DOCSLIB.ORG

Order-Disorder in Clay Mineral Structures 3

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Order-Disorder in Clay Mineral Structures 3 ClayMinerals (2001)36, 1–14 This paper is based on the first George Brown Lecture delivered at the Clay Minerals Group Meeting held atthe University of Exeter on 6th April 2000. Order-disorderinclaymineralstructures A. PL A N C° O N * ISTO,CNRS-Universite ´d ’Orle´ans,1A ruede la Fe´rollerie,45071 Orle´ans,Cedex 2,France (Received 6April 2000; revised 24 July 2000 ) ABSTRACT:Some recent works dealing with the concept of order-disorder in clay minerals are considered, including those aspects of order-disorder which appeared in the Brindley &Brown (1980) monograph, i.e.disorder in the distribution of cations, disorder in layer stacking, order- disorder in mixed-layer systems and finite crystal size as alattice disorder. Heterogeneity of samples and polymorphous transformations are also considered as other types of disorder. Most of these works emphasize that accurate structural characterization can only be obtained if several techniques are combined (e.g.XRDand IR, EXAFSand Mo¨ssbauer spectroscopies, etc.).Another conclusion is that accurate structural determination provides the key to the genesis of clays. K EYWORDS:order,disorder,p hyllosilicates,clay minera ls,cat iond istribution,h eterogeneity,mixed layer. Clayminerals can be described very simply by the structuralcharacterizati onof clay minerals, the stackingof two kinds of layers: 1:1 layers and 2:1 mechanismsby which they change when they are layers.In fact these layers can have a verywide subjectedto different physical or chemical stresses rangeof chemical compositions, of distributions of andthe correlation between structure and proper- isomorphouscations, and can stack in a lotof ties.The aim is rather to review the most recent differentways, including mixed layering. Their paperspublished on these topics, to show what the structuraltriperiodicity is the exception, in which ‘stateof the art ’ is. casede scriptionin volvestheorder-disorder Theclassical division of order-disorder which concept.On the other hand, these minerals have appearedinth eBrindley& Brown(1 980) theability to evolve, e.g. to change their layer or monographwill be retained here, i.e. disorder in interlayercations, to sustain polymorphous trans- distributionof cations, disorder in layer stacking, formationsby octahed ralcation migratio n,to long-rangeand short- rangeorder, order-disorder in modifythe stacking of the layers, and even to mixed-layersystems, finite crystal size as a lattice changethe type of the layers, from 1:1 into 2:1 for disorder,adding the polymorphous transformations example.The variety of clay minerals induces the andheterogeneity of the sample as two other types varietyin their properties. Accurate determination ofdisorder. ofthe structural characteristics leads to a clearer understandingof,and improv ementsin, th e THEDIFFERENTTYPESOF predictionof the properties of clays. ORDER-DISORDER Theaim of this paper is not to reconsider, in an exhaustiveway, what has been published about the Order-disorder in mixed-layersystems Serpentineto chlorite transformation. It is known thatserpentine (S) transforms into chlorite (C), and *E-mail: Alain.Plancon@univ -orleans.fr viceversa(Baile y,1 988),andthat random # 2001The Mineralogical Society 2 A. Planc° on serpentine-c hloritei nterstratificationsoccur. +a/3tetrahedralshift necessitates the repositioning Regularlyinterstra tifiedserpentine- chloritealso ofO- andOH-coordinati ngoctahedral cations, existssuch as S 1C1 (dozyite),S 2C1, S3C1, S1C2, requiringmovement of the octahedral cations from S1C3 (Banfield et al.,1994;Bailey et al., 1995). It type-IIto type-I positions. Except