The rise of the Nazi Party and its ì consolidation of power, c. 1929–34

hat was the impact of the Weimar period on the rise of Wthe Nazis?

The political and economic problems of Weimar

The end of World War One THE PRESIDENT • Elected every seven years. In March 1918, the German commander on • Controlled the armed forces. the Western Front, General Ludendorff, • Stayed out of the day-to-day decided to gamble with an all out attack. He running of the country. hoped to win the war quickly before large • Could make laws in an emergency without numbers of American troops arrived. The going through the Reichstag (Parliament). Ludendorff Offensive was initially successful, but ultimately it failed. By 1918, German Appointed… civilians were also suffering great hardship and starvation. There were many strikes and THE CHANCELLOR demonstrations. By November 1918, soldiers • Responsible for the day-to-day and sailors began to mutiny. Realizing that running of the country. he had lost control, the German king, Kaiser • Chosen by the President. Wilhelm, abdicated and fled to the • Needed support from the Reichstag. Netherlands. A provisional government was • Like a Prime Minister. immediately set up and a republic was declared. On 11 November 1918, the new Needed the support of more than half of… government agreed to the signing of an armistice to end the First World War. THE REICHSTAG • Voted on new laws. The Weimar Constitution • Members elected every four years, through a All countries have rules for how they are to system called proportional representation be governed. These rules are called a (PR). This system gave small parties a chance to have a say in Parliament. constitution. Sometimes the rules are written down, sometimes not. In a country like Germany in 1919, which had just got rid of Was elected by… one system of government — the Kaiser’s — and was trying to establish a new one, THE GERMAN PEOPLE deciding on a new constitution was very • Elected the President important. Due to the chaos in Berlin at the and the members of the end of 1918, the provisional government met Reichstag. in the town of Weimar in central Germany to • All men and women over the age of twenty draw up the new constitution. This is why could vote. historians refer to the years 1919S33 as the • All adults had equal rights and the right of ‘Weimar’ period. free speech.

1 WHAT WAS THE IMPACT OF THE WEIMAR PERIOD ON THE RISE OF THE NAZIS?

The Weimar Constitution was a brave Germany was a very divided country in 1919. attempt to set up a government that was Politicians had no experience of making genuinely democratic. Power had been democracy work. Moreover, many influential carefully balanced between the President, the Germans, such as judges and generals, were Chancellor and the Reichstag. Unfortunately, hostile to the new system of government.

Strengths of the Weimar Constitution Weaknesses of the Weimar Constitution U All Germans had equal rights. Both men Y The Weimar Republic had many enemies. and women over the age of 20 could vote Was it wise to give equal rights to those in elections. who wished to destroy it? U Proportional representation (PR) meant Y PR encouraged lots of small parties. No that political parties were given seats in one party could get a majority so proportion to the number of votes they governments had to be coalitions where got. If a party received 10% of the votes it two or more parties joined together. This got 10% of the seats in the Reichstag. led to weak and unstable governments. This was fair. Y The President had too much power. U A strong president was necessary to keep Article 48 of the constitution said that, in control over the government. an emergency, the President could abandon democracy and rule by decree. Y The army’s generals had fought for the Kaiser and wanted his return. Y Judges and civil servants had worked for the Kaiser too and were also hostile to the Weimar Republic.

The Treaty of Versailles Matters grew worse in June 1919 when the victorious allies — Britain, France and the One of the Weimar government’s first acts USA — announced the terms of the peace had been to surrender in November 1918. treaty that would be imposed on Germany. This meant that many Germans would These terms were agreed at the Palace of always associate the new republic with the Versailles in France, but the new German shame of defeat. Moreover, most ordinary government was excluded from the Germans were deeply shocked when they discussions. The German people knew they discovered that Germany had lost the war. would have to pay a price for losing the war. Under the Kaiser, only good news about the However, they were optimistic that the peace war was allowed to be printed so the German treaty would not be a harsh one. people thought that they were winning. When the terms of the treaty first became Some people claimed that the German army known, the German government refused to had been ‘stabbed in the back’ by the new sign it and resigned. It was a hopeless Weimar government. This accusation was gesture. The Allies made it clear that, if the totally unfair, but many Germans believed it. Germans did not sign, they would resume The new government was immediately the war. A new government was formed unpopular and the politicians who signed the which reluctantly signed the Treaty. They Armistice were nicknamed the ‘November called it ‘the shameful diktat of Versailles’. criminals’. Turn over to find out why.

2 WHAT WAS THE IMPACT OF THE WEIMAR PERIOD ON THE RISE OF THE NAZIS?

How harsh were the terms of the Treaty of Versailles?

War Guilt Military restrictions In all, the Treaty contained 440 separate The German armed forces had to be clauses, but it was Clause 231 — the ‘war drastically reduced. guilt’ clause — which the Germans found • The air force had to be disbanded. particularly humiliating. It stated that • The army was limited to 100,000 soldiers Germany was entirely to blame for causing and no tanks. the war. • The navy was limited to only six battleships and no submarines. • The Rhineland would be occupied by the Allies for fifteen years and no German troops or forts allowed in the area.

Reparations As Germany was held to be responsible for the war, the Allies could claim reparations (compensation) for damage caused by the war. No sum was fixed at Versailles. But, in 1921, a special commission fixed a sum of Territorial losses £6,600 million to be paid in annual Germany lost 13% of its land, which installments. contained about six million of its people.

