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LANGUAGE CENSORSHIP IN SELECTED ZIMBABWEAN FILMS IN SHONA AND ENGLISH by URTHER RWAFA submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY in the subject AFRICAN LANGUAGES at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA PROMOTER: PROF DE. MUTASA JOINT-PROMOTER: PROF MT. VAMBE JUNE 2012 DECLARATION Student Number: 4590-497-9 I declare that Language Censorship in Selected Zimbabwean films in Shona and English is my own work and that the sources I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. ………………. …………… Signature Date i SUMMARY The aim of this study was to explore language censorship in Zimbabwean films in Shona and English. The study concentrated on the themes of politics, culture and economic in the genre of the documentary, feature and short film genres. It was demonstrated that the Zimbabwean laws enabled authorities to impose censorship strategies that ranged from banning, restriction, persecution of filmmakers, withdrawal of films from circulation, and threats of withdrawal of permits of film retailers. These visible, direct and banal forms of censorship have forced some filmmakers to flee the country. Most of the filmmakers who have remained in the country have been forced to deal with themes that appear harmless to the state. This state induced form of self-censorship on the filmmakers has resulted in the production of uncritical, and unreflective films whose staple diet were embedded in cultural stereotypes. The study argued that language is a signifying practice that cannot be interpreted in a single direction. Thus, despite these realities of film censorship some filmmakers deliberately encoded or used verbal and visual film language that generated surplus meanings with which the films could be re-read in ways that reveal new linguistic strategies to evade and challenge both the restrictive censorship laws as well as criticise the undemocratic political culture that has taken root in Zimbabwe. The study used eclectic theories such as Marxism, audience-reception approach, critical legal theories and language theories to analyse the films. The explanatory capacity of these theories helped to reveal the contradictory ways in which the desire to impose restrictions on film meanings was constantly undermined in the innovative language of the films. ii KEY TERMS • Zimbabwe • Film • Censorship • Language • Shona • English • Verbal • Visual • Subvert • Dominant narratives • Political film • Cultural film • Economic film • Short film genre • Documentary • Feature film iii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome AIPPA Access to Information Protection of Privacy Act ANC African National Congress CAFU Central African Film Unit CCJP Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace CIA Central Intelligence Association ESAP Economic Structural Adjustment Programme GNU Government of National Unity GPA Global Political Agreement HIV Human Immuno Virus ICC International Criminal Court MDC Movement for Democratic Change MIC Media Information Commission PG Parental Guidance is needed POSA Public Order and Security Act VLSN Film contains Violent Language, Sexual scenes and Nudity UN United Nations ZANLA Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army ZANU PF Zimbabwe African National Union Patriotic Front ZAPU Zimbabwe African People’s Union ZIPRA Zimbabwe People’s Revolutionary Army iv ZNLWVA Zimbabwe National Liberation War Veterans Association v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am greatly indebted to the following: • My two promoters, Prof. DE. Mutasa and Prof. MT. Vambe who molded my critical approach to the analysis of language of censorship and the censorship of language as applied to Zimbabwean films. I speak with conviction that this study could not have seen the light of day if it was not for the untiring and constructive criticism I got from my two promoters. • UNISA library and its work force for creating a conducive atmosphere for my studies. • UNISA Financial Aid Bureau (FAB) for generously making available the bursary that made me pursue my studies without facing financial constraints. • The director of Zimbabwe Media for Development Trust, Mr Mahaka—a filmmaker, Dr Mboti, a film academic and Mr Ndebele—a filmmaker for taking their precious time when I engaged them during the interviews. • My wife Rumbidzai and children—Karen, Mitchell and Arthur(Jnr) for creating an enabling social environment with their encouragements and prayers even when the going got tough. Thank you all. May God bless you! vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Title page………………………………………………… Declaration……………………………………………... ii Summary………………………………………………… iii Key terms………………………………………………. iv List of abbreviations……………………………………. v-vi Acknowledgements…………………………………….. vii Chapter 1: Introduction………………………………… 1 1.0 Background…………………………………………… 1-5 1.1Area of study………………………………………… 5-7 1.2 Statement of the problem……………………………… 7 1.3 Hypotheses……………………………………………. 