World Bank Document

BOLIVIA: Public Disclosure Authorized V. L. SECRETARIA NACIONAL DE MEDIO AMBIENTE MINISTERIO DE MINERIA Y METALURGIA

Swedish Environmental Systems Public Disclosure Authorized

1~~~~~~1

SECTORAL ENVIRONMENTALASSESSMENT

THE MNING AND INDUSTRIAL (LMANUFACTURING)SECTORS Public Disclosure Authorized

lECHNICAL APPENDICES:Volume No. 2

June 1993 Public Disclosure Authorized | SECORAL ENVIRONMENTALASSESSEENT OF THE MININGAND INDUSTRIAL SECTORSIN BOLIVIA SwedishEnvironmental Systems June 1993 I

! TECHNICAL APPENDICES: Volume No. 2

IVA Laboratoryfacilities and capacitiesin Bolivia (RudolfReuther)

IV.5 Estimateof costs of remediationof tailingsdams in Bolia (Anders Swartling)

IV.6 Ihe working environmentin BoLivia;experiences and impressions(Bengt Knaborg) 1V.7 Mining versus agrculture in the Andacaba-LaLava area (Bo Lundberg)

rV.8 The Milluni tailings dam as source of water for La Paz (Bo Lundberg) I IV.9 Environmentalconcerns in zheOruro area and Lake Poopo (Bo Lundberg) IV.10 The environmeatalsituation in Potosi (Bo Lundberg)

IV.AI Environmentalsiuataion in Bolivi manufaring industry (Lars Landner)

IV.12 Environmentalcode of practicefor mining ventures(Anders Swartling,Bo Lundberg)

IV.13 Solid and hazardouswaste disposalin Bolivia (Rudolf Reuther)

I APPENDIX IV.4

SC-CTORALENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF THE MINING AND INDUSTRIAL SECTORS IN BOLIVIA

LABORATORY FACILITIES AND CAPACIES IN BOLIVIA

1)y Rudoir Reuther

I I jInlroductimun

Duringthe courseof the "SectciralEnvironmental Assessment of the Miningand Industrial Sectors in Bolivia", it becamemore anid more evident, that such an efrortsliould also inclide a first surveyof the availablenational laboratorycapability, which is absolutelynecessary to give us a measure of the scopeand seriousnessof past and current pollutionphenomena identified.

For this reason, more than a dozen analyticallaboratories were visited. They were selected according to the followingcriteria: o liabilitywith regard to environmentalregulations o involvementin current environmentalprograms o high standardization,qualification and equipment

Particularattention was paid to the existing institutionalpreparedness and motivationto communicate with and participatein devel(kpmentprojects designed to increaseand improve the nalional networking capacity within environmentalmonitoring and control.

In addition, the degree of willingnessto activelyassist the WB team in samplingand analysis was also taken as an 'on-tie-spot' criterion for a final evaluation.

In the following, a summaryof major facts and findings is given for those laboratories,which were visited during the time of project implementation.

Eaaviromnentallaboraturies visited and selected for furtiler evaluation

On major objective with these informationgatherings was to identify,at an early stage, those institutions,which have the potentialto develop into future authorizedanalytical laboratories as well as to a central organizationas claimed by the 'ReglamentoSobre Lanzamientode Desechos IndustrialesSobre los Cuerpos de Agua' Such a national ReferenceLaboratory would have the responsibilityto coordlinatehoth regional and local monitoringactivities on a national scale and would equallyensure the qualityassurance of environmentalanalysis conductedin the country by authorized laboratories.

The examplespresented here, shouldbe re-evaluatedaccording to the preliminary classification suggested(1: not consideredfor the present, El: consideredwith reservation, 111:considered as appropriate).

For further planning and action, it is essentialto build-uponalready existing facilities with a good personnelpotential to develop. However, it has lo he said, that a highly entugh to prevent a drain of well-trainedscientists and technicians.

Of course, this first survey of the laboratorycapability related to environmentalmonitoring and impactassessment in Boliviais still rather incompleteand nothing more thar. a rough estimationof thile situation. It has to be complemented and further developed considering the rapidly growing deemandand requirementfor sound analyticalservices, both with regard to base line conditions, appliedresearch and ithecreation of effectiveenvironmental control instrUments.

I Summaryof laboratories visited

Instituto de Ecologia, Universidad Mayor de San Andres o CampusUniversitario, Cota Cota,Calle 27, Casilla10077, La Paz o visited:13.11.1992 and 12.02.1993 o met with:Dr. MargotFranklin (head of limnologicallaboratory, biologist), RobertoApaza (biologist),Dr. JUrgenCzerwenka (GTZ coordinator, biologist); EllenRades (Germanacademic exchange, microbiologist), Julio Pinto (biologist),Dr. Justo Zapata(Institute of Chemistry,chemist) o biomonitoring:contamination and impactstudies using bio-indicators o heavymetal analysis in water,sediment and biota('Hilluni lakes' study) o centrallaboratory for biologist,with mainlyorganic chemical analysis, under construction (GIZ funding of 200.000 US$) o planned for 1993: gas chormatograph for organochlorines & organophosphates, for 1994: CHN-analyzer o preparationof 'LagoPoopo' project (FONAMA financing ca.10.000 US$/year): food chain contamination by mining activities; plankton, benthos, fish, macrophytes and sediment sampling and analyses o good biological sampling equipment, very limited for chemical analysis at present o project financing: mostly without salaries, lacking of one technician and one chemist for organicresidue analysis o classification a III: high motivationof leadingstaff, paired with a high degreeof qualification

Instituto de saludOcupacional (INSO), Hinisteriode Salud o Zona de liospitales.,Avenida Saavedra, Miraflores, La Paz o visited:13.11.1992 o met with: Dr. Y. Nacif (director),Antonio Quisbert (technician) o chemical control and toxicological analysisof humanblood, hair and urine, drinking water and food (e.g. blood-Pb levels, Hg in hair) o main targets: battery,textile and miningindustry, sewage systems and water treatmentplants (in cooperationwith SANAPA) o 4 chemists(2 tecnicossuperiores, 2 adyudantes) o 1 IR PE M 1330, 1 GC PE, 1 Polarograph,precise fractionation system, balances,dithizone metal analysis o 25o samples/month (ligin urine and As in blood:ca. 10 US$/analysis) o classification - II: qualifiedstaff, but seeminglynot very well motivated, poor equipment maintenance Instituto de Ingenieria Sairtaria (I.I.S.), Universidad Mkayorde San Andres o University main bailding, Avenida Villazon 1955, Casilla 1755, La Paz o visited: 13.11.1992 o met with: Jose Diaz (engineer,head of laboratory)and some co-workers IP o beside university training & education, water and solid waste analysis, technical assistance in design and performance of water treatment plants, water supply and waste disposal facilities, including microbiological measurements o 8 engineers, I chemist, 1 microbiologist, 13 technicians o study on Rio Choqueapu with Japanese JICA and La Paz municipality o participation in a river water quality survey (CETESB)(with 'INSO') o water supply program with SAMAPAand ANESAPA('Asociacon Nacional de Empresas de Agua Potable y Aclantarillado') o main office in Bolivia for 'PROEC' (WHO, lexico): heavy metals o AAS PE 2380, spectrometry, turbidimetry, flocculation testing, incubators, oven.s, but T1o annlyti.cal inistLxvmentatioll for microorganiic determinations o classification- Iri: leadingstaff seems well motivated, although available methodology not fully utilized (300 samples with 4-5000 determinations/year), maybe due to lacking international back-up Instituto de Investigacioncs Mincro-Hetalurgicas I...),inisterio de Mineriay Met.alurgica o Junin 1037, Casilla 600, Oruro IF o visited: 02.11.1992 o met with:Guido Solis (director,engineer) and C. Garron(engineer) o 3 chemical engineers, 1 mineralogist, 3 technicians, 5 assistants o specialized in sampling and inorganic chemistry of ores, soils and sediments, recently also involving aquatic systems; services for the inilling & metallurgical industry, including more and more environmental aspects o good housing and instrumental equipment: AAS FE 3100 and 706, UV/VIS- spectrometry, DTA, XRDand electron microscope (rather old models), obvious problems in gas supply and keeping the qualified staff 1 o 70% of financing comes from anylytical services, 2OZ givernmental funds and 10% by WB-SGABJ3International AB cooperation o Llassification = III: highly motivated leading staff, experience with 1 industrial (mining) processes and implications, methods of classical/ exploration geochemistry may be easily adapted and used within errniron- mental monitoring and analysis of solid inorganic pollutants (air dust, fly ash, waste residues, sediment/soil systems, biota, heavy metals) Programa de Aguas de Laboratorio Regional de Control de Calidad de Aguas, 3 Universidadtayor de San Simon o Facultad de Ciencias y Tecnologia, Casilla 992, Cochabamba o visited: 29.01.1993 o met with: Dr Virginia Rodriguez, Dr. Varea, Dr. Rosaria Montana (head of the laboratory),and HercedesAlvarez o created as an interinstitutional agreement between the university and 'CORDECO'(Corporacion Regional de Desarrollo de Cochabamba) to reduce the mortality of children due to bad drinking vater quality (infectious diseases, chemical contamination) by regular monitoring and waste water controlsurveys o since3 yearsphysico-chemcial and microbiologicalmonitoring of Laguna Alaley,Cochabamba city o monitoringof waterquality in 'Chapare' o standardizedequipment for testingchlorination of drinkingwater o installationof hypochlor4teautomatic dosage at waterwells in Cochabamba o referencelaboratory for enterobacteriaand cholerain Bolivia o memberof the NationalTechnical Committee for the 'PR0ECO/HeavyMetals' Program o internationalcooperation with Tucson,Berkeley, Puerto Rico university, with Belgium,Italy and N4ewZealand, and with the UN and WB o cleanhousing and good equipmentfor organic/microbiologicalanalysis: I spectrophotometer,turbidimeter, incubator, cell counter,microscopy and basiclaboratory requirements, in additionto good samplingappliances o classification - III: good internal organisation and instrumental equipment, regular analytical quality assurance, highly motivated and qualified staff even down to the postgraduatelevel, experienced in monitoringactivities, advancedin organic(pesticide, COD, BOD) and microbiologicalanalysis (bacteria in waste water) Instituto de Investigaciones Quimicas, Universidad Mayor de Son Andres 4 o Cota Cota,Casilla 303, La Paz o visited10.02.1993 o met with LuisMorales (director) and co-workers o researchareas: I. Naturalproducts ard phytochemistry II. Plhysicalchemistry and surfacechemistry IM. Soil chemistry IV. Quantumchemistry V. Hydrochemistry VI. Geochemistry VII. Applied chemistry VIII. Environmental and analytical chemistry o 26 teachers, 22 scientific assistants, 15 FONAMAsupported projects, o financing by 'Initiativo las Americas' (U.S./Ewropean foundation) l o within the program 'PROECO-Metales Pesados': responsible for hydrochemistry, environmental and analytical services o study (modelling) of the hydrochemistry of Lake Titicaca, Lake Poopo and Desaguadero River o soil science: nitrate, ammonia, cation-exchange-capacity o genotoxic studies with natural plant compounds o pharmacological studies I o research on PAHs and organochlorines in soil and water o pioneer work on mercury pollution in the Amazondue to gold mining o major equipment: 2 AAS PE 303 and 1 AAS PE 2380, 1 HITACHspectrophoto- meter, 1 IR, gas and high-performance liquid chromatorgraphy o classification = III: leading staff well motivated, well-experienced; good although partly old/badly maintained instrumental equipment covering U a wide range of inorganic (heavy metals) and organic parameters (pesticides); * - high skill in analytical theory and performarce