3 WHAT WAS THE IMPACT OF THE WEIMAR PERIOD ON THE RISE OF THE NAZIS?

The early development of the Nazi Party

The Nazi Party was founded in January 1919 extremist groups which were flourishing in by Anton Drexler. Initially, it was called the Munich at that time. In 1919, Hitler was sent German Workers’ Party. Drexler and about to a meeting of a small, extreme nationalist forty other members held their meetings in a group called the German Workers’ Party. beer cellar in Munich. They had little money He liked what he heard and he was invited to and no real political programme. All the join. Hitler’s organizational ability was quickly members knew was that they disliked the recognized by Drexler and, in 1920, he was Weimar Republic and wanted to make put in charge of the party’s propaganda Germany great again, as it had been before machine. Hitler also helped to draft the the war. party’s programme (see Source B). At the end of the First World War, Adolf Hitler was recovering in hospital from being badly gassed. Despite being an Austrian, Hitler had joined the German army when the war broke out in 1914. He was a good soldier, who won medals for bravery. Germany’s defeat in 1918 left him extremely bitter. Like many other soldiers, he blamed defeat on the Communists and Jews who he felt had ‘stabbed Germany in the back’. After the war, Hitler returned to Munich where he had lived before joining the army. He was still employed by the army. One of SOURCE A Hitler’s renewed membership card his duties was to check up on the various for the German Workers’ Party (DAP), 1920.

SOURCE B The first four points of the German Workers’ Party’s programme, 1920. It changed its name to the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (NSDAP or Nazis) in the same year. Ÿ1. We demand the union of all Germans Many Germans lived in Austria, Poland and in a Greater Germany on the basis of Czechoslovakia — a new state created by the national self- determination. peace treaties after the First World War. The Germans hated the Treaty of Versailles, 2. We demand equality of rights for the which forbade the union of Austria and German people in its dealings with Germany, and moved borders so that other nations, and the revocation of ‘Germans’ in the former Austro-Hungarian the peace treaty of Versailles. Empire were now living in Italy and Poland.

3. We demand land and territory to feed The Nazis wanted to take over LEBENSRAUM, our people and settle our surplus or living space, in eastern Europe for the population. growing German population.

4. Only members of the nation may be The Jews were successful in business and commerce in Germany. The Nazis were citizens of the state. Only those of jealous of their power. Hitler himself had an German blood, whatever their creed, irrational hatred of the Jews. The Nazis may be members of the nation. As a thought only racially pure Germans, called result, no Jew may be a citizen. ARYANS by the Nazis, could be citizens.

4 WHAT WAS THE IMPACT OF THE WEIMAR PERIOD ON THE RISE OF THE NAZIS?

In 1920, the party was also renamed the The SA National Socialist German Workers’ Party Hitler organized the Nazi Party along military (NSDAP or Nazis). In addition to the points in lines. In 1921, he set up his own private army Source B, the Nazis openly proclaimed their called the SA (Sturm-Abteilung or Storm- hatred of Communism. They saw the Social troopers). They were mostly unemployed ex- Democratic government as a Communist soldiers. Because they dressed in brown government and they made no secret of their uniforms they were also known as the plans to overthrow it when the time was Brownshirts. Supposedly, the SA was formed right. to protect speakers at Nazi meetings. In practice, the SA often started the violence Hitler as leader themselves by breaking up the meetings of Hitler had a powerful and dominating rival political parties, such as the Social personality. By 1921 he had replaced Drexler Democrats and Communists. Ernst Röhm, a as leader of the Nazis. Hitler was intelligent friend of Hitler, was put in charge of the SA. and decisive. Although he was a small man, he had great physical presence. He had SOURCE D The pledge taken by members piercing blue eyes that he would fix on his of the SA. listeners and he was a charismatic public speaker. When giving a speech he would ŸAs a member of the storm-troop of the often arrive late at a meeting, then stand NSDAP, I pledge myself to its storm flag: silent for several minutes. He would start to be always ready to stake life and limb softly then gradually build up to a furious in the struggle for the aims of the finish, driving the audience wild with movement; to give absolute military enthusiasm. Hitler rehearsed carefully for obedience to my military superiors and important speeches, even practising his hand leaders; to bear myself honourably in gestures and his posture. and out of service; to be always sociable able towards other comrades.

The swastika Hitler personally designed the Nazi flag, with its symbol, the swastika (see Source E). The colours red, white and black had also been the colours of Germany’s flag under the Kaiser. Very quickly, the swastika became the best-known political symbol in Germany.

SOURCE E The Nazis formally adopted the SOURCE C A photograph of Hitler practising swastika as their symbol in 1920 and used it on his speaking style, 1925. the party’s flag (above), badge and armband.