7-8 1.4 Research aims…………………………………………… 8 1.5 Research goals…………………………………………… 8 1.6 Research Objectives………………………………………. 8-9 1.7 Research questions……………………………………… 9 1.8 Justification……………………………………………… 9-11 1.9 Understanding the concept ‘Language’…………………… 11-12 1.10 Film censorship defined …………………………………… 13-15 1. 11 Typologies of film censorship in Zimbabwe…………….. 15 1.11.0 State Censorship ……………………………………….. 15-18 1.11.1 Administrative state censorship ………………………. 18 1.11.2 Institutional censorship…………………………………… 18-19 vii 1.11.3 Economic censorship ……………………………………… 19 1. 11.4 Patronage as censorship …………………………………. 19 1.11.5 Internalised or self-censorship …………………………. 20-21 1.11.6 Political Censorship ……………………………………… 21-22 1.12 Theoretical framework …………………………………. 22 1.12.0 Theories on media law and film censorship …………… 22-24 1.12.1 Marxist theories and the Production/Prohibition model…. 24-26 1.12.2 The psychological Explanation …………......................... 26-27 1.12.3 The sociological explanation…………………………… 27 1.12.4 Film censorship and Audience-Reception Approaches... 27-29 1.12.5 Language Theories of censorship and the politics of Interpretation 29-32 1.12.6 The liminality of visual languages in film ……………… 32-33 1.13 Methodology …………………………………………….. 33-34 1.13.0 Textual Analysis………………………………………….. 34-35 1.14 Organisation of the study……………………………….. 35-36 Chapter 2: Literature Review: Historical background on censorship in postcolonial Zimbabwe 2.0 Introduction…………………………………………………. 37 2.1 Rhodesian Censorship laws on film in historical perspective… 37 2.1.0 Obscene Publications Ordinance Act of 1911…………… 38-39 2.1.1 The Cinematography Ordinance Act of 1912…………… 39-40 2.1.2 The Rhodesian Literature Bureau and Censorship of African viii fiction………………………………………………………… 40-41 2.1.3 Censorship and Entertainments Control Act of 1967…… 41-42 2.2 Capturing moments of transition: From Rhodesia to Zimbabwe… 42-44 2.3 Zimbabwean Laws on film censorship…………………………… 44 2.3.0 Censorship and Entertainments Control Act of 1996[Chapter 10:04]…… 44-49 2.3.1 Access to Information and Protection of Privacy Act [AIPPA] of 2001[Chapter 10:27]………………………………………… 49-55 2.3.2 Public Order and Security Act [POSA] No.18 of 2002… 55-58 2.4 Ambiguity in legal discourse……………………………. 58 2.4.0 Legal Ambiguity further redefined………………………. 59-60 2.4.1 Ambiguity and legal fictions…………………………… 61-63 2.4.2 Ambiguities within the ideologies of censorship………… 63-64 2.5 Vagueness in legal language 64-65 2.5.0 Vagueness and interpretation……………………………… 65-66 2.5.1 Vagueness as censorship…………………………………… 66-67 2.6 The question of clarity in the language of censorship laws 67-68 2.6.0 Criteria for clarity in Film language ………… 68 2.6.1 Readability/Understandability……………………………… 68-70 2.7 Homes and the semantic approach to censorship……………… 70-73 2.8 A critique of theories on legal discourse…… 73-74 2.9 The liberal rule of law………………………………………… 74 2.10 The Marxist imperative……………………………………… 75-79 2.11 Locating ‘gaps’ and ‘silences’ in scholarly criticism about Zimbabwean films……………………………………………… 79-80 ix 2.12 Review on selected films………………… 80 2.12.0 Flame(1996) and the limitation of political criticism……… 80-81 2.12.1 Gukurahundi: A moment of madness(2007)………………… 81-82 2.13 Conclusion…………………………………… 82-83 Chapter 3: Censoring and Censuring the political film in Zimbabwe 3.0 Introduction………………………………………………………… 84 3.1 Understanding the political in film and the film in the political… 85-86 3.2 Legislature and political censorship……………………………… 86-87 3.3. Metonymic allegory in Cry Freedom(1987)……………………. 87-88 3.3.0 Suppression of ‘Gukurahundi’ narratives as a form of political censorship in Cry Freedom………………………………………… 88-89 3.3.1 Diversion, ‘silence’ and historical amnesia as forms of political censorship in Cry Freedom………………………………………….. 89-90 3.3.2 The myth of homogeneity in the narratives of black struggle in Cry Freedom…………………………………………… 90-91 3.4 Flame(1996) and the recreation of the history and memory of Zimbabwe’s armed struggle 3.4.0 Flame and the interrogation of the official version of the armed struggle………………………………………………… 91-92 3.4.1 Political censorship and the struggle to deconstruct African orality in Flame…………………………………………….. 92-93 3.4.2 Silencing and censoring of Flame’s political narratives…… 93-96 3.4.3 Arrests of vendors who sell DVDs of Flame as political censorship…………………………………………… 96 3.4.4 The problems of self-censorship in Flame’s narratives…… 97 3.5 Screening the prohibited: Gukurahundi: A x moment of madness(2007)……………………………………… 98-104 3.6 The role of metaphoric allegory in the filmThe Interpreter(2005)……………………………………….
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