Laboratorio de 'Cooperativa de Servicios Publicos Santa Crtuz Ltd. I (SACJAPC) o Avenida Perimetral Rio Grande, Casilla 3284, Santa Cruz o visited: 26.01.1993 o met with: Jnacio Alvarez (director), Francisco Soleto (head of the laboratory) o analytical control of potable water and sewage system o two laboratory units: I) drinking water, II) vaste water o no capacity to control all the waste efflents from the 'Parque Industrial' o studyon groundwatercontamination anid mapping o monitoringof drinkingwater supply o operatinggroundwater observation wells o surveillanceand performanceof preventivechlorination of drinkingwater o analyticalparameters: see list enclosed o AAS PE 272, spectrophotometer,polarograph, microscopy o classification- III: good operatingconditions with a well-trainedteclnical staff, however: present housing seems limiting Laboratorio de Plaguicidas y Fertilizados, Ministerio de Agricultura o La Paz o visited:10.02.1993 o met with: Dr. lariaVirginio Viscar (head of laboratory,chemist) o 2 chemists,1 technician o since10 years productquality control of importsfor pesticideresiduals o 403 pesticideregistered in Bolivia(102 insecticides, 91 herbicides, 91 fungicides,rest: fertilizers) o organochlorinesforbidden in Bolivia:only organicphosphorus compounds analysed l

o equipment:1 GC VARIAN3700, ECD (residues),I LC VARIAN5000, FID, AFID, FPD, 1 GLC VARIAN3700, 1 LLC VARIAN5000, 1 U/VIS-detector,I integrator VARIAN4270, 1 spectrophotometerUVIVIS VARIANCARY 219, thermoconstant room,rotovapor, stirrer, pli-meter, centrifuge, drying oven, waterdesti- llationand de-ionizationBARNSTEAD, refrigarator o classification- II: maybe best availableskill regarding pesticide analysis with appropriate instrumental equipment, however: mainly focused on food raw materials and products 4ith no direct relationship to environmental behaviour of organic residues Instituto de Servicios de Lnboratorio de Diagnostico en Salud o Avcnidn Saavadra 222, Casilla 10362, La Paz o visited:10.02.1993 *1jo met with: Dr. RogerCarvajal (director) and co-workers o qualitycontrol of medicalproducts o clinical toxicology and hematology: extraction of toxins from plants and animals (snakes) o microbiology: clinical microbiology and mycology o cooperation on toxicology with 'Instituto de Investigaciones Quimica', UZISA,and with Italian government o equipment: GLC, reverse osmosis water purification,immunofluorescence, autoclaves, microscopy o classification - II: well-experienced in analysis and assessment of human toxicology; rather new and advanced instrumental equipment, head and scientific staff seem motivated to include environmental aspects in their future analytical work 3 Laboratorio de Alcaldia, Alcaldia de La Paz, Hinisterio de Salud o Miraflores, La Paz o visited:10.02.1993 o met with: Dr. Maria Asiener (head of the laboratory, chemist) o 1 microbiologist, 2 technicians c food product control, in particular beverages, since 20 years (bromatology) o proyectode saneamiento urbano o study on groundwater impact due to percolating water from disposal sites, with 'SAHIAPA'and 'Instituto de Ingenieria Sanitaria', UMSA o inspection of food preservatives - o aflatoxine studies o financing: ca. 20.000 US$/year governmental funds for laboratory material o equipment: microbiology (1 microscope, 1 cell counter, 2 incubators, no studies within the last 3 years), 3 muffle ovens, water and bacteriological unit are almost empty: no staff, no equipment, no money for regular in- spections *- o classification - I- not well-motivated management, p'aced In the back of a supermarket, seemingly no initiative to change perspectives Laboratorio de Control, Yacimientos Petroliferos Fiscales Bolivianos 0 Y.P.F.B., Avenida Salamanca 722, Casilla 684, Cochabamba o visited: 04.02.1993 o met with: Enrique Escobar (head of environmental control unit, engineer), Felix Fuentes (head of the laboratory) o product control analysis including waste water from the different treatment ponds (e.g. flotation, stabilization units) o wastewater sampling:every 18 days o narameters measured: see list enclosed o use of 'ASTN'standard methods o well equippedwith MAS (heavymetals) and UV/VISspectrophotometric I teclmiques(inorganic anions) o however:no sulphate,DOD or COD analysed o classification= II: as it is not a neutrallaboratory, its use for futurecontamination studies seems limited, although metal analysis in differenttypes of wasteand receivingwaters may be advanced Depart-amnto Control Calidad Laboratorio, Yacimientos Petroliferas Fiscales 3I Bolivianos o Refineria 'Guillermo Elder Bell",Casilla 1998, Santa Cruz de la Sierra o visited: 26.01.1993 o met with: Enrique Escobar (head of environmental control unit), Romulo Barbs (head of laboratory) o 17 technicians o mostly oil refining products and residue analysis o process water analysis: to check corrosion o waste water analysis: sampling every 1.5 month o equipment: I GC, 1 AAS PE 305, 1 IR PE, 1 GCA, 1 potentiographBRDKM4ANN, 1 GC PE 3920 B, 1 GC PE SI5MA15, 1 CC PE SIGMA4B, 1 colorimeter, 1 visco- simeter, 1 incubator, 1 CARVERlaboratory press, 1 corcosion-meter o parameters measured: see list enclosed o classification - II: like for the Y.P.F.B. laboratory in Cochabamba Laboratorio Quimico, Facultad de Ingenieria Metalurgia, Universidad Tecnica de Oruro o Campus Universitario, Zona Sur, Oruro o visited: 10.12.1992 I o met with: Frank Rachor (GTZ consultant, engineer) o analytical services for the metallurgical industry (dressing studies) and graduate courses in mineral beneficiation techniques o ongoing longternm technical cooperation with German GIZ o housing and equipment: good laboratory organization and housing capacity, ICP-AES (German Spectro, new), AAS PE 3100 and 706, portableXRF, XRD o classification - III: due to safe longterm financing and a highly sophisticated analytical equipment, good development potential; planned close cooperation with Instituto de Ecologia (Lago Poopo) and Instituto de Investi- gaciones Hinero-Metalurgicas regarding environmental chemical analysis; need to build-up qualified scientific and technical staff Laboratorio Quimico, Servic4o Geologico de Bolivia (GEOBOL),hinisterio de Mineria y Metalurgia o Calle Federico Zuazo 1673, La Paz o visited: existing cooperation with Swedish WB consultant o met with: D. Howard (director, engineer), 0. Siles(services manager, engineer) o financing: about 40X governmental and 60Z international contracts (Sweden, Germany, Italy, U.S.) o analytical services for geological mapping and mineral exploration o equipment: AAS PE 4100, 3100 and 7033 spectrophotometer, sampling and sample preparation devices, old instruments from earlier programs o classification - I: although this laboratory would be the natural partner for environmental projects within the mining sector, the high bureaucracy, poor professional qualification with regard to environmental measures, together with the lack of a clear methodological conception, makes the already requested re-organization of this laboratory a priority, before any new approaches are considered Requiremants and demands The present laboratory situation in Bolivia may be best characterized by the obvious need for training and methodology development on the one side, and by missing anylytical reliability and standardization of procedures on the other side,resulting in a ratherlow levelof both professionaland data quality. This seems particularly true for those laboratories designed to trace and quantify environmental pollutants, 8S they are additionally hampered by a chronic shortening of financial support reflected in low salaries and a poor maintenance of equipment. In addition, the complexity of material to be sampled and analyzed, as well as the prevailing deficiency in supply of necessary reagents, auxillaries and spare parts seriously interfere with the demanded maintenance and continuation of laboratory operations. So far, most envisaged targets or problems could be approached by laboratories, when taking part within international technical assistance programs, which promised financial/instrumental support, at least for a given time period. Ifowever, these bi-/multilateral programs often failed in the past to guarantee continuous operation due to the lack of permanent training, supply networks and access to up-to-date information/literature. It seems that relevant impulses to intensify and improve current laboratory activitiesare only given,when internationalaid is in sight.And thismay remain so, unless the national regulatory legislation will provide the necessary technical guidelines designed to standardize and enforce environmental monitoring and analytical work. Environmentally relevant industries may then become interested to make more use of the country's different specialized laboratory services to prove compliance with regulation. However, to create this regulatory framework will still take some time, which could be utilized most efficiently by examiring the development potential of existing laboratories, which are already involved into environmental monitoring projects,thus preparing the ground for those laboratory institutions with a high motivation to use analytical techniques for environmental monitoring and solutionfinding. !What is really needed, may be the establishment of base-line data, in order to realize a reference framework for quality criteria of natural ecosystems, like freshwaters, soil and air. Within this, one should consider given factors, such as natural preload, sensitivity or synergistic processes, which all may affect the stress capacity of a particular ecosystem. In doixFg so, this means that established general quality criteria could only be a rough, first estimate of what natural systems may tolerate, while they need strict differentiation when assessing the conditions of a certain situation. From this, one may conclude that it is good to have general quality criteria, which may offer a first and rapid orientation. However, these reference points should subsequently brought into relation with the circumstances found around a particular situation, in order to assess their real relevance within that UD context. Out of this screening approach, one may be able to detect those critical parameters,which may indicatewhat an ecosystemwill tolereteor not (bio-/ geo-indicacor). I With regardto the presentBolivian situation, it seemsa necessityto find out at leastone a¢.alyticallaboratory for each majorgeographic area, which is willing and has the resources to determine main physico-chemical and biological parameters, like pHl, temperature, conductivity, Secchi depth, dissolved oxygen, flow rate, biomass, bacterial activity etc., by use of standardized methods. Recommendations From the laboratories presented lhere, there are several candidates who may be able to meet this requirement and who are recommended for further evaluation and inclusion into future technical assistance and project development. Although the list may be incomplete (appropriate laboratories from some regions are still lacking, i.e. from the Northern lowland departments of Beni and Pando, and from the Southern departments of Potosi, Tarija and Chuquisaca), the following institutions may be considered as capable to fullfil basic environmental monitoring work thus acting as 31 regional counterpart laboratory for the national environmental protection agency (SEN2A), in the future: o La Paz: Institutode IngenieriaSanitaria (I.I.S.),UNSA o Oruro: Instituto de Investigaciones Minero-Metalurgicas (I.I.M.M.) o Cochabamba: Laboratorio Regional de Programa de Aguas, tJS o Santa Cruz: Laboratorio de 'SAGUAPAC' It may be feasible, in the beginning, to extend Ihe responsibility and field of activity of the laboratory preliminary selected for the area of La Paz also to Beni and Pando provinces,as well as the ba respectivelaboratories in Oruro and Cochabamba for Potosi, and for Chuquisaca and Tarija, respectively, before possible candidates have been found there. For this reason, a detailed questionaryis suggestedto be sen& to those pre-selected laboratories, within a next step, inquiring now exact information about the structure, functioning and level of analytical quality and data processing, including the whole spectrun of parameters and methods available and applied. In addition, this further evaluation may also address the analytical repertoire and potential of other laboratories, in particular I: their qualification or specialization within certain critical subjects re- quiring high analytical skill, equipment and experience (e.g, GC and HPLC _9 performance and determination of pesticiaes, chemical speciation of heavy metals, bio-assays)(see blank form enclosed). This informationgathering is supposed to result in a clear picture about 1) what can be done on a regional scale, and 2) where are.,the.:specialistswith regard to specific inorganic and organic pollutonts. After thorough evaluation of the questionary results, an intercalibration study will be organizedin a second step, including both the pre-selected regional laboratories and those, which have indicated their strong capacity to conduct highly specialized analysis, in order to ensure a high degree of method standardization and quality assurance (see blank form enclosed). This intercalibration of methods will address three different groups of parameter, I.e. i) basic physico-chemical (e.g. chemical oxygen demand, nutrients or dissolved/suspended matter), ii) trace metals and iii) organic micro-compounds (e.g. PAHs or organochlorines), in water (i, ii, iii) and sediment (ii and iii; in a later phase). For intercalibration (i), the following laboratories are suggested to parti- I cipate: o Instituto de Ingenieria Sanitaria, la Paz o Institutode Ecologis,La Paz c Laboratorio de-Programa de Aguas, Cochabamba o Laboratorio de SAGUAPAC,Santa Cruz Intercalibration (ii) should comprise: o Instituto de Ingenieria Sanitaria, La Paz o Institutode SaludOcupacional, La Paz o Institutode InvestigacionesHinero-Metalurgicas, Oruro o Institutode InvestigacionesQuimicas, la Paz o Laboratorio de SAGUAPAC,Santa Cruz o Y.P.F.B. Laboratorio de Control,Cochabamba o Laboratorio Quimico, Oruro o GEOBOLLaboratoria Quimico, La Paz Intercalibration (iii) should finally include: o Institutode Ecologia,La Paz o Institutode SaludOcupacional, La Paz o Instituto de Investigaciones Quimicas, La Paz o Instituto de Servicios de Laboratorio de Diagnostico en Salud, La Paz o Y.P.F.B. Departamento Control Calidad Laboratordo, Santa Cruz o Laboratorio de Pleguicidas y Fertilizados, La Paz o Laboratorio de Pragrama de Aguas, Cochabamba Beside increasing the quality of analytical data, the planned inter-laboratory comparison may also mobilize efforts to harmonize the used methodology on a national scale and sort out strenght and failure. It is equally supposed, that this study may help to increase communication and exchange between the different laboratories,as this was experienced as one major hinder on the way to a better understanding of their role within the environmental regulation process. It is suggested that this national intercalibration project may'be headed and organized by the Instituto de Ingenieria Sanitaria (group i), the Instituto de Investigaciones de Minero-Metalurgicas (group ii) and by the Laboratorio de Programa de Aguas (group iii), tightly coordimated with SINMAand assisted by a leading foreign analytical laboratory. Of course, there should be enough space also for'upcoming private laboratories J offering analytical services within the environmental field, to participate. Although it is not particularly mentioned here, or considered within the intercalibration check, sampling approaches for the various environmental specimens (e.g. time, site and frequency of sampling and proper sample selection end collection techniques) should become part of regular and internal quality control measures, covering different levels of compliance monitoring. One main objective or result of upgrading and further developing the present capability of environmental laboratories in Bolivia may be seen in the formation of a central Reference Laboratory, operating under the direct auspices of SEDZ4Awith the legal mandate to authorize regional or outstanding laboratories within the licensing of environmentally significant public (e.g. infrastructural) or private (commercial/industrial) projects, as already announced in the 'Reglamento sobre Lanzamiento de Desechos Industriales en Cuerpos de Agual, issued by the Ministeriode Urbanismoy Vievienda,in 1990.Such a national institution is setting technical standards, guidelines and recommendations for sampling and analytical procedures and may organize a country-wide moni- * toring network for main sources, emission paths and sinks of pollutants released by natural and human activities. Permanent update and enforcement of strict compliance with internationally acceptable maximumvalues (limits) for critical, high-priority pollutants (e.g. mercury, lead,PAHs or PCDDs)dis- chargedby wastewater, air or solidsinto sensitivesystems (e.g. coastal or groundwaters),in close coordinationwith the authorizedlaboratories, will be one of the primary task of the Reference LaboratoryIn its role as a national supervising instrunent. Conclusions It has to be reminded that the evaluation given here is primarily J built upon first impressions and reflections9:from.a more.tandom:data.. gathering. It has to be verified with respect to the actual performance, capacity and quality, which can not be inferedby interviewsor visual observations, but may.be done by means of practical tests and examinations, under standardized conditions. It was not possible for the consultant to cover all aspects of analytical relevance (e.g. hygienic aspects and bacteriological methods are practically not included) in the limited time given, nor appeared it realistic to go tamuch into technical detail. However, some conclusions may be carefully drawn so far from the presented situation outline for environmentally adjustable laboratories in Bolivia: I) there is an urgent need for exact data on the qualityand status . | of different environmental compartments, such as air, water and soil II) there are plenty of analytical laboratories existing and equipped with the necessary instrumentation to provide that data 1 III) most of the laboratories visited suffer either from a chronic lack of training, instrument maintenance or personal fitting or from missing the right motivation I IV) international technical assistance should be.based on continuity by creating the necessary infrastructure to run modern equipment and personal training on a longterm perspective V) intermational cooperation programs are needed, not only on the regulatory side, but also to strengthen monitoring and analytical instru- 3 ments and resources designed to comply with regulations . VI) in order to cope with the development of environmentally relevant projects, it seems feasible to constitute a country-wide network of competent and reliable analytical laboratories for compliance.. monitoring and effect control, both for the different geographical areas and for the assessment of specific pollution compounds VII) the upgrading and increase of the laboratory capability, as suggested here, should ultimately lead to the upcoming of a central Reference Laboratory, which has the legal authority to supervise.and coordinate all laboratory activities in the country, vith regard to environmental regulation, impact analysis and control