5 WHAT WAS THE IMPACT OF THE WEIMAR PERIOD ON THE RISE OF THE NAZIS?

The Munich Putsch and its consequences The publicity meant that Hitler achieved national fame. In 1923, Adolf Hitler emerged from While he was in prison, Hitler rethought obscurity. By now the Nazi Party had about his strategy. He decided that he could not 55,000 members and Hitler felt strong seize power violently. Instead, he would have enough to make a bid for power. to take power by being elected. In November 1923 Hitler, supported by 600 storm-troopers, burst into a meeting SOURCE F Hitler spelt out his new strategy held in the Burgerbrau beer hall in Munich. A in this letter written from prison in 1924. member of the regional government, who had been speaking at the meeting, was taken ŸInstead of working to achieve power by hostage. Hitler’s aim was to seize control of an armed rising, we will have to hold our Munich and then march on Berlin. General noses and enter the Reichstag. If out- Ludendorff, a popular First World War hero, voting our enemies takes longer than would then be set up as leader of Germany. outshooting them, at least the result will Unfortunately, for Hitler, the Munich be guaranteed by their own constitution. Putsch was a disaster. The Weimar Sooner or later, we shall have a majority government responded quickly. They and after that we shall have Germany! ordered the army to crush the revolt. When armed Nazis marched to a military base in Hitler and Mein Kampf Munich they were met by armed police and soldiers. In the fighting that followed, sixteen During his prison sentence, Hitler enjoyed Nazis were killed. The leaders of the putsch comfortable conditions. He was allowed his were arrested and put on trial. Ludendorff own room, as many visitors as he wanted was found not guilty while Hitler, found guilty and time to write. While there he dictated of treason, was sent to prison for five years. Mein Kampf (My Struggle). This book The putsch did help Hitler in one way. The outlined his main ideas about how Germany judge at his trial was sympathetic to the should be ruled. Hilter’s fame meant that Nazis, so he let Hitler use the trial to get his Mein Kampf became a best-seller. After ideas across to the German people. His trial serving only nine months of his five-year speech was reported in all the newspapers. sentence, Hitler was released from prison.

What were the main Nazi beliefs set out in Mein Kampf?

All Germans must be united The Treaty of Versailles is unfair under the control of one strong and too harsh. It must be leader (the Führer). ignored.

All Jews and Communists must The Germans are a master race be destroyed as they are the called Aryans. They need living cause of Germany’s problems, space (lebensraum) so they must including the loss of the Great seize land to the east of War. Germany.

6 WHAT WAS THE IMPACT OF THE WEIMAR PERIOD ON THE RISE OF THE NAZIS?

Hitler’s henchmen: the other Nazi leaders

The Nazi Party was dominated by Hitler, but he was surrounded by skilled and committed ‘henchmen’. The leading Nazis were ambitious men who often competed with each other to increase their own power. Hitler often played one off against another. These were the men who, with Hitler, were responsible for the deaths of millions of people by 1945. As you read these biographies, decide why Hitler chose these men. Each had his own particular use: what was it?

Hermann Goering (1893–1946)

• He was from a very rich family with rich and powerful friends. • A fighter pilot in World War One, he shot down twenty-two enemy aircraft and won medals for bravery. • Some said he was fat, loud, bigheaded, childish, greedy and a drug addict. Others thought he was highly intelligent, witty and charming. • He joined the Nazi Party in 1922 and was badly wounded in the Munich Putsch of 1923. • In 1935, Hitler gave him the task of building up the Luftwaffe — the German air force. After 1936, Goering was also responsible for preparing Germany for war. • He created the Gestapo — the Nazi secret police — and set up the first concentration camps. • Goering committed suicide by taking poison in 1946 whilst on trail at the end of the war.

Heinrich Himmler (1900–45)

• A teacher’s son, he failed to make a living as a chicken farmer. • Himmler joined the German army in 1918, but he did not actually fight in World War One. • Obsessive, timid and clumsy. He once fainted at the sight of Jews being killed. • Himmler joined the Nazi Party in 1923 and took part in the Munich Putsch. • Hitler put him in charge of the SS. After 1934, Himmler was also responsible for the Gestapo and the concentration camps. • From 1941, he took charge of the ‘Final Solution’ — the mass murder of all Europe’s Jews. • When captured by the Allies, Himmler committed suicide.

7 WHAT WAS THE IMPACT OF THE WEIMAR PERIOD ON THE RISE OF THE NAZIS?

Rudolf Hess (1894–1987)

• Born in Egypt to German parents. • He was a soldier and pilot in World War One. • A soft, sensitive and humourless man. He worshipped Hitler, did not crave power and was not violent. • Hess joined the Nazi Party in 1920 and took part in the Munich Putsch. In prison, Hitler dictated Mein Kampf to him. • Hitler made him Deputy Führer in 1932, but Hess never had much power. In 1941 he flew to Scotland, without permission, to try to arrange a peace with the Allies. • After the war, Hess was sentenced to life imprisonment. He committed suicide in 1987, aged 93.

Dr Joseph Goebbels (1897–1945)

• The son of a poor factory worker. • Unable to fight in World War One due to a disability in his leg. • Small and physically weak, but highly intelligent, well-educated and a brilliant speaker. • He joined the Nazi Party in 1922. Goebbels did not like Hitler at first, but he soon came to admire him. • Hitler put him in charge of Nazi propaganda. From 1943 on, he was also in charge of organizing civilians during World War Two. • Fiercely anti-Semitic, he issued the orders for Kristallnacht, the night of anti-Jewish attacks in November 1938. • Goebbels shot himself in 1945 after shooting his wife and helping to poison their six children.

Ernst Röhm (1887–1934)

• The son of poor, working-class parents. • Röhm was a professional soldier. As a captain in the German army in World War One, he won the Iron Cross for bravery. • A good organizer, devoted to Hitler, violent, quick-tempered, homosexual and a heavy drinker. • He helped to create the SA — the Nazi Party’s private army. • Röhm took part in the Munich Putsch, but was not imprisoned. From 1925 to 1930, he worked as a military adviser in Bolivia. • He was murdered during the Night of the Long Knives in 1934.

