, emu state, the thought occurred to him: prishla misl': chto esli zavtra s nim pri what if he should have a fit vseh, s nim sluchitsja ? pripadok tomorrow in the presence of Ved' bivali zhe s nim pripadki everyone? He had had fits when he najavu?(596) was among people before, hadn't he?(568)

Table 5.15.

Examples of the “madness” word system in The Brothers Karamazov

76. Ved' tot [old Karamazov] po For the old goat has suddenly gone Grushen'ke s uma vdrug soshel, crazy about Grushenka. His mouth ved' u nego sljuna bezhit, kogda na waters the moment he looks at her. nee gljadit tol'ko. (104) (91) 77. -Rodstvennica? Eto Grushen'ka-to Rachitin to Alyosha: mne rodstvennica?-vskrichal vdrug 'A relative? Grushenka a relative of Rakitin, ves' pokrasne.-Da ti s uma mine?' Rakitin cried suddenly, flushing spjatil, chto li? Mozgi ne v all over. 'Have you gone off your porjadke. (108) head? There must be something wrong with your brains.' ( 94) From Dmitry's conversation with Alyosha about Katerina:

78. … ja na etu gljadel togda sekundi …I looked at her just then for three or tri ili pjat' so strashoju nenavistju,-s five seconds with terrible hatred- with toju samoju nenavist'ju, ot kotoroj do the sort of hatred that's only a hair's- breadth removed from love, from the 135 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

ljubvi, do bezumnejshej ljubvi- most insane love! (132) odin volosok! (146) 79. -Mitja, milij, chto s toboj!- 'Mitya, what's the matter with you?' voskliknul Alesha, vskakivaja s mesta Alyosha exclaimed, jumping up from i vsmatrivajas' v isstuplenogo his place and staring at Dmitry's Dmitrija Fedorovicha. Odno frenzied face. For a moment he mgnovenie on dumal, chot tot thought that Dmitry had gone pomeshalsja. (155) mad. (140-141) 80. On [Fedor Karamazov] He was gasping for breath. He was not zahlebyvalsja. On ne zhdal v etot raz expecting Grushenka that day and the Grushen'ki, i vdrug izvestie, chto ona sudden news that she was there [Grushenka] zdes', razom vyvelo drove him out of his mind. He ego iz uma. On ves' drozhal, on was trembling all over. He seemed kak by obezumel. ( 177) to have gone mad. ( 162) 81. -Net ee zdes', net, bezumnij vi 'She is not here, she isn't, you crazy starik,-zlobno zakrichal na nego Ivan.- old man!' Ivan shouted at him Nu, s nim obmorok! (178) spitefully. 'God Lord, he's fainted!(163) Mrs. Khokhlakov to Alyosha about Lise: 82. -Ne mudreno, Lise, ne mudreno…ot tvoih zhe kaprizov i so 'I should't wonder, Lise, I shouldn't mnoj isterika budet, a vprochem, wonder. Your caprices will drive me ona tak bol'na, Alexei Fedorovich, into hysterics too. But then, dear ona vsju noch' bila tak bol'na, v Alexey, she'so ill. She's been so ill all zharu, stonala!...Kak tol'ko vi night, feverish and moaning!...As podoshli k domu, ona vskriknula i s soon as you approached our house, she nej sluchilsja pripadok… ( 227) uttered a scream, had an attack of hysterics… (211) 83.V etu minute vbezhala At this moment the perlour maid gornichnaja. rushed in. -S Katerinoj Ivanovnoj hudo…Oni 'Miss Katerina is ill. She's crying- she's plachut…isterika, bjutsja. (245) in hysterics, she's having convulsions!' ( 227) 84. G-zha Hohlakova opjat' vstretila Mrs. Khokhlakov was again the first to Aleshu pervaja. Ona toropilas': meet Alyosha. She was in a hurry. sluchilos' nechto vazhnoe: isterika Something important had happened: Katerini Ivanovni konchilas' Katerina's attack of hysterics had obmorokom, zatem nastupila ended in a fainting fit, followed, '"uzhasnaja, strashnaja slabost', ona Mrs Khokhlakov informed him, 'by a legal, zavela glaza i stala bredit'. terrible, awful weakness. She lay down, turned up her eyes and became 136 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

Teper' zhar…Chto-to budet, a ona delirious. Now she has a bez pamjati. A nu esli temperature…Something terrible gorjachka!" ( 267) is bound to happen. She's unconscious. What if it should be brain fever?' (248) 85. Russkij narod nado porot'-s, kak The Russian peasant, my dear, must be pravil'no govoril vchera Fedor flogged, as Mr. Karamazov quite Pavlovich, hotja i sumashedshij rightly said yesterday, mad though he on chelovek so vsemi svoimi det'mi's. is, and all his children. (263) ( 282) 86. Alyosha rasskazal emu [Ivan] ob Alyosha told him [Ivan] about her isterike i o tom, chto ona hysterical fit and that she was [Katerina], kazhetsja, teper' v apparently still inconscious and bespamjatstve i v bredu. ( 292) delirious. (271) Alyosha to Ivan:

87. Ti govorish' s strannim vidom,- s 'You speak with a strange air,' Alyosha bespokoistvom zametil Alesha,- observed uneasily,'as though you were tochno ty v kakom bezumii. ( 298) not quite yourself. ( 278) 88. -Ja nichego ne ponimaju,- 'I understand nothing', Ivan went on as prodolzhal Ivan kak by v bredu,-ja though in delirium, 'and I don't i ne hochy teper' nichego ponimat'. want to understand anything now'. (305) (285) 89. Grushenkaa stojala sredi komnati, Grushenka was standing in the middle govorila s zharom, i v golise ee of the room, she spoke with heat poslishalis' istericheskie notki. and there was a hysterical note in (441) her voice. (415) 90. …[Mitja] deijstvitel'no mog …[Mitya] might well have imagined at predstavljat' sebe vremenami, chto times that he would finish up by falling konchit vospaleniem v mozgu. ill with brain fever. ( 432) ( 457) Dmitry to Mrs.Khokhlakov:

91. Prostite za trivial'not' virazhenija, Forgive the cliché, but I'm feeling so no ja v zharu, ja v gorjachke… hot, I'm in a fever… (452) ( 479) 92. Mitja…kak poloumnij vbezhal Mitya…ran, like a madman, to k Fene…. Fenya… -Govori sejchas, gde ona, s kem teper' 'Tell me at once where she is? Who is v Mokrom?-zavopil on v she with now at Mokroye?' he bawled, 137 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

isstuplenii. ( 492) beside himself. ( 464-465) 93. S Fenej mogla sejchas nachat'sja Fenya was on the verge of hysterics isterika, staruha zhe kuharka and the old cool had jumped up from vskochila i gljadela kak her seat and was gazing at Mitya like a sumashedshaja, pochti mad woman, almost unconscious poterjav soznanie. (493) with fright. (465) 94. I Mitya nachinal vse rasskazivat', And Mitya began telling her all about bessvjazno, besporjadochno, it, incoherently, confusedly, gorjacho, no stranno…(539) feverishly, but rather strangely, too… (510) 95. Mitya, proiznosja svoju dikuju In making this wild speech, Mitya rech', pochti zadihalsja. On was almost gasping for breath. poblednel, gubi ego He turned pale, his lips vzdragivali, iz glaz katilis' slezi. ( twitched, and tears rolled down his II-105) cheeks. ( 695) About Ivan's love to Katerina:

96. …kogda Ivan Fedorovich, …on leaving Katerina that night idja…nochju s Aleshej ot Katerini with Alyosha, Ivan said to him:'I Ivanovi, skazal emu: "Ja-to do nee ne am not very keen on her,'he was ohotnik",-to strashno lgal v tu minutu: telling a terrible lie at that moment: on bezumno ljubil ee, hotja pravda he was madly in love with her, i to, chto vremenami nenavidel ee do though it is quite true that at times togo, chto mog dazhe ubit'. ( II- he hated her so much that he 129) could have killed her. ( 717) 97. Doktor Gercenshutbe prjamo Dr. Herzenstube roundly declared zajavil, chto "nenormal'nost' that 'the abnormality of the umstrvennih sposobnostej mental faculties of the podsudimogo usmatrivaetsja sama prisoner was self-evident'. ( 790) soboj". ( II-207) In the court about Dmitry:

98. Nenavisnoe chuvstvo ohvatilo ego He was involuntarily seized by a nevol'no, neuderzhimo, feeling of hatred-irresistibly, there rassuzhdat' nel'zja bilo: vse podnjalos' was no time for reflection: it all v odnu minute! Eto bil affect surged up in him in one moment! It bezumstva i pomezhatel'stva, was an impulse of madness no i affeckt prirodi, mstjazhej za and insanity, but an impulse svoi zakoni bezuderzhno i of nature, avenging the violation of bessoznatel'no, kak i vse v prirode. its eternal laws irresistibly and unconsciously, like everything in 138 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

(II-303) nature. (881) 99. Ona [Katerina] sidela i govorila s She received and talked to him in nim [Alyosha] v toj samoj komnate, v the same room in which she had kotoroj prinimala kogda-to once received Grushenka; in the Grushen'ku; rjadom zhe, v drugoj next room Ivan lay unconscious komnate, lezhal v gorjachke i v and in a high fever. ( 890) bespamjatsve Ivan Fedorovich. ( II-313) About Katerina and Mitya:

100. Tak oba oni lepetali drug So they went on murmuring to drugu rechi pochti bessmislennie i one another almost meaningless isstuplenie, mozhet bit' dazhe i frantic, perhaps not even nepravdivie… ( II-325) truthful, words…( 901)

The "madness" can be subdivided into three sub-systems: 1. The semantic sub-system revolving around words expressions semantically related to the state of madness and insanity, 2. The semantic-associative sub-system which includes words and expressions related to the notion of illness and disease, 3. The semantic-conceptual sub-system which consists of words and expressions from conceptual-semantic field dealing with the notion of madness and insanity.

5.4.1. The semantic madness sub-system The semantic madness sub-system revolves around words and expressions semantically related to the state of madness and insanity.

Table 5.16. The semantic madness-related sub-system Transliterated Russian English Translation Examples Text 1. sumashedshij madman, mad 11, 16, 60, 70, 74, 85, 93 2.sumashestvie madness, insanity 14, 41, 43, 72 139 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

3.pomeshannij crazed, mad 5, 70 4.pomeshatsja to go mad 1879 5.pomeshatel'lstvo madness, insanity 34, 51, 98 6.sumashedshij dom madhouse 27 7.sojti s uma to go mad, to go off one's 27, 41,50, 65, 69, 76 head, to go crazy 8.sumashedshij vid a fit of madness 60 9.do sumashestvija madly 61 10. bezumnij, bezumie mad, madness 7, 10, 12, 13, 32, 52, 72, 81 Poloumnij half wit 56, 92

5.4.2. The semantic-associative illness sub-system The semantic-associative sub-system includes words and expressions related to the notion of illness and disease. Table 5.17. The semantic-associative illness-related subsystem Transliterated Russian English Translation Examples Text 1. gorjachka fever 4, 17, 40, 84 2.bol'noj ill, patient 21, 34,44, 51 3.bolezn' illness, disease 21, 43, 49, 50, 51 4.boleznenno painful 58 5.blednost' pallor 36, 62 6.po bolezni for reasons of health 37 7.nervnaja bolezn' nervous disease 37 8.paduchaja epilepsy 37 9.v lihoradke running a temperature, in a fever 38, 47, 75 10.nezdorov sick 46 11.vospalenij vzgljad feverish eyes 45, 46 12.upast' v obmorok on the point of fainting 58 13.obmorok a fainting fit 84 14.v zharu feverish 82 15.stonat' to moan 82 16.vospalenie v mozgu brain fever 90 140 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

5.4.3. The semantic- conceptual madness sub-system The semantic-conceptual sub-system consists of words and expressions from conceptual-semantic field dealing with the notion of madness and insanity.

Table 5.18 The semantic- conceptual madness sub-system

Transliterated Russian English Translation Examples Text 1.pripadok fit, attack 2, 8, 9, 43, 49, 82 2. beshenstvo madness, rage 25, 30, 54, 55, 3.itrerika, istericheskij hysterics, hysterical 33, 62, 82, 83, 86, 93 4.terjat' rassudok to lose one's reason 47,66 5.mozgi ne v porjadke something wrong with one's 77 brains 6.bredit', v bredu delirious, in delirium 73, 84, 88 7.v istuplenii, isstuplenij beside oneself, in a frenzy, 59, 68, 92 madman

Dostoevsky's characters are mad. They are madly in love with each other, they are madly jealous; their love is so insane that it leads them to lose their senses and to go mad. In this state of madness they lose the ability to distinguish between love and hate and more, to differentiate between fantasy and reality.

5.5. Summary

In this chapter and in Chapter Four I have presented the notion of word systems which is defined as “a number of words connected to each other to the point at which they create a tight word system which contains the essence of the text” (Aphek and Tobin, 1988:3). 141 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______

The message of the text under the analysis is integrally connected to the specific language of the text based on the morphological, phonological, semantic, conceptual and associative common denominators of the discovered word systems. These word systems include:

1. the "love" word system which is sub-divided into a) morpho-phono- semantic sub-system, b) semantic-associative sub-system and c) semantic conceptual sub-system;

2. the "hate" word system which consists of a) morpho-phono-semantic sub- system, b) semantic-associative suffering-related sub-system, c) semantic-conceptual slavery sub-system and d)semantic-conceptual death sub-system;

3. the "fantasy" word system which consists of a) morpho-phono-semantic fantasy sub-system, b)semantic-associative fantasy sub-system and c)semantic- conceptual dream sub-system

4. the "reality" word system which is sub-divided into a) morpho-phono- semantic reality sub-system, b) semantic-associative reality sub-system, c) semantic- conceptual realization/understanding sub-system, and d) morpho-phono-associative truth sub-system;

5. the "madness" word system which consists of a) semantic madness-related sub-system, b) semantic-associative illness-related sub-system and c) semantic- conceptual madness related sub-system.

All these word systems revolve around a single invariant theme and function simultaneously and converge together to create a larger super-system: a text, which can be viewed as a larger system of systems, composed of different word-systems. The author‟s systematic use of his language in the forms of word systems creates the confusion between love and hate, and between fantasy and reality.

In my analysis I have demonstrated how each of the above word systems in isolation still maintains its significance within the message of the novel. In addition, the whole set of word systems and the interrelation between them serve to intensify the message of the text. All of these systems together create a larger system of the 142 Chapter 5: The Model of Word Systems- Fantasy and Reality Word Systems ______language where love and hate are interconnected to such an extent that sometimes they can be merged, combined and even confused and that these polarically opposed feelings that are present in every relationship can both be real or imagined at the same time because only in a state of madness a person loses the ability to distinguish between love and hate to such an extent that fantasy and reality converse. Various word systems contribute to the text with a different degree of impact and force and show that Dostoevsky has successfully created a text where the language and the message are inseparable. In other words, Dostoevsky has successfully created a text where the means is the message.

143 Chapter 6: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Love versus Hate ______

Chapter Six Phonological analysis of the lexicon of "love" versus "hate" in Dostoevsky's novels based on the theory of Phonology as Human Behavior

6.1. The distribution of monosyllabic, bi-syllabic and polysyllabic words 6.1.1. The distribution of monosyllabic, bi-syllabic and polysyllabic words in the Lexicon of Love- the data 6.1.2. The distribution of monosyllabic, bi-syllabic and polysyllabic words in the Lexicon of Hate –the data 6.1.3. Discussion

6.2. Additional articulators in word-initial position 6.2. 1. Additional articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Love- the data 6.2.2. Additional articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Hate- the data 6.2.3. Discussion

6.3. Distribution of phonemes of constriction in word-initial position with reference to active articulators 6.3. 1.Distribution of phonemes of constriction in word-initial position with reference to active articulators in the Lexicon of Love-the data 6.3. 2. Distribution of phonemes of constriction in word-initial position with reference to active articulators in the Lexicon of Hate- the data 6.3.3. Discussion

6.4. The distribution of apical consonants in word-final position 6.4.1. The distribution of apical consonants in word-final position in the Lexicon of Love-the data 6.4.2. The distribution of apical consonants in word-final position in the Lexicon of Hate- the data 6.4. 3. Discussion

6.5. The distribution of the explosive mobile phonemes 6.5.1. The distribution of the explosive mobile phonemes in the Lexicon of Love- the data 6.5.2. The distribution of the explosive mobile phonemes in the Lexicon of Hate- the data 6.5. 3.Discussion

6.6. The distribution of the consonant clusters [R+Consonant] or [Consonant+R] and [Vowel+R+Vowel] or [R+Vowel] 6.6. 1.The distribution of the consonant clusters [R+Consonant] or [Consonant+R] and [Vowel+R+Vowel] or [R+Vowel] in the Lexicon of Love- the data 6.6.2. The distribution of the consonant clusters [R+Consonant] or [Consonant+R] and [Vowel+R+Vowel] or [R+Vowel] in the Lexicon of Hate- the data 6.6. 3. Discussion 6.7.Summary

144 Chapter 6: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Love versus Hate ______

As previously postulated in Chapter Two, the message of the literary text under analysis is that love and hate are interconnected to such an extent that sometimes they can be merged, combined and even confused. Love in Dostoevsky is comprised of pity, sacrifice, and suffering and involves the joy of dominating and the pleasure of torturing. My assumption is that in every love relationship depicted in the novels, this message is present. I examine the systems within the language of the novels in order to confirm my hypothesis that the relationship between men and women is a balance between love and hate, slavery and despotism, humiliation and submission, devotion and submissiveness, cruelty and tenderness, self abasement and self love, sadism and masochism, the desire to suffer and to cause suffering to the other, the joy of dominating and the pleasure of torturing.