for the 2:1 layers, wasnot known why these long- period,regularly thestacking and octahedral slants are inherited. interstratifiedvarieties crystallize instead of discrete Conversionof smectit eintokaolin ite. The serpentineor chlorite or a randominterstratificati on existenceof mixed- layerkaolinite- smectiteshas ofthese. Normal c oulombicintera ctionsare beenknown for some time (Sudo & Hayashi, unlikelyto allow structural communicati onon 1956).UsingX-ray diffraction (XRD) theywere suchlarge scales. This problem was clarified by describedas randomly interstratified layers (Schultz Banfield& Bailey(1996) who studied several et al.,1971;Wiewiora, 1971) and as 1- 1ordered specimensfromtheWoodsChr omeMin e, interstratification(Thomas, 1989 ).Althoughthe LancasterCounty, Pennsylvania, by high- resolution directobservat ionof the individu allayers is transmissionelectron microscopy (HRTEM) witha possiblewith HRTEM, nosuch study had been pointresolution of ~0.19 nm. They observed that performedfor interlayered kaolinite-smecti teuntil regularlyinterstratified S -Carefrequently inti- recently,probably because the minerals formed matelyintergro wnwith serpent inesthat have duringa weatheringalteration process are poorly repeatdistances identical to those of the regular crystallizedand difficult to characterize. Amouric interstratification(Fig. 1). For example, dozyite &Olives(1998) reconsidered this problem, using a S1C1 isintimatel yassociatedwiththree- layer low-lightcamera equipped with an yttrium alumi- octahedralorder I,I,II (where II represen tan niumgarnet in order to minimize possible beam octahedralsheet of the serpentine layer rotated by damage.Two typesof smectite crystals were 1808 withrespect to I) .Longerperiod polymorphs observed:S, whichgives images showing only (S2C1, S1C2, S2C2, S3C2 and S1C4, all with b = 908) 1nmfringes and another, S ’ where1.25 nm fringes areeach accompanied by serpentines with equiva- arespaced evenly. In addition to these smectite lent c-axisperiodicities. They apparently form by crystals,mixed- layerkaolinite- smectitewas also theselective growth of Ib chloriteunits from I,II observed.Three samples from the Paris basin were octahedralsequences in long-periodserpentines. For studiedwith 10, 45 and 60 % kaolinlayers. The example.. I IIIIIIIII.. ? .. S S C S S C relativeabundance of S ’ layerscompared to the S ..(S2C1)or .. IIIIIIIIIII.. ? S C C S C ... layersincreases as thepercentage of K increases.In Becausepolytypes differ in their octahedral tilt the 10% and 45% kaolinitesamples the lateral sequencesthey almost certainly have different transitionsof one smectite layer into one kaolinite structuralenergies and should exhibit differential layerare visible in images, the 1 nmsmectite stability,which explains why I,II sequences are fringesprevailing in the 10 % kaolinitesample. In convertedselectively into chlorite. the 60% kaolinitesample, another type of lateral Microscopicstudies are consisten twiththe changeis also observed: the transition of a S ’ layer formationof regular interstratificati onby tetrahe- into a KS’ unit,which can be interpreted as the dralinversion within existing serpentine. Atomic partialintercal ationof one kaolinite layer in resolutionimages reveal that the tetrahedral sheet is smectite. displacedby a/3whereit inverts to form the 2:1 Two solid-statemechanisms seem to be respon- layer. A+a/3shiftis require dforhydroge n siblefor the formatio nofkaolinit e:(1) the bondingbetween OH ofthe newly- formedbrucite- transformationof 1 smectitelayer into 1 kaolinite likeinterlayer and O atomsof thenewly-formed 2:1 layer,by stripping a tetrahedralsheet and the layer.The sense of the shift is determined by the adjacentinterlayer region (Fig. 2); and (2) the stronginteraction