I QuENTIONARYO mDz LABORIATRYCAPA&BLfY 32I DOLIVIA, WIMIRGARD MD |ucaL AnYSIS mOmoNwmaL SISPLOF

NAMEOF INSTITUTION: ADDRESS: HAD: BEGINOF OPERATION: NUMBMAND QUALIFICATION Or STAFF:

MANDATE: ACCREDITATION: TYPE OF SAMPLES:

FIELD SAMPLING/TRANSPORTEQUIPMENF:

FIELD MEASUREMENTS:

SAmPLEsTORAGE AND PREPARATION FACILIES:

ANALYTICALPARA!MERS AND METHODS: - BASIC PHYSICO-Cli21ICAL - GASES

- MINMALS

- NENTS

- TRACEMETALS

-NON-SPECIFIC ORGANICS

- SPBCIFIC ORGANICS

- MICROBIOLOGY l

ANALYTICALINSTRUMMIT&ION AND AUXILIARY SYSTEMS:

QUALITYCONTOL OF SAMPLINGAND ANALYSIS:

INSTRUMENTAINTENNE AND SERVICES:

TRAINING:

I INTERNATIONAL/NATIONALCOOPERATION:

NUMBEROF ANALYZEDSAMPLE PER :ONM:

3 COMMNT:

I LABORATORYCAPABILITY IN BOLIVIAFOR FIELDHEASURUNIS IN WATER

l LABORATORY = - - = = _ PARAHErER pH _____ redox(Eh)= temperature

.conductivity------dissolvedoxygen _ flowmeasurement others

i I LABORATORYCAPABILITY IN BOLIVIAFOR IHE %suRnDuOF BASIC PARANETERS ANDPOLLUTANTS IN NATURALAND WASTE WATER

I ~~LAWRIMORY PARA2Efl pH

temperature redoxpotential

conductivity

-I colour turbidity hardness alkalinity salinity 3 ~~~TDS TSS dissolvedoxygen COD

BOD5 orthophosphate kjeldahlnitrogen nitrate nitrite

X aammonia

* chloride sulphate

silica sulphide

1 SOLID AND HAZARDOUSWASTE DISPOSAL IN BOLIVIA- A TENTATIVEAPPROACH

Rudolf Reither (MFG), SwedishEnvironmental Systems

1. nTheRegulatory Framework The currercElegal situationwith regard to thedisposal of solid waste in Boliviais still basedon the 'ReglarnentoGeneral para el Manejode ResiduosS6lidos", issued by the Ministeriode Urbanismoy Vivienda, in 1976. This rather technicalregulation is almostcompletely dedicated to the final depositionof residual solidsfrom domesticand industrialsources on land, without givingany directives for waste separationor measures to protectgroundwater reservoirs. It only specifiestechniques in surfaceconcealing in detail, togetherwith the necessary infrastructuralarrangements to prepare, maintainand terminatethe disposalsite.

The definitionswhich are presented herein are very generaland reflect the limitedknowledge available at this time (not only in Bolivia)with regard to property, compositionand volume of solid waste materialproduced firm different origins(households, commerce, industryetc.). for exannple,residual solids are simply defined as 'solid material(including sludges) caused by domestic,commercial and industrialprocesses and water treatmentplants", without any furtherspecifications of theirphysico-chemical or biologicalbehavior.

The main shortageof the "Reglamento'lies in its one-sidednessfor the land-fillwaste disposal option.This has still a major influenceon present managementpractices in the country, which concentrateo waste removalsystems, not consideringto stop or reduce its productionat the source. The regulationsuggests land disposalfor domesticand commnercialsolid waste, for slags and ashes, miningresidues, waste constructionmaterial, old tires, sewage sludge, industrialprocess and agriculturalresiduals etc., without any pre-separationor pretreatment.

It seems that responsibleauthorities in the countryhave missedto adjust and update this waste regulaLionto the present technicalstate-of-the-art by new amendinglaws, as no particular concern is expressedto longtermeffects and environmentalhazards. This legal deficiencies mayhave substantiallycontributed that thoseproducing wastes still feel not responsiblefor their final fate and hold fast on old-fashionedand wasteful manufacturingor production processes.

Today, there is a need for clear and precise regulativemeasures to change past productionand consumptionbehaviors by selting criteria for waste classificationand hazard assessment,as well as prioritiesand economicincentives for treatmentand disposalstrategies and conceptson a national scale. Thesenew regulationsshould lead to a changein societies"attitude, in that it is more useful for both nationaleconomy, development,social and natural welfareto reduce d or prevent solid waste production(particularly of hazardouswastes) by systematically reusinglrecyclingresiduals and avoidinggeneration of long-living,toxic material, in the longer 3 run.

I The early issue of such a country-widefunctioning regulatory framework for solid waste avoidance, reuse and safe disposal may go in line with internationalagreements (e.g. the 'Cairo guidelines'IUNEPon hazardotuswaste disposalor the Basedconvention on transboundarywaste transport) and may not only increaseproduction efficiencyand the protectionof natural resoiurces,but could also provide the legal authorityto stop the creation of countlesssolid waste "time-bombs' in the country.

2. Requirements for Solid Waste Disposal

Residualswhich neithercan be reused/recycledagain nor ate further degradablehave to be stored under controllableconditions, in order to ensuretheir safe and longtern isolationfrom the hydro-andbiosphere. At present, there are both mono- (e.g. for constructionmaterial) and multi-componentdisposal cites (e.g. for domesticwastes) in operation, which shouldbuild upon the "multibarrierconcept" for permission. Newly permittedwaste sites have to guaranteethe fullowingmeasures:

- percolatingwater does not cause any harm to groundwaterswhen penetratingthe base isolation - contaminantsshould be in an immobileform - the waste deposit should have a low permeability - earth movements should be minimal - a surface cover/sealingto prevent infiltrationor rain water - longtermcontrol and monitoring _I - recultivation

In order to managethe longtermsafety of a particular site, the followingtechnical steps have to be undertaken:

- collection,transport and treatmentof percolatingwater - drainage of surface run-off water - maintenanceof groundwatermonitoring wells - groundwaterquality control - maintenanceof degassing facHities - preventionof damages, e.g. by erosion - protectionof recultivation

3. Preliminary Description of the BolivianSituation

In the following,the present waste managementpractices in the cities of (1) Santa Cruz, (2) Cochabamba,(3) Oruro and (4) La Paz/El Alto, will be described, and a few examplesgiven for some particularlyrelevant industries.

3.1. S:nta Cruz

In general, solid waste material is collected,transported and tippedby the municipalityor charged private carriers, without any segregationor classificationaccording to type or

2 7. Promote conerences and polcy reseach cn enviroomentalaanagement practicesand I technologies,and ensure the disseminationof this information

8. Support and promote regionalco-operative progams to aebieve sustainabledevelopment of I mineralresources.

9. Adoptenvironmentaly safe methodsof miningand processingfor existing project 1 10. Increas and c-ordinate their assistance to developingnations in the fields of environmenta policdesmanagemenL

II i

3 APPENDIX IV.13

SECrORAL ENVIRONMEAL ASSESSMENT OF THE MWNG AND IDUSTIAL SECTORS IN BOLIVIA

SOLID AND HAZARDOUS WASTE DISPOSAL IN BOLIVIA

by Rudolf Reuther

II I BACKGROUND

Mine exploitation and the processing of ores have been performed in Bolivia for many hundred years. However, in the past, very limited consideration has been given to the envirmental impact of opeaions. This is flow changingrspidly, ptUy as the result of the new Envirnmental Law approved by the Parliament in 1992, partly as a consequence of 1) a general awareness withia the industry itself; 2) a surging public conscience in environmenal matters; and 3) the influence exced by foreign companies active in Bolivia bringing with them sound envhrnmental practices from other countries. The Envirmental Law is a general law, which wll be complemented by more detiled regulations. The later will be elaborated very soon, presumably ud the patrnage of the Ministry of Mining and Metallurgy. It is quite probable that even othr new laws with a bearing on mining activities (as for example a new Water Law) win be establshed in the near futur

It is important that e mining industry takes an active part in the definition of these new laws and regulations. This in order to certify that the legal f itwork to be formed becomes workable, realistic and efficient, but also as a way of making the mining sectr committed to obser the rules. Idealy. the process of establishing nrles should be one of faitful colaboration betveen industry, state authorties and environmen groups. In practice, many maners wil be conflictive and subject to negotiation or maybe even political struggle. In this conext it is most important tbat discussions and decisons will be based on facts and good technical knowledge. Much of this Information will have to be provided by the industry.

In some countries, individual companies, mining associations or govemena agencies have U defined non-legal recommendations on how to act envionmely. ey, an international association of private companies are wodkng on such mles (Broma 1993). Such initiatives have been very important in promoting enviromental thiing within the different companies and has also guided oter concerned parties in formulang their stand in a constuctive way. Such a "Code of Practice" can also serve as an winterretation" of the lega fmework thos facilitaing for the different parties to understand the basic context and to avoid unnecessary bureaucacy.

We recommendstrongly the elaration of a "Codeof Prce" for Bolivan mining.It shoud be caried out to serve as a base for the legal regulationwork or formuled in paalell to and in conjunctionwith the latter. he followingguidens ar meant to scrve a a *skeeton" On which a more elaboratedrecommaenon could be specified.It is based mainly on the Canadian iEnvironmental Code of Practice for Mines" from 1977, this being a very lear and straightforward document (Environment Canada 1977).