This chapter presents a phonological analysis of the semantic fields of Love and Hate in the lexicon of the novels using the theory Phonology as Human Behavior (PHB) (introduced in Chapter Three). I will be specifically examining the distribution of phonemes in lexical items belonging to the semantic fields of Love and Hate. The crucial role of the phoneme for phonological analysis in general and sign-oriented linguistics in particular has been demonstrated in the works of Saussure ( 1959), Jakobson ( 1978), Diver ( 1979), Davis ( 1987), Tobin ( 1997a, 2002). The methodology used in validating the theory in individual languages has been primarily based on lexical analysis, either using the analyst‟s active vocabulary (Diver 1995: 71-72) or collecting the data from moderately sized dictionaries of the standard language (Davis 1984/1987, Tobin 1997a, 2002). My analysis is not based on the entire lexicon neither of speakers nor of dictionaries, but rather presents a text analysis similar to the one found in Tobin (1997a: chapter six) which includes the analysis of an entire text (2 poems by Lewis Carroll: "Jabberwocky" and "The Crocodile") including an analysis of the neologisms found in "Jabberwocky". In my text analysis I do not analyze the entire text but rather focus on the semantically motivated categories of the Lexicon of Love and the Lexicon of Hate related to the message of the entire text. I examine the lexicon of the Dostoevsky text from the point of view of love versus hate; and I assume that there is an iconic connection between form and meaning: i.e. on the one hand, semantically unmarked (U) signs will be unmarked (U) phonologically, but, on the other hand, when the signs are marked (M) semantically they should also be more 145 Chapter 6: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Love versus Hate ______marked phonologically. Semantically an unmarked term has a more general meaning and a marked form has a more specific meaning (e.g horse ((U) versus stallion/mare (M). Phonologically, an unmarked sound is easier to produce and it is acquired earlier and a marked form is more difficult to produce and it is acquired later. According to the sign-oriented approach in this dissertation based on Tobin (1990, 1994/1995) inspired by Jakobson (Tobin (1997a, 2009)), the concepts marked/unmarked imply the following: the linguistic sign which is marked for a certain distinctive feature makes a specific claim for the presence of that feature; the linguistic sign which is unmarked for that distinctive feature is neutral with the regard to that feature: it does not make any specific claim for that feature: i.e. that feature is either present or absent. In general, the more highly marked the sign, the more specific its meaning, and the greater its size. There is usually a connection between the form of the sign and its meaning (the principle if iconicity). According to the theory of Phonology as Human Behavior (PHB), the concept of markedness is related to the set of distinctive features associated with phonemes. Unmarked signs contain the simplest or the most basic aspects of phonological distinctive features, while marked sounds contain phonological features which are more complex and more difficult to produce. For example, voiceless sounds are unmarked, they require one set of oral articulators, while voiced and nasal sounds are marked because they require two or more sets of articulators ( voiced: oral+vocal folds, nasals: oral+vocal folds and/or uvula) as well as palatalized consonants in Russian and other Slavic language which require additional effort in the process of palatalizing. Phonemes made by the apex are unmarked, because the apex is the easiest to control, the most flexible, the most sensitive and the most active articulator. Then follow the lower lip and the back of the tongue, followed by the blade of the tongue which is the least flexible of all oral active articulators. Oral vowels are unmarked, while nasal vowels, which require an additional articulator, are marked. Unmarked sounds are acquired earlier than marked sounds. The frequency of the distribution of the unmarked sounds is generally greater than of the marked sounds (although this frequency may be context-dependent). My assumption originally was that the Lexicon of Love is unmarked both in meaning and in form which means that the lexical items will be not only unmarked semantically but also phonologically. On the other hand, I assumed that the Lexicon of Hate will be more marked in both meaning and phonological form. Therefore one might 146 Chapter 6: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Love versus Hate ______assume that the Lexicon of Love represents a larger and more general semantic field than the Lexicon of Hate. I no longer believe that my original assumption is necessarily and absolutely true: i.e. that the semantic field of love is larger than the semantic field of hate in general and in Dostoevsky‟s works in particular. While collecting the data I realized that there are more words related to the semantic field of hate and suffering in the relationship between men and women than words related to the semantic field of love and affection. Therefore, I assume that the Lexicon of Hate is just as broad and/or even broader and just as complex or even a more complex category than the Lexicon of Love. Therefore the Lexicon of Love and Hate presents an iconic realization of the message of the Dostoevsky‟s works. The data in this chapter will indicate that phonologically speaking there is often a similarity between the Lexicon of Love and the Lexicon of Hate which reflects the message of the text. In addition, there are also phonological and semantic variables in the Lexicon of Hate that iconically reflect its more marked status. This phonological analysis includes two semantic groups of words from the Dostoevskian text comprised of two short novellas- A Meek One (1876), and The Gambler (1866), and two novels- The Idiot (1868) and The Brothers Karamazov (1880). I examined 100 individual words (25 words from each novel) that denote the realm of love, and 100 words (25 words from each novel) that denote the realm of hate (see Appendix 1). The words in each category were chosen randomly. The limited number of separate lexical items (25 words in each category per text) is explained by the fact that I did not find additional words in the texts that were not repeated in each text. I examined these two classes of words to see whether each class has specific distinctive phonological characteristics of its own, and if so, whether there is an iconic or synaesthetic (traditionally called "sound symbolism") connection between form and meaning. I hypothesized that the unmarked signs that are less specific in their meaning (the Lexicon of Love) should be simpler in their phonological form as well. At the same time I expected that the words that are semantically marked (the Lexicon of Hate) to be more marked phonologically as well. These words have a more specific meaning, attract more attention and require more effort for their production. I expected to find more marked phonemes in the Lexicon of Hate, which is more marked semantically. I first present The Phonemic Inventory of Russian (Table 6.1) and The Phonetic Characterization of Russian by Stricture and Airflow (Table 6.2) (according to the tenets of the theory of PHB). 147 Chapter 6: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Love versus Hate ______

Table 6.1 The Phonemic Inventory of Russian Labial Palatalized Apical- Palatalized A- P- Palatalized Lips+P- Labial Dental Apical- Dorsum Dorsum P-Dorsum Dorsum Dental Plosive p b p‟ b‟ t d t‟ d‟ k g k‟ g‟ Nasal m m‟ n n‟ Trill r r‟ Fricative f v f‟ v‟ S z s‟ z‟ š ž x x‟ Affricative ts ts‟ t Lateral l l‟ Semivowel J Vowels i e je a jo ia o u ju o

______* “A-Dorsum” refers to the antero-dorsum (the blade of the tongue), “P-dorsum” refers to the postero-dorsum (the back of the tongue)

148 Chapter 6: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Love versus Hate ______

Table 6.2 The Phonetic Characterization of Russian by Stricture and Airflow Stricture Phonemes Airflow 0° p b t d k p‟ b‟ t‟ d‟ k‟ 0°:stopped 0° m n m‟ n‟ 2°:non-turbulent 0°-1° ts ts‟ t 0°-1°:stopped; then turbulent 1\2 r r‟ periodic 1° f v s z š ž f‟ v‟ s‟ z‟ 1°:turbulent 2° l j i u l‟ ju i 2°:non-turbulent, potentially turbulent 3°-4° e, o, je, ja 3°:non-turbulent 5° a 3°: non-turbulent

In tables 6.1 and 6.2 I presented the categories of phonemes of modern Russian based on the theory of Phonology as Human Behavior as presented in Chapter Three. The following phonological analysis will be based on these tables.

6.1. The distribution of monosyllabic, bi-syllabic and polysyllabic words

The two groups of words (the Lexicon of Love and the Lexicon of Hate) are divided into monosyllabic, bi-syllabic and polysyllabic words. The more syllables there are per word, the more marked the word is considered. In analytical languages like English and Chinese, with very little inflectional morphology, monosyllabic words appear relatively frequently and are unmarked. In synthetic languages, like Russian and Latin, with rich inflectional morphology, not only are monosyllabic words unmarked but bi-syllabic words are relatively unmarked as well, while for both analytical and synthetic languages tri- syllabic and polysyllabic words are generally marked. First, I will analyze the distribution of monosyllabic, bi-syllabic and polysyllabic words in the Lexicon of Love and in the Lexicon of Hate respectively in each novel and novella. Then, I will examine whether there is a correlation between the distribution of monosyllabic, bi-syllabic and polysyllabic words in the Lexicon of Love and in the 149 Chapter 6: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Love versus Hate ______

Lexicon of Hate in each separate work of Dostoevsky and the larger „supra-text‟ (Somerwil-Aarton, 1988:9) comprised of the four works of Dostoevsky.

6.1.1. The Lexicon of Love-data

Tables 6.3- 6.7 present the distribution of monosyllabic, bi-syllabic and polysyllabic words in the Lexicon of Love. Table 6.3 Number of Syllables per Word- the Lexicon of Love in A Meek One (1876)

Number of syllables Number of words % One 1 4% Two 6 24% More than two 18 72% Total 25 100%

Table 6.4 Number of Syllables per Word- the Lexicon of Love in The Idiot (1868) Number of syllables Number of words % One 1 4% Two 6 24% More than two 18 72% Total 25 100%

Table 6.5 Number of Syllables per Word- the Lexicon of Love in The Gambler (1866)

Number of syllables Number of words % One 2 8% Two 7 28% More than two 16 64% Total 25 100% 150 Chapter 6: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Love versus Hate ______

Table 6.6 Number of Syllables per Word- the Lexicon of Love in The Brothers Karamazov (1880)

Number of syllables Number of words % One 1 4% Two 7 28% More than two 17 68% Total 25 100%

Table 6.7 Number of Syllables per Word- the Lexicon of Love in the Dostoevskian text

Number of syllables Number of words % One 5 5% Two 26 26% More than two 69 69% Total 100 100%

6.1.2. The Lexicon of Hate-data

Tables 6.8-6.12 present the distribution of monosyllabic, bi-syllabic and polysyllabic words in the Lexicon of Hate. Table 6.8 Number of Syllables per Word- the Lexicon of Hate in A Meek One (1876)

Number of syllable Number of words % One 5 20% Two 5 20% More than two 15 60% Total 25 100% 151 Chapter 6: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Love versus Hate ______

Table 6.9 Number of Syllables per Word- the Lexicon of Hate in The Idiot (1868)

Number of syllable Number of words % One 3 12% Two 6 24% More than two 16 64% Total 25 100%

Table 6.10 Number of Syllables per Word- the Lexicon of Hate in The Gambler (1866)

Number of syllable Number of words % One 0 0% Two 7 28% More than two 18 72% Total 25 100%

Table 6.11 Number of Syllables per Word- the Lexicon of Hate in The Brothers Karamazov (1880)

Number of syllable Number of words % One 4 16% Two 8 32% More than two 13 52% Total 25 100%

152 Chapter 6: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Love versus Hate ______

Table 6.12 Number of Syllables per Word- the Lexicon of Hate in the Dostoevskian text

Number of syllable Number of words % One 12 12% Two 26 26% More than two 62 62% Total 100 100%

In Table 6.13 I compare the number of syllables in the Lexicon of Love as opposed to the Lexicon of Hate in the larger Dostoevskian text comprised of two short novellas- A Meek One ( 1876), and The Gambler ( 1866), and the two novels- The Idiot (1868) and The Brothers Karamazov ( 1880).

Table 6.13 Number of syllables in the Lexicon of Love as opposed to the Lexicon of Hate in the Dostoevskian text

Number of syllable Lexicon of Love% Lexicon of Hate % One 5% 12% Two 26% 26% More than two 69% 62% Total 100% 100%

6.1.3. Discussion

There is almost the same number of the least marked monosyllabic words in the Lexicon of Love in each of the novels under analysis: 1 out of 25 in A Meek One, 1 out of 25 in The Idiot, 2 out of 25 in The Gambler and 1 out of 25 in The Brothers Karamazov (Tables 6.3-6.6) . There is an increase in the number of monosyllabic words in the Lexicon of Hate (Tables 6.8-6.11): 5 out of 25 in A Meek One, 3 out of 25 in The Idiot, 4 out of 25 153 Chapter 6: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Love versus Hate ______in The Brothers Karamazov. Altogether, there are 12 monosyllabic words (12 %) in the Lexicon of Hate as opposed to 5 monosyllabic words (5%) in the Lexicon of Love in the Dostoevskian text composed of the 4 works of Dostoevsky: A Meek One, The Idiot, The Gambler and The Brothers Karamazov. The non-random distribution of the unmarked monosyllabic words is quite apparent, clearly favoring monosyllables in the Lexicon of Hate (12% in the Lexicon of Hate, 5% in the Lexicon of Love). At the same time, there is an equal number of relatively unmarked bi-syllabic words: 26% in both lexical notions - the Lexicon of Love and the Lexicon of Hate. There is also an increased favoring in the exploitation of marked tri-syllabic and polysyllabic words in the Lexicon of Love and in the Lexicon of Hate - 69% and 62% respectively (Tables 6.7 and 6.12). The increase in the use of marked tri-syllabic and polysyllabic words in these two groups can be explained by the iconic connection between form and meaning. The message of the text under the analysis is that love and hate are interconnected to such an extent that sometimes they can be merged, combined and even confused. Based on this message we can say that there is an interconnection of love and hate in every human relationship, which clearly reflected and possibly can be explained by the equal number of marked polysyllabic words in both lexical groups. The fact that both lexical groups of Love and Hate favor marked tri- and polysyllabic words supports my hypothesis about the nature of the relationship- a fusion between love and hate, slavery and despotism, humiliation and submission, devotion and submissiveness, cruelty and tenderness, self abasement and self love, sadism and masochism, the desire to suffer and to cause suffering to the other, the joy of dominating and the pleasure of torturing. The two contradictory forces of love and hate actually combine and merge, thus making them similar in their phonological distribution. Sometimes we cannot be sure whether Dostoevsky is depicting the relationship between two lovers or between two enemies.

6.2. Additional articulators in word-initial position

The analysis of the number of sets of additional articulators in word-initial position was done for English (Diver 1979), Italian (Davis 1987) and Hebrew (Tobin 1990) as well as for more than 40 different languages belonging to several diverse language families (Tobin 2002). 154 Chapter 6: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Love versus Hate ______

According to theory of PHB word-initial position has the highest communicative load and word-final position has the lowest communicative load (without taking word-stress into account). Since the burden of communication is the greatest in the word initial position, the beginning of the word demands the maximum number of oppositions and therefore the communication is more efficient. According to Diver (1979: 179), “the accumulation of information makes it progressively easier to anticipate what will come next… the early part of the word is likely to give us as much information as we really need to identify the word. Even with minimal pair differentiated in final position- say cat and cap- both words of the pair are not likely to make equally good sense in the particular message: “I have a dog and a c___.” The beginnings of words, then, contain a much greater burden of distinctiveness than do the end”. Word-initial position has the highest communicative load and here we expect to see an almost random distribution of phonemes. Diver (1979) and Davis (1984/1987) examined the distribution of initial consonants in monosyllabic words and stems taken from the general lexicon of English and Italian respectively. They discovered a slight disfavoring of additional articulators (voiceless / voiced / nasal) in word-initial position but approximately a 10% favoring of visible phonemes. Diver claims (1979: 174-5) that producing voiced sounds involves controlling two sets of articulators (oral articulators and the vocal folds), i.e., trying to do two things at once. This added difficulty is also reflected in the distribution/skewing. According to Davis (1984/1987:40-1), “one might conclude confidently: voiceless phonemes are more frequent in initial position than their voiced counterparts‟…the nasals are least frequent…the disfavoring produced by the extra articulator has its effect on frequency.” It must be remembered, however, that all nasal phonemes are voiced by definition and they are not opposed to voiceless nasal phonemes. I extended my phonological analysis and examined the distribution of additional articulators in word-initial position for two groups of words: The Lexicon of Love and the Lexicon of Hate. The distribution of additional articulators in word-initial position for the Lexicon of Love is presented in Tables 6.13-6.17, and for the Lexicon of Hate in Tables 6.18-6.22. In my analysis voiced and nasal phonemes (two and three sets of articulators respectively) are examined in comparison with voiceless phonemes (one set of articulators). Voicing serves as a specific distinctive feature. Voiceless phonemes are unmarked, while voiced and nasal phonemes are marked for the specific distinctive feature 155 Chapter 6: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Love versus Hate ______

(voicing and nasality respectively). On the other hand, since nasal phonemes are marked for nasality while the other oral phonemes (voiced and voiceless) are unmarked for that feature, I will also examine the distribution of nasal phonemes in word initial position as opposed to voiced and voiceless phonemes ( Tables 6.24-6.25) . If my original hypothesis (the Lexicon of Love is semantically and phonologically unmarked and the Lexicon of Hate is semantically and phonologically marked) is justified, then the principle of the disfavoring of additional articulators in the word-initial position should apply to the Lexicon of Love- there should be less voiced and nasal sounds in the word-initial position in the Lexicon of Love. On the other hand, in the Lexicon of Hate, which I hypothesized to be marked, there should be a favoring of additional articulators- I would expect to find more voiced and nasal phonemes in the word-initial position in the Lexicon of Hate.