8 WHAT WAS THE IMPACT OF THE WEIMAR PERIOD ON THE RISE OF THE NAZIS?

The impact of the Wall St Crash on Nazi support

Shortly after his release from prison, Hitler re-launched the Nazi Party. He reorganized it to make it more effective in elections. During the late 1920s the Nazis worked steadily. They ran many public meetings and trained thousands of Nazis as speakers. Gradually, year by year, the Nazis increased their membership. By 1928, their membership had reached 100,000. Despite this rise in membership, the Nazis were actually losing ground in the only place it now really mattered — in the Reichstag. After four years of campaigning, in the 1928 Reichstag elections, the Nazis received less SOURCE H Unemployed Germans queuing in than 3% of the vote and won only twelve Hanover to register for the dole, 1930. Scenes like this were repeated across Germany in the seats. It was not until the difficult Depression early 1930s. years of the early 1930s that the Nazis began to win mass support in Germany. The Depression affected different people in In October 1929, the Wall Street Crash different ways. For those who had lost their began a worldwide slide into the Great jobs there was poverty, hunger and Depression. The effects were felt everywhere, homelessness. Of course, not all Germans but Germany was hit particularly badly suffered equally, but even those who were because American banks recalled the loans protected from the worst of the Depression which were the lifeblood of German industry. felt its impact in other ways. Businesses had to close. As world trade Businessmen saw their businesses close. declined, German exports slumped. Millions If they did manage to survive, they saw their of people lost their jobs. Unemployment income fall. This was because during the reached a peak of just over six million by the Depression people had less money to spend, early part of 1932. even on essentials like food and clothes. To make matters worse, the government raised taxes to pay for looking after the increasing number of poor people. However, business owners were not as badly hit as either their workers or farmers. By 1932, forty per cent of all factory workers were unemployed. At the same time, the government cut unemployment benefit to save money. For the unemployed this was a time of extreme poverty. Farmers had already been doing badly in the 1920s due to falling prices. Now, in the 1930s, many farmers slipped further into debt. Young people were also badly hit. By 1933, over half of all Germans between the SOURCE G The rise in unemployment in ages of 16 and 30 were unemployed. Sixty Germany, 1928–33. per cent of new university graduates could not get a job.

9 WHAT WAS THE IMPACT OF THE WEIMAR PERIOD ON THE RISE OF THE NAZIS?

SOURCE K A camp for the homeless in a Berlin park. There were so many homeless that large camps of tents were set up. The tents SOURCE I A soup kitchen for unemployed were numbered and erected in neat rows which Germans who could not afford to eat. The even had names as if they were streets. The government kept food prices high to protect camps had children’s playgrounds and farmers from the worst of the Depression. communal kitchens.

SOURCE J The writer Heinrich Hauser describes what he saw as he toured Germany in 1932. ŸAn almost unbroken chain of homeless men extends the whole length of the great Hamburg-Berlin highway. It is the same scene for the entire two hundred miles, and all the highways in Germany over which I travelled this year. They walked alone or in small groups with their eyes on the ground. They had the odd, stumbling gait of barefoot people, for their shoes were slung over their shoulders. Some were skilled workers — carpenters with broad felt hats, milkmen with striped red shirts, and bricklayers with tall black hats — but they were in a minority. Far more numerous were those to whom one could assign no special profession or craft — unskilled young people for the most part who had been unable to find a place for themselves in any city or town in Germany, and who had never had a job and never expected to have one.

Date May September July November March Political Party 1928 1930 1932 1932 1933 Communist Party (KPD) 54 77 89 100 81 Social Democrats (SPD) 152 143 133 121 120 Democratic Party (DDP)2514425 Centre Party (ZP) 61 68 75 70 73 People’s Party (DVP) 45 30 7 11 2 National Party (DNVP) 79 41 40 51 53 Right-wing Centre Left-wing Nazi Party (NSDAP) 12 107 230 196 288

SOURCE L Elections held and seats won in the Reichstag, 1928–33.

10 ow and why did Hitler get appointed Chancellor in HJanuary 1933?

How did the Depression weaken sufficient support in the Reichstag, the the Weimar government? Chancellor fell back on Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution (see pages 1–2) which ì Unpopular economic policies gave the President special powers in an For fifty years or more Germans had judged emergency. Germany was now ruled by their country by its economic success. So if presidential decree. But who was the the economy was failing then the country President? An 84-year-old war hero who must be going down the drain! The Weimar disliked the Weimar Republic and who government seemed to have no idea what to seemed to be well past his prime. do about the problems of rising unemployment and growing poverty. The government did try to get Germany out of depression, but with little success. The Chancellor, Heinrich Brüning, raised taxes, cut wages and reduced unemployment benefit — hardly the policies to win support from the German people.

SOURCE B Paul von Hindenburg served as Germany’s second president from 1925–34.

î The rise of extremism To many Germans it seemed that the Weimar government was making a hopeless mess of handling the situation. Some people who had never bothered to vote in elections SOURCE A Heinrich Brüning was appointed as before now became more involved in politics. Chancellor in 1930. His policies to deal with the From right and left they heard the claims Depression earned him the nickname of the of extremist parties who said they could solve ‘Hunger Chancellor’. He resigned in 1932. all these problems. The Communists said that the Depression showed that the í Presidential rule capitalist system was doomed and that only These policies also caused the collapse of communism had the answer. The Nazis the government as the Social Democrats blamed the Weimar Republic, the Treaty of withdrew from the coalition. Unable to gain Versailles, the Communists and the Jews.