between the octahedral cations in intercalationof 1 kaolinitelayer into smectite. thebrucite- likeinterlayer and the Si inthe 2:1 Determinationof illite-smectite structures. The layer,because direct superimposition is strongly determinationof the structure of illite- smectite(I- S) unfavourable.Distortion at the inversion point isimportant because these are common minerals probablylength ensSi Obondsin the next whosestructure changes through diagenesis, weath- tetrahedron,facilitating the relocation of Si onthe eringand hydrothermal activity. The interstratifica- otherside of the basal O plane.The reversal of the tionis usually estimated from peak migration octahedralslant in the 2:1 layer occurs because the curvesin XRD patterns(Drits & Sakharov,1976; Order-disorder in clay mineral structures 3 FIG.1. HRTEMstructural image down [100], illustrating serpentine 1:1 layers (top centre) passing smoothly into dozyite. Asterisks mark continuous layers in which the stacking sequences differ. Note that changes in stacking occur at the point of tetrahedral inversion, where two 1:1 layers pass into achlorite unit (from Banfield &Bailey, 1996). S´rodon´,1980,1981, 1984; Watanabe, 1981, 1988; orderingfor R =1,2 or3, but not for segregated I Reynolds,1981, 1988; Tomita et al.,1988; Moore orS layersor with intermed iatedegrees of &Reynolds,1989;Drits et al.,1994).This ordering.Moreover these curves have mainly been techniquecan, however, be used for two- component usedfor glycolated I- Sassumingthat all smectite I-Swith random (Reichweite R =0),or maximum interlayerscontain two glycol layers and that their 4 A. Planc° on FIG.2. Lattice fringe images of various interstratified kaolinite-smectites of the 10 % kaolinite sample.S=Stype smectite layer (1 nm thick).K=kaolinite layer (0.72 nm thick).In part c, the lateral transition S ? K is indicated by arrows (from Amouric &Olives, 1998). swellingproperties do not depend on the interlayer amountof non-swelling layers is 0.90 but 0.10 of cation.The most efficie nttechniq uefor the theselayers have d(001)= 10.33A Ê .Forall these determinationof the structural parameters is based modelsthe layer types are distributed
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Studies of Celadonite and Glauconite
    Studies of Celadonite and Glauconite GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 614-F Studies of Celadonite and Glauconite By MARGARET D. FOSTER SHORTER CONTRIBUTIONS TO GENERAL GEOLOGY GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 614-F A study of the compositional relations between celadonites and glauconites and an interpretation of the composition of glauconites UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1969 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR WALTER J. HIGKEL, Secretary GEOLOGICAL SURVEY William T. Pecora, Director For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S- Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price 40 cents (paper cover) CONTENTS Page Abstract.-_ ____-____-_--__-_-___--______-__-_______ Fl Interpretation of glauconite coniposition___-___________ F13 Introduction.______________________________________ 1 Relation between trivalent iron and octahedral aluminurn____________________________________ 13 Selection of analyses and calculation of atomic ratios___ 2 The Fe+3 :Fe+2 ratio_______________________ 13 Relation between the composition of celadonites and Relation between iron and potassium____________ 14 glauconites_ _ ___________________________________ 3 Fixation of potassium___________________________ 14 High potassium celadonites and glauconites-_______ 7 Deficiency in potassium content-_________________ 14 Relation between glauconite composition and geo­ Low potassium celadonites and glauconites_________ logic age_____________________________________ 15 Relation between Si, R+2 (VI), Al(VI), and R+3 (VI)_