6.2.1. The Lexicon of Love- data

The distribution of additional articulators in the Lexicon of Love is shown in Tables 6.14-6.17.

Table 6.14 Number of sets of articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Love – A Meek One totals % Voiceless p-2 t-1 k-0 f-0 s-2 š-0 5-38% 38% Voiced b-2 d-1 g-0 v-2 z-1 ž-1 7-54% 62% Nasals m-0 n-1 1-8% 13-100% 100%

156 Chapter 6: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Love versus Hate ______

Table 6.15 Number of sets of articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Love – The Idiot Totals % Voiceless p-3 t-0 k-0 f-0 s-7 š -0 10-56% 56% Voiced b-2 d-2 g-1 v-3 z-0 ž-0 8-44% 44% Nasals m-0 n-0 0-0% 18 100%

Table 6.16 Number of sets of articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Love – The Gambler

Totals % Voiceless p-0 t-0 k-0 f-0 s-4 š-0 4-24% 24% Voiced b-1 d-4 g-0 v-3 z-1 ž-0 9-52% 76% Nasals m-1 n-3 4-24% 17 100%

Table 6.17 Number of sets of articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Love – The Brothers Karamazov

Totals % Voiceless p-3 t-0 k-0 f-0 s-3 Š-0 3- 21% 21% Voiced b-2 d-0 g-1 v-2 z-1 ž-1 7- 50% 79% Nasals m-1 n-3 4- 29% 14 100%

157 Chapter 6: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Love versus Hate ______

Table 6.18 Number of sets of articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Love – The Dostoevskian text

Totals % Voiceless p-8 t-1 k-0 f-0 s-16 š-0 22-35% 35% Voiced b-7 d-7 g-2 v-10 z-3 ž-2 31-50% 65% Nasals m-2 n-7 9-15% 62 100%

Tables 6.14-6.18 show the distribution of additional articulators in the Lexicon of Love in the works of Dostoevsky. Sixty two of the one hundred words from this group begin with obstruents (stops, fricatives, affricatives), the phonemes for which voice- voiceless opposition serves as a distinctive phonemic feature. The phonemes that require the activation of only one set of articulators are disfavored (22 out of 62 words- 35%). The most favored are voiced phonemes- 31 words or 50%-require two sets of articulators. The most disfavored are phonemes which require three sets of articulators (nasals) - 9 of 62 words or only 15%. According to the theory of Phonology as Human Behavior, my original hypothesis that the semantically unmarked category of the Lexicon of Love is unmarked phonologically as well was not supported by the data-the principle of the disfavoring of additional articulators in the word-initial position does not apply to this category- the words in this group are marked in their phonological form (65% of words start with voiced or nasal phonemes). Palatalized consonants in the word-initial position, which are also marked, will be analyzed separately.

6.2.2. The Lexicon of Hate- data

Tables 6.19-6.23 show the distribution of additional articulators in word- initial position in the Lexicon of Hate.

158 Chapter 6: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Love versus Hate ______

Table 6.19 Number of sets of articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Hate – A Meek One

Totals % Voiceless p-4 t-1 k-0 f-0 s-7 š-0 12 60% Voiced b-0 d-0 g-0 v-0 z-1 ž-0 1-5% 40% Nasals m-3 n-4 7-35% 20 100%

Table 6.20 Number of sets of articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Hate – The Idiot

Totals % Voiceless p-2 t-1 k-1 f-0 s-3 š-1 8 40% Voiced b-0 d-1 g-0 v-2 z-2 ž-0 5-25% 60% Nasals m-2 n-5 7-35% 20 100%

Table 6.21 Number of sets of articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Hate – The Gambler

Totals % Voiceless p-3 t-0 k-0 f-0 s-2 š-0 5 31% Voiced b-0 d-1 g-1 v-2 z-2 ž-1 7-44% 69% Nasals m-0 n-4 4-25% 16 100%

159 Chapter 6: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Love versus Hate ______

Table 6.22 Number of sets of articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Hate – The Brothers Karamazov

Totals % Voiceless p-5 t-1 k-0 f-0 s-5 š-0 6-43% 43% Voiced b-1 d-0 g-1 v-1 z-1 ž-1 5-36% 57% Nasals m-2 n-1 3-21% 14 100%

Table 6.23 Number of sets of articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Hate – The Dostoevskian text

Totals % Voiceless p-14 t-3 k-1 f-0 s-17 š-1 31-44% 44% Voiced b-1 d-2 g-2 v-5 z-6 ž-2 18-26% 56% Nasals m-7 n-14 21-30% 70 100%

Seventy words in the Lexicon of Hate (out of 100) begin with obstruents (stops, fricatives, affricatives), the phonemes for which voicing serves as a distinctive phonemic feature. The phonemes that require the activation of only one set of articulators are disfavored (only 31 out of 70 words start with voiceless phonemes- 44%), while the phonemes which require the activation of two and three sets of articulators are favored- 56% (21 words or 30% start with nasals- three sets of articulators, followed by 18 words or 26% which start with voiced phonemes- two sets of articulators).

160 Chapter 6: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Love versus Hate ______

Table 6.24 Number of sets of articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Love as opposed to the Lexicon of Hate– The Dostoevskian text

Lexicon of Love Lexicon of Hate Voiceless 35% 44% Voiced 50% 26% 65% 56% Nasals 15% 30%

6.2.3. Discussion/Analysis

Although I originally hypothized that the Lexicon of Hate is marked both semantically and phonologically, the data in tables (6.14-6.24) demonstrate that both categories- the Lexicon of Love and the Lexicon of Hate- are marked in their phonological form: in the Lexicon of Love 56% of words start with voiced and nasal phonemes, and in the Lexicon of Hate 65% of words start with voiced and nasal phonemes. The fact that both lexical groups of Love and Hate are marked phonologically reflects my hypothesis about the nature of the relationships between men and women in the Dostoevskian text- love and hate are interconnected to such an extent that sometimes they can be merged, combined and confused. Thus, love and hate in the relationships between men and women are interconnected to such an extent that it is impossible to distinguish between the two. Thus the message I have postulated for the larger Dostoevskian text is reflected and realized both semantically and phonologically. However, the percentage of the voiced and nasals phonemes in the word-initial position is higher in the Lexicon of Hate. The data in tables 6.18, 6.23 and 6.24 also demonstrate that in the Lexicon of Hate there is a clear favoring of nasal phonemes (30%, as opposed to 15% in the Lexicon of Love) which require three sets of articulators and which are, as a result, more marked, over voiced phonemes (26%) which require only 2 sets of articulators and which are, as a result, less marked. The Lexicon of Love is less 161 Chapter 6: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Love versus Hate ______marked than the Lexicon of Hate, since there are only 15% of words that start with nasals, as opposed to 50% of words that start with voiced phonemes. Since nasal phonemes are marked for nasality while the other oral phonemes (voiced and voiceless) are unmarked for that feature, it is also worth examining the distribution of nasal phonemes in word initial position as opposed to voiced and voiceless phonemes.

Table 6.25 Nasal phonemes in comparison to voiced/voiceless phonemes in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Love – The Dostoevskian text

Totals % Voiceless/ 53 85% voiced Nasals 9 15% 62 100%

Table 6.26 Nasal phonemes in comparison to voiced/voiceless phonemes in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Hate – The Dostoevskian text

Totals % Voiceless/ 49 70% voiced Nasals 21 30% 70 100%

Nasal doubly-marked phonemes are expected the least in word- initial position since their production require the activation of three sets of active articulators. The data in Tables 6.25-6.26 clearly show that nasal phonemes are disfavored in word initial position both in the Lexicon of Love (15%) and in the Lexicon of Hate (30%). On the other hand, 162 Chapter 6: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Love versus Hate ______there are twice as many marked nasal phonemes in word initial position in the semantically marked Lexicon of Hate. This marked increase in the use of marked nasal phonemes in the semantically marked Lexicon of Hate reflects an iconic connection between form and meaning. Therefore, my original hypothesis that the words that are more marked semantically will be more marked phonologically is supported by the data of the distribution of the number of sets of additional articulators in the Lexicon of Love and in the Lexicon of Hate (tables 6.14-6.25). The words that are more marked semantically (the Lexicon of Hate) have a more complex, marked phonological form. The data in tables (6.18, 6.23, 6.24, 6.25, 6.26) also demonstrate a non-random distribution of the apical nasal phoneme /n/. The production of nasal phonemes involves three sets of articulators: they are voiced, oral stops, produced with the lowering of the uvula. Although marked nasal phonemes are complex and require three sets of articulators, they are natural sounds because physiologically they were designed to emit air through the nose for breathing. According to Tobin (1997a:317), Despite the fact that the nasals are complex sounds articulatorily, they are also natural sounds. As we know, the vocal and nasal tracts were originally designed for eating and breathing, respectively. Talking came later and was superimposed on the same musculature…nasals have a unique pattern of formants like vowels and give strong acoustic sues (sometimes even stronger than vowels) in speech production and reception.

As can be seen from the tables (6.18, 6.23, 6.24), the greatest number of the apical nasal consonant (n-14) is found in the Lexicon of Hate. This category is the most marked semantically and phonologically. The apical nasal /n/, as natural as it may be, requires the simultaneous control of three sets of articulators which makes it more complex (more marked as a result). The number decreases as twice in the Lexicon of Love (n-7). It is worth examining the distribution of the nasal consonant /n/ in word-initial position in comparison with other apical consonants. Table 6.27 summarizes the findings.

163 Chapter 6: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Love versus Hate ______

Table 6.27 The Distribution of the Apical Consonants in Word- Initial Position

The Lexicon of Love The Lexicon of Hate /t/ 1 3 /d/ 7 2 /n/ 7 14

The data in table 6.27 show that there is the same number of nasal phonemes (7) and voiced phonemes (7) in the unmarked category of the Lexicon of Love, while there are less unmarked voiceless phonemes (1). In the semantically marked category of the Lexicon of Hate the most marked nasal phonemes are highly favored (14) and their number is seven times higher than the number of the marked voiced phonemes (2). However, that fact that there are more marked nasal phonemes in the Lexicon of Hate can be explained by the negative prefix ne-nie which is added to words in order to negate them. 8 out of 14 words from the Lexicon of Hate have the negative prefix ne-nie (neravenstvo- inequality, nenavist'- hatred, nedoverchivost'- incredulity, neschastliv- unhappy, negodovanie- indignation, nevnimanie- lack of attention, neschastnaja- unhappy, miserable, nebrezhnost'- contempt).

In Table 6.1- The Phonemic Inventory of Russian and Table 6.2 -The Phonetic Characterization of Russian by Stricture and Airflow it was shown that palatalization is a phonemic feature of Russian. The data presented in tables 6.14-6.27 include both palatalized and non-palatalized consonants in word-initial position. In order to have a total picture of the distribution of consonants in word-initial position I will also analyze the distribution of palatalized consonants (tables 6.28-6.29). As a phonemic process, palatalization is marked because it includes an additional set of articulators (like voiced and nasal consonants, palatalized consonants require an additional movement of the musculature, i.e. an additional gesture or an additional set of articulators). I decided to examine the distribution of the initial palatalized consonants separately because all three groups of consonants can be palatalized: palatalized 164 Chapter 6: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Love versus Hate ______voiceless consonants require two sets of articulators, palatalized voiced consonants require three sets of articulators, and palatalized nasal consonants require four sets of articulators.

Table 6.28 Distribution of the Palatalized Consonants in Word-Initial Position in the Lexicon of Love

Totals Voiceless t-1 s-3 4- 31% palatalized Voiced b-2 v-2 4-31% palatalized nasals m-2 n-3 5-38% palatalized 13 out of 62 21%

Table 6.29 Distribution of the Palatalized Consonants in Word-Initial Position in the Lexicon of Hate

Totals Voiceless p-1 t-2 3-18% palatalized Voiced b-1 d-2 3-18% palatalized

nasals m-1 n-10 11-64% palatalized 17 out of 70 24% 165 Chapter 6: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Love versus Hate ______

Almost a quarter of the consonants in the two categories of the Lexicon of Love and the Lexicon of Hate are palatalized- 21% and 24% respectively. The largest numbers of voiceless palatalized consonants (voiceless phonemes are the easiest to palatalize) are found in the unmarked category of the Lexicon of Love- 4 words or 31%. The same numbers of words are marked palatalized voiced consonants (4 words or 31%). However, there is a sharp decrease in the number of voiceless palatalized consonants and in the number of voiced palatalized consonants (3 words or 18% in each category) in the Lexicon of Hate. In the Lexicon of Hate, which I originally hypothized to be marked both semantically and phonologically, 64% of palatalized consonants are nasals. Palatalized nasal consonants require four sets of articulators and therefore are the most marked. The data in this section firmly supports my original hypothesis that there is an iconic connection between the markedness value of the two lexical categories – the Lexicon of Love and the Lexicon of Hate- and the number of sets of articulators both for palatalized and non-palatalized phonemes.

6.3. Distribution of phonemes of constriction in word-initial position with reference to active articulators

The data in the previous sections (6.1-6.2) have already demonstrated that there is an iconic connection between the meaning of the word and its phonological form as assumed in my original hypothesis. The highest load of communication is in the word- initial position. It is in the word-initial position that the speakers use as many active articulators as possible. The previous analysis (Diver 1979, Davis, 1987, Tobin 1990, 1997) has shown that it is not enough to learn the characteristics of the phonemes of any language in order to understand their distribution in language. It is more important to know both how and where in the utterance the sounds are produced. According to Davis (1984:48), it is more effective “to characterize phonemes on the basis of the articulating organs, not the place of articulation; in other words, in terms of the active articulator, not passive receptor”. Diver (1979) and Davis (1984/1987) provided a phonological analysis of only monosyllabic words and stems (to exclude stress as an additional variable) taken only from the general lexicon- data taken from standard dictionaries. I extended the examination of 166 Chapter 6: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Love versus Hate ______active articulators and examined their distribution in specific categories of words in a text with a message. I examined the distribution of phonemes of constriction in word initial position with reference to active articulators: lips, apex, anterodorsum, posterodorsum; and the corresponding phonemes: / p,b,f,m/- lips, /t,d,n,r,s,z,l/- apex, /s,z/- anterodorsum, /k,g/- posterodorsum in the Lexicon of Love and in the Lexicon of Hate in the Dostoevskian text. In my analysis I combined the phonemes produced by the anterodorsum and the posterodorsum because their number is so small. Tables 6.30-6.39 present the distribution of the Russian consonants in the lexicon of Dostoevskian novels with regard to active articulators and the corresponding phonemes.

6.3.1. Distribution of phonemes of constriction in word-initial position with reference to active articulators in the Lexicon of Love– the data

Table 6.30 Active articulators in word-initial position- Lexicon of Love -A Meek One Visible Non-visible phonemes phonemes Lips Apex A-P-Dorsum total [p,b,f,v,m] [t,d,n,r,s,z,l] [k, g, š , ž] No 6 9 1 16 % 38% 56% 6% 100%

Table 6.31 Active articulators in word-initial position- Lexicon of Love -The Idiot Visible Non-visible phonemes phonemes Lips Apex A-P-Dorsum total [p,b,f,v,m] [t,d,n,r,s,z,l] [k, g, š , ž] No 8 12 1 21 % 38% 57% 5% 100% 167 Chapter 6: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Love versus Hate ______

Table 6.32 Active articulators in word-initial position- Lexicon of Love -The Gambler Visible Non-visible phonemes phonemes Lips Apex A-P-Dorsum total [p,b,f,v,m] [t,d,n,r,s,z,l] [k,g, š , ž] No 5 13 0 18 % 28% 72% 0% 100%

Table 6.33 Active articulators in word-initial position- Lexicon of Love- The Brothers Karamazov Visible Non-visible phonemes phonemes Lips Apex A-P-Dorsum total [p,b,f,v,m] [t,d,n,r,s,z,l] [k,g, š , ž] No 7 8 2 17 % 41% 47% 12% 100%

Table 6.34 Active articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Love – the Dostoevskian text Visible Non-visible phonemes phonemes Lips Apex A-P-Dorsum total [p,b,f,v,m] [t,d,n,r,s,z,l] [k,g, š , ž] No 26 42 4 72 % 36% 58% 6% 100%

As can be seen in tables 6.30-6.34 there is a clear favoring of apical phonemes /t,d,n,r,s,z/ in word initial position in the Lexicon of Love ( 58%). The production of these 168 Chapter 6: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Love versus Hate ______phonemes requires the activation of only one set of active articulators- the apex, which is the easiest to control and the most flexible. The visible labials /p,b,f,v,m/ are next favored (36%). The phonemes produced by the antero- or posterodorsum are least favored (6%). In Russian, apical obstruents, /n/ and trilled /r/ are produced by the apex of the tongue as the active articulator and the upper teeth as the passive receptor. Therefore, one can also claim that this apex-upper teeth articulation similar to the bilabial or labial dental articulations, may be considered to be visible. If apical-upper teeth phonemes in Russian are visible, then the visibility preference of initial position in the Lexicon of Love is strongly supported by the data- 94% (!) of word-initial phonemes of constriction are visual.