11 HOW AND WHY DID HITLER GET APPOINTED CHANCELLOR IN JANUARY 1933?

As extremism increased, so too did political In the Reichstag elections of 1930 the Nazis violence. Nazi and Communist supporters made their first great breakthrough, jumping fought regular battles. Five hundred were from twelve to 107 seats (see Source L on killed or seriously wounded in a seven-week page 10). They were suddenly the second frenzy of political fighting during the elections largest party and were well ahead of the of 1932. Communists. In the presidential elections of March 1932, Hitler stood against Hindenburg. He lost, but gained 37% of the vote. In the July 1932 Reichstag elections the Nazis advanced to 230 seats and were the biggest party. The Nazi Party was now the major force in German politics.

How did the Nazis do it?

The impact of the Depression can only partly explain the success of the Nazis. All parties SOURCE C Police in Berlin on the way to deal claimed they had solutions. Why was it the with a political demonstration in 1932. Nazis and not the other parties who managed to convince Germans they could How did these problems help the solve the country’s problems? Nazis? Organization The Depression was a gift to Hitler and the They were very well-organized. Many Nazis Nazis. For every problem the Nazis had an had been soldiers in the First World War. explanation or a promise: They brought to party work the same obedience, organization and teamwork skills • The Weimar government is weak: you which they had needed in the trenches. The need strong leadership. Hitler is your man. local workers were well-trained and • Unemployment? The Nazis will get people motivated. They had skilled leaders at almost back to work on road-building and public every level. works. • Worried about the Communists? Look at Propaganda the Nazis’ Storm-troopers — we are the This played a vital role in winning the Nazis only ones who really know how to deal support. Both Hitler and the head of the Nazi with the Communists. propaganda campaign, Dr Joseph Goebbels, were masters in its use. They also trained Most importantly, Hitler, standing before a their local groups in propaganda skills. The crowd delivering his powerful and moving Nazis used every trick in the book to get their speeches, seemed to represent strong, message home. They knew that their anti- decisive leadership in the great German Communist stance was very popular so their tradition going back to the Kaiser and propaganda further whipped up fear of the beyond. While the Weimar Republic Communists. They stirred up violence at appeared simply to be muddling through election meetings so that the SA could crush indecisively, Hitler’s strong personality and it and be seen ‘dealing with the Communist powerful ideas seemed to be just what threat’. Hitler pointed to the Nazis’ ten-year Germany needed. track record of fighting against Communism.

12 HOW AND WHY DID HITLER GET APPOINTED CHANCELLOR IN JANUARY 1933?

Support of the industrialists Nazis simply went for vague promises: they One of their aims — which was partly would ‘make Germany great again’. In the successful — was to earn the support of the end, despite the extreme beliefs expressed in powerful industrialists. Traditionally they had the Nazis’ 25 Points — of which they made voted for the People’s Party (DVP), which lost no secret (see page 4) — Germans were much of its support after 1930. In 1931, unsure as to what the Nazis really stood for. Hitler made a deal with the other main right-wing party, the National Party, by which Hitler the superman the two parties agreed to co-operate. The Only one thing really stayed consistent Nazi Party also received some financial throughout this barrage of electioneering: backing from big business. the unblinking focus on Hitler, the strong leader whom Germany needed and wanted. Use of technology Posters and rallies built him up into a With this money, the Nazis redoubled their superman. His physical appearance was propaganda. Radio was used for the first adapted (on posters at least). Hitler himself time. In the 1932 presidential election, while developed his speech-making skills still Hindenburg gave just one election speech, further. He wore spectacles to read, but Goebbels chartered planes to fly Hitler all refused to be seen wearing them in public over Germany in order to speak to four or and so his speeches were typed in large — five massive rallies per day. Rallies, radio 12mm high — print. It no longer seemed to broadcasts, millions of election posters and matter what he said, just how he said it. parades carried the Nazi message into every Hitler was the Nazis’ trump card. The town and home in Germany. campaigns focused around his personality and his skills. The opposition had no one to Promises to voters match him. And every sector of German society seemed to hear something it wanted to hear. Workers were promised jobs (Hitler could point to how the Nazis’ SA had taken in the unemployed and fed and housed them). Employers were promised restored profits; farmers higher prices; shopkeepers protection against competition. There was something for everybody.

Flexibility In fact, one reason for the Nazis’ success was that they were flexible. If they found an idea SOURCE D Hitler speaking at a rally in 1930. was losing them support they would change it. In one election speech a leading Nazi Weaknesses of opposition spoke powerfully for the nationalization of Other parties were very weak and they industry (which had always been one of the consistently underestimated the Nazis. The Nazis’ beliefs). When they found out how Social Democrats feared they would attempt alarmed the industrialists were they quickly a putsch, but they thought that the Nazis’ dropped the idea. In their campaigns it was electioneering was so absurd that ordinary never mentioned again. In their all-out push Germans would see through it. Their own for electoral success they realised that it support was constant so they were not eager doesn’t really matter what you promise as to change. They quarrelled among them- long as people trust you. If all else failed the selves rather than uniting to stop the Nazis.