    [Show full text]
  • Duration of Hydrothermal Activity at Steamboat Springs, Nevada, from Ages of Spatially Associated Volcanic Rocks
    Duration of Hydrothermal Activity at Steamboat Springs, Nevada, From Ages of Spatially Associated Volcanic Rocks GEOLOGIC AiL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 458-D Duration of Hydrothermal Activity at Steamboat Springs, Nevada, From Ages of Spatially Associated Volcanic Rocks By M. L. SILBERMAN, D. E. WHITE, T. E. C. KEITH, and R. D. DOCKTER GEOLOGY AND GEOCHEMISTRY OF THE STEAMBOAT SPRINGS AREA, NEVADA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 458-D UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1979 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR CECIL D. ANDRUS, Secretary GEOLOGICAL SURVEY H. William Menard, Director Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Main entry under title: Duration of hydrothermal activity at Steamboat Springs, Nevada, from ages of spatially associated volcanic rocks. (Geology and geochemistry of the Steamboat Springs area, Nevada) (United States. Geological Survey. Professional paper ; 45 8-D) Bibliography: p. D13-D14. 1. Geothermal resources-Nevada-Steamboat Springs. 2. Geology- Nevada Steamboat Springs. 3. Potassium-argon dating. I. Silberman, Miles L. II. Series. III. Series: United States. Geological Survey. Professional paper ; 45 8-D. QE75.P9no. 458-D [GB1199.7.N3] 557.3'08s [553] 79-16870 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402 Stock Number 024-001-03215-5 CONTENTS Page Abstract __________ _______.._____________ Dl Potassium-argon ages Continued Introduction ______________________________________________ 1 Rhyolite domes______________________
    [Show full text]
  • Experimental Data for High-Temperature Decomposition of Natural Celadonite from Banded Iron Formation
    Chin. J. Geochem. (2015) 34(4):507–514 DOI 10.1007/s11631-015-0066-2 ORIGINAL ARTICLE Experimental data for high-temperature decomposition of natural celadonite from banded iron formation 1 1 1 K. A. Savko • S. M. Piliugin • N. S. Bazikov Received: 5 March 2015 / Revised: 1 May 2015 / Accepted: 6 July 2015 / Published online: 17 July 2015 Ó Science Press, Institute of Geochemistry, CAS and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015 Abstract Three experiments were set up to evaluate (KMA), Russia. Subalkaline BIF contains widespread conditions for the high-temperature decomposition of riebeckite, aegirine, celadonite, tetraferribiotite, and Al- celadonite from a banded iron formation in an alumina-free free chlorite instead of grunerite, stilpnomelane, minneso- system and identify its decomposition products. It was taite, and greenalite, which are the usual minerals in BIF estimated that at 650 and 750 °C, with a NiNiO buffer and elsewhere. At the KMA iron deposits, BIF with alkali pressure of 3 kbar, celadonite completely decomposes and amphibole were metamorphosed at 370–520 °C and 2–3 the decomposition products were tetraferribiotite, mag- kbar (Savko and Poskryakova 2003). netite and quartz. Under more oxidizing conditions (he- In the KMA, BIF green mica, which is responsible in matite-magnetite buffer instead of NiNiO), ferrous composition to the celadonite with the formula KFe3?(Mg, 2? potassium feldspar sanidine forms instead of magnetite. Fe ) = [Si4O10](OH)2, is quite abundant (Savko and During the celadonite decomposition in oxidizing condi- Poskryakova 2003). Celadonite forms emerald-green scales tions more magnesian and aluminous tetraferribiotite, sizing from a few tenths to 1.5–2 mm, composing up to along with ferrous sanidine, are formed than at reducing 30 %–40 % modal.