6.3.2. Distribution of phonemes of constriction in word-initial position with reference to active articulators in the Lexicon of Hate- the data

Tables 6.35-6.39 present the distribution of active articulators and the corresponding phonemes in the Lexicon of Hate.

Table 6.35 Active articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Hate in A Meek One Visible Non-visible phonemes phonemes Lips Apex A-P-Dorsum total [p,b,f,v,m] [t,d,n,r,s,z,l] [k,g, š , ž] No 7 14 0 21 % 33% 67% 0% 100%

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Table 6.36 Active articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Hate in The Idiot Visible Non-visible phonemes phonemes Lips Apex A-P-Dorsum total [p,b,f,v,m] [t,d,n,r,s,z,l] [k,g, š , ž] No 6 12 2 20 % 30% 60% 10% 100%

Table 6.37 Active articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Hate in The Gambler Visible Non-visible phonemes phonemes Lips Apex A-P-Dorsum total [p,b,f,v,m] [t,d,n,r,s,z,l] [k,g, š , ž] No 5 12 2 19 % 26% 63% 11% 100%

Table 6.38 Active articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Hate in The Brothers Karamazov Visible Non-visible phonemes phonemes Lips Apex A-P-Dorsum total [p,b,f,v,m] [t,d,n,r,s,z,l] [k,g, š , ž] No 9 9 2 20 % 45% 45% 10% 100%

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Table 6.39 Active articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Hate in the Dostoevskian text Visible Non-visible phonemes phonemes Lips Apex A-P-Dorsum total [p,b,f,v,m] [t,d,n,r,s,z,l] [k,g, š, ž] No 27 47 6 80 % 34% 59% 7% 100%

6.3.3 Discussion The data in sections 6.3.1-6.3.2 demonstrate that the apical phonemes are almost equally favored in all two categories of words: the Lexicon of Love – 58%, and the Lexicon of Hate- 59%. The apical phonemes are unmarked because they require minimum effort for their production; the apex is the easiest to control of all active articulators, the most flexible, and the most sensitive of the active articulators. The visible labials are next favored: the number of the labials is almost equal in the two categories, with a slight favoring of the labials in the Lexicon of Love (36%). However, as stated above, apical-upper teeth phonemes in Russian may also be considered to be visible due to the fact that apex touches the upper teeth. The visibility preference of initial position in the Lexicon of Hate is thus strongly supported by the data- 93% (!) of word-initial phonemes of constriction are visual. Phonemes of aperture (vowels) are visible phonemes because the lips are either spread or rounded during their articulation. Even if the phonemes of aperture are taken into account, the correlation between the numbers of visible phonemes in word-initial position will remain the same (tables 6.40-6.41).

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Table 6.40 Phonemes of Aperture and Visible Phonemes in Word-Initial position in the Lexicon of Love A Meek One The Idiot The The Dostoevskian Gambler Brothers Text Karamazov Phonemes of 5 4 4 5 18 aperture in word-initial position Visible 6 8 5 7 26 phonemes total 44

Table 6.41 Phonemes of Aperture and Visible Phonemes in Word-Initial position in Lexicon of Hate A Meek One The Idiot The The Dostoevskian Gambler Brothers Text Karamazov Phonemes of 3 4 5 5 17 aperture in word-initial position Visible 7 6 5 9 27 phonemes total 44

As tables 6.40-6.41 demonstrate, the number of visible phonemes in word initial position is exactly the same for both- the Lexicon of Love and the Lexicon of Hate. 44 words begin with either phonemes of aperture or visible consonant phonemes in both categories- the Lexicon of Love and the Lexicon of Hate. Therefore, based on the criteria 172 Chapter 6: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Love versus Hate ______

of visible phonemes in word-initial position it is impossible to determine which category is more marked- the Lexicon of Love or the Lexicon of Hate. On the other hand, the almost equal distribution of phonemes of constriction and phonemes of aperture in word-initial position with reference to active articulators in the Lexicon of Love the and the Lexicon of Hate reflects the message of the Dostoevskian text- love and hate are interconnected to such an extent that sometimes they can be merged, combined and confused. If, as was suggested above, the apicals are apical-dental, then they, too are visible. This fact even further supports the visibility principle and the iconic connection between form and [the] meaning- both lexicons- the Lexicon of Love and the Lexicon of Hate are marked as far as the distribution of apical consonants in word-initial position is concerned- 94% of the phonemes in the Lexicon of Love are visual phonemes (labial and apical-dental) and 93% of the phonemes in the Lexicon of Hate are visual phonemes. Thus, once again the phonotactic distribution of the Lexicons of Love and Hate reflects the message that has been postulated for the larger Dostoevskian text.

6.4. The distribution of apical consonants in word-final position

The favoring of the apical consonants in word-final position has been discovered in all the languages studied for word/root- final position (Diver 1979, Davis 1987, Tobin 1997, 2002). The apex is the most flexible, the most sensitive and the easiest of the active articulators to control; therefore, apical phonemes require minimum effort for their production. The burden of communication is the lowest in word-final position which means that the least effort is expended for this low burden of communication in final position. It can be hypothesized that there will be favoring of the apical consonants in word- final position in the semantically less marked Lexicon of Love and favoring of the phonemes of constriction produced with the lips and with the antero-or posterodorsum in the more marked semantically Lexicon of Hate.

6.4.1 The distribution of apical consonants in word-final position in the Lexicon of Love- the data

Tables 6.42-6.46 present the distribution of active articulators in word final position in the Lexicon of Love. 173 Chapter 6: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Love versus Hate ______

Table 6.42 Active Articulators in word final Position in the Lexicon of Love in A Meek One Lips Apex A-P-Dorsum total /p,b,f,v,m/ /t,d,n,r,s,z,l/ / k,g, š, ž , x/ no 0 7 1 8 % 0% 87% 13% 100%

Table 6.43 Active Articulators in word final Position in the Lexicon of Love in The Idiot Lips Apex A-P-Dorsum total /p,b,f,v,m/ /t,d,n,r,s,z,l/ / k,g, š, ž , x / no 1 9 0 10 % 10% 90% 0% 100%

Table 6.44 Active Articulators in word final Position in the Lexicon of Love in The Gambler Lips Apex A-P-Dorsum total /p,b,f,v,m/ /t,d,n,r,s,z,l/ / k,g, š, ž , x / no 1 1 2 4 % 25% 25% 50% 100%

Table 6.45 Active Articulators in word final Position in the Lexicon of Love in The Brothers Karamazov Lips Apex A-P-Dorsum total /p,b,f,v,m/ /t,d,n,r,s,z,l/ / k,g, š, ž , x / no 2 9 1 12 % 16% 76% 8% 100% 174 Chapter 6: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Love versus Hate ______

Table 6.46 Active Articulators in word final Position in the Lexicon of Love in the Dostoevskian text Lips Apex A-P-Dorsum total /p,b,f,v,m/ /t,d,n,r,s,z,l/ / k,g, š, ž , x / no 4 26 4 34 % 12% 76% 12% 100%

The data displayed in tables 6.42-6.46 that summarizes the distribution of active articulators in word final position in the Lexicon of Love indicates that the phonemes of constriction in word-final position being produced with the apex are highly favored (76%) over the phonemes of constriction in word-final position that are produced with the lips (12%) and with the antero-or posterodorsum (12%).

6.4.2 The distribution of apical consonants in word-final position in the Lexicon of Hate- the data

Tables 6.47-6.51 present the distribution of active articulators in word final position in the Lexicon of Hate.

Table 6.47 Active Articulators in word final Position in the Lexicon of Hate in A Meek One Lips Apex A-P-Dorsum total /p,b,f,v,m/ /t,d,n,r,s,z,l/ / k,g, š, ž , x / no 1 11 1 13 % 8% 84% 8% 100%

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Table 6.48 Active Articulators in word final Position in the Lexicon of Hate in The Idiot Lips Apex A-P-Dorsum total /p,b,f,v,m/ /t,d,n,r,s,z,l/ / k,g, š, ž , x / no 0 16 0 16 % 0% 100% 0% 100%

Table 6.49 Active Articulators in word final Position in the Lexicon of Hate in The Gambler Lips Apex A-P-Dorsum total /p,b,f,v,m/ /t,d,n,r,s,z,l/ / k,g, š, ž , x / no 0 9 0 9 % 0% 100% 0% 100%

Table 6.50 Active Articulators in word final Position in the Lexicon of Hate in The Brothers Karamazov Lips Apex A-P-Dorsum total /p,b,f,v,m/ /t,d,n,r,s,z,l/ / k,g, š, ž , x / no 1 12 1 14 % 7% 86% 7% 100%

Table 6.51 Active Articulators in word final Position in the Lexicon of Hate in the Dostoevskian text Lips Apex A-P-Dorsum total /p,b,f,v,m/ /t,d,n,r,s,z,l/ / k,g, š, ž , x / no 2 48 2 52 % 4% 92% 4% 100%

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The data displayed in table 6.51 that summarizes the distribution of active articulators in word final position in the Lexicon of Hate show that apicals are highly favored - 92% of the phonemes of constriction in word-final position being produced with the apex, and 4% of the phonemes of constriction in word-final position are produced with the lips and the same number of phonemes (4%) are produced with the antero- or posterodorsum.

6.4.3. Discussion Apical phonemes are favored in the two categories- the Lexicon of Love (76%) and the Lexicon of Hate (92%). The number of apical phonemes is lower in the category of the Lexicon of Love (76%). However, they are strongly favored in the category of the Lexicon of Hate (92%). I expected that the more semantically marked category of the Lexicon of Hate will have the lowest number of apical phonemes in word-final position. The decrease of the unmarked apicals in the Lexicon of Love (76%) is based on the increase of the more marked phonemes of constriction made by dorsum and lips- 12% each. The data in tables 6.42-6.51 doesn‟t support the hypothesis that the Lexicon of Hate , which is more marked semantically, must be more marked phonologically as well, having larger percentage of the phonemes produced by lips and antero-or posterodorsum. However, the fact that the Lexicon of Love is marked phonologically regarding some aspects while the Lexicon of Hate is marked phonologically regarding other aspects supports the interconnection between love and hate to such an extent that sometimes they can be merged, combined and even confused.

In tables 6.52-6.53 I compare the percentage of the distribution of active articulators in word-initial and word-final positions for the two categories of words- the Lexicon of Love and the Lexicon of Hate.

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Table 6.52 Percentage of Active articulators in word-initial and word-final positions in the Lexicon of Love Word-initial position Word-final position (%) (%) Lips 36% 12% Apex 58% 76% Antero-/postero-dorsum 6% 12%

If we compare the percentage of the distribution of active articulators in word- initial and word-final position for the Lexicon of Love, there is an increase in the exploitation of the apex (the easiest to control of all oral active articulators, the apical phonemes are unmarked) in the word final position, as well as there is a decrease in the number of the labial (marked) phonemes in word-final position. At the same time, the number of antero-postero dorsum articulators doubles in word-final position.

Table 6.53 Percentage of Active articulators in word-initial and word-final positions in the Lexicon of Hate

Word-initial position Word-final position(%) (%) Lips 34% 4% Apex 59% 92% Antero-/postero- 7% 4% dorsum

If we compare the percentage of the distribution of active articulators in word- initial and word-final position for the Lexicon of Hate, we find a sharp increase for the exploitation of the apex in the word final position- they are very favored (92%). At the same time there is a decrease in the number of the phonemes produced by lips and by A/P dorsum. 178 Chapter 6: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Love versus Hate ______

Although the data presented in the above sections do not support the hypothesis that semantically marked Lexicon of Hate is more marked phonologically as well, and the principle of iconicity is not supported, the data support the message of the larger Dostoevskian text. Therefore, there is almost no difference in the percentage of active articulators in the word initial position in both lexical categories- the Lexicon of Love and the Lexicon of Hate.

6.5. The distribution of the explosive mobile phonemes Both Diver (1979) and Davis (1987) postulated and validated the following principle: explosive phonemes are favored in initial position in monosyllabic words and stems. Tobin‟s examination (1997a:88-144) of the pre-lexical category of the tri- consonantal (CCC) root system in Hebrew also supports this principle. All three analyses examined the general lexicon. In this section I want to examine whether the same favoring of the explosive mobile phonemes /p,b,t,d,k,g/ over the stable non-explosive phonemes /f,v,s,z, š, ž/ applies to the two semantically based groups of words that I examined- the Lexicon of Love and the Lexicon of Hate. Although Diver, Davis and Tobin examined only monosyllabic words, stems and roots of the words of only general lexicon taken for standard dictionaries, I extended the analysis and examined the same favoring of the explosive mobile phonemes /p,b,t,d,k,g/ over the stable non-explosive phonemes /f,v,s,z, š, ž / in the Lexicon of Love and the Lexicon of Hate.

6.5.1. The distribution of the explosive mobile phonemes in the Lexicon of Love- the data

Tables 6.54-6.58 show the percentage of explosive phonemes in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Love.

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Table 6.54 Explosive phonemes in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Love in A Meek One Explosive Non-explosive total [p,b,t,d,k,g] [f,v,s,z, š, ž] No 6 6 12 % 50% 50% 100%

Table 6.55 Explosive phonemes in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Love in The Idiot Explosive Non-explosive total [p,b,t,d,k,g] [f,v,s,z, š, ž] No 8 10 18 % 44% 56% 100%

Table 6.56 Explosive phonemes in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Love in The Gambler Explosive Non-explosive total [p,b,t,d,k,g] [f,v,s,z, š, ž] No 5 8 13 % 39% 61% 100%

Table 6.57 Explosive phonemes in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Love in The Brothers Karamazov Explosive Non-explosive total [p,b,t,d,k,g] [f,v,s,z, š, ž] No 5 7 12 % 42% 58% 100%

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Table 6.58 Explosive phonemes in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Love in the Dostoevskian text Explosive Non-explosive total [p,b,t,d,k,g] [f,v,s,z, š, ž] No 24 31 55 % 44% 56% 100%

6.5.2. The distribution of the explosive mobile phonemes in the Lexicon of Hate- the data

Tables 6.59-6.63 show the percentage of explosive phonemes in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Hate .

Table 6.59 Explosive phonemes in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Hate- A Meek One Explosive Non-explosive total [p,b,t,d,k,g] [f,v,s,z, š, ž] No 5 8 13 % 39% 61% 100%

Table 6.60 Explosive phonemes in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Hate in The Idiot Explosive Non-explosive total [p,b,t,d,k,g] [f,v,s,z, š, ž] No 5 8 13 % 39% 61% 100%

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Table 6.61 Explosive phonemes in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Hate in The Gambler Explosive Non-explosive total [p,b,t,d,k,g] [f,v,s,z, š, ž] No 5 7 12 % 42% 58% 100%

Table 6.62 Explosive phonemes in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Hate in The Brothers Karamazov Explosive Non-explosive total [p,b,t,d,k,g] [f,v,s,z, š, ž] No 8 8 16 % 50% 50% 100%

Table 6.63 Explosive phonemes in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Hate in the Dostoevskian text Explosive Non-explosive total [p,b,t,d,k,g] [f,v,s,z, š, ž] No 23 31 54 % 43% 57% 100%

6.5.3. Discussion The data found in sections 6.5.1-6.5.2 indicate that there is almost the same distribution of explosive phonemes in the Lexicon of Love and the Lexicon of Hate (44% and 43% respectively), and of non-exlosive phonemes (56% and 57% respectively). The data in Tables 6.54-6.63 also show the favoring of the non-explosive stable phonemes /f,v,s,z, š, ž/ over the explosive mobile phonemes / p,b,t,d,k,g/ in both categories. These findings (the same percentage of explosive as opposed to non-explosive phonemes in both categories) support the message of the Dostoevskian text. Love in Dostoevsky is 182 Chapter 6: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Love versus Hate ______comprised of pity, sacrifice, and suffering and involves the joy of dominating and the pleasure of torturing.

6.6. The distribution of the consonant clusters [R+Consonant] or [Consonant+R] and [Vowel+R+Vowel] or [R+Vowel]

In this section I provide an analysis of consonant clusters for the Lexicon of Love and the Lexicon of Hate. The instances of the appearances of consonant clusters [R+Consonant] or [Consonant+R] in the words of these two lexical groups was counted, as well as the syllables [Vowel+R+Vowel] or [R+Vowel]. The articulation of the trill plus consonant [RC] or consonant plus trill [CR] requires a great deal of effort. These forms are more marked phonologically. On the other hand, the combination of vowel plus trill plus vowel [VRV] or trill plus vowel [RV] requires less effort, and these forms are less marked phonologically. We can assume that the semantically marked words from the Lexicon of Hate are connected with the more phonologically marked forms RC or CR as opposed to the Lexicon of Love, which is semantically unmarked, where we expect a favoring of the combination VRV/RV which is easier to pronounce (unmarked).