II OUTLINE FOR CODE OF PRACTICE

A General peinciples

I General policy guidelines can be formulated in diffen ways. One example. addressing the conditions in developing countres, are the Berlin Guidelines (Mining Journal Books 1992). These guidelines stae that "worldwide long/term economic developmet can best be acbieved thrugh the pursuit of sustainable development policies comprising a balance of economic. soco-ctural and environmental protection measures. While takng into account global envionmntal concer, each

2 country should apply this concept to meet the needs of its envionment and economic circumstnces". The docmen presents two sets of reo aions in the form of polins addressed to the mineral sector and the development assistance agencies, respectively (see annex 1)

B Specfic niles

1 WATER MANAGEMENT.

1.1 General

Most ores beig exploited in the Cordilera and the Altiplano regions of Bolivia contan sulfidic mineas, which oxidize and produce acidic waters with high heavy mea coents. Tibs is te most serious pollQuon problem in he Bolvian mining industry. So. a large part ot this Code of Practice deals with measures to mitigate the pollution of mme and mill waters.

In the Cordillera and Altiplano region the availability of water is litd and waste wat contmination is high. Wat management teefore has to focus on the reduction of fiesh water requirents as well as the reduction of waste water dlschge. The vwe management policy should focus on:

* minmization of the use of flsh water, i.a. tough

= the use of mine waters for milling purposes

- the re-use of a maxdmum percentage of process water

* minimzMationof the net effluent of waste waters from the mine ad mill, i.a. through

-minimization of the amount of mine waters (pouting etC)

- minimization of each waste component

- mammizaion of the use of the cleann capacity of taings ponds for an types of waste waters (eg. nne water)

- maximization of the reuse of waer in the process as weB as fnom the talngs pond

- segregaion of clean waters from highly poluted waste water flows

An definte necessity for each mie/milll complex is a well designed tailings pond.

J 1.2 Monitoring.

An absolute requiem t for a successful water management is a propedly planned mnitoming program. The main featues of such a program should be:

3 * definition of objectives;cod be the monitoringto satisfy one or more of the policy items I li~~~sted iln pawAmh 1.1; dermTWnationof bacgound water qualities for new mine sites; or detminaton of acid generion potential of a new ore body

* selection of paameters to be measured;these vary from mine to mine, the more important being water flow, suspendedand dissolved sotids, pH and heavy metals

* selection of samplinglocations

* samplingprocedures

* analysis; laboratoryrequirents

1.3 GuideLines- acceptableeffluent levels and requiredpis to pecipitate heavy metals.

As a guidelineto the environmentalmine or mil engineer,Table 1 illusaes efflue standards adoptedin a number of diffirent countries.

Table 1. Examplesof stndard values for dissolved metalsin miningeffluents as used in some differentcountries- Sweden and Finland establishstandards for each individual source; presented values are examplesfom base metal mines. Bolivianvaues represent indusial discarge limits according to -Reglamento sobre lanmiento de dsechos industrialesen cueaposde agua", rles publishedby the hMnisteriode Urbanismoy Vivienda. AU values except pH given in mgnl.

IUS-EPA US-EPA C_aa C Swede. Fhiand lap" Balivis 3 D/aiy Moably Gab Mau" 3 m-ub

_ pH 6.0.9.0 6.0-9.0 >6.0 406 N4. 6.9S 5.646 4.5-0.0

Suspended ids 30. 20. 50. 25. 40 20mm l.

As 15 as QS I

Cd 0.10 0.05 1O 0.1 1.0

0r 0g 5.0

cu 0.T 015 0.6 0.3 Tel 03 3. l.

Fe 3. 10. 10.0

HS 8 MO0 0.001 O0 .OAS

MR 05 10. 10.0

Ni 1.0 0.5 1

Pb 0.60 0.30 0.4 02 m1 1.0 20

Zn 1.50 0.75 1.0 05 0.1 1.0 S. 50.0

4 ¶~~~~

The pH value required to precipitate metals to the dictat levels. varies for the different metal ions. Approximate values related to Canadian conditions are given in Table 2.

Table 2. Approximate pH values required to precipitate certain metals to the required levels (based on field experience with mine waters of typical sulphate contents. Source: Mhe CanadianCode of Practiceof April 1977 )

METAL pH Fe (ferric) 6-7 Fe (ferrous) 8-9 Cu 95 Zn 10 Pb 9 Ni 10 Mn 11

1.4 Mill process effluent

The mill process effluent is usually the biggest polluter in a mine/mill complex. As aleady Mentioned above, mill tailings should always go to a tailings pond.

Within the mill process itself good water management includes i.a. the following:

* maximnumwater rwovery in the pocess itself

* coUleion of any liquid spillage within the plant in sumps and recrculatlng it to the process or to the tailings pond

* segregation of heavily contaminated pulp streams from less continated steams

* the use of less poluting reagents in the process where options exist

S avoidance of spllage from conacentae stockpiles

N~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 1.5 Mine drainage. Since the volume of mine water can be Influencedto only a minor degree, all practical measures shouldbe taken to ensur that e quality of the fia volume pumped from the mine is such that it can be used In tte mill or elsewhere, thus reducing both the oveall demand for fresh water and the final net effluentvolume. J Considatdon should be given to the following measuresfor reducing the volume of mine water and Improvingits quality to the fullest extent feasible:

.* ruse of water in the mine for drillingand dust suppression

* reducdon of gromundwatseepage by grouting(old baeboles etc.)

* diversionof surface wates throughintrception ditches(eg. wbre surfacewater enter the mi tbroughold open pits or oher openings)

* avoiding to mix highly contaminatedmine waters with less contaminatedfor possible treatmentof the highly contaminatedwaters sepAaly

** anspoting tailings fill undergroundat highestpracticil percent solids

0 avoiding the use of frsh water for transportingtailings U underground(nstead use contaminstedwater, eg.mnndewater) - = coDectionof undergrund mine water in sumps to remove solds

* segregationof oil bearng drainagefm maintenancebays etc.

9 minimization of the storage of broken sulfidic ore to deaease the oxidation of sulfides

1.6 Surfacedrainage and seepage.

Mine and mill complexesoften cover large areas which may producelarge amounts of nm-off waters. If these waa quanties are contaminated they should be reated to the standardsapplicable to mine water or mill pocess effluen. Ihus surfacewaters from the mine site or e mil site are often contaminatedwith mine and mll waste and shouldte collectedand Ud in the tailings pond. Waters around workshopsand fuel stations may be contaminatedvnth il, diesel etc, which usually are harmfu to the mming process and shouldtherefore f be divertedto the ailngs dam but treated separy (oil sumps). J

6 Non - contaminated drainage should be prevented from entering the tailings ponds or oler treatment ponds to the pgaest extent possible by:

* provision of suitable diversion means such as ditches

* location of the tailings ponds or other treatment ponds so as to minimize the contibuting drainage area

Where seepage from tailings or Imatment ponds is likely to be contaminated, specal provision should be made in the design of the dam or structure to minimize seepage flows and provision made to collect aU seepage for mteatment

1.7 Reuse of water.

Ihe scarcity of fresh water and the desire to reduce effluent discrges from mining and miMing operations are the main reasons for the reuse of water. Ihe smaller the amount of discharges from, for example. a tailings pond can be kept. the easier and cheaper the beatment to tolerable effluent levels will be.

Reuse is accomplished by intemal-circulation loops within the plas as wen as by circulations from the tailings and clarification ponds. However, the metallurgical implications of water reuse and the effect on recovenes, selectivity and flotability may be large It is therefore impontat that a water flowsheet and water balance be establshed and the metallurgical impUcations be studied in U detail for vanous water reuse percentages.

However, no defiite guideine values can be given on achievable water ruse percentages. In some cases the process may operate well with almost 100% reuse, in odher cases no or very little reuse may be possible.

2 WASTE TREATMENT.

This section presents mmened practices for the design and operation of the mine and mill waste treament sysms most commonly used.

2.1 Tailings impu systems

The application of tailings ponds is the most common. economic and efficient cleaning tool available to mines and mills.

2.1.1 Tailing impmeat systems should be designed and opatd to prmvide the following finctiow: a removal and ppetal storage of tailings solids

* maintenance of pH suitable for metal precpitation

7 * retention for sedimentationand storage of treatmentpredpitas (e.g. metal hydroxides and other finely divided mateial)

* oxygen tansfe fr stabilizationof oxidizablewaste constituents(cyanide etc.)

* capacity for balancingstorm water and other fluctuations 3 * minimizationof seepage and conin waters

2.1.2 Tailing impoundmentsshould be designed so as to provide sufcient capaCityfor the anticipatedvolume of tailings to be accumulatedover the anpated e of the mine or alternativelyshould be designedand operatedto provide staged increasesin capacity correspondingto the accumulatng volume.

2.1.3 The pool area of a tailingsimpOundment area if used as the primary means of treatment, shouldbe maintainedat a pH suitable for the precipitationof metals to acceptablelevels as indicated under paagraph 1.3. MIe values of pH requiredto most effectivelyprecipitate the metals should be individualy assessed, although values for single metals are given under paragraph 1.3 to be used as first onler indicationsof requiredpN

2.1.4 Control of the pH of the tailings pond effluent shouldbe maintainedby the additionof sufficient alkaline reagents(usualy calcium hydroxide,not ammonia)to consistently countr any acidic imfluent or acid generated within the tailings impoundwent area, i.e. by the oxidationof either tiosalits in the water or exposedsulfidic type solids.The alkaine reagents are normallyadded to the pond influent but in someinstances it may be necessary to provide a second point of addition to the pond dischargeto emn close pH control.

2.1.5 Means should be provided to maintaincotmol of pH undr conaions of vatying flow into the treatmentsystem by minimizingthe variationin inflt volume, or by the use of flow regulated reagent addition,or by other ppropiate means.

2.1.6 Tailings im m sould be indivday designed to provide adequateretention and quiescentconditions for the sedimentaton of tailing alndtrea t precipitates.In genal, a water retenfiontim of at least five dn shouidbe provided.

2.1.7 Pool areas of 5 - 10 hectarsfor each 1,000 tonnesof tailn solids dischaged per day should be adeqate in most cases, providedthe wat depth is at last 15 mets at the decant (the averageim area is about 20 bectas 1000 tpd for Canadianmills).

2.1.8 Where a tailings pool is requiredto provide stabilizationof oxidibe waste ampo (e.g. reagent residuals,cyanide, ammonia, thiosalts, etc.) sufficientrtenion should be provided f*r oxddaion under adverse conditons. An allowanceof 3 y retention is common pmactice.

Consideration sodd also be given to providing a poishing lagoon of minimum48 hours capacitYfor the final discharge from a tailings impundent to Compensat for upsets in the operationof the primary system

8 2.1.9 Tailing ondm snctus Shold be consmuctedof chemicallystable mateials in accordancewith accepted struCural and hydraulicengineering design and constucion pactices.

At least I meter of freeboardshould be provided within the tailingsembankment

22 Other metal removalsystems In insunces where oher methodsof teatment are more appropiae, altetive systemssuch as 1 lagoonsor acid mine waer treatmentplants can be employed.Such systemsare expensiveand would only rarely be utilized in Bolivia

e 2.3 Thiosalt removal

Ihiosalt removal is expensive and measuresshould therefore be taken to minimize the production of thiosalts in the mill and to limit the dischargeof thiosalt bearing wastes to the envionment by water recycle back to the mill.

Whnver possible, individualtreatment of process streamshigh in thioat content shouldbe * considered.

Long term retentionof tliosalt bearing wastes shouldbe used to achievebio lzon.

Considerationshould be given to mechanicallyasssted io on of thosalts. for example j rotating biologicalcontos.

3 REHAB=lTATION

3.1 General

The objective of rehabilitationmeasures sbould be to chemicallyand physicay stabilize the ara, once acive productionhas terminated,so that any drainge streams fom the inactive site meetthe levels given in paagraph 1.3,and the area, dependingon its potetial uses, is generally acceptable from the standpointsof aestheticsand safety.

Mine operators shoulddevelop and cost a plannedappoh to rehabitation of tmemining site based on the a ned life of the mine aleady at the time of the plamningand developmenL Ihus, when determiningthe locationand other pameters (height,gradg, side slopes etc.) of waste rock piles and tailings dams, ConSideron shouldbe given,to posSiblerehabilitaon measures.Sin the coStof reabilitation shouldbe bone by the mine opratr, he should estima the future cost and inerUnlie it as part of the cost of pOduction.

9 3.2 Rehabilitationsystems.