    [Show full text]
  • Clay Minerals Soils to Engineering Technology to Cat Litter
    Clay Minerals Soils to Engineering Technology to Cat Litter USC Mineralogy Geol 215a (Anderson) Clay Minerals Clay minerals likely are the most utilized minerals … not just as the soils that grow plants for foods and garment, but a great range of applications, including oil absorbants, iron casting, animal feeds, pottery, china, pharmaceuticals, drilling fluids, waste water treatment, food preparation, paint, and … yes, cat litter! Bentonite workings, WY Clay Minerals There are three main groups of clay minerals: Kaolinite - also includes dickite and nacrite; formed by the decomposition of orthoclase feldspar (e.g. in granite); kaolin is the principal constituent in china clay. Illite - also includes glauconite (a green clay sand) and are the commonest clay minerals; formed by the decomposition of some micas and feldspars; predominant in marine clays and shales. Smectites or montmorillonites - also includes bentonite and vermiculite; formed by the alteration of mafic igneous rocks rich in Ca and Mg; weak linkage by cations (e.g. Na+, Ca++) results in high swelling/shrinking potential Clay Minerals are Phyllosilicates All have layers of Si tetrahedra SEM view of clay and layers of Al, Fe, Mg octahedra, similar to gibbsite or brucite Clay Minerals The kaolinite clays are 1:1 phyllosilicates The montmorillonite and illite clays are 2:1 phyllosilicates 1:1 and 2:1 Clay Minerals Marine Clays Clays mostly form on land but are often transported to the oceans, covering vast regions. Kaolinite Al2Si2O5(OH)2 Kaolinite clays have long been used in the ceramic industry, especially in fine porcelains, because they can be easily molded, have a fine texture, and are white when fired.
    [Show full text]
  • Factors Responsible for Crystal Chemical Variations in The
    American Mineralogist, Volume 95, pages 348–361, 2010 Factors responsible for crystal-chemical variations in the solid solutions from illite to aluminoceladonite and from glauconite to celadonite VICTOR A. DRITS ,1 BELL A B. ZV I A GIN A ,1 DOUGL A S K. MCCA RTY,2,* A N D ALFRE D L. SA LYN 1 1Geological Institute of the Russian Academy of Science, Pyzhevsky per. 7, 119017 Moscow, Russia 2Chevron ETC, 3901 Briarpark, Houston, Texas 77063, U.S.A. AB STR A CT Several finely dispersed low-temperature dioctahedral micas and micaceous minerals that form solid solutions from (Mg,Fe)-free illite to aluminoceladonite via Mg-rich illite, and from Fe3+-rich glauconite to celadonite have been studied by X-ray diffraction and chemical analysis. The samples have 1M and 1Md structures. The transitions from illite to aluminoceladonite and from glauconite to celadonite are accompanied by a consistent decrease in the mica structural-unit thickness (2:1 layer + interlayer) or csinβ. In the first sample series csinβ decreases from 10.024 to 9.898 Å, and in the second from 10.002 to 9.961 Å. To reveal the basic factors responsible for these regularities, struc- tural modeling was carried out to deduce atomic coordinates for 1M dioctahedral mica based on the unit-cell parameters and cation composition. For each sample series, the relationships among csinβ, maximum and mean thicknesses of octahedral and tetrahedral sheets and of the 2:1 layer, interlayer distance, and variations of the tetrahedral rotation angle, α, and the degree of basal surface corruga- tion, ∆Z, have been analyzed in detail.
    [Show full text]
  • Halloysite Formation Through in Situ Weathering of Volcanic Glass From
    Ciay Minerals (1988) 23, 423-431 mineralogy. Phys. ition of Mössbauer L HALLOYSITE FORMATION THROUGH Ih' SITU shaviour? J. Mag. WEATHERING OF VOLCANIC GLASS FROM 3n analysis of two TRACHYTIC PUMICES, VICO'S VOLCANO, ITALY d.X, 29-31. ir Conímbriga and P. QUANTIN, J. GAUTHEYROU AND P. LORENZONI* ts correlation with .central Portugal). ORSTOM, 70 route d'Aulnay. 93143 Bondy Cedex, France, and *ISSDS, Piazza d'Azeglio 30, Firenze, Italy ibrico da cerâmica (Received October 1987; revised 5 April 1988) of dolomites, clays ABSTRACT: The weathering of a trachytic pumice within a pyroclastic flow underlying an ., MADWCKA.G., andic-brown soil on the volcano Vico has been studied. The main mineral formed is a spherical 10 A halloysite which has been shown by SEM and in situ microprobe analysis to have formed norphology on the directly from the glass. The major mineralogical characteristics as determined by XRD, IR, DTA, TEM and microdiffraction are typical of 10 A halloysite. However, some minor mineralogical properties and the high Fe and K contents, suggest that it is an interstratification of 74% halloysite and 26% illite-smectite. The calculated formula of the hypothetical 2:l minerals reveals an Fe- and K-rich clay, with high tetrahedral substitution, like an Fe-rich vermiculite, but the detailed structure of this mineral remains uncertain. This study deals with the weathering of trachytic pumices to a white clay which seems to be derived directly from glass, without change in texture. This clay is a well crystallized 10 A halloysite, and although nearly white in colour, has an unusual composition being rich in Fe and Ti, and having a high K content.