6.6.1 The distribution of the consonant clusters [R+Consonant] or [Consonant+R] and [Vowel+R+Vowel] or [R+Vowel] in the Lexicon of Love- the data Tables 6.64-6.68 present the distribution of RC/CR and VRV/RV clusters in the Lexicon of Love. Table 6.64 ‘R+Consonant’ or ‘Consonant+R’ and ‘Vowel+R+Vowel’ or ‘R+Vowel’ Clusters in the Lexicon of Love in A Meek One

RC/CR VRV/RV total No 4 9 13 % 31% 69% 100%

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Table 6.65 ‘R+Consonant’ or ‘Consonant+R’ and ‘Vowel+R+Vowel’ or ‘R+Vowel’ Clusters in the Lexicon of Love in The Idiot RC/CR VRV/RV total No 9 9 18 % 50% 50% 100%

Table 6.66 ‘R+Consonant’ or ‘Consonant+R’ and ‘Vowel+R+Vowel’ or ‘R+Vowel’ Clusters in the Lexicon of Love- The Gambler

RC/CR VRV/RV total No 5 6 11 % 45% 55% 100%

Table 6.67 ‘R+Consonant’ or ‘Consonant+R’ and ‘Vowel+R+Vowel’ or ‘R+Vowel’ Clusters in the Lexicon of Love in The Brothers Karamazov

RC/CR VRV/RV total No 5 5 10 % 50% 50% 100%

Table 6.68 ‘R+Consonant’ or ‘Consonant+R’ and ‘Vowel+R+Vowel’ or ‘R+Vowel’ Clusters in the Lexicon of Love in the Dostoevskian text

RC/CR VRV/RV total No 23 29 52 % 44% 56% 100%

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There are more instances of the combinations of vowel plus trill plus vowel (VRV) or trill plus vowel (RV) than the instances of the combinations of the trill plus consonant (RC) or consonant plus trill (CR) - 44% and 56% respectively. The combination of vowel plus trill plus vowel (VRV) or trill plus vowel (RV) requires less effort, therefore these forms are favored.

6.6.2. The distribution of the consonant clusters [R+Consonant] or [Consonant+R] and [Vowel+R+Vowel] or [R+Vowel] in the Lexicon of Hate- the data

Tables 6.69-6.73 present the distribution of RC/CR and VRV/RV clusters in the Lexicon of Hate. Table 6.69 ‘R+Consonant’ or ‘Consonant+R’ and ‘Vowel+R+Vowel’ or ‘R+Vowel’ Clusters in the Lexicon of Hate in A Meek One RC/CR VRV/RV total No 7 9 16 % 44% 56% 100%

Table 6.70 ‘R+Consonant’ or ‘Consonant+R’ and ‘Vowel+R+Vowel’ or ‘R+Vowel’ Clusters in the Lexicon of Hate in The Idiot RC/CR VRV/RV total No 10 10 20 % 50% 50% 100%

Table 6.71 ‘R+Consonant’ or ‘Consonant+R’ and ‘Vowel+R+Vowel’ or ‘R+Vowel’ Clusters in the Lexicon of Hate in The Gambler RC/CR VRV/RV total No 12 17 29 % 41% 59% 100% 185 Chapter 6: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Love versus Hate ______

Table 6.72 ‘R+Consonant’ or ‘Consonant+R’ and ‘Vowel+R+Vowel’ or ‘R+Vowel’ Clusters in the Lexicon of Hate in The Brothers Karamazov RC/CR VRV/RV total No 9 9 18 % 50% 50% 100%

Table 6.73 ‘R+Consonant’ or ‘Consonant+R’ and ‘Vowel+R+Vowel’ or ‘R+Vowel’ Clusters in the Lexicon of Hate in the Dostoevskian text RC/CR VRV/RV total No 38 45 83 % 46% 54% 100%

6.6.3. Discussion As can be seen in sections 6.6.1-6.6.2 the percentage of consonant clusters RC or CR is approximately the same for the words from both categories- 44% in the Lexicon of Love and 46% in the Lexicon of Hate. These results are not surprising. Where love merges and combines with hate it is very easy to confuse between them. On the other hand, there is a slight preference of the marked forms RC or CR in the Lexicon of Hate (46% as opposed to 44 % in the Lexicon of Love). As was hypothesized earlier, the Lexicon of Hate is more marked semantically. Therefore, it is more marked phonologically as well.

6.7 Summary

This chapter presented a phonological analysis of the lexicon of the Dostoevskian text from the point of view of Love versus Hate based on the theory of Phonology as Human Behavior. My analysis was semantically motivated by the message of the text, which is extra-linguistic. The phonological analysis in this chapter was carried out on the 186 Chapter 6: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Love versus Hate ______basis of the data collected from two categories of words: the Lexicon of Love and the Lexicon of Hate in the text consisting of the 2 novels and 2 novellas by Dostoevsky. The basic principles of the theory of Phonology as Human Behavior were applied to two categories of words- the Lexicon of Love and the Lexicon of Hate. The principles that were applied to the textual analysis are: 1. the distribution of monosyllabic, bi-syllabic and polysyllabic words, 2. additional articulators in word-initial position, 3. distribution of phonemes of constriction in word-initial position with reference to active articulators,

4. the distribution of apical consonants in word-final position, 5. the distribution of the explosive mobile phonemes, and 6. the distribution of the consonant clusters [R+Consonant] or [Consonant+R] and [Vowel+R+Vowel] or [R+Vowel].

I originally hypothesized that there is an iconic connection between form and meaning. First, I assumed that the lexical items from the Lexicon of Love are semantically unmarked, and as a result, unmarked phonologically. The words in the marked category of the Lexicon of Hate have more specific meaning, attract more attention and are more marked phonologically, require more effort for their production. The phonological analysis performed in this chapter supported my assumption only partially. As a result, I assumed that the Lexicon of Hate is just as broad and/or even broader and just as complex or even a more complex category than the Lexicon of Love. Therefore, my second hypothesis was that phonologically speaking there is a similarity between the Lexicon of Love and the Lexicon of Hate which reflects the message of the text. The analysis of the data in this chapter demonstrates the following: 1. The increase in the use of marked tri-syllabic and polysyllabic words in both categories, 2. The favoring of nasal phonemes in the word initial position in the marked Lexicon of Hate, 3. The favoring of apical phonemes in word initial position in both lexical categories, 187 Chapter 6: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Love versus Hate ______

4. The favoring of apical phonemes in word-final position in the two categories, 5. The favoring of the non-explosive phonemes in word-initial position in both lexical categories, 6. The favoring of combinations of [V+R] or [V+R+V] in both lexical categories.

The analysis of the data demonstrates that there is an iconic connection between the message of the text and the same phonological principles that two lexical categories of Love and Hate share. Therefore, in spite of the fact that the data in this chapter partially supported my original assumption that the Lexicon of Hate is more marked semantically as well as phonologically, the message of the text- love and hate are interconnected to such an extent that sometimes they can be merged, combined and even confused- was fully supported.

188 Chapter 7: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Reality versus Fantasy ______

Chapter Seven Phonological analysis of the lexicon of "reality" versus "fantasy" in Dostoevsky's novels based on the theory of Phonology as Human Behavior

7.1. The distribution of monosyllabic, bi-syllabic and polysyllabic words 7.2. Additional articulators in word-initial position 7.3. Distribution of phonemes of constriction in word-initial position with reference to active articulators 7.4. The distribution of apical consonants in word-final position 7.5. The distribution of the explosive mobile phonemes 7.6. The distribution of the consonant clusters [R+Consonant] or [Consonant+R] and [Vowel+R+Vowel] or [R+Vowel] 7.7. Summary

As previously postulated in Chapter Two, the message of the literary text under analysis is that love and hate are interconnected to such an extent that sometimes they can be merged, combined and even confused. Love in Dostoevsky is comprised of pity, sacrifice, and suffering and involves the joy of dominating and the pleasure of torturing. In Chapter Six I conducted a phonological analysis of two semantic groups denoting polarically opposed feelings- the Lexicon of Love and the Lexicon of Hate. I originally assumed that the Lexicon of Love is unmarked and the Lexicon of Hate is marked both in meaning and in its phonological form. My original hypothesis was only partially supported by the data. However, the results showed that the two groups follow similar phonological principles, a descriptive fact which actually supports the message of the text. I assume that those polarically opposite feelings of love and hate that are present in every relationship can be both real and imagined at the same time. Therefore, in this chapter I have carried out a phonological analysis of the Lexicon of Reality and the Lexicon of Fantasy. My aim in this chapter is to examine whether each class of words has specific distinctive phonological characteristics of its own, and if so, whether there is an iconic connection between the form and the meaning. I also will examine whether – like the Lexicon of Love vs. Hate in Chapter Six – the two opposing forces of reality and fantasy may merge, combine and also be confused and fused together phonologically. In my phonological 189 Chapter 7: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Reality versus Fantasy ______analysis I apply the theory of Phonology as Human Behavior (PHB), which was introduced in Chapter Three and applied to the analysis of the Lexicon of Love and the Lexicon of Hate in Chapter Six. In this chapter I focus on the phonological analysis of the semantically motivated categories of the Lexicon of Reality and the Lexicon of Fantasy related to the message of the entire text. I now assume that both lexicons- the Lexicon of Reality and the Lexicon of Fantasy- will share the same phonological characteristics and will be both marked phonologically, thus showing an iconic connection between form and meaning- the fusion and merging of love and hate, of two polarically opposed feelings which can both be real and imagined at the same time. I examine 50 individual words that denote the realm of reality and 50 words that denote the realm of fantasy (see Appendix 2). The words in each category were chosen randomly. The main problem in choosing the words for the analysis was that even thought the words related to fantasy and reality are interwoven everywhere in the text, they are always repeated and in contrast to the Lexicon of Love and the Lexicon of Hate their number is much more limited. Therefore, I decided to view two short novellas- A Meek One (1876), and The Gambler (1866), and two novels- The Idiot (1868) and The Brothers Karamazov (1880) as one literary text and not to analyze the lexicons of each individual work as I did in Chapter Six.

7.1. The distribution of monosyllabic, bi-syllabic and polysyllabic words

The two groups of words (the Lexicon of Reality and the Lexicon of Fantasy) are divided into monosyllabic, bi-syllabic and polysyllabic words. The more syllables there are per word, the more marked the word is considered. As mentioned in the previous chapter, in analytical languages like English and Chinese, with very little inflectional morphology, the monosyllabic words appear relatively frequently and are unmarked. In synthetic languages, like Russian and Latin, with rich inflectional morphology, not only are monosyllabic words unmarked but bi-syllabic words are relatively unmarked as well, while for both analytical and synthetic languages tri-syllabic and polysyllabic words are marked.

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Table 7.1 Number of Syllables per Word- the Lexicon of Reality in the Dostoevskian text Number of syllable Number of words % One 2 4 % Two 11 22 % More than two 37 74% Total 50 100%

Table 7.2 Number of Syllables per Word- the Lexicon of Fantasy in the Dostoevskian text Number of syllable Number of words % One 3 6 % Two 13 26 % More than two 34 68% Total 50 100%

Table 7.3 Number of Syllables per word- the Lexicon of Fantasy and the Lexicon of Reality Number of Lexicon of Reality Lexicon of Fantasy syllable One 4% 6 % Two 22% 26 % More than two 74% 68% Total 100% 100%

As observed in Tables 7.1-7.3 there is almost the same number of the least marked monosyllabic words in the Lexicon of Reality and the Lexicon of Fantasy (4% and 6% respectively). At the same time there is also almost an equal number of relatively unmarked bi-syllabic words: 22% in the Lexicon of Reality and 26% in the Lexicon of Fantasy. There is a sharply increased favoring in the exploitation of marked tri-syllabic and polysyllabic words in the Lexicon of Reality and in the Lexicon of Fantasy- 74% and 68% respectively. The increase in the use of marked tri-syllabic and polysyllabic words in these 191 Chapter 7: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Reality versus Fantasy ______two groups can be explained by an iconic connection between form and meaning. The Lexicon of Reality and the Lexicon of Fantasy are both marked phonologically- there is a clear preference for tri-syllabic and polysyllabic words with a slight favoring in the Lexicon of Reality (74% as opposed to 68%). My hypothesis that the Lexicon of Reality and the Lexicon of Fantasy will both share the same phonological characteristics and will demonstrate the favoring of marked tri-syllabic and polysyllabic words was supported by the data in Tables 7.1-7.3. Reality and fantasy seem to merge together, thus causing the characters not to be sure about their feelings. What do the characters really feel towards each other? Maybe what they feel is only in their imagination? Thus, the polarically opposed feelings of love and hate that are present in every relationship can both be real or imagined at the same time.

7.2. Additional articulators in word-initial position

As previously mentioned in Chapter Six, word –initial position has the highest communicative load and the word-final position has the lowest communicative load (without taking word-stress into account). Since the burden of communication is the greatest in word initial position, the beginning of the word demands the maximum number of oppositions and therefore the communication is more efficient. Due to the highest communicative load in word-initial position we expect to find an almost random distribution of initial phonemes. In my phonological analysis I examine the distribution of additional articulators in word-initial position for two groups of words: the Lexicon of Reality and the Lexicon of Fantasy. The distribution of additional articulators in word-initial position for the Lexicon of Reality is presented in Table 7.4 and for the Lexicon of Fantasy in Table 7.5. In my analysis voiced and nasal phonemes (require two and three sets of articulators respectively) are examined in comparison with voiceless phonemes (whose production requires only one set of articulators). Voicing serves as a distinctive phonological feature. Voiceless phonemes, which require for their production only one set of articulators, are unmarked, while voiced and nasal phonemes are marked for the specific distinctive feature (voicing and nasality respectively): i.e. nasal phonemes are doubly marked. On the other hand, since nasal phonemes are marked for nasality while the other oral phonemes (voiced and voiceless) are unmarked for that feature, I will also examine the distribution of nasal phonemes in word initial position as opposed to voiced and voiceless phonemes ( Tables 7.6-7.7). 192 Chapter 7: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Reality versus Fantasy ______

If my hypothesis (that the Lexicon of Reality and the Lexicon of Fantasy share the same phonological characteristics and are both phonologically marked) is justified, then the principle of the favoring of additional articulators in the word-initial position should apply to both lexicons - there should be more voiced and nasal sounds in the word-initial position than voiceless sounds which are unmarked.

Table 7.4 Number of sets of articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Reality

totals % Voiceless p-5 t-2 k-0 f-3 s-3 š-0 13-41% 41% Voiced b-0 d-3 g-1 v-7 z-1 ž-0 12-37% 59% Nasals m-0 n-7 7-22% 32-100% 100%

Thirty two of the fifty words from the Lexicon of Reality begin with obstruents (stops, fricatives, affricatives), the phonemes for which voice-voiceless opposition serves as a distinctive phonemic feature. The phonemes that require the activation of only one set of articulators are disfavored (41%) in all but favored over the voiced phonemes without taking the voiced nasals into consideration. The most favored are voiced phonemes (37%) which require two sets of articulators. Nasal phonemes, which require three sets of articulators for their production, constitute 22%. In general, 59% of the phonemes in word-initial position are either nasal or voiced phonemes.

Table 7.5 Number of sets of articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Fantasy Totals % Voiceless p-5 t-1 k-2 f-4 s-4 š-1 17-39% 39% Voiced b-2 d-3 g-1 v-4 z-2 ž-0 12-27% 61% Nasals m-7 n-8 15-34% 44- 100% 100% 193 Chapter 7: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Reality versus Fantasy ______

Forty four words out of fifty in the Lexicon of Fantasy begin with stops, fricatives and affricatives, the phonemes for which voicing serves as a distinctive phonemic feature. The phonemes that require the activation of only one set of articulators are disfavored – 39% of words start with voiceless phonemes, while the phonemes which require the activation of two and three sets of articulators are favored- 61% (34% of words start with nasals, which require three sets of articulators, followed by 27% of words which start with voiced phonemes which require two sets of articulators). The data in Tables 7.4 and 7.5 demonstrate that both categories- the Lexicon of Reality and the Lexicon of Fantasy- are marked both semantically and phonologically. The fact that both lexical groups of Reality and Fantasy are marked phonologically supports my hypothesis about the nature of the relationships between men and women in the Dostoevskian text- that love and hate are interconnected to such extent that sometimes they can be merged, combined and confused in reality and in imagination. This principle of merging, fusion and confusion is realized not only semantically, but phonologically, as well. Since nasal phonemes are marked for nasality while the other oral phonemes (voiced and voiceless) are unmarked for that feature, it is also worth examining the distribution of nasal phonemes in word initial position as opposed to voiced and voiceless phonemes. Table 7.6 Nasal phonemes in comparison to voiced/voiceless phonemes in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Reality – The Dostoevskian text

Totals % Voiceless/ 25 78% voiced Nasals 7 22% 100%

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Table 7.7 Nasal phonemes in comparison to voiced/voiceless phonemes in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Fantasy – The Dostoevskian text

Totals % Voiceless/ 29 66% voiced Nasals 15 34% 100%

Nasal doubly-marked phonemes are expected the least in word-initial position since their production require the activation of three sets of active articulators. The data in Table 7.4 and Table 7.5 clearly show nasal phonemes are disfavored in word initial position both in the Lexicon of Reality (22%) and in the Lexicon of Fantasy (34%). By examining the distribution of nasal phonemes in comparison to voiced/voices phonemes in word-initial position I wanted to find additional support for my hypothesis that both lexicons are marked. However, the data show that nasals are least favored in both lexicons. I can conclude that both lexicons follow the same phonological principles. The two opposing forces of reality and fantasy may merge, combine and also be confused and fused together phonologically. The data in tables 7.4-7.7 also demonstrate a non-random distribution of the apical nasal phoneme /n/. As stated in the previous chapter, the production of nasal phonemes involves three sets of articulators- they are voiced, oral stops, produced with lowering of the uvula. Although marked nasal phonemes are complex and require three sets of articulators, they are natural sounds because physiologically they were designed to emit air through the nose for breathing. As can be seen from tables 7.6-7.7, the number of the apical nasal consonant /n/ is almost the same in both lexicons (7 in the Lexicon of Reality and 8 in the Lexicon of Fantasy), which shows again the connection between form and meaning- the message of the text is realized phonologically as well. It is worth examining the distribution of the nasal consonant /n/ in word-initial position in comparison to other apical consonants. Table 7.8 summarizes the findings. 195 Chapter 7: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Reality versus Fantasy ______

Table 7.8 The Distribution of the Apical Consonants in Word- Initial Position The Lexicon of Reality The Lexicon of Fantasy /t/ 2 1 /d/ 3 3 /n/ 7 8

As can be seen in Table 7.8, the distribution of apical consonants in word- initial position is almost the same for both categories of Reality and Fantasy. The most marked nasal phonemes are highly favored in both lexicons (7 words and 8 words respectively) and their number is approximately 2.5 times higher than the number of the marked voiced phonemes (3 words in each of the lexicons). Unmarked voiceless phonemes are highly disfavored in both lexicons (2 words in the Lexicon of Reality and 1 word in the Lexicon of Fantasy). In Table 6.1 ( The Phonemic Inventory of Russian) and Table 6.2 ( The Phonetic Characterization of Russian by Stricture and Airflow) presented in Chapter Six it was shown that palatalization is a phonemic feature of Russian. The data presented in Tables 7.4- 7.8 include both palatalized and non-palatalized consonants in word-initial position. In order to have a total picture of the distribution of consonants in word-initial position I will also analyze the distribution of palatalized consonants as well, which is presented in Table 7.9 and Table 7.10. As a phonemic process, the marked process of palatalization includes an additional set of articulators (like voiced and nasal consonants, palatalized consonants require an additional movement of the musculature, i.e. an additional gesture or an additional set of articulators). In my analysis I examine the distribution of the initial palatalized consonants separately since all three groups of consonants can be palatalized: palatalized voiceless consonants require two sets of articulators, palatalized voiced consonants require three sets of articulators, and palatalized nasal consonants require four sets of articulators.