13 HOW AND WHY DID HITLER GET APPOINTED CHANCELLOR IN JANUARY 1933?

Political scheming, 1932–3

You have already investigated the strengths party would become Chancellor, but most of and weaknesses of the Weimar Constitution the other parties in the Reichstag refused to (see page 2). In 1932 the weaknesses of the work with Hitler. The constitution gave constitution were clear to all. Because of its President Hindenburg the right to appoint careful balance of power and proportional the Chancellor and he did not want Hitler as representation, no political leader was strong Chancellor. “That man for Chancellor?”, he enough to rule. During this period, Germany exclaimed. “I’ll make him a postmaster and was effectively being run by 84-year-old he can lick stamps with my head on them.” President Hindenburg. He was a relic from So month after month there were the past. Decisions were being set by a tiny arguments and back-room deals as different group of rich, conservative industrialists and politicians struggled to assemble a workable army leaders. The Reichstag offered very coalition government. The weakness of the little leadership. Reichstag would have been a problem even if things had been going well in Germany. But Overview when faced with the chronic problems of the You are going to study the events of 1932 Depression it was disastrous. and 1933 in some detail, so it is important to As you study the twists and turns of get the overview first. At the heart of the 1932–3, these are the main characters you problem was the fact that the Nazis were the will meet. largest party. Normally, the leader of such a

President Hindenburg Franz von Papen General von Schleicher Former army leader. Hated Rich Catholic nobleman. A Former army leader. The Hitler. He called him ‘the little favourite of Hindenburg. main adviser to President Bohemian corporal’. His main Distrusted Hitler. Hindenburg. Supported von advisers were conservative, Papen to start with. rich industrialists and generals. Distrusted Hitler.

Reichstag elections: July 1932 party. Hitler demanded to be appointed In the July 1932 elections the Nazis won 37% Chancellor. per cent of the vote (230 seats) — their best Hindenburg despised Hitler, but he could result ever. They were now by far the largest see the value of trying to use the Nazis for his

14 HOW AND WHY DID HITLER GET APPOINTED CHANCELLOR IN JANUARY 1933? own ends. Hindenburg appointed his friend 28 January: Von Schleicher finally had to Franz von Papen as his Chancellor. Von admit defeat in raising support Papen had no support in the Reichstag, but in the Reichstag. He had to he hoped he could create a right-wing resign as Chancellor. coalition government with the support of the 30 January: Hindenburg wanted von Papen Nazis and other right-wing parties in the back, but was advised that Reichstag. Hitler was offered the Vice- reappointing such an Chancellorship, but he refused to co-operate, unpopular Chancellor might so Hindenburg called another election. trigger a movement against Hindenburg himself. Reichstag elections: November 1932 Von Papen persuaded This was a bad election for the Nazis. Apathy Hindenburg that as long as the was settling in. The thuggery and violent number of Nazis in the Cabinet behaviour of the SA had begun to lose the was limited, then even with Nazis support. Their vote fell to 33 per cent. Hitler as Chancellor they could They lost thirty-four seats. They were still the still control him. He also largest party, but there was a real sense of warned that the alternative was gloom among the Nazis. After years of another Nazi putsch which the continuous campaigning they were running army would be unable to stop. short of money. Goebbels wrote in his diary: Hindenburg appointed Hitler ‘the future looks dark and gloomy; all as Chancellor and von Papen chances and hopes have quite disappeared’. as Vice-Chancellor. In fact, success was just around the corner. Hitler’s help came from a surprising source. General von Schleicher stopped supporting von Papen and decided that he himself should become Chancellor. This triggered off a power struggle between von Schleicher and von Papen, which ended with them handing power to Hitler. This is how it happened:

1932 3 December: Hindenburg appointed von Schleicher Chancellor.

1933 4 January: Von Papen could see that von Schleicher was unable to win sufficient support in the Reichstag. He saw his chance to win back power and get revenge. He privately agreed to work with Hitler. Hitler would be Chancellor. Von Papen would be Vice-Chancellor. 22 January: Von Papen asked Hindenburg SOURCE E On the day of his appointment, on to make Hitler Chancellor. 30 January 1933, Hitler deferentially pays his Hindenburg refused. respects to President Hindenburg.

15 ow did the Nazis consolidate their power during H1933–4?

How strong was Hitler’s position in Within eighteen months of being appointed January 1933? Chancellor, Hitler had turned himself into a DICTATOR. He eliminated all of his political On 30 January 1933, the Nazis celebrated opponents and turned Germany into a Hitler’s appointment as Chancellor with TOTALITARIAN state. How did Hitler do this? torchlit parades through the streets of Berlin. It seemed that the Nazis had achieved Key words their ambitions. However, Hitler knew that his hold on power was fragile. He could be Dictator — a ruler who has sole and total power because they are not sacked by Hindenburg at any time. Apart restricted by a constitution, laws or any from Hitler, only two other Nazis had been opposition. given positions in the new government. Moreover, support for the Nazis had fallen Totalitarian — a one-party form of from 37% to 33% during 1932. To control government requiring complete obedience the Reichstag, Hitler needed 51% of the vote. to the State. Finally, Hindenburg and von Papen planned to use Hitler like a puppet. Von Papen boasted to a friend, ‘We’ve hired him’, but he Once he was installed as Chancellor, Hitler was fatally wrong. insisted on new Reichstag elections. They were called for 5 March. He was determined to win an absolute majority for the Nazis, and as Chancellor he was now in a position to use all the powers of the State against his opponents. On 4 February, Hitler got President Hindenburg to pass a decree supposedly to ensure free and peaceful elections. All election meetings had to be notified to the police at least forty-eight hours in advance. In theory, this was to ensure that meetings could be adequately policed. In fact, it allowed Nazi-controlled policemen to come and break up the meetings themselves. The decree gave the police the authority to prohibit any election meeting where a danger to public security was feared. It ordered that the police were to be given a prominent place at every meeting. These powers were particularly useful in the important state of Prussia, where the Nazi, Hermann Goering, was Minister of the Interior and controlled the police. On 17 February Goering told his police force that Nazi meetings were not to be SOURCE A An American cartoon from early hindered by police restrictions, but that those 1933 with the caption: ‘Not the most of Communists must be dealt with severely. comfortable seat.’