    [Show full text]
  • List of Abbreviations
    List of Abbreviations Ab albite Cbz chabazite Fa fayalite Acm acmite Cc chalcocite Fac ferroactinolite Act actinolite Ccl chrysocolla Fcp ferrocarpholite Adr andradite Ccn cancrinite Fed ferroedenite Agt aegirine-augite Ccp chalcopyrite Flt fluorite Ak akermanite Cel celadonite Fo forsterite Alm almandine Cen clinoenstatite Fpa ferropargasite Aln allanite Cfs clinoferrosilite Fs ferrosilite ( ortho) Als aluminosilicate Chl chlorite Fst fassite Am amphibole Chn chondrodite Fts ferrotscher- An anorthite Chr chromite makite And andalusite Chu clinohumite Gbs gibbsite Anh anhydrite Cld chloritoid Ged gedrite Ank ankerite Cls celestite Gh gehlenite Anl analcite Cp carpholite Gln glaucophane Ann annite Cpx Ca clinopyroxene Glt glauconite Ant anatase Crd cordierite Gn galena Ap apatite ern carnegieite Gp gypsum Apo apophyllite Crn corundum Gr graphite Apy arsenopyrite Crs cristroballite Grs grossular Arf arfvedsonite Cs coesite Grt garnet Arg aragonite Cst cassiterite Gru grunerite Atg antigorite Ctl chrysotile Gt goethite Ath anthophyllite Cum cummingtonite Hbl hornblende Aug augite Cv covellite He hercynite Ax axinite Czo clinozoisite Hd hedenbergite Bhm boehmite Dg diginite Hem hematite Bn bornite Di diopside Hl halite Brc brucite Dia diamond Hs hastingsite Brk brookite Dol dolomite Hu humite Brl beryl Drv dravite Hul heulandite Brt barite Dsp diaspore Hyn haiiyne Bst bustamite Eck eckermannite Ill illite Bt biotite Ed edenite Ilm ilmenite Cal calcite Elb elbaite Jd jadeite Cam Ca clinoamphi- En enstatite ( ortho) Jh johannsenite bole Ep epidote
    [Show full text]
  • Mixed-Layer Illite-Smectite in Pennsylvanian-Aged Paleosols: Assessing Sources of Illitization in the Illinois Basin
    minerals Article Mixed-Layer Illite-Smectite in Pennsylvanian-Aged Paleosols: Assessing Sources of Illitization in the Illinois Basin Julia A. McIntosh 1,* , Neil J. Tabor 1 and Nicholas A. Rosenau 2 1 Roy M. Huffington Department of Earth Sciences, Southern Methodist University, P.O. Box 750395, Dallas, TX 75275, USA; [email protected] 2 Ocean and Coastal Management Branch, Office of Wetlands Oceans and Watersheds, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC 20004, USA; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +1-214-768-2750 Abstract: Mixed-layer illite-smectite (I-S) from a new set of Pennsylvanian-aged Illinois Basin under- clays, identified as paleosols, are investigated to assess the impact of (1) regional diagenesis across the basin and (2) the extent to which ancient environments promoted illitization during episodes of soil formation. Interpretations from Reichweite Ordering and D◦ 2q metrics applied to X-ray diffraction patterns suggest that most I-S in Illinois Basin paleosols are likely the product of burial diagenetic processes and not ancient soil formation processes. Acid leaching from abundant coal units and hydrothermal brines are likely diagenetic mechanisms that may have impacted I-S in Pennsylvanian paleosols. These findings also suggest that shallowly buried basins (<3 km) such as the Illinois Basin may still promote clay mineral alteration through illitization pathways if maximum burial occurred in the deep past and remained within the diagenetic window for extended periods of time. More importantly, since many pedogenic clay minerals may have been geochemically reset during illitization, sources of diagenetic alteration in the Illinois Basin should be better understood if Citation: McIntosh, J.A.; Tabor, N.J.; Pennsylvanian paleosol minerals are to be utilized for paleoclimate reconstructions.