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Table 7.9 Distribution of the Palatalized Consonants in Word-Initial Position in The Lexicon of Reality Totals Voiceless p-0 t-0 f-0 s-1 1- 3% palatalized Voiced b-0 d-1 v-3 z-0 4-13% palatalized nasals m-0 n-2 2-6% palatalized 7 out of 32 22 %

Table 7.10 Distribution of the Palatalized Consonants in Word-Initial Position in the Lexicon of Fantasy Totals Voiceless p-1 t-0 f-0 s-0 1- 2% palatalized Voiced b-1 d-3 v-2 z-0 6-14% palatalized nasals m-7 n-8 15-34% palatalized 22 out of 44 50 %

There are almost twice as many palatalized consonants in the Lexicon of Fantasy- 50% as opposed to 22% in the Lexicon of Reality. There is almost the same number of unmarked voiced palatalized consonants (voiceless phonemes are the easiest to palatalize) in the two lexical categories- 3% in the Lexicon of Reality and 2% in the Lexicon of Fantasy. There is also the same number of voiced palatalized consonants in the Lexicon of Reality and in the Lexicon of Fantasy- 13% and 14% respectively. However, there is a sharp increase in 197 Chapter 7: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Reality versus Fantasy ______the number of marked nasal palatalized consonants in the Lexicon of Fantasy (15 words or 34% of the word-initial consonants are palatalized nasals in the Lexicon of Fantasy as opposed to only 2 words or 6% in the Lexicon of Reality). I hypothesized that the Lexicon of Reality and the Lexicon of Fantasy will share the same phonological characteristics and will be both marked phonologically as well as semantically. However, my hypothesis was not fully supported in this section- the Lexicon of Fantasy contains 34% (as opposed to 6% in the Lexicon of Reality) marked palatalized nasal consonants which require four sets of articulators for their production in the word- initial position. The message of the text, on the other hand, seems to be fully supported by this skewing of the phonemes: in the relationship between men and women love and hate are interconnected to such an extent that sometimes they can be merged, combined and confused. Those polarically opposite feelings of love and hate, merged into one, can be both real or imagined at the same time.

7.3. Distribution of phonemes of constriction in word-initial position with reference to active articulators

The data in the previous sections (7.1-7.2) have already demonstrated that there is an iconic connection between the meaning of the word and its phonological form. The highest load of communication is in the word-initial position. It is in the word-initial position that the speakers use as many active articulators as possible. The previous analysis (Diver 1979, Davis, 1987, Tobin 1990, 1997a) has shown that it is not enough to learn the characteristics of the phonemes of any language in order to understand their distribution in language. It is more important to know how the sounds are produced (and in what position in the utterance). According to Davis (1984:48), it is more effective “to characterize phonemes on the basis of the articulating organs, not the place of articulation; in other words, in terms of the active articulator, not passive receptor”. I examined the distribution of phonemes of constriction in word initial position with reference to active articulators: lips, apex, anterodorsum, posterodorsum; and the corresponding phonemes: / p,b,f,m/- lips, /t,d,n,r,s,z,l/- apex, /š,ž/- anterodorsum, /k,g/- posterodorsum in the Lexicon of Reality and in the Lexicon of Fantasy. In my analysis I combined the phonemes produced by the anterodorsum and the posterodorsum because their number is so small. 198 Chapter 7: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Reality versus Fantasy ______

Diver ( 1979) and Davis (1984/1987) provided a phonological analysis of only monosyllabic words and stems taken from the general lexicon- data taken from standard dictionaries. I extended the examination of active articulators and examined their distribution in specific categories of words in a text with a message. Tables 7.11-7.12 present the distribution of the Russian consonants in the Lexicon of Reality and the Lexicon of Fantasy in Dostoevskian novels with regard to active articulators and the corresponding phonemes.

Table 7.11 Active articulators in word-initial position- Lexicon of Reality Visible Non-visible phonemes phonemes Lips Apex A-P-Dorsum total [p,b,f,v,m] [t,d,n,r,s,z,l] [k,g, š , ž] No 15 22 1 38 % 39% 58% 3% 100 %

As can be seen in table 7.11 there is a clear favoring of apical phonemes /t,d,n,r,s,z/ in word initial position in the Lexicon of Reality ( 58%). The production of these phonemes requires the activation of only one set of active articulators-the apex, which is the easiest to control and the most flexible. The visible labials /p,b,f,v,m/ are next favored ( 39%). The phonemes produced by the antero-or posterodorsum are least favored (3%).

Table 7.12 Active articulators in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Fantasy Visible Non-visible phonemes phonemes Lips Apex A-P-Dorsum total [p,b,f,v,m] [t,d,n,r,s,z,l] [k,g, š , ž] No 22 21 2 45 % 49% 47% 4% 100 %

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As can be seen in Table 7.12 there is almost the same distribution of visible /p,b,f,v,m / and apical phonemes /t,d,n,r,s,z,l/ , with slight favoring of visible phonemes (49% of visible phonemes and 47% of apical phonemes) in the Lexicon of Fantasy. The phonemes produced by the antero-or posterodorsum are least favored (4%). The data in Table 7.11 and Table 7.12 demonstrate that visible labials /p,b,f,v,m/ are favored in the Lexicon of Fantasy ( 49% as opposed to 39% in the Lexicon of Reality). The apical phonemes, which are unmarked since they require minimum effort for their production, are favored in the Lexicon of Reality (58% as opposed to 47% in the Lexicon of Fantasy). The fact that labial/visible phonemes are favored in both lexicons supports my hypothesis that fantasy and reality merge into one so it is very difficult to tell whether polarically opposed feelings of love and hate that are present in every relationship are real or imagined. In Russian, apical obstruents, /n/ and trilled /r/ are produced by the apex of the tongue as the active articulator and the upper teeth as the passive receptor. Therefore one can also claim that this apex-upper teeth articulation similar to the bilabial or labial dental articulations, may be considered visible. If apical-upper teeth phonemes in Russian are visible, then the visibility preference of initial position in both lexicons-the Lexicon of Reality and the Lexicon of Fantasy- is strongly supported by the data. 97% of word-initial phonemes of constriction in the Lexicon of Reality are visual, and 96% of word-initial phonemes of constriction in the Lexicon of Fantasy are visual. Thus, as hypothized, both lexicons are marked phonologically, which reflects the message of the text. Phonemes of aperture (vowels) are also considered visible phonemes because the lips are either spread or rounded during their articulation. In tables 7.13-7.14 I summarize the distribution of phonemes of aperture and visible phonemes in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Reality and in the Lexicon of Fantasy. Table 7.13 Phonemes of Aperture and Visible Phonemes in Word-Initial position in the Lexicon of Reality Lexicon of Reality Phonemes of aperture in word-initial position 11-42% Visible phonemes 15- 58% total 26-100% 200 Chapter 7: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Reality versus Fantasy ______

Table 7.14 Phonemes of Aperture and Visible Phonemes in Word-Initial position in the Lexicon of Fantasy

Lexicon of Fantasy Phonemes of aperture in word-initial position 2-8% Visible phonemes 22-92% total 24-100%

As tables 7.13 and 7.14 demonstrate, the number of phonemes of aperture and of visible phonemes in word initial position is almost the same for the Lexicon of Reality and the Lexicon of Fantasy. 26 words begin with either phonemes of aperture or visible phonemes in the Lexicon of Reality and 24 words begin with either phonemes of aperture or visible phonemes in the Lexicon of Fantasy. My hypothesis was that the Lexicon of Reality and the Lexicon of Fantasy will follow the same phonological principles, will show the similar skewing of phonemes thus supporting the message of merging between fantasy and reality in such a way that it is not clear whether the feelings of love and hate in the relationship between men and women is real or imagined. The data supports my hypothesis that both lexicons share the same phonological characteristics.

7.4. The distribution of apical consonants in word-final position

The favoring of the apical consonants in word-final position has been discovered in all the languages studied for monosyllabic word/root- final position (Diver 1979, Davis 1987, Tobin 1997, 2002). The apex is the most flexible, the most sensitive and the easiest of the active articulators to control; therefore, apical phonemes require minimum effort for their production. The burden of communication is the lowest in word-final position which means that the least effort is expended for this low burden of communication in final position. It can be hypothesized that there will be similar favoring of the apical consonants in word-final position in both categories- the Lexicon of Reality and the Lexicon of Fantasy.

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Table 7.15 Active Articulators in word final Position in the Lexicon of Reality Lips Apex A-P-Dorsum total /p,b,f,v,m/ /t,d,n,r,s,z,l/ / k,g, š, ž , x/ no 2 7 1 10 % 20% 70% 10 % 100%

Table 7.16 Active Articulators in word final Position in the Lexicon of Fantasy Lips Apex A-P-Dorsum total /p,b,f,v,m/ /t,d,n,r,s,z,l/ / k,g, š, ž , x / no 1 11 2 14 % 7% 79% 14% 100%

Apical phonemes are strongly favored in the two categories of words: the Lexicon of Reality- 70% and the Lexicon of Fantasy- 79%. This similarity in the number of the phonemes produced by the apex supports my assumption that the two lexicons follow the same phonological principles, thus supporting the message of the text under analysis. I decided also to compare and contrast the distribution of active articulators in word-initial and word-final positions for both categories of words. The data is presented in Table 7.17 for the Lexicon of Reality and in Table 7.18 for the Lexicon of Fantasy.

Table 7.17 Percentage of Active articulators in word-initial and word-final positions in the Lexicon of Reality Word-initial position Word-final position (%) (%) Lips 39% 20% Apex 58% 70% Antero-/postero-dorsum 3% 10%

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As can be observed from the table 7.17 apical phonemes are favored both in word-initial position (58%) and in word-final position (70%) in the Lexicon of Reality. At the same time, there is a sharp decrease in the use of antero-/posterodorsum articulators (the least visible of all oral active articulators) at the end of the word (10%) and in the beginning of the word (3%). Table 7.18 Percentage of Active articulators in word-initial and word-final positions in the Lexicon of Fantasy Word-initial position Word-final position(%) (%) Lips 49% 7% Apex 47% 79% Antero-/postero-dorsum 4% 14%

As can be observed in Table 7.18 there is a sharp increase in the exploitation of the apex (the easiest to control of all oral active articulators) in the word-final position- 79% and a sharp decrease- 7% in the number of visual marked phonemes in the Lexicon of Fantasy. There is almost the same number of words that start with labial or apical phonemes (49% and 47% respectively).

7.5. The distribution of the explosive mobile phonemes

Both Diver (1979) and Davis (1987) postulated and validated the following principle: explosive phonemes are favored in initial position in monosyllabic words and stems. Tobin’s examination (1997a:88-144) of the prelexical category of the triconsonantal (CCC) root system in Hebrew also supports this principle. All three analyses examined the general lexicon. In this section I examine whether the same favoring of the explosive mobile phonemes /p, b, t, d, k, g/ over the stable non-explosive phonemes /f, v, s, z, š, ž/ applies to the two semantically based groups of words that I examined- the Lexicon of Reality and the Lexicon of Fantasy. Although Diver, Davis and Tobin examined only monosyllabic words, stems and roots of the words of the general lexicon taken from standard dictionaries 203 Chapter 7: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Reality versus Fantasy ______

(excluding stress as a variable), I examined the same favoring of the explosive mobile phonemes /p, b, t, d, k, g/ over the stable non-explosive phonemes /f, v, s, z, š, ž / in the Lexicon of Reality and the Lexicon of Fantasy. Earlier I assumed there are no significant differences in the phonological analysis of the two lexicons and that they will follow similar phonological principles. If this assumption is true, both lexicons will show an iconic connection between the form and the meaning. Tables 7.19 and 7.20 summarize the distribution of explosive phonemes in word- initial position in the Lexicon of Reality and in the Lexicon of Fantasy.

Table 7.19 Explosive phonemes in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Reality Explosive Non-explosive total [p,b,t,d,k,g] [f,v,s,z, š, ž] No 11 14 25 % 44% 56% 100%

Table 7.20 Explosive phonemes in word-initial position in the Lexicon of Fantasy Explosive Non-explosive Total [p,b,t,d,k,g] [f,v,s,z, š, ž] No 14 15 29 % 48% 52% 100%

As can be observed in tables 7.19 and 7.20, the non-explosive phonemes are slightly favored in both categories of words: there are 56% of non-explosive phonemes in the Lexicon of Reality and 52% of non-explosive phonemes in the Lexicon of Fantasy. The similar skewing of the non-explosive phonemes and their favoring in both lexicons supports both my hypothesis and the message.

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7.6. The distribution of the consonant clusters [R+Consonant] or [Consonant+R] and [Vowel+R+Vowel] or [R+Vowel]

In this section I provide an analysis of consonant clusters for the Lexicon of Reality and the Lexicon of Fantasy. The instances of the appearances of consonant clusters [R+Consonant] or [Consonant+R] in the words of these two lexical groups were counted, as well as the syllables [Vowel+R+Vowel] or [R+Vowel]. The articulation of the trill plus consonant [RC] or consonant plus trill [CR] requires a great deal of effort. These forms are more marked phonologically. On the other hand, the combination of vowel plus trill plus vowel [VRV] or trill plus vowel [RV] requires less effort, and these forms are less marked phonologically. Since fantasy and reality merge, the polarically opposed feelings of love and hate can both be real or imagined at the same time, I assume that both categories of the Lexicon of Fantasy and of the Lexicon of Reality will share the same phonological characteristics as far as the distribution of consonant clusters is concerned.

Table 7.21 ‘R+Consonant’ or ‘Consonant+R’ and ‘Vowel+R+Vowel’ or ‘R+Vowel’ Clusters in the Lexicon of Reality RC/CR VRV/RV total No 13 8 21 % 62% 38% 100%

Table 7.22 ‘R+Consonant’ or ‘Consonant+R’ and ‘Vowel+R+Vowel’ or ‘R+Vowel’ Clusters in the Lexicon of Fantasy RC/CR VRV/RV Total No 7 7 14 % 50% 50% 100%

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There is a clear favoring of the phonologically marked forms RC/CR in the Lexicon of Reality. In the Lexicon of Fantasy, we can see the equal distribution of both forms- 50% with the marked combination RC/CR and 50% with the unmarked combination VRV/RV. My hypothesis that there will be similar skewing of the consonant clusters in both lexicons was only partially supported by the data. However, the data support the message of the text, since fantasy and reality merge into one, fantasy becomes reality and reality becomes imaginary.

7.7. Summary

This chapter presented a phonological analysis of the Dostoevskian text (which consists of two novellas: A Meek One (1876) and The Gambler (1866), and two novels: The Idiot (1868) and The Brothers Karamazov (1880)) based on the theory of Phonology as Human Behavior. My analysis was semantically motivated by the message of the text, which is extralinguistic. In this chapter I examined the lexicon of the Dostoevskian text from the point of view of Fantasy versus Reality, since the polarically opposed feelings of love and hate that are present in every relationship can both be real or imagined at the same time. The basic principles of the theory of Phonology as Human Behavior were applied to two categories of words- the Lexicon of Reality and the Lexicon of Fantasy. The principles that were applied to the textual analysis are: - the distribution of monosyllabic, bi-syllabic and polysyllabic words, - additional articulators in word-initial position, - distribution of phonemes of constriction in word-initial position with reference to active articulators, - the distribution of apical consonants in word-final position, - the distribution of the explosive mobile phonemes, and - the distribution of the consonant clusters [R+Consonant] or [Consonant+R] and [Vowel+R+Vowel] or [R+Vowel].