Most of the mines in Bolivia are base metal mines with appreciableamounts of sulfide minerals such as pyuite and pyrhote remainingin the mie dumps and tailings pos. If these sulfides are exposed to oxygen and water, they continue to oxidize to sulfuric acid, which in its tun dissolves metals to high conents. TIis oxidation may conatinuefor hundreds of y, creaing a major source of pollution of the steams of the area 3 TMechemical rehabiltaton is mainly a matr of proteting the sulfidesfirom oxygen. Ibis can in pnnciple be done in two ways: 1) by burying the aiings un a cover of water, i.e. create a lake over the tailings aa, or 2) by covein the tailings areas or waste rock dumpswith layers of clay, moraine or soil that create a cappillary water layer preventingthe oxygen rm rading the waste rock or the tailings.Mhis layer will also facilitate the run off of surface water from precipitation.

Regardingthe fis altemative,it is important that precipitationand other water inflow are sufficimnto keep the "lake" adequatelyfilled by water to cover the taiings even duringdry periods.

Mhesecond alternativerequires the availabilityof suitablematerials (clay, gravel, moraineetc) within reasonabledistnces.

3.3 Rehabilitationof open pits and mine workings.

Contaminatedwater accmulating in open pits or other mme workingsshould be hydrologicaily isolated or reated In an adequate manner.

3.4 Rehabilitationof tailings azeas.

Steps should be taken to control contaminaed seepageand rnoff from tailings impoundmentare and to physicallyand chemicallystabilize the surfaceof these areas.

Tailings imm aeas should be located, designe and operted with a vew to faciitang their ultimateor staged rehabilitation.Consideration should be given CDmeasures such as

* isolationof chemicallyreactive wastes

* design of drainage characteristics of the retaing strucures to create a fee draining mass or to minime seee, dependingon the quality of the seepageanticipated

* suitablemens for collectingcontaminted seepage

* metbodsof surfac stabilizaton eavisagea, such as chemical,physical or vegetative

X * alternativemethods of disposal or uses of taiings.

10 Consideation should be given to stripping and storng topsoil or other meials which might be used at the rehabilitationstage, if these would othrwise be made naesble by rte developmenL

4 WASTEROCK AND MILLTAILINGS DISPOSAL

Tailingsshould not be dischargedto an unconfineddisposal area unless confineddLsposal is sbown to be impracticalor unless the unconfineddisposal altemative is environmentallypreferable.

For new, expanded or reopened mines, unconfnd diposal is not permitted in m-ny countres of the world and shouldnot be used in Boliviaexcept in very specialcaes.

Tailingsdisposal areas shouldbe designed to conform to the guidelinesoutlined In paragrphs 2.1 and 3.

Waste rock disposal should be cared out according to the guidelines outined In paragraphs 1.6 and 3.

11 THE BERLIN GUIDELINES Annex 1

Addressed to the Mineral Sector

Governments,minng companiesand the mineras industriesshotdd as a minimnum: 3 1. Recognizeenvironment managementas a high priority,notably dung the licensing process and trugh the devdopment and implemenion of envimnmentalmanagement systems.These shouldinclude eady and com ive envirommentalimpact assessmen, pollution control and other preventiveand mitigativemeasures, monito and auditing activities and emergencyresponse procedures.

2. EstabUshenvironmen a blity in dustry and govemnmentat the highest managementand pollcy-makinglevels.

3. Encourageemployees at all levels to recognizethir responsibilityfor envin l managementand ensurethat adequae resourcs staff and requsite training are availableto implementenvironmental plans.

4. Ensure the participationand dialoguewith the affectedcommunity and other directly intrested paries on the envnental aspectsof all phases of miningacwivities.

-- 5. Adopt best practicesto minimizeenvnmental degradationnotably in the absenceof specific enviromental regulations.

6. Adopt envonmentally sound technologiesin all phases of mining activitiesand inereasethe emphasis on the nsfer of appropie techmologieswhich mitigateenmenta impacts including those fom small-scalemining operons.

7. Seek to provide additiona funds and innvative fnancial arangements to improve environmtal performanceof existi mning operations.

8. Adopt nsk analysis and risk manageme in the devdepmen of regulationand in the design, operationand desoning of miningactivities, including tihe handling and disposal of hazardousmining and other waStes

9. Reinforcethe infrastructure.infomion systemsservice trainingand slklls in enviroment managementin relation to miningactvities.

10. Avoid the use of such envintl regulationsthat act as unnecessarybaries to trade and investmenL

11. Recognizetbe lnkages between ecology. socdo-cua conditionsand hum heatehand | safety. both within the waoklace and the natral envmironmenL

1 12. Evaluate and adopt, wherever approprate, economic and administrative instrhments such as tax incentive poUcies to encouage the reduction of pollutant emissions and the Iuroduction of innovative technology.

13. Explore the feasibility of reciprocal agreements to reduce waboundary pollution.

14. Encourage long-termnining invesmuent by having clear eaviromaeal smdards with 3 stable and predictable environmental citeria and procedures.

Addressed to Development Asistance Agencies

Multilateral and bilateral assnce agencies have an essental role to play in turtng environmental management, paricularly In devdoping nations, and in assisting these nations in pmgrams to protect their enviromnmet both nationally and as part of the global environmental system. Accordingly, they should.

1. Accord high priority to the mitigation of enviromaental degradation associated With mining in developing couixes to achieve high environmental performance.

2. Initiate. as an integral part of any exploraton and mining project, envimet institutional building programs. Special sup should be given to counties actively woing to improve their environmental capabilities.

3. Require that all mining projects supported sball contain a trainig componen that will 3 include specific training on environmental awareness and its application to the mining sector. 4. Support increased resarch regardig the devdopment of new processes. with fewer enviromnentalimpacts, including recycling.

5. Support the development of activities thA would mitigate advease effects on the socic- cultural fabric and the ecosystem. To achieve this objectivc, interatonal agencies sbhld give piority to education and training which increase awareness of these issues and allow the affected communities to participate ia decsion-makig.

6. In suppOrng mining projects, agencies should also take int account the fIllowing:

- rehabilitation of displaced populaon;

- environmental histoy cf the country;

- large scale impact on socio-ltural patterns;

- the overall economic balance of the project vis-i-vis its toul eni nental impact;

- the impact on other natual resources and ecologically sensitive areas (e.g. protected forest lands. magroves, wildlife parks and neighboring wat mbodies).

I APPENDIX TV.12

l SECTORALENVIRONENTAL ASSESSMENT OF THE MININGAND INDUSTRLAL I SECrORSIN BOLIVIA

t GUIDELINES FOR THE PREPARATION OF A CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE BOLIVAN MINING INDUSTRY

by Anders Swartling and Bo Lundberg

i GUIDELINES FOR THE PREPARATION OF A CODE OF PRACTICE 1 FOR THE BOLIVIAN MINING INDUSTRY

TABLE OF CONTENT I I BACKGROUND

: II OULUNE FOR CODE OF PRACTICE A Geneal principles 1j Specific rules

1 WATER MANAGEMENT 1.1 General 1.2 Monitoing 1.3 Guidelines - acceptable effluent levels 1.4 Mill process effluent 1.5 Mine drinage 1.6 Surface drainage and seepage 1.7 Reuse of water

U 2 WASTE TREATMENT 2.1 Tailings impoundment systems 2.2 Other mtal emoval systems 2.3 Ihiosalt removal

- 3 REHABIIATION 3.1 Generl 3.2 Rehabilation syste 3.3 Rehabilitation of open pits and mine workings 3.4 Rehailion of ilings areas

4 DISPOSAL OF WASTE ROCK AND MILL TAILINGS

1 1

1 UNIVERSIDAD MAYOR DE SAN SIMON FACULTAD DE CIENCIAS Y TSCSOLCA POSM DAGS 171~~~~Cobb" sv 21-

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= :pm 1Watenciedtrico : 6.4 r 6.5 1 6.9 : 6.8 I1.8.L I cgO2/L Il1cub. 5Sdts 20 Ul : IIIS 1 17 :B.hL I.o0211 lOsid. Blcroato : 140 1 208 : 216 : 192 -Silidos Totals : aqL SgravlaitriceLOSW ' 166 I 5:9 1 770 : fdlidusFiltrablgs : qgL lGraidtrico lOSoC 94 I 334 I 470 1 186 : MS1ldasSuspedidos eigL Milcul 1 72 : 54 I 129 I 59 S 151. V. 1tilu1Fi1tr. I .;/L. Irawluitrico5S5o 1 33 140 1 239 1 69 1 IS61UdosFiJes Filtr. I cg/L J6r&yimdtrico55o. I 61 I 114 1 232 : l17 : IS6IidosSedisentables UL/L Conolhoff : 0.1 1 0.2 0.3 i 0.4 MCIcroros ogCI-JL laguatoitrico : 5.6 1 3 99.3 1 20.1 : MFsroroTotal I qPlL Wanadoeolibdato I 0.1 : 2.2 : 4.5 : I ConductividadEspec. : Uhho/cm C: ductivisdtrico : 15.7 356 : 911.2 1.1 IN- *eaniatal I agNI3/L Nest. IJuldahl 1 0.6 3.2 : 3.3 1 1.1 : INitrCgmnaTotal : gil/L Uost. Ejuldabl 1 30.9 32.2 : 31.2 : 28 :Nit?atos : g)lO3/L Ituhd. Cadsio : 1. 4.8 3 : 4.3 :Nit;itos I"gO2 illazotizaciln 0.04 0.8 0.5 1 0.2 :Sulfatog qgSO4UL Iurbidilutrico : 36.5 77.2 1 9.6 I 163.17 WAlcaltidad *gCa2CI3/LITitrlfitric1 41.7 03.5 "9.1 666.0 : -sICarbooutos I ngC'13/L MTltrimitrico 0 0 : 0 I 0

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3OrganisuosCoulr.totaigs. uFtlCOOdL :lbrua riltrauts i 2.30E404 : 6.70Es04 I 4.30E104 I 1.30E404 3 ---- r

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Z:H 3-18VL - 1. I G~lOOPERATIVABESERVICiOS PUBLUCOS SANTA CRUZ LTOA. Omcar'Ac ; Aa e CaU Toads 0.Oa deLenin. TanqueMevad C Ca P 14AGUAPA1P2s2 _sATAC11UZ - IDUvIA TdIanou 5s-1666- 5-1GC7 TfTdr 4341SAGPAC D. V.

TABLE G:1 dEPORTI DE ANALISIS IDBR10tRZDE AWA.SS:R1f.S JOSE V=O SEAS

DATO Dl LA NM18STA

Sanla ruz SiD cisa z J~~~~~~~~~~1Whe30 BU 12l05 hO Toada pDr :=1Ri& NaC9nS:=elaci Mkl-aa1; &u1ANa MNkU1 &M. lia t |Fecha de ht Toma 2B-01-93 2U-01-9S 2001-D3 -9 1 oos~~ -m]t2a5S * =0 D

pH - OIigo DMudi (- - I nducUtrdad E&pd _- _ |MIdobsToLaIs a I11DEmdl) 863 627 878 720 . &5id Totais a BOOC (Tl) 725 479 4117 353 S$Sido ToL Vdiais a S0OOTji/ 135 148 391 357 WA1Cssuspn TOlWESa 1105 (ueJi 542 L49 1OD 40 s5 susp=& rp O (adl) 471. 0 9 .9.3 Z7 . S5E1 Susp. Vdiis a600s (m) 71 10 171 13 * 5~iitbsTobl (a2/t) _- GzmmsyAih te 27 2 27 33 AkLa k Ten 03

D3vi rens (rgI) - r nL- Qaii deG ic4 - nt2&5 4.93 'L140

Eori5ni Tuabl CIP/1(M 00 _ 1 liIo TLSF-aks (tNP/100DO

limiLb U m Va= = p =Lorm d CIai fk de wuc,d al R1ammnao NsaTmaIPaM d mzammiLntodL deQCm indusLi2als

Om D: Aim deslim-las al buaRte y aL-jamicLo de rcskI

JEFE DPTO. LABORATOr,Cs. 8AOUAPAC COOPERATIVADESERVICIOS PUBLICOS SANTA CRUZ LTDA. OF'PNAOm?TtALJ SA'GUAPAC G0U A 3234 D~~~~~~~~~W CIU -

TABLE G:2 REPORTE DE ANALISIS LUIA RD) DMACLI:S SEWV%S ni0 M&1LSEaS OA TO S L

Pzooodemia Santa .fi ,lLflQIIz Smn i SanaC Fumte DZ10 MO0D -303 - 2D2 S 1aiJflj '=eIIN ?li SMita& NLi8lIe 4SL .SUtrN;ooN d Fa dea Toma 2-1-93 28-L-93 26-0L-03 2U'L3