    [Show full text]
  • Illite Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg Gmbh Alain Meunier • Bruce Velde
    Illite Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH Alain Meunier • Bruce Velde Illite Origins, Evolution and Metamorphism With 138 Figures Springer Professor Dr. Alain Meunier University of Poitiers UMR 6532 CNRS HYDRASA Laboratory 40, Avenue du Recteur Pineau 86022 Poitiers, France E-mail [email protected] Dr. Bruce Velde Research Director CNRS Geology Laboratory UMR 8538 CNRS Ecole Normale Superieure 24, rue Lhomond 75231 Paris, France E-mail [email protected] ISBN 978-3-642-05806-6 ISBN 978-3-662-07850-1 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-07850-1 Library of Congress Control Number: '3502272 Bibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Bibliothek Die Deutsche Bibliothek lists this publication in die Deutsche Nationalbibliography; detailed bibliographic data is available in the Internet at <http://dnb.ddb.de>. This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of this material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitations, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer-Verlag. Violations are liable for prosecution under the German Copyright Law. springeronline.com © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2004 Originally published by Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York in 2004. Softcover reprint of the hardcover I st edition 2004 The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
    [Show full text]
  • Minerals of Rockbridge County, Virginia
    VOL. 40 FEBRUARYJMAY 1994 NO. 1 &2 MINERALS OF ROCKBRIDGE COUNTY, VIRGINIA D. Allen Penick, Jr. INTRODUCTION RockbridgeCountyhas agreatdiversityofrocksandminerals.Rocks withinthecountyrangeingeologic agehmPmxnbrianthroughDevonian (01desttoyoungest)covexingatimespanofatleast 1OOOmilIion years. The county liesmostlywithintheVdeyandRiagePhysi~hich~~ 1). Thisprovinceis underlainbysedimentaryrochcomposedof dolostone, limestone, sandstone, andshale. TheexlMlceastempartofRockbridge County is withintheBlueRidge PhysiowhicPro. This areaisrepre sentedbyallthreemajorrocktypes: sedirnentary,igneous, andmetarnorphic. Theseinclu&Qlostone,qdta,inta~s~neandshale,granite, pmdiorite, andunakite. Ingeneral, theol&strocksarefoundin theeastem portion with youngerrocks outcropping in the westernpart of thecounty o%w2). Mininghasplaydan~tpaainthehistoryofRockbridgeCounty. Indians probably were thefirstco1lectorsof localqu~andquartzitefrom which they shapedprojectilepoints. Important deposits of ironore were mined in the 1800s near the towns of Buena Vista, Goshen, Vesuvius, and in Amoldvalley. Other early minesin thecounty -&manganese, waver- tine-marl, tin, niter (saltpeter), lithographiclimestone, silicasand, andcave orryx Thecounty has been prospected for barite, gibbsite (alumina), gold, silver, limonik(ocher),beryl, Ghalerite (zinc), andilmeniteandmtile(tita- nium), but no production has beenreported for t.Quarriesare still producing dolostone.lirnestone, andquartzitefor constructionaggregate andshale forbrickmanufacture. This report describes 102mineralsandnativeelements
    [Show full text]
  • Supplementary Table 1