I hypothesized that there would be an iconic connection between form and meaning. Therefore, I expected that the Lexicon of Reality and the Lexicon of Fantasy follow the same phonological principles and show the similar skewing of the phonemes. 206 Chapter 7: Phonological Analysis of the Lexicon of Reality versus Fantasy ______

My hypothesis was shown to be true regarding most of the principles of the theory of Phonology as Human Behavior based on the data from the Dostoevskian text: 1. the increase in the use of marked trisyllabic and polysyllabic words in both categories, 2. the favoring of marked voiced and nasal phonemes in the word initial position in both lexicons, 3. the favoring of apical consonants in word-final position in both lexicons, and 4. the similar favoring of the distribution of non-explosive phonemes for both lexicons. Two principles of the theory of PHB did not support my hypothesis that the two lexicons follow the same phonological principles and are both marked: 1. the two lexicons followed different phonological principle regarding the distribution of phonemes of constriction in the word-initial position: there was a clear preference of apical phonemes in the Lexicon of Reality and preference of labials/visible phonemes in the Lexicon of Fantasy. 2. The distribution of the consonant clusters R+Consonant or Consonant+R and Vowel+R+Vowel or R+Vowel was not the same for the Lexicon of Reality and the Lexicon of Fantasy.

While my hypothesis was not shown to be totally valid, the data gives full support to the message of the text: love and hate are interconnected to such an extent that sometimes they can be merged, combined and even confused and that this confusion can be real or imagined at the same time.

The data in this chapter supported the main principles of the theory of Phonology as Human Behavior and the extra-linguistic message of the text.

207 Chapter 8: Summary and Conclusions ______

Chapter Eight

Summary and Conclusions

My analysis of the language which reflects the relationship between men and women in selected works of Dostoevsky is based on the theoretical and methodological premises of a semiotic or sign-oriented approach. The data taken from the language of the text have confirmed my hypothesis that there is a non-random distribution of the language of love and hate and fantasy and reality in the Dostoevskian text. This non-random distribution underlies the extra-linguistic message of the text- love and hate are interconnected to such an extent that sometimes they can be merged, combined and even confused and that these polarically opposed feeling of love and hate can both be real or imagined at the same time. I have demonstrated how this extra-linguistic message is reflected in the non- random distribution within different systems on all levels (phonemes, roots, words, word systems, phrases, etc).

I began my study by presenting Dostoevsky's biography, including the historical, cultural, literary and religious influences on his life and literary career, as well as the perspective on the relationship between men and women during Dostoevsky's time.

Then I presented a review of Dostoevsky's works selected for my study- two short novellas- A Meek One (1876), and The Gambler (1866) - and two novels- The Idiot (1868) and The Brothers Karamazov (1880) and the common message these works share. It is this shared message which allowed me to view these individual literary works as a single text.

In Chapter Four and Chapter Five of my dissertation I have analyzed various word systems within the language of the Dostoevskian text, using the semiotic model of language/text which was discussed in Chapter Three. Following Aphek's and Tobin's (1988) definition of a word system, I have demonstrated that there are words

208 Chapter 8: Summary and Conclusions ______which are linked to each other and form a system of systems which reflect the message of the text. The following word systems were revealed: 1. the "love" word system which is sub-divided into a) morpho-phono- semantic sub-system, b) semantic-associative sub-system and c) semantic conceptual sub-system;

2. the "hate" word system which consists of a) morpho-phono-semantic sub- system, b) semantic-associative suffering-related sub-system, c) semantic-conceptual slavery sub-system and d)semantic-conceptual death sub-system;

3. the "fantasy" word system which consists of a) morpho-phono-semantic fantasy sub-system, b)semantic-associative fantasy sub-system and c)semantic- conceptual dream sub-system

4. the "reality" word system which is sub-divided into a) morpho-phono- semantic reality sub-system, b) semantic-associative reality sub-system, c) semantic- conceptual realization/understanding sub-system, and d) morpho-phono-associative truth sub-system;

5. the "madness" word system which consists of a) semantic madness-related sub-system, b) semantic-associative illness-related sub-system and c) semantic- conceptual madness related sub-system.

All these word systems revolve around a single invariant theme and function simultaneously and converge together to create a larger super-system: a text, which can be viewed as a larger system of systems, composed of different word-systems. The author’s systematic use of his language in the forms of word systems creates the confusion between love and hate, and between fantasy and reality.

In Chapter Six and Chapter Seven I have conducted a phonological analysis of the Dostoevskian text. I have not analyzed the entire text but rather the semantically motivated categories of the Lexicon of Love, the Lexicon of Hate, the Lexicon of Fantasy and the Lexicon of Reality. These categories are most relevant to the message of the entire text.

209 Chapter 8: Summary and Conclusions ______

Chapter Six focuses on a phonological analysis of the lexicon of Dostoevsky's selected works based on the theory Phonology as Human Behavior. In this chapter I examined the distribution of phonemes in lexical items belonging to the semantic field of Love and the semantic field of Hate. I originally hypothesized that there is an iconic connection between form and meaning. First, I assumed that the Lexicon of Love is unmarked both in meaning and in form which means that the lexical items from this category are not only unmarked semantically but also phonologically. On the other hand, I assumed that the Lexicon of Hate is more marked in both meaning and phonological form. Therefore, I assumed that the Lexicon of Love represents a larger and more general semantic field than the Lexicon of Hate. While collecting the data I realized that there are more words related to the semantic field of hate and suffering in the relationship between men and women than words related to the semantic field of love and affection. Therefore, I further assumed that the Lexicon of Hate is just as broad and/or even broader and just as complex or even a more complex category than the Lexicon of Love. In spite of the fact that the data in this chapter partially supported my original assumption that the Lexicon of Hate is more marked semantically as well as phonologically, the message of the text was fully supported. The data in this chapter indicated that phonologically speaking there is often a similarity between the Lexicon of Love and the Lexicon of Hate which reflects the interconnection between love and hate to such an extent that sometimes they can be merged, combined and even confused.

In Chapter Seven I presented a phonological analysis of the Lexicon of Fantasy and the Lexicon of Reality based on the theory of Phonology as Human Behavior. I hypothesized that there is an iconic connection between form and meaning. Therefore, I expected that the Lexicon of Reality and the Lexicon of Fantasy to follow the same phonological principles and show the similar skewing of the phonemes. While my hypothesis was not shown to be totally valid, the data fully supported the message of the text.

I would like to believe that my work will be a step in the direction to a better understanding and appreciation of the works of Dostoevsky. I also hope that this work can be viewed as a further step to an implementation of a sign-oriented approach on the textual level.

210 Chapter 8: Summary and Conclusions ______

It should be interesting to apply the methodological model of word systems to the English translations of Dostoevsky's works and to analyze the translatability of word systems and different methods of translation used by the translators of Dostoevsky. In addition, a phonological analysis can be applied to the English translations of Dostoevsky to check the iconic connection between form and meaning, the language and the message of the texts.

211 Appendix 1: Lexicon of Love and Lexicon of Hate ______

Appendix 1

Lexicon of Love A Meek One (1876) 1. iskrenost’ 1. sincerity 2. dobro 2. kindness 3. ljubov’ 3. love 4. vostorg 4. delight 5. terpimost’ 5. tolerance 6. uvazhenie 6. respect 7. obnimat’ 7. to hug 8. velikodushie 8. generosity 9. cenil 9. appreciated 10. bezgreshnaja 10. sinless, saintlike 11. chistaja 11. pure 12. neporochna 12. virginal, pure 13. schast’e 13. happiness 14. upoenie 14. ecstasy 15. zeloval 15. kissed 16. rai 16. heaven 17. smejalis’ 17. laughed 18. radostno 18. with joy 19. ulybat’sja 19. to smile 20. zasijala 20. glowed, shined 21. prelestnaja 21.charming 22. zhelat’ 22. to desire 23. blagorodstvo 23. dignity 24. obozhaema 24. adorable 25. poljubila 25. fall in love

212 Appendix 1: Lexicon of Love and Lexicon of Hate ______

The Idiot (1868)

1. uvazhal 1. respected 2. ljubil 2. loved 3. strast’ 3. passion 4. garmonija 4. harmony 5. romanticheskoe 5. romantic 6. dovol’nii 6. satisfied 7. schastliv 7. happy 8. vljublen 8. in love 9. sovershenstvo 9. goodness 10. sijaet 10. shines 11. vera 11. faith 12. blazhenstvo 12. blessing, bliss 13. radost’ 13. happiness 14. svidanie 14. date 15. bozhestvo 15. divinity 16. dobraja 16. kind 17. prekrasnaja 17. beautiful 18. iskrenno 18. sincerely 19. vlechenie 19. attraction 20. prostit’ 20. to forgive 21. podderzhivat’ 21. to support 22. obozhat’ 22. to adore 23. sostradanie 23. compassion 24. samozabvenie 24. self-abandonment 25. edinstvennaja 25. unique, exclusive

213 Appendix 1: Lexicon of Love and Lexicon of Hate ______

The Gambler (1866)

1. chuvstva 1. feelings 2. drug 2. friend 3. entuziazm 3. enthusiasm 4. chudesnoe 4. wonderful 5. udacha 5. luck 6. zelovala 6. kissed 7. obnimala 7. hugged 8. nezhno 8. gently 9. druzhba 9. friendhip 10. naslazhdenije 10. pleasure, enjoyment 11. schast’e 11. happiness 12. ljubila 12. loved 13. berech 13. to protect 14. strast’ 14. passion 15. zabotlivo 15. carefully 16. sijanie 16. shine, glowing 17. slavnii 17. pleasant 18. udovol’stvie 18. pleasure 19. nadezhda 19. hope 20. doverit’sja 20. to rely on, to trust 21. dostoinstvo 21. dignity 22. vnimanie 22. attention 23. mechta 23. desire, dream 24. vostorzhenno 24. enthusiastically 25. voobrazhenie 25. imagination

214 Appendix 1: Lexicon of Love and Lexicon of Hate ______

The Brothers Karamazov (1880)

1. ljubov’ 1.love 2.blizost’ 2.intimacy 3.vljubitsja 3.to fall in love 4.schastliv 4.happy 5.strast’ 5.passion 6.naslazhdenie 6.pleasure, enjoyment 7.udovletvorenie 7.satisfaction, fulfillment 8.pozelovat’ 8.to kiss 9.garmonija 9.harmony 10.chudesnaja 10.marvelous, wonderful 11.zhazhdat’ 11.to yearn 12.serdechno 12.heartily, intimately 13.laska 13.kindness, caress 14.angelochek 14.angel 15.milij 15.lovely, dear 16.obozhat’ 16.to adore, to worship 17.zariza 17.princess, queen 18.vostorzheno 18.enthusiastically, rapturously 19.blagogovejno 19. in awe 20.nezhnost’ 20.tenderness 21.hvalit’ 21.to praise 22.nravitsja 22.to like 23.uhazhivat’ 23.to court 24.obnimat’ 24.to hug 25.prozhenie 25.forgiveness

215 Appendix 1: Lexicon of Love and Lexicon of Hate ______

Lexicon of Hate

A Meek One (1876) 1. stradanie 1. suffering 2. zlo 2. evil

3. podlost’ 3. meanness, low act 4. mest’ 4. vengeance, revenge 5. neravenstvo 5. inequality 6. tiran 6. tyrant, despot 7. muchitel’ 7. torturer 8. soprotivlenie 8. opposition, resistance 9. prezirat’ 9. to despise, to contemn 10. padenie 10. fall 11. nenavist’ 11. hatred 12. razdavlena 12. crushed, run down 13. pobezhdena 13. defeated 14. strah 14. fear, fright 15. stid 15. shame 16. smirenie 16. humility 17. otchajanie 17. despair 18. strogost’ 18. severity 19. nedoverchivost’ 19. incredulity 20. unizhenie 20. humiliation 21. suhost’ 21. aridity 22. edkij 22. bitter 23. holodnij 23. cold 24. neschastliv 24. unhappy 25. mstit’ 25. to revenge

216 Appendix 1: Lexicon of Love and Lexicon of Hate ______

The Idiot (1868)

1. negodovanie 1. indignation 2. prezrenie 2. contempt 3. pogubit’ 3. to ruin 4. udarit’ 4. to hit 5. ekspluatirovat’ 5. to take advantage of , to exploit 6. vrazhda 6. hostility 7. neneavist’ 7. hatred 8. otomstit’ 8. to revenge 9. stradat’ 9. to suffer 10. neschastnaja 10. unhappy, miserable 11. negodovat’ 11. boil over 12. terpet’ 12. to suffer 13. voznenavidet’ 13. come to hate, conceive a hatred 14. unizit’ 14. to humble 15. shval’ 15. riffraff 16. muka 16. suffering 17. katorga 17. hard labor 18. muchitel’no 18. painfully 19. smert’ 19. death 20. demon 20. demon 21. otvrazhenie 21. aversion 22. nadrugat’sja 22. treat outrageously 23. sramit’ 23. humiliate 24. zlost’ 24. spite, malice 25. zarezat’ 25. to stab

217 Appendix 1: Lexicon of Love and Lexicon of Hate ______

The Gambler (1866)

1. prezrenie 1. hostility 2. nevnimanie 2. lack of attention 3. protivna 3. disgusting 4. sluga 4. slave 5. visokomerno 5. arrogantly 6. zhestoko 6. cruerly 7. nenavist’ 7. hatred 8. stradat’ 8. to suffer 9. ubit’ 9. to kill 10. oskorbit’ 10. to offend 11. unizhenie 11. humiliation 12. zloba 12. anger 13. grubo 13. rudely 14. vrazhdebno 14. hostile 15. razdrazhitel’no 15. with irritation 16. otvrazhenie 16. disgust 17. nadmennost’ 17. arrogance 18. rabstvo 18. slavery 19. despot 19. tyrant 20. ravnodushie 20. indifference 21. prenebrizhenie 21. disregard 22. nebrezhnost’ 22. contempt 23. razdrazhitel’no 23. with irritation 24. zadushit’ 24. to strangle 25. izurodovat' 25. to disfigure

218 Appendix 1: Lexicon of Love and Lexicon of Hate ______

The Brothers Karamazov (1880)

1.preziraet 1.despise 2.otvrazhenie 2.disgust 3.muchenie 3.suffering 4.nenavidet’ 4.to hate 5.strah 5.fear 6.prinudil 6.forced 7.otomzhenie 7.revenge 8.podlez 8.villain, scoundrel 9.zhertva 9.victim 10.bit’ 10.to beat 11.unizhenie 11.humiliation 12.vlastvovat’ 12.to dominate, to rule 13.oskorblenie 13.insult 14.podchinit’ 14.subdue, bring under control 15.gnev 15. rage 16.zloba 16.anger 17.sila 17. power, strength 18.raba 18.slave 19.tvar’ 19.beast 20.ssora 20.argument, fight 21.pervenstvovat’ 21.to be superior 22.stradat’ 22.to suffer 23.isterzal 23.tortured, disfigured 24.sgubit’ 24.to ruin 25.moguzhestvo 25.power

219 Appendix 2: Lexicon of Fantasy and Lexicon of Reality ______

Appendix 2 Lexicon of Fantasy

1. fantasija 1. fantasy 2. voobrazhenie 2. imagination 3. son 3. a dream 4. zagadochnyj 4. puzzling 5. fal'shivij 5. false 6. lozh' 6. a lie 7. mechtat' 7. to dream 8. bred 8. delirium 9. neverojatno 9. unbelievable 10. chudo 10. magic 11. focus 11. magic trick 12. subjektivij 12. subjective 13. videnie 13. apparition 14. merezhitsja 14. to seem 15. nevozmozhnyj 15. impossible 16. neobychajnoe 16. unusual 17. nelepoe 17. chaotic 18. prividenie 18. phantom 19. divo 19. magic 20. absurd 20. absurd 21. roman 21. fiction 22. kazatsja 22. to seem 23. koshmar 23. a nightmare 24. fantasmogorija 24. magic 25. mifologija 25. mythology 26. mistifikacija 26. mysticism 27. mirazh 27. mirage 28. prividenie 28. a spirit 220 Appendix 2: Lexicon of Fantasy and Lexicon of Reality ______

29. neestestvenno 29. unrealistic 30. nepravdopodobno 30. unreal 31. vnezapno 31. suddenly 32. stranno 32. strange 33. neverojatnij 33. impossible 34. nemislimo 34. unthinkable, impossible 35. gallucinacija 35. hallucination 36. lozhnij 36. false 37. mechta 37. fantasy 38. sochinit' 38. to invent 39. tainstvennyj 39. secretive 40. zagadka 40. puzzle 41. vydumyvat' 41. to fantasize 42. predpolozhit' 42. to assume 43. misticizm 43. mysticism 44. bessoznatel'no 44. unconscious 45. pelena 45. veil 46. shutka 46. a joke 47. divo 47. magic 48. obmanut' 48. to lie 49. dikaja (ideja) 49. wild (idea) 50. pomeshatel'stvo 50. madness

221 Appendix 2: Lexicon of Fantasy and Lexicon of Reality ______

Lexicon of Reality

1. dokazat' 1. to prove 2. nesomnenno 2. for sure 3. fakt 3. a fact 4. istina 4. reality 5. pravda 5. truth 6. dejstvitel'nost' 6. reality 7. realist 7. a realist 8. pravdivo 8. truly 9. verit' 9. to believe 10. nepremenno 10. for sure 11. relalizm 11. realism 12. voistinu 12. in real 13. vozmozhno 13. possible 14. javno 14. clear, for sure 15. najavu 15. in reality 16. esm' 16. exist 17. vzapravdy 17. really 18. fakticheskj 18. factually 19. tochno 19. exactly 20. jasno 20. clear 21. estestvenno 21. naturally 22. nauka 22. science 23. pravdopodobnij 23. genuine, real, probable 24. iskrennij 24. genuine 25. aksioma 25. axiom 26. naverno 26. for sure 27. zdravij (um) 27. clear ( mind) 28. vzapravdu 28. in real 29. najavu 29. in reality 30. garantija 30. a guarantee 222 Appendix 2: Lexicon of Fantasy and Lexicon of Reality ______

31. razumeetsja 31. turns out, for sure 32. dostoverno 32. surely 33. chesno 33. truly 34. logicheskoe 34. logically 35. logika 35. logics 36. opredilitel'no 36. in fact 37. soznanie 37. conscious 38. suzhnost' 38. existence 39. serjozno 39. seriously 40. tochno 40. exact 41. ochevidno 41. obvious 42. dokazat' 42. to prove 43. rassudok 43. mind, thinking 44. uveren 44. sure, positive 45. nastojazhij 45. real, genuine 46. obyknovennij 46. usual, existing 47. verno 47. exact 48. vernij 48. reliable 49. polozhitel'no 49. positive 50. pravdivo 50. straightforward

223

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Stewart, Susan. 1983. " Shouts on the Street: Bakhtin's Anti-Linguistics". Critical Inquiry, Vol.10, No.2, 265-281. Yarmolinsky, Avraham. 1957. Dostoevsky: His Life and Art.London: Arco publications.