PARA ZETRS_ULTA1S .M= IREU Te2DeatuW * mg~ tu (mg - _- ! 0m DhSeo (Inc/o Turbeda (d _ _ _ Couvkad Esptdrim ( I __C__ mikb~Tola1s a llO!C (mO') 1727 1531 3333 757 J TboaJesa 600!Cg (MA1 504 114O 545 3 U5 Sakk 1DLVoiUi a 6002C (WAJ123 391 27BU 372 |sTO e ak102C (mJA) 1426 1540 2515 107 15 5 np; a BOOM (m a 547.D lU; L0.0 .%is spasL Voiilm a B00!D (Me4 1418 6 9S 233 97 5SUdstiimiabk: ToLalie (Il) _ Grasasy Acii (mc/) 53 L_3 C AkaL haFewa ctYD3C OVAj <1 L C < L U ka; To C (mC0o LBO Z79 190 552 DU= Tdb C. D3 (m _- _ Cb;Q COU 11 G0 54 N;t6pOTOUta N (Wf/4 39. 0 Z 09.0 5t11 0 357.0 N T O C. (MCA 175. 0 0D.D 4. 9 34. 0 NIgO o0rpaiDC NM (MO 217.0 120.0 47.1 15.0 ByArimCN02 Iwo ; D.02 C0. 02 C 0.02 0. 05 _ X- C NM IMK/) C 0. 05 <:D. 05 0.1 0.34 Ffroi PBa voeP04C (MC/n 1. 0 0.9 C 0. 02 13.7 FId Totalc L (m/4 :7.5 7.5 t. 25 21.5 ISU1raLsc.9S4 (m2/ Z5. 0. 0 120.0 7.0

.mT (D _ _

a=um (MCA _ irm (mg/I_ mwjsio ~~(Mgf/I) - - cm=rToLal (rrrg/ - - Ihnpne (mg/I) - - PIa _ W4 ___ po' (Me/ - -_ IPDLa4 __D

mDamb udaqimde~ Gug/I 42.2 540 3560 Z11 D o (ml/ow- - hformi TOlea ( 100 IimsO F= (NMP/100A

I;nil- M~sin pam cmrp z=pLom Le Ca apde aOerd a[ ThehMta Na;Oul paM d bn"-ieiIn d dmM&aLN1D sLrif.

CasefC Agu indmt: al trnasporiey abjaminiLode nMiduuLn

JEFE DPTO. LABORATOICS 41BU P AC TABLEC 1988--DISIRIBUTION OF TOTALPWBLIC AMO PRIVATE NAWFACTURINO OUTPUT BY REGIONA 3-DIGIT ISIC CWDE Cuquflsaca La Paz Cochabam Oruro Potosi Tarija Santa Cruz Total 3111312Food Products O.1X 4.7X 3.9X 1.42 0.1X 0.3X 6.22 16.BX 313 leverages 0.32 T.3X 1.9X 0.3X 0.1X 0.2X 1.3X 11.2X 314 Tobacco O.0X 1.12 0.02 O.OX O.0X 0.0x 0.02 1.12 321 Textiles 0.02 6.82 0.72 0.1X O.OX O.OX 1.3X 8.8X 3ZZMearing Awerel 0.0X 0.42 0.0 0.0 0.02 0.9O 0.91 0.42 323 Leather 0.0X 0.2X 0.2X 0.02 0.02 COX 0.0 O.SX 324Footwear 0.0X 0.02 0.32 0.1X O.OX o.0x o.ox 0.3X 331 Wood 0.0X 0.32 0.0 0.0X 0.02 0.0X 3.22 3.SX 332 Wooden Furniture 0.02 0.12 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.11 0.12 341 Paper Products O.OX 0.12X .22 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.2X 0.52 342 Printing A Pihilshirg 0.0S 2.22 0.22 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.31 2.8X 351 Industrlil Chelcals O.0X 0.2X 0.02 0.12 O.OX 0.02 0.02 0.3X 352 Other Chemcals O.02 2.42 0.5X O.OX O.oX 0.0X 0.1t z.9n 353 Petroleum Refining 4.62 0.02 20.12 0.0 O.O2 O.O 10.S 35.2X 355 ReAber O.OX 0.02 0.0X 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.0X 0.02 356 PlasticProduts O.O 0.61 0.2X 0.12 0.02 0.0X 0.52 1.32 362 Gtlss L Products 0.02 0.2X 0.42 O.OX 0.oX O.OX 0.02 0.5X 369 Other lon-mtatlc Illn 0.8h 1.6X I.5X O.0X 0.02 O.OX u .3 4.1X 371 Iran A Steel *aslc et 0.Ox O.OX 0.0 0.02 0.01, 0.02 9.02 0.02 372 Nonfsrrous lasc Metals O.OX O.ZX 0.0o 7.1X 0.2X O.OX O.O T.52 351 ietta Products 0.02 0.6X 0.71 0.2X 0.02t 0.0 0.2X 1.52 382 onelectric Mchinery 0.0 0.02 0.01 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.12 O.12 383 Electrical Machinery 0.0 0.1X 0.1X 0.0 0.0 O.O2 0.01 0.32 384 Transport Equirnt 0.01 0.1X 0.0X 0.0X 0.0X 0.0X 0.0X 0.22 385 Scientific Equipmnt 00X 0.1X 0.0X 0.0X 0.0X 0.02 0.02 0.12 390 Other arnulacturlng 0.0X 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.0X 0.0X 0.0X 0.0X TOrAL 5.81 29.01 30.92 9.32 0.4X 0.5x 24.12 100.0X

SWUCE:WORLD BANK CALWULA11 ONS BASED ON INEDATA

;~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~P -5~~---- - ~~- - - I~ TABLED. Enterprises visited in the food industry sector.

Nme location Activity No. of employees La Francesa Ltda. El Alto Bakery 40 Ferrari-Ghezzi Ltda oruro Pasta factory, bakery 22 Comp.Ind.Frigorifico S.R.LCotoca, S.C. Slaughter house 60 Ind.Venado S.A. La Paz Yeast factory, ready-to-eat food 140 Soc. Aceitera Oriente .-S.A. Santa Cruz Edible oil, soya and sunflower flour 238 Ind.de Aceite Fino S.A. Santa Cruz Crudeedible oil and s6ya- flour etc. 350 Ind. de Aceite Fino S.A. Cochabamba Edibleoil refinery 180 Granja Avicola S. Bernardo Santa Cruz Chicken farm, prod. of baby chicken 70

ITotal number of esployees: 11100

TABLEE. Enterprises visited in the beverages sector.

Name location Activity No. of employees SAGIC S.A. la Paz Alcohol distillery 92 Dest. Santa Clara S.R.L. Santa Cruz ALcohol distillery 20 Cerv. Boliviana Naciona) la Paz Brewery 650 Cerv. Santa Cruz S.A. Santa Cruz Brewery 300 Cerv. Taquina S.A. Ohab Brewery 170 Malteria Linde S.A. Ccbaa Malt factory 15 Embot. Oriental S.A. Oruro Soft drink bottleing 130 Embot. Internacional Santa Cruz Soft drink bottleing 60 Embot. Unidas Ltda. Santa Cruz Soft drink bottleing 60

Total number of employees 1,500

TABLEF. Enterprises visited in the leather tanning and shoe factory sector. Name Location Nb. of employees Curtiembre Illimani Ltda. la Paz 50 Cobplejo Industrial Gamboa La Paz 70 MACUBoLLtda. La Paz 70 Curtismbre Santa Cruz S.A. Santa Cruz 85 Curtienbre Hercules S.R.L. Ccchalamba 70 MANCOS.A. Cochabar-ba 520 Tbtal number of employees 865 15. l

7. MONITORINGOF WATERQUALITY IN SANTA CRUZAND COCHABAMBA

During the survey of industries, a few water samples were collected for analysis of scme pollution-related parameters. The samples taken in the Santa Cruz area were analyzed by the SATJGAPACWaste-water Laboratory, and 3 those taken in Cochabamba were analyzed by the Regional Laboratory for Water Quality Control at the University Mayor de San Simon. The results are presented in Tables G and H.

The samples taken in the Santa Cruz area were the following:

- B207: Rio Piral, upstream of the sewage works of the city - B208: Rio Pira;, downstream of the sewage works of the city - B205: Urban sewage at the entrance of the treatment lagoons - B204: Urban sewage, effluent from the treatment lagoons - B210: Discharge frcm the grease trap of the edible oil factory "FINO" - B209: Combined discharges from the edible-oil factory 'FINO" - B203: Discharge from the paper mill "lupel" - B202: Effluent from the facultative lagoon of the slaughter house C.I. "Frigorifico".

The first four samples, 1-4, taken in the Cochabamba area (Table H) were taken from Rio Rocha, from 12 km upstream of the city (no. 1) to 23 km downstream of the city (no. 4). The remaining 6 samples were all taken from effluent discharge canals, going to the river.

1 Table A structure of Bolivian Manufacturing Sector: 1989 By Sector, Region, and Type of Ownership ______-- __------__------__------__ __--- ______- @SECTOR Private State Distribution ol SECTOI Ownership Ownership Total Kfg Outp: (A) (B)

311/312 Food ProCucts 86.0% 14.0% 19.1% 313 Beverages 100.0% 0.0% 10.9* 314 Tobacco 100.0% 0.0% 1.0% 321 Textiles 94.0% 6.0% 8.6% 13 322 Wearing Apparel 100.0% 0.D% 0.4% 323 Leather 100.0% 0.O% 0.5% o 324 Footwear 100.0% 0.0% 0.3% 331 Wood 100.0% 0.0% 3.4% 332 Wooden Furniture 100.0% 0o.0* 0.i? 341 Paper Products 100.0% 0.0% 0.5% 342 Printing & Publishing 100.0% 0.0% 2.7t 351 Industrial Chemicals 100.0% 0.0% 0.3% 352 Other Chemicals 95.1S 4.9% 2.8% 353 Petroleum Refining 6.6% 93.4% 34.2% 355 Rubber 100.0% 0.0% 0.0% 356 Plastic Products l00.0% 0.0%t 1.3% 362 Glass & Products 69.6% 30.4% 0.5% 369 Other Non-metallic Min 95.3% 4.7% 4.0% 371 Iron & Steel Basic Met 100.0% 0.0o 0.0% 372 Nonferrous Basic Metal 4.9% 9S.1% 7.3% 381 Metal Products 100.0% 0.0%t .4% 382 Nonelectric Machinery 100.0% 0.0% 0.1% 383 Electrical Machinery 100.0% 0.0% 0.3% 384 Transport Equipment 72.2% 27.8% 0.2% 385 Scientific Equipment 100.0% 0.0% 0.1% 390 Other Manufacturing 100.0% 0.O% 0.0%

100.0%

TABLE B Distribution of Total Output by Region & Type of Ownership

Private State REGION Ownership Ownership Total Cochabamba 10.8% 21.3% 32.1% Santa Cruz 14.4% 12.4% 26.7% La Paz 24.3% 0.6% 24.9% Oruro 2.1% 7.1% 9.3% Chuquisaca 3.5% 2.3% 5.9% Tarija 0.5% 0.2% 0.7% Potosi 0.4% O.O% 0.4% TOTAL 55.9% 44.1% 100.0% 3 …------__- NOTE: Percentages are based on value of production, obtained by the 1989 INE manufacturing survey of firms with more than 5 employees. SOURCE: World Bank Calculations based on Data provided by INE. 13.

4. IMPORTANTINVESTMENT OR EXPANSIONPROJECTS

During the visits of the enterprises, the study team was informed about four major expansion projects, planned or under implementation by the ccmpanies visited. A currently very expansive industry is the edible oil - soya flour manufacturing, and two of the biggest ccompnieswithin this branch are both implementing major extension projects. In one case, "SAD", an environmental impact assessment has been made.

The other industrial sector currently involved in expansions of their production facilities is the cement and glass industrv. In the case of the glass bottle industry, "Vidrio Lux", a satisfactory environmental inpact statement has been prepared, whereas the cement canpany "MOBOCE"has not prepared any such study to support its current expansion project. It is strongly recomnended that SENMA requires full environmental impact assess- ments to be carried out by big enterprises undertaking major expansion projects. Soee guidelines for preparation of EIAs for cement plants have been provided by the study team.

While the above mentioned industries are seme examples of growing and campe- tetive branches in Bolivia, some other branches are less successful. Among the latter could be mentioned the textile industry and same of the older leather tanneries, which are currently reducing their production.