    Supplementary Table 1. Compositional groups, typical sample numbers and location with their bulk compositional, mineralogical and petrographic characteristics at different metamorphic grades. Sample #s, Mineral assemblage, Compositio N/E Traverse, Texture Metamorphic Bulk Chemical mode nal GPS and grade Characteristics and Group coordinates other comments mineral chemistry Ms-Chl-Qtz-Ilm-Mag-Gr ± Kfs ± Pl Mode: (Qtz 35-42%, Ms 30 - 33%, Chl 25 - 30%, Pl 5-7%). #1/00, E, Lithology: Chlorite quartz phyllite (minor white 27 o11.268, mica), white mica quartz phyllite (minor chlorite) /88 o38.581 Two compositional and chlorite bearing quartzite. Millimeter to centimeter groups (one richer in scale banding into M- Al 2O3 ~25 wt.%, Muscovite: domain (mica + chlorite Chlorite Normal #187/01, another ~20 Wt.%). rich), grain size 2 - 20 m 187/3, Rocks richer in Paragonite 5%, Pyrophyllite 19%, Celadonite 12%, and Q - domain (quartz - 187/3/ CHAKRA Al 2O3 are relatively Fe-celadonite 13%. feldspar rich), grain size 10 , N, GPS not less ferruginous (see - 50 µm. known Fig 3). Chlorite: XMg (Mg/(Mg+Fe(tot)) = 0.37 - 0.41. Plagioclase: XAn = 0.03 #ID/00,E, Ms-Chl-Qtz-Bt - Pl ± Ilm ± Tur ± Gr 27 o11.268, /88 o38.581 Chl - Qtz - Ms - Ilm -Gr - Tur - Bt - Pl #2/00, E, Two subgroups - 27 o11.465, high Al, low Fe (18 o /88 38.650 - 24 wt% Al 2O3, - Mode: (Qtz 35-42%, Ms 30 - 33%, Bt 15 - 18%, Chl 4.5-5 wt% Fe 2O3) 10 - 12%, Pl 5-7%). Pervasive foliation defined #3/00, E, and low Al, high Fe by biotite, white mica, o 27 11.465, (14.5 - 17 wt% chlorite and occasional o /88 38.692 Al 2O3, 6.0 - 8.0 wt% Muscovite: ilmenite (S 2) almost parallel Fe 2O3).
    [Show full text]
  • Clay Minerals
    CLAY MINERALS CD. Barton United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Aiken, South Carolina, U.S.A. A.D. Karathanasis University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, U.S.A. INTRODUCTION of soil minerals is understandable. Notwithstanding, the prevalence of silicon and oxygen in the phyllosilicate structure is logical. The SiC>4 tetrahedron is the foundation Clay minerals refers to a group of hydrous aluminosili- 2 of all silicate structures. It consists of four O ~~ ions at the cates that predominate the clay-sized (<2 |xm) fraction of apices of a regular tetrahedron coordinated to one Si4+ at soils. These minerals are similar in chemical and structural the center (Fig. 1). An interlocking array of these composition to the primary minerals that originate from tetrahedral connected at three corners in the same plane the Earth's crust; however, transformations in the by shared oxygen anions forms a hexagonal network geometric arrangement of atoms and ions within their called the tetrahedral sheet (2). When external ions bond to structures occur due to weathering. Primary minerals form the tetrahedral sheet they are coordinated to one hydroxyl at elevated temperatures and pressures, and are usually and two oxygen anion groups. An aluminum, magnesium, derived from igneous or metamorphic rocks. Inside the or iron ion typically serves as the coordinating cation and Earth these minerals are relatively stable, but transform- is surrounded by six oxygen atoms or hydroxyl groups ations may occur once exposed to the ambient conditions resulting in an eight-sided building block termed an of the Earth's surface. Although some of the most resistant octohedron (Fig.
    [Show full text]