Corpus

Balzak, Honore de. 1951. Old Goriot. Penguin Books. Melbourne. Dostoevsky, Fyodor. 1949. The Diary of a Writer. Translated by Boris Brasol. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. _____. 1957. "Igrok". Sobranie Sochineni’ v 10 tomax. Vol.4: 283-433. Moskva: Khudozhestvennaya literatura. ______. 1957. "Idiot". Sobranie Sochineni’ v 10 tomax. Vol.6. Moskva: Khudozhestvennaya literatura. ______. 1957. "The Brothers Karamazov". Sobranie Sochineni’ v 10 tomax. Vol. 9-10. Moskva: Khudozhestvennaya literatura. _____. 1957. "Krotkaja". Sobranie Sochineni’ v 10 tomax. Vol.10: 378-420. Moskva: Khudozhestvennaya literatura. _____. 1958. The Brothers Karamazov. Translated by David Magarshak, Penguin Books, England. _____. 1960. Novels. Translated by Constance Garnett. New York:Dell. _____. 1966. The Gambler, Bobok, A Nasty Story. Translated by Jessie Coulson. Pinguin Books, England. _____. 1968. Letters from the Underworld, The Gentle Maiden, The Landlady. Translated by C. Hogarth. Aldine Press. London. _____. 1970. The Idiot. Translated by David Magarshack. Penguin Books, England. _____. 1971. Stories. Progress Publishers, Moscow. Lermontov, Michail. 1958. A Hero of our Time. Translated by Vladimir NAbolkov. Anchor Books, New York. Pushkin, Aleksandr. 1936. The Works of Alexander Pushkin: Lyrics, Narrative Poems, Folk Tales,Prose. Selected and edited by Avraham Yarmolinsky. New York:Random House. _____. 1991. Sochineniia. Moskva: Khudozhestvennaya literatura. Russian Literature of the 20th century. http://www.friends-partners.org/partners.org/friends/culture/literature/20century.html 228

Tolstoi’, Lev. 1948. Sobranie Khudozhestvennyx Proizvedeni’. Moskva: Biblioteka “Ogoniok”. _____. 1978. The Portable Tolstoi’. Great Britain: Penguin Books. _____. 2004. Great Short Stories of Leo Tolstoi’. New York: Harper Collins.

i

נשים ויחסיהם עם גברים ביצירות נבחרות של דוסטוייבסקי: גישה סמיוטית ופונולוגית

תקציר

מחקרי נשים ויחסיהם עם גברים ביצירות נבחרות של דוסטוייבסקי: גישה סמיוטית ופונולוגית

מבוסס על העקרונות התיאורטיים והמתודולוגיים של הגישה הסמיוטית או לפי תורת הסימן שקובעת

שתפוצת הלשון בטקסט הינה בלתי אקראית. תפוצה זו משקפת את המסר החוץ לשוני של הטקסט-

האהבה והשנאה מחוברים ביניהם במידה כזו עד כי לעיתים הם יכולים להתמזג ואף להגיע עד לכדי

בלבול ביניהם, בלבול זה יכול להיות ממשי ודמיוני בעת ובעונה אחת. במילים אחרות אני רוצה לגלות

איך היחסים בין נשים לגברים בשפה של דוסטוייבסקי.

בפרק הראשון אני מציגה את הביוגרפיה של דוסטוייבסקי כולל ההשפעות ההיסטוריות-תרבותיות-

ספרותיות-דתיות על חייו והקריירה הספרותית שלו.

בפרק השני אני סוקרת את עבודות דוסטוייבסקי ומרחיבה על המסר שהן חולקות. הטקסט הספרותי

אותו אני חוקרת מורכב מ- 2 סיפורים קצרים: “נפש כנועה" ו"המהמר" ושני רומנים: “אידיוט" וה"אחים

קרמזוב".

הניתוח של ארבעת היצירות הללו יקבע את המשמעות הבסיסית והמוטיבים המחברים בין היצירות

הנ"ל שמתחברות לטקסט בעל מסר משותף - האהבה והשנאה מחוברים ביניהם במידה כזו עד כי

לעיתים הם יכולים להתמזג ואף להגיע עד לכדי בילבול ביניהם, בלבול זה יכול להיות ממשי ודמיוני

בעת ובעונה אחת.

הפרק השלישי מספק את הרקע התיאורטי והמתודולוגי למחקר.

אני מבססת את מחקרי על הגדרת הלשון מנקודת המבט של תורת הסימן -”מערכת על המורכבת

מתת מערכות סנרגטיות, גמישות )הסובבות סביב המושג של הסימן הבלשני( שמשמשת ככלי

תקשורת ע"י בני אדם" )טובין, 47:1990a (

הגדרה זו של לשון מבדילה בין langue - קוד מופשט המורכב מסימנים לשוניים המשותף לכל דוברי ii

הקהילה ל- parole, המימוש המוחשי של הקוד המופשט הנ"ל ע"י הדוברים, שמעבירים מסרים

ספציפיים שונים. הפרק מציג ומתאר את המושגים התיאורטיים והמתודולוגיים של המחקר: הסימן

הבלשני )linguistic sign( המורכב ממסמן ) signal( וממסומן ) meaning(; מסומנית ) markedness( –

יחסי מסומנות בין סימן בעל תכונה סמנטית מסוימת לבין סימן בלתי מסומן, שיכול לטעון לתכונה זו

או לאו, כמו יכול להיות בעל תכונה נ יטראלית; איקוניות ) iconicity( משקפת את הקשר הישר בין

המסמן למסומן. המושג של המשמעות הבסיסי ) invariant meaning( הינו חלק בלתי נפרד של

הסימן הבלשני: לכל סימן בלשון ישנה משמעות אחת קבועה והיא מהווה את הגורם לבחירת אותו

הסימן לעומת הסימנים האחרים. הפרק גם מציג את הגישה הסמיוטית לניתוח הטקסט כמערכות

מילים שמשמשת כמודל מתודולוגי במחקרי.

אני מאמצת את ההגדרה של אפק וטובין ) 1998( בה מערכת מילים מוגדרת כמטריצה של מילים

בתוך טקסט כתוב או מדובר. למילים אלו יש מכנה משותף שיכול להיות סמנטי, פונולוגי קונספטואלי

או אסוציאטיבי. מערכות מילים אלו מקשרות בין המסר החוץ לשוני של הטקסט לבין התפוצה הבלתי

אקראית של המילים בטקסט.

בנוסף, הפרק מציג את התיאוריה הפונולוגית כהתנהגות האדם. הניתוח הפונולוגי של הלקסיקונים

השונים בטקסט מבוסס על התיאוריה הנ"ל.

בפרק הרביעי ו החמישי אני מיישמת את המודל המתודולוגי של מערכות המילים שהוצג בפרק

השלישי. כאן הסתמכתי על יצירות נבחרות של דוסטוייבסקי כדי לנתח את יחסיהם של גברים ונשים

בעזרת מערכות מילים.

בפרק הרביעי אני מתארת כיצד העלילה והמסר של הטקסט מתמזגים עם ההיבט הלשוני על ידי

השימוש בשתי מערכות המילים המנוגדות – מערכת האהבה לעומת מערכת השנאה.

השילוב של שתי מערכות המילים הנ"ל בנוסף למערכות מילים נוספות שיוצגו בפרק החמישי תורמות

לטקסט ברמות שונות ומדגימות כיצד דוסטוייבסקי יצר בהצלחה טקסט בו השפה והמסר בלתי ניתנים

להפרדה. מערכות המילים – האהבה והשנאה, מעצימים את המסר של דוסטוייבסקי בטקסט –

האהבה והשנאה מחוברים וממוזגים במידה כזו שלא ניתן להפריד ביניהם.

iii

בפרק החמישי אני מציגה שתי מערכות מילים נוספות, מערכת המילים של הדמיון ומערכת המילים

של המציאות. מערכות מילים מנוגדות אלו מעצימות את המסר - האהבה והשנאה מחוברות וממוזגות

במידה כזו שלא ניתן להפריד ביניהם, ורגשות מנוגדים אלו יכולים להיות אמיתיים ודמיוניים בעת

ובעונה אחת.

מערכת מילים נוספת שהתגלתה בניתוח היא מערכת המילים של השיגעון. דמויותיו של דוסטוייבסקי

במצב של טרוף היו מאבדות את היכולת להבדיל בין אהבה ושנאה, ויותר מזה, להפריד בין מציאות

ודמיון.

בפרק רביעי וחמישי, הדגמתי כיצד כל אחת ממערכות המילים שגיליתי תורמת למסר של הטקסט.

בנוסף לכך, השילוב של כל מערכות המילים יחדיו והיחסים ביניהן מחזקות ומשקפות את המסר של

הטקסט - האהבה והשנאה מחוברים וממוזגים במידה כזו שלא ניתן להפריד ביניהם ורגשות מנוגדים

אלו יכולים להיות אמיתיים ודמיוניים בעת ובעונה אחת. לכן, הפרקים הללו ממשים את העיקרון

הסמיוטי הבסיסי שניתן לראות טקסט ושפה כלשון בפני עצמה "כמערכת על המורכבת מתת מערכות

שמשמשת ככלי תקשורת על ידי בני האדם".

הפרק השישי מתמקד בניתוח הפונולוגי של הלקסיקון ביצירותיו הנבחרות של דוסטוייבסקי בהתאם

לתיאוריית הפונולוגיה כהתנהגות האדם. בפרק זה אני בוחנת את התפלגות הפונמות בלקסיקון

המסמל את תחום האהבה ובלקסיקון המסמל את תחום השנאה. השערתי המקורית הייתה שיש

קשר איקוני בין צורה למשמעות. תחילה הנחתי כי לקסיקון האהבה אינו מסומן ) unmarked(

במשמעותו וגם במבנהו בטקסט, כלומר המילים מהקטגוריה הזו היו לא רק לא מסומנים סמנטית

אלא גם פונולוגית. מצד שני שיערתי שלקסיקון השנאה יהיה מסומן ) marked( במשמעותו ובצורתו

הפונולוגית. לכן הנחתי כי הלקסיקון של האהבה יהיה גדול, כללי ועשיר יותר מהתחום הסמנטי של

לקסיקון השנאה. תוך כדי איסוף הנתונים גיליתי כי יש יותר מילים מתחום השנאה במערכות יחסים

בין גברים ונשים מאשר מילים מתחום האהבה והחיבה. לכן אני משערת כי הלקסיקון של השנאה

רחב או אפילו רחב ומורכב יותר מלקסיקון האהבה. למרות שהשערתי המקורית )לקסיקון השנאה

מסומן סמנטית ופונולוגית( מצאה גיבוי חלקי בנתונים אבל המסר של הטקסט מצא תמיכה מלאה

בניתוח. iv

הנתונים בפרק זה מצביעים על קשר פונולוגי בין לקסיקון האהבה ללקסיקון השנאה המשקף את

המסר של הטקסט - האהבה והשנאה מחוברים וממוזגים במידה כזו שלא ניתן להפריד ביניהם.

בפרק שביעי אני מציגה את הניתוח הפונולוגי של לקסיקון הפנטזיה לעומת לקסיקון

המציאות/ממשות, הניתוח מבוסס על התיאוריה – פונולוגיה כהתנהגותו של האדם. השערתי הייתה

כי יהיה קשר סמלי בין הצורה למשמעות. המסר של הטקסט לאחר ניתוח הנתונים הוא שהאהבה

והשנאה מחוברים ביניהם במידה כזו עד כי לעיתים הם יכולים להתמזג ואף להגיע עד לכדי בלבול

ביניהם, רגשות קיצוניים אלו של אהבה ושנאה קיימים בכל מערכת יחסים ויכולים להיות אמיתיים

ודמיוניים במקביל. ולכן אני מצפה מהלקסיקון של המציאות/ממשות והפנטזיה להמשיך באותם

עקרונות פונולוגיים ולהראות את אותן הטיות פונמיות. בעוד הנתונים שאספתי אינם תומכים לחלוטין

בהשערתי, המסר נתמך באופן מלא ע"י הנתונים שנאספו מהטקסט: האהבה והשנאה מחוברים

ביניהם במידה כזו עד כי לעיתים הם יכולים להתמזג ואף להגיע עד לכדי בלבול ביניהם, בלבול זה

יכול להיות ממשי ודמיוני בעת ובעונה אחת.

פרק שמונה מכיל מסקנות והצעות להמשך המחקר.

על ידי שימוש בגישה מונחת-סימן שאפשרה לחקור בצורה מדוקדקת מערכות שונות בשפה של

אהבה ושנאה, פנטזיה ומציאות/ ממשות בכתביו של דוסטוייבסקי )חקר מערכות המילים והניתוח

הפונולוגי(, כך איששתי את השערתי כי אין כל אקראיות בתפוצת השפה בשימוש במילות אהבה,

שנאה, פנטזיה ומציאות/ממשות ושיגעון. אני מאמינה כי מחקרי תורם להבנה עמוקה יותר ופרשנות

טובה יותר של כתביו של דוסטוייבסקי. בנוסף, עבודתי יכולה לתרום ליישומים נוספים של ניתוח

טקסטים על ידי שימוש בגישה מונחת- סימן.

כמו כן, בפרק שמונה ציינתי מספר הצעות להמשך המחקר, כגון: בחינת שפת האהבה/שנאה/פנטזיה

ומציאות/ממשות בעבודות נוספות של דוסטוייבסקי וגם ישום המודולים התיאורטיים והמתודולוגיים

של מערכות מילים, כמו גם, תיאוריות הפונולוגיות כהתנהגות אנושית ביחס לאנגלית ותרגומים

נוספים של עבודותיו של דוסטוייבסקי.

v

מילות מפתח

תכונות מובחנות צורה איקוניות משמעות הבסיסית הסימן הבלשני משמעות מסומנית/לא מסומנית מסר פונמה תכונה סמנטית תורת הסימן ניתוח של הטקסט מערכות מילים

העבודה נעשתה בהדרכת פרופסור ישי טובין

במחלקה לספרויות זרות ובלשנות בפקולטה למדעי הרוח והחברה

נשים ויחסיהם עם גברים ביצירות נבחרות של דוסטויבסקי:

גישה סמיוטית ופונולוגית

מחקר לשם מילוי חלקי של הדרישות לקבלת תואר "דוקטור לפילוסופיה"

מאת

אינה סמירנוב-אוקנין

הוגש לסינאט אוניברסיטת בן גוריון בנגב

אישור המנחה ______

אישור דיקן בית הספר ללימודי מחקר מתקדמים ע"ש קרייטמן ______

תשרי תשע"ב אוקטובר 2011

באר שבע

נשים ויחסיהם עם גברים ביצירות נבחרות של דוסטויבסקי:

גישה סמיוטית ופונולוגית

מחקר לשם מילוי חלקי של הדרישות לקבלת תואר "דוקטור לפילוסופיה"

מאת

אינה סמירנוב-אוקנין

הוגש לסינאט אוניברסיטת בן גוריון בנגב

אדר ב' תשע"א מרץ 2011

באר שבע