16 HOW DID THE NAZIS CONSOLIDATE THEIR POWER DURING 1933–4?

He promised his officers: ‘I shall cover for detain people indefinitely without trial. It police officers who use firearms in the decreed the death penalty for a wide range of discharge of their duties, regardless of the crimes. The police could close newspapers, consequences of the use of firearms.’ ban meetings, round up political opponents On 22 February, Goering appointed and drag them off to their hastily organized members of the Nazis’ own SA as auxiliary concentration camps and detention centres. police officers, giving them the same powers as the official police force. They disrupted opposition meetings and beat up opponents.

What was the significance of the Reichstag fire?

On the night of 27 February came the sensational news that the Reichstag building had been set on fire. Inside the burning building, the police found a young Dutch Communist, Marinus van der Lubbe, who was arrested and charged with starting the fire. Hitler used this as evidence that the SOURCE C SA members arrest Communists in Berlin, March 1933. Communists were plotting against his government. That night Goering’s Prussian This might have been an emergency decree, police arrested and imprisoned 4,000 but it actually stayed in place for twelve Communists, including Reichstag deputies. years, throughout the period of Nazi rule. It became the legal excuse for the Nazis’ twelve-year terror against their opponents in Germany.

SOURCE B Shocked Berliners gaze at the still smouldering Reichstag building.

The next day, Hitler persuaded President Hindenburg to pass an emergency decree suspending all the articles in the Weimar constitution which guaranteed personal liberty, freedom of speech, freedom of the press and freedom of assembly. The ‘Decree for the Protection of the People and the State’ (or the ‘Reichstag Fire Decree’) gave the police emergency powers SOURCE D A British cartoon from Punch to search houses, confiscate property and magazine, 8 March 1933.

17 HOW DID THE NAZIS CONSOLIDATE THEIR POWER DURING 1933–4?

In the short-term, however, the fire seemed establish a dictatorship. The National Party like a gift to the Nazis. It provided them with were prepared to support him in this, but just the excuse they needed to tighten the even then Hitler would be well short of the screw on the opposition. It meant only the two-thirds of Reichstag seats that he needed Nazis were able to campaign for the to pass a change to the Weimar constitution. forthcoming election. A flood of propaganda How would he get the votes he needed? was unleashed, urging Germans to vote for them and save the nation from Communism. Ban the Communists On election day itself, each polling station The first step was to ban the Communists was policed by a mass of uniformed Nazis from serving in the Reichstag. That was who watched each ballot being marked. relatively simple using his emergency powers. However, he still needed to convince Why was the Enabling Act so the members of the other parties. important? Intimidate the Social Democrats The March 1933 election The newly elected Reichstag members met In the election on 5 March the Nazis got their for the first time in the Kroll Opera House in best-ever result (44%), but they still failed to Berlin on 23 March (see Source E). win an overall majority. What Hitler wanted Despite this pressure many Social now was an ‘Enabling Law’ which would Democrats still voted against the Enabling place all power in his hands, allow him to Act — but to no effect. All the other parties pass laws without consulting the Reichstag gave in to Nazi pressure. The Enabling Act or the President and effectively allow him to was passed by 441 votes to 94.

SOURCE E A Social Democrat MP recounts the passing of the Enabling Act ŸThe wide square in front of the Kroll Opera House was crowded with dark masses of people. We were received with wild choruses: ‘We want an Enabling Act!’ Youths with swastikas on their chests eyed us insolently, blocked our way, in fact made us run the gauntlet, calling us names like ‘Centre [Catholic Party] pig’, ‘Marxist sow’. The Opera House was crawling with armed SA and SS men. The assembly hall was decorated with swastikas. When we Social Democrats had taken our seats on the extreme left, grim- faced SA and SS men lined up at the exits and along the walls behind us in a semi-circle.. Hitler read out his government declaration in a surprisingly calm voice. Only in a few places did he raise it to a fanatical frenzy: when he demanded the public execution of van der Lubbe, and when, at the end of his speech, he uttered dark threats of what would happen if the Reichstag did not vote for the Enabling Act. Otto Wels read out our reply. It was a masterpiece; a farewell to the fading era of human rights and humanity. With his voice half-choking, he gave our good wishes to the persecuted and oppressed in the country who, though innocent, were already filling the prisons and concentration camps simply on account of their political creed. Hitler jumped up furiously and launched into a passionate reply. ‘You are over-sensitive, gentlemen, you talk of persecution already. You, gentlemen, are no longer needed. I do not even want you to vote for the Enabling Act. Germany shall become free, but not through you!’ We tried to dam the flood of Hitler’s accusations with interruptions of ‘No!’, ‘An error!’, ‘False!’ But that did us no good. The SA and the SS people hissed loudly and murmured, ‘Shut up! ‘Traitors! ‘You’ll be strung up today!’

18 HOW DID THE NAZIS CONSOLIDATE THEIR POWER DURING 1933–4?

The Night of the Long Knives

By mid-1934 a power struggle had begun in the Nazi leadership. It was clear that Hitler had to choose between the SA and the army.