5. MODEL ENTERPRISES

The study team has been struck by the fact that although there has usually so far been very weak pressure fron the authorities on industry to make environmental and/or safety precautions or to implement a responsible environmental management, several enterprises have installed protective equipment and can show a high environmental standard. Some of these enterprises could even be regarded as "model enterprises" in the sense that their solutions and their environmental prottection and practice could be used by others as examples to follow. It depends on many factors if a company merits the lable "model enterprise", e g the expectations are normally higher that a big, multi-national ccmpany should respect high environmental requirements. A small caupany could show a high degree of environmental responsibility by using simple but efficient-anti-pollution technology, and thereby serve as a model. Based on the survey made, the followirg enterprises have all made commendable efforts to improve the situation with respect to environmental

protection and/or occupationalhealth and safety:

Ibp 14.

- Ferrari-Ghezzi, Oruro: pasta-factory and bakery - Ccmnpania Industria Frigorifico, Cotoca, Santa Cruz: slaughter house - Cerveceria Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz: brewery - Malteria Linde, Cochabamba: malt factory - Curtiembre Hercules, Cochabamba: leather tannery - FANEXA, Cochabamba: explosives factory - Vidrio Lux, Cochabamba: glass bottle factory

6. MAJORTARGETS FOR MITIGATIONAND IMPROVEMENTOF ENVIROW4XENTALWANAGEMENT

In the Main Report, Part 6, II, C, four major mitigation measures have been proposed. These are:

(1) Adequate urban and industrial planning in El Alto (2) Abatement of the pollution of Choqueyapu River in La Paz (3) Upgrading the watershed management in Santa Cruz _ (4) Extending the sewerage systems in Cochabamba.

These are all major undertakings, by necessity involving the Government of _ Bolivia or - in the cases (3) and (4) - at least the regional Corporations

_ for Development. The suggested measures also need considerable investment, possibly also foreign aid. However, there are a great number of simple, short-term mitigation measures that could be taken without incurring any major costs, and which could be implemented irmediately as some kind of pilot projects in cooperation between SENMA,the regional or local environmental authorities and the relevant industrial organizations or individual ccmpanies. Examples of such immiediate measures are:

- inspection and upgrading of the effluent treatment facilities of the sugar mills in the Santa Cruz region well before the next "zafra"; - issuing of clear requirements for scoping of EIAs and enforcement of a an EIA clearance procedure for campanies with major expansion projects in progress or being planned; - environmental auditing of the major enterprises discharging high anounts of organic waste (such as big breweries, yeast factory, milk product factories, slaughter houses, distilleries, vegetable oil factories) and based on that, establish individual mitigationi plans; - work out plans for saving of water, pretreatment of waste-water to reduce or eliminate haza7dous cortpryaaits, and for safe utilization of industrial effluents in irrigation or crops; - work out programs for ccmpensation of those involved in recovery and a recycling of wastes to obtain sustainable use of resources. j ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1.1.

scale foundries or metal-processing units, having a workforce in the range of 17-40. In addition, a medium-sized plant was visited, "Fabrica Acerbol Ltds." with 100 employees and working partly with galvanization, thereby causing a potential impact on water resources. In this case, the total amount of contaminants being discharged seems to be quite small, but there is an urgent need to inform the management about fundamentals in environmental management and the authorities need to exercise a closer control of the operation, in crder to improve the general shop-keeping.

The very big tin and antimony smelter of "Vinto" with about 800 employees, is currently undertaking a program for a major upgrading of its environmental protection equipment through a German aid grant of USS 5.3 million. At the conclusion of this rehabilitation program, the atmospheric emissions of arsenic trioxide will be significantly reduced and the existing waste-water treatment plant will have a largely increased capacity. The environmental impacts in the surroundings of the "Vinto" smelter have been and still are very severe, mainly caused by the huge emissions of arsenic and sulfur oxides, polluting soil, water, crops and wildlife and causing a considerable Uf health hazard to nearby human populations. It is now extremely important that the campetent authorities follow up the consequences of the rehabilita- J tion program undertaken at the smelter. In cooperation with national and international experts, it should launch a broad monitoring program, covering all relevant envirormental media (air, surface water, ground water, soil and biota, including crops and human be-ings), in order to closely follow the reduction in exposure to toxic oontaminants. This kind of monitoring data will be necessary as a basis for decisions on further restoration measures to be carried out in the area under the heaviest pollution load. More details on the environmental situation of the "Vinto" smelter are summarized in the Main Report, Part 4, III, E:4.

One more example will be given fran this sector, namely "Hbormet S.A." in La Paz, which is a foundry and recycling plant for old lead batteries. In addition to new lead batteries, the campany is producing lead profiles and tubes. The production, which is based on the principle of sustainability, | presents a high environmental risk, due to the many hazardous chemicals being used in the process, and due to the potential impact of heavy metals in the emissions to the atmosphere and in the effluent discharges to Rio Choqueyapu. However, the manager has demanstrated a high degree of awareness about environmental risks and has implemented various measures for environmental protection, e g apparently an adeguate air pollution control equipment. The main deficiency is the lack of regular monitoring of potential dangerous components in effluents and in stacks. 12.

3. INDUSTRIALESTATE DEVELOPMENTS

The only well-developed industrial estate currently existing in Bolivia is located in the northeastern outskirts of the city of Santa Cruz. By the end of 1989, some 250 hectares were developed and about 150 industries are | installed in the area. The municipality has provided basic infrastructure (roads, energy and water supply, sewer systen and storm water collector) and is operating a collective waste-water treatment plant, serving the industries and some nearby housing areas. The organization and operation of this industrial estate could serve as a model for other municipalities irnthe country. Nonetheless, there are many improvements that could be achieved also in the Santa Cruz industrial estate. In order to keep the waste-water treatment and pumping costs under control, the municipality has a clear interest to curbe any excessive water consumption. A problem is also that scme enterprises extract groundwater for use in their process, and after use this water is released into the waste-water sewer, possibly without paying the full charge to the water cmpany, SAGUAPAC.Furthermore, same industries U discharge wastes that may hanm the biological processes in the collective treatment plant, e g chromium salts from same of the tanneries. Therefore, a X program for regular inspection of all industries in the estate should be established, in order to check amount of goundwater extraction, occurrence of waste infiltration into the ground, measure waste-water flow and existen- ce of harmful wastes. In cases where water consumption is excessive or where toxic or other harmful wastes are discharged to the sewer (or infiltrated into the ground), the enterprises should be required, within a defined tine frame, to present concrete plans for remediatiom. Technical advice on feasible and economic solutions should be provided by SAGUAPACand/or its associated bodies (CORDECRUZ,SEARPI, SENMA,universities, etc.).

Some initiatives to set up industrial estates have also been taken in Oruro, El Alto and Cochabamba. All these are more or less deficient, perhaps the most flagrant example being the so-called industrial estate in El Alto, where there is no guarantee of land rights and no provision of basic services such as electricity, water supply or sewer system. Since there is a strong pressure from industry to move into this area, and since the overall environmental situation in El Alto is very precarious, it is urgently needed that:-the locaL authorities, in cooperation with the central government, take a global approach to remediate the situation.

In the industrial estates of Oruro and Cochabamba, there are still relative- J ly few industries installed. In order to attract industries to these areas, it may be necessary to improve planning and infrastructure development.

'ha 9.

"Quimbol" is a fairly modern facility, using adequate technology to produce scme 150 tonnes/month each of soap and detergents and, in addition, several auxiliary products. The sewer of the plant is equipped with a trap for recovery of grease and then a sedimentation basin, but no secondary waste- water treatment is carried out. Instead, the effluent is utilized in an irrigation scheme, and it was reported that there are no discharges to any | river. The lack of monitoring of the waste-water flow and quality made it difficultto assess the degree of environmental problems, if any.

PAs a large and modern factory of explosives, "FANEXA"has a very advanced risk management and safety organizatior. Also the environmental mnagmcnt has a high standard, including the waste-water treatment system. The company has an important role to play as a guide and instructor to other big comnpanies in the field of environmnxtal and risk management.

The third big enterprise in this group, "PLASMAR",has practically no organization for environmental management. However, the water pollution problems are relatively limited.

One more example from this sector may be given, although it is a small-scale operation with only 11 employees. "Jake Oil S.R.L." is collecting waste oil, j mainly lubricant oil, which is treated with sulfuric acid in the presence of catalysts in order to produce hydraulic oil and other oil products. This recycling of an otherwise non-renewable resource is in accordance with the principle of sustainability. Although the activity creates relatively high environmental risks, the manager sesms to be well aware of the needs for environmental protection. However, the lack of environmental monitoring makes it difficult to assess the environmental impacts of the operation.

2.7 Petroleum refining

The waste-water treatment facilities at the two big YPFB refineries, in Palmasola (Santa Cruz) and Valle Hermoso (Cochaban*ba) are briefly described in the Main Report, Part r, III, D:l-d. In both cases, the equipment for waste-water treatment seems to be fairly adequate. However, the operation and daily maintenance of the equipment could and should be improved, in order to optimize the treatment results. The amount of water pollutants being discharged from the Palmasola Refinery are low, according to a spot sample, taken in january 1993. The effluents from the main waste-water treatment plant in Valle Hermoso also seem to be low in contaminants. However, a check made in the canal leading from the refineryto a tributary 10. *

to Rio Rocha indicated that there might be additional outlets fran the re-

finery, since the transport of contaminants in this canal (550 kg BOD5 /day, 800 kg organic solids/day) is much higher than what goes out fran the main treatment plant.

The authorities should require a full report of all points of emission frcm 1 the two refineries, both to water and air, as well as a full account of the solid waste disposal practices. A program for regular mnmitoring of waste- water effluents should be agreed upon with YPFB, and the ccompetent authority should furtherzore make pericdical sampling and analysis in the canals or st-eams "outside the fence".

2.8 Glass and other non-metallic minerals

In this sector, three large (the glass factory "Vidrio Lux Ltda." and two cement plants, "SOBOCE" and "CDOBcE") and one small enterprise ("Famalit- Fibrolit") wre visited. Currently, the four plants have together 860 uemployees, but two of the enterprises are implementing quite important expansion projects, which will increase the workforce significantly. None of 3 these industries have any important water pollution problmns, but until recently, the enormus emissions to the atmosphere of dust caused a complete transformation of the surroundings, including the water quality in streams and rivers. However, COBOCE installed a bag filter three years ago, and SOBOCE an electrostatic precipitator, one year ago, measures which have significantly reduced the previously unacceptably high envirorxental impact caused by the two cement plants. In connection with the expansion project of COBOCE (capacity to be increased 3 times), there are also plans to increase the capacity of the filters and other dust controlling equipment. However, no environmental impact study has been carried out by the company in support of the expansion project. On the other hand, "Vidrio Lux" has prepared a fairly complete impact study in connection with its plans to build a new, larger furnace. The enviroomental impact study provided by 'Vidrio Lux" 3 could be used by SENMA as a basis for establishing minimunmrequirenents for an EIS in connection with a major expansion project.

2.9 Basic metals and metal products

Within this group there is on one hand the very big basic non-ferrous metal smelting plant Vinto, in the vicinity of Cruro, and on the other four small-

'A 7.

ling, recovery and safe disposal of solid wastes, separate and economic treatment of most harmful waste streams - all achieved by means of relatively sirFie and cheap, but often quite ingenious measures within the plant) means a considerable reduction of the water pollution caused by the tannery and that the established, individual effluent limits are complied with. The lesson to be learnt from this example is that upgrading of the environmental I situation can be achieved very efficiently in Bolivia through a confiding dialogue and cooperation between industry and authorities, provided: - the authoritysets a clear and realisticenvirormnental goal, and for- mulates the rules and sactions needed to enforce its policy; - the authorityhas sufficientknowledge about the local conditionsand the technicalknow-how to be able to advice industryabout viable solutions in a climate of mutual understandingand cooperation; - industry has aquired basic understandingabout the need for environmental management,has adopted a sound environmentalpolicy, and has access to sufficient technical competence to implement and operate rational and econcmic solutions to pollution abatement. ii Among the remaining tanneries visited, two other examples merit some ccaients. In one case, "Curtiembre Santa Cruz S.A.", a medium-sized operation producing 70 % finished leather and 30 % wet-blue, with a capacity of 5,000-9,000 raw hides per day, the coampany operated a complete, although simple, waste-water treatment plant, in spite of the lack of any particular pressure from the authorities. The environmental policy of this company apparently was inspired by pressure from the local people not to pollute the near-by river. As a consequence, the company installed systems for recovery of solid wastes, segregated acid and alkaline liquors for separate treatment in 2x2 flocculation and sedimentation basins, followed by two large stabilization lagoons for each of the waste streams. There is no direct discharge to the river; the effluent evaporates or percolates into the ground. Although the ground water quality is not monitored, the company runs a regular monitoring program to check the quality of its effluents. Thus, this example shows how a oompany has taken a number of vemmindableinitiatives, 1 apparently without being pushed to do so by the authorities.The second example, "MACUBOL" in La Paz, is a fairly modern and efficient tannery, where the staff has a high technical competenceand the management a general interest and know-how in the field of environmentalprotection. However, the reason why no concrete anti-pollution measures were taken and only a very rudimentary waste-water treatment was installed was said to be the complete lack of environmental regulations and limit values enforced by the authori- J ties. A brief description of some of the waste treatment installations in the tanning industry in Bolivia is given in the Main Report, Part f,III,D:1d. 8.