The SA Throughout the rise of the Nazis, Hitler relied on the SA to put his policies into action. They had fought loyally for Hitler against the Communists and had helped him come to SOURCE F Hitler speaking to the Reichstag in power. By 1934 the SA was an enormous the Kroll Opera House regarding the Enabling organization with over two million members. Act, 23 March 1933. It was also very powerful. In fact, its leader Ernst Röhm was a potential rival to Hitler. The Enabling Act Röhm wanted Hitler to continue the Nazi The Act gave Hitler the power to make laws revolution by reducing the power of big without the approval of either the Reichstag business and carrying out the anti-capitalist or the President. The Reichstag had in effect parts of the Nazi programme — such as voted itself out of existence. It had voted to taking over major industries. Röhm also introduce a Nazi dictatorship. During the wanted the SA to take control of the army. next twelve years of Nazi rule, the Reichstag met occasionally — but simply to listen to The army Hitler speaking. They never held a debate. The army was much smaller than the SA — They had no say on policies. The Weimar it had only 100,000 soldiers. The army’s Republic was over. generals were supported by big business. The Enabling Act became the foundation They wanted Hitler to expand the army and stone of the Third Reich (1933–45). It also to buy new weapons. The army was totally triggered a six-month period of rapid change opposed to being taken over by the SA and throughout Germany which is known as the was very suspicious of Röhm. Nazi revolution. In a series of decrees, Hitler Hitler had always known how important began to eliminate his opponents and the army was in gaining effective control of establish a one-party state. Germany. The opposition of the army had been his main problem in 1923 when the Date Use of the Enabling Act Munich Putsch failed (see page 6). Soon after he became Chancellor, on 3 February April 1933 A law removed Jews and political 1933, Hitler went to the army leaders to opponents of the Nazis from their explain his aims. He told them he intended posts in the civil service. to rearm Germany and to take over May 1933 A law banned trade unions and Lebensraum in eastern Europe. He also told made strikes illegal. them that his plans would involve defeating France in a war. July 1933 A law banned all political parties While many generals welcomed such except the Nazi Party. plans, others remained suspicious of Hitler. October 1933 A law introduced strict controls on Many of the generals were from the press. Journalists and editors upper-class families and rather looked down now had their newspapers and on Hitler. On the other hand they agreed books censored. with Hitler’s nationalist aims and his belief that the army needed to be much larger.

19 HOW DID THE NAZIS CONSOLIDATE THEIR POWER DURING 1933–4?

On 29 June 1934 Hitler acted. He called a meeting Hitler had now tamed the SA and of SA leaders for the following day at Wiessee in thereby won the support of the army. Bavaria. Source G tells you what happened on 30 Another consequence was that the June, which has become known as ‘The Night of the SS became independent of the SA. Long Knives.’ Finally, the Night of the Long Knives showed that Hitler had gained the acceptance of the legalized murder SOURCE G Written after the war by Hitler’s chauffeur, Eric Kempka of his opponents. This intimidated future opponents and made Hitler ŸJust before Wiessee, Hitler suddenly broke his even more confident. silence: ‘Kempka,’ he said, ‘drive carefully when we come to the Hotel Hanselbauer. You must drive up without making any noise. If you see an Hitler becomes Führer SA guard at the front of the hotel, don’t wait for them to report to me; drive on and stop at the Only President Hindenburg could still hotel entrance.’ Then, after a moment of deathly legally remove Hitler from power. On silence: ‘Röhm wants to carry out a coup.’ 2 August 1934, just weeks after the An icy shiver ran down my back. I could have Night of the Long Knives, the 87- believed anything, but not a coup by Röhm! year-old President died. Within I drove up carefully to the hotel entrance as hours, Hitler had declared himself Hitler had ordered. Hitler jumped out of the car, President. He was now not only and after him Goebbels, Lutze and the adjutants. Chancellor, but Head of State and Just behind us another car stopped with a squad Commander of the Army too. Hitler of detectives which had been raised in Munich. gave himself the new title of Führer As soon as I had turned the car so that it was (meaning ‘leader’). ready to leave in a moment, I rushed into the Every soldier swore an oath of hotel with my gun at the ready … I ran quickly personal loyalty to Hitler. The up the stairs to the first floor where Hitler was German army had a tradition of just coming out of Röhm’s bedroom. discipline and obedience, so soldiers A few seconds later, Röhm came out of his took this oath seriously. To break it room in a blue suit and with a cigar in the corner would be the most terrible crime. of his mouth. Hitler glared at him, but said nothing. Two detectives took Röhm to the hotel SOURCE H The oath of loyalty lobby where he threw himself into an armchair and ordered coffee from the waiter. ŸI swear by God this sacred I stayed in the corridor a little to one side and oath: that I will give complete a detective told me about Röhm’s arrest. obedience to the Führer of the Hitler entered Röhm’s bedroom alone with a German Reich and people, Adolf whip in his hand. Behind him were two Hitler, the Supreme Commander detectives with pistols at the ready. He spat out of the Armed Forces and will be the words: ‘Röhm, you are under arrest.’ Röhm ready as a brave soldier to risk looked up sleepily and said: ‘Heil, my Führer.’ my life at any time for this oath. ‘You are under arrest,’ bawled Hitler for the second time. He turned and left the room. Hitler was now a dictator. To make Over the weekend Röhm and around 200 his seizure of power appear legal, he other SA leaders were executed. These also asked the German people to vote on included other opponents of Hitler who were not his actions in a referendum. Nazi part of the SA, for example the former Chancellor propaganda ensured that there was a von Schleicher. 90 per cent vote in his favour.

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