2.5 Paper products, printing and publishing

Two large paper industries were visited, "La Papelera S.A." in La Paz with about 600 employees and "Industria Crucena del Papel (Kupel) Ltda." in Santa Cruz with 280 employees. The main manufacturing operations in the first mentionedplant are finishingpaper and plastic products, i.e. basically dry j operations, which do not cause any water pollution. However, at the same production site, there is a small cardboardmachine, producing same 5 t/day of low-qualitycardboard from waste paper collected mainly within the plant. There is no particular treatment of the waste-waterfran the cardboardpro- duction, and since it is a small-scaleunit with almost artisanalmanufac- turing and relativelylow water consumption, the envirornentalinpact is low.

The situation is rather different in the case of "Kupel", which is producing 400 tonnes/monthof sanitary paper and corrugatedmedium fran recycledwaste paper and imported pulp. The waste paper used as raw material consistsof newsprint and cardboard, which is dissolved in a hydropulper (without deinking)before the paper machine. With an approximatewater consumptionof _ 170 m'/t, the average daily water use is 1,700 m3 Based on an occasional

water sample taken in january 1993, the pollution load can be estimatedat: COD - 6 tonnes/day,suspended solids - 4.3 t/day, and oil and grease - 350 kg/day. The fibre losses are extremelyhigh (up to 40 % of the production), due to the lack of any fibre recovery unit. This certainly is very bad economy, and furthermoreadds an unacceptably high amount of organic waste to the collective waste-water treatment plant of the industrialestate in Santa Cruz. The "Kupel" paper mill does not only lack a sedimentationbasin for fibre recovery,it also lacks all other kinds of waste-watertreatment.

The third enterprise visited in this group was the large printing house "El Diario" in la Paz. There are no problemsrelated to the externalenvironment.

2.6 Industrialand other chemicals,plastic Eroducts

3 This is a very disparate sector, ccmprising several small units with only limited environmentalimpact, in addition to the three larger enterprises, "Quimbol S.A." (soap and detergent factory in Cochabamba),"FANEXA S.A.M." (explosives factory in Cochabamnba),and "PLASMAR S.A." (plastic products factory in El Alto). The nine enterprises visited altogether count 570 employees,where each of the three mentionedhas more than 100.

; 5.

environmental protection and managemnt by the biggest brewery in the country, a production unit which is today deliberately polluting the river passing through the whole city of La Paz. One aspect which must be taken into account is the specific water consumption in the brewery, which in some cases can be significantly reduced, in order to facilitate the waste- water treatment. For example, in the National Bolivian Brewery, the water consumption is currently about 6 m3/m3 of beer, while the factor water:beer could be brought down to 2-4 in sane modern units in Europe. Another interesting solution to the waste-water problem has been chosen by Taquina rewery in Cochabamba, wtere the untreated effluents are utilized in an irrigation scheme run together with a fanmer cooperative, which is also supplied with clean water frcm the mountains by the brewery's water supply system. The nutrients in the brewery effluent can thus directly serve a productive purpose and river pollution is practically eliminated.

Tne soft drink bottleing factories are usually not causing any significant water pollution problems. The main reumnmendation to these plants would be to keep the sanitary waste-water separated from the process waste-water so that the first category can be treated at least in septic tanks with adequate design.

2.3 Textiles

Only two textile plants were visited, one big facility in La Paz ("Forno S.A."), producing woolen goods, e.g. blankets and acrylic fabrics, and one smaller plant in Santa Cruz ("Inaltex Ltda."), producinmg cotton products, including sanitary napkins. The two plants had together a workforce of 230, but the number of employees in "Forno' was rapidly diminishing, from about 500 to the present 180. The most water polluting activity at "Forno" is the washing of the raw wool, producing a waste-water which is very rich in

grease and contains high concentrations of BOD5, COD and suspended solids. In a study carried out in 1983 (Diaz Benavente, 1985), it was estimated that the daily discharges fran the wool washing department at "Forno" were 50 kg

I of BOD5, 170 kg of COD and 550 kg of suspended solids. Since then, the production has been significantly reduced and recovery of grease is currently carried out from the sedimentation basin, where the effluents are treated. Washing soap is also recovered and recycled in the process. The remaining wet processes, including scouring, bleaching and dying are nowadays carried out in a fairly small scale and are only occasionally contributing at a significant degree to the pollution of Rio Choqueyapu. The sedimentation basin J for effluent treatment is currently being upgraded. 6.

2.4 Leather tanning and footwear manufacturinq

In this sector, which traditionallyis considered as very polluting, six plants were visited (see Table F) covering a wide range of technical and environmentalstandard, and representingwidely differing levels of ccmpe- tence and environmental awareness shown be the management. One extreme 3 within the sample of tannerieswas the 'CObplejoIndustrial Gamboa" .uith entirely obsolete equipint, a virtually ccmplete lack of planning and organization of the work and without any environmental awareness or precaution. The employees were leaving the place (the workforce was reduced to less than a half in two months) and the only rational thing to do appeared to be an imnediate close-down of the plant. Also in this sector, like in the brewery sector, there was an example of &.biq and very competetive company, which did not camply with a minimal environmental responsibility, while some of the smaller campanies in the same sector made considerable efforts in the field of environmental protection. The big leather tanning and footwear manufacturing company "Manaco" is not properly coping with the environmental requireents that can be put on a big firm with international connections. It is reasonable to assume that an adequate know-how must exist within the ccmpany in the field of environmental management and precaution, but this know-how was not implemented. For example, the design of the waste-water sewerage system (seperation and separate treatment of different types of wastes) was deficient, the recovery of by-products or reutilization of wastes were not optimal, the operation of the waste-water treatment plant was clearly sub-optimal and sane waste streams were discharged to the river without treatment, and the final disposal of solid wastes was caopletely out of control of the caopany. Also in the occupational health sector, there were several deficiencies. One of the main problems was the great difficulty to obtain correct data (or any data at all) on production, water consumption, amuunts of wastes and other envi- j trorientalaspects, which all indicates a lack of real caomitment in the field of enviroxnentalmanagement. This obviously is a case to follow up by the centralas well as the local environmentalauthorities.

In addition to the above mentioned two lamentablecases, there are at least a couple of tanneries where important efforts to protect the environment have been carried out. Perhaps the most spectacular example is fran Cbcha- bamba, where "Curtiembre Hercules S.R.L." has implemented a number of very commendable environmental protection measures, as a result of a combination of specific, goal-oriezted pressure based on economic incentives and technical advice and support frau the local authority (SEMAPA). The results obtained through this cooperation (saving of water through increased recyc- 34 3. site (SAO), while the other one (FINO) carried out the grinding, extraction and flour production in Santa Cruz, and oil refining was made in Ccchabamba. In all three plants the waste-water treatment system was under-dimensioned and without proper maintenance, and the solid waste management was clearly deficient. Industries of the actual size certainly can afford an adequate environmental planning and management, similar to the industrial safety and risk reduction programs in operation in both enterprises and related to the use of n-hexane as a solvent for oil extraction. The oil and grease separators existing in all chree plants, must be upgraded and subject to regular maintenance by skilled staff. However, oil and grease separaLors dLe not sufficient as the only water pollution abatement equipment in this type of industry. They must be supplemented by adequate sedimentation units, followed by stabilization lagoons to reduce the high BOD load of the effluents. It can also be mentioned that the Environmental Impact Study presented by SAO to support its application for expansion of the production (a new factory with three times higher production was to be ready by april 1993) did not ccmply with minimLn quality requirements for an EIS on a project of this size. The environmental consequences of the expansion and the need for upgrading of environmental protection measures should be assessed in much greater detail and be supported by measured data.

"Cmnplejo Industrial Frigorifico" (CIF) is a slaughter house, where the manager has an exceptionally high degree of environmental awareness. In spite of the lack of any pressure frcm environmental authorities, the system for recovery and reutilization of by-products as well as the waste-water management has been organized in an excellent way. The waste-water, after separation of grease, feces and other solids, is treated in two lagoons in series, one anaerobic and one facultative, with an overall retention time of 3 months. This kind of solution, set up at the plant in Santa Cruz (Cotoca), could serve as a model for other slaughter houses in the country, especially for the municipal slaughter house in La Paz, which is probably the second worst polluter of Rio Choqueyapu.

Another industry, belonging to the very heavy polluters of the same river in La Paz, is "Industrias Venado S.A.", producing both yeast and various kinds of "ready-to-eat' food. In the middle of the 1980s, it was reported that the effluents from the yeast plant held 2,000-3,000 mg/i of BMO5 (Penaranda, 1985). In addition, these effluents are very high in phosphorus (15-30 mg/1) and nitrate-nitrogen (500-1,000 mg/1), contributing strongly to the eutro- phication of the river. No waste-water treatment whatsoever is in operation, and the interest by the management in environmental protection seems to be miniimal. 4.

2.2 Beverages

Tnis sector, which is 100 % private, takes a significant share of the total minufacturing output in Bolivia, and is particularly strong in the La Paz region, but is quickly growing in Santa Cruz. The nine enterprises visited had a total workforce of 1,500 and they represent three main categories: alcohol distilleries, breweries (and one malt factory) and soft drink manu- facturers. The production plant of one of the enterprises, "Destileria Santa Clara S.R.L." in Santa Cruz, was not visited due to construction work in progress. The enterprises included in the study are presented in Table E.

Tne manager of the above mentioned distillery showed a very open attitude and had a high degree of environmental awareness. The plant started operation in 1992, and all the eguipment for environmental protection was not yet installed, although it was said that plans were established to do so. These plans included a system for recovery and burning of half of the bagasse (2,500 t/year) in the boiler and a system for hydrolysis of the remaining bagasse in order to sell it as cattle feed. In the future, the waste liquor will be evaporated and used as a fertilizer. For the time being, the waste-waters (64 m3 /day) are treated in a simple stabilization lagoon, v from which there are no effluents during the dry season (evaporation and infiltration). The general strategy for solving the environmental problems by recovery of by-products and minimizing the wastes that need treatment is interesting, and it is strongly rezc-mnended that SENMA as well as the local environmental authorities follow up the future developmerit at this plant.

Tne second distillery visited, "SAGIC S.A." in La Paz, does not practice any recycling or waste-water treatment. It is, howevr,. not well known how large the pollution load on the receiving river, Rio Choqueyapu, is at present.

Four breweries have been studied, three of then were visited by the team, and one was described in the report by SEARPI (1991). These four breweries represent very different levels of environmental standard. While two of the breweries ("Cer-mceria Boliviana Nacional S.A." and "Cerveceria Taquina S.A.") do not perf%rm any waste-water treatment at all - or only a very primitive treatment - at least one brewery ('Cerveceria Santa Cruz S.A.") has a well- designed and well operating treatment system. The situation is described in the Main Report, Part j-, III, D:l-d, "Wastewater treatment in Bolivia". The lesson to be learned from this example is that the Santa Cruz Brewery is still operating on the market and is quite ccmpetitive, although the company supports the costs of an investnmnt in a highly sophisticated waste-water treatment system as well as the daily operation costs of the system. Conse- quently, there is no reason not to require at least a similar level of 1. INTRODUWCTION

Campared to the primary sectors of the Bolivian economy, agriculture and the extraction of minerals and hydrocarbons, the manufacturing sector plays a relatively less important role. In 1991, this sector accounted for 13.5 % of 3 GDP, to be compared with 21 % for agriculture, 9 % for mineral extraction, and CS5 % for hydrocarbon extraction. The Bolivian figure for the manufacturing industry could also be cocpared with the average contribution to GDP in Latin America, which is 25 %.

It is obvious that the manufacturing capacity utilization in Bolivia has been fairly low during the 1980s, but in the last few years, the capacity utilization rates have been increasing, as has the total manufacturing output. In particular, the contribution of the manufacturing industry to the generation of export income to the count-y has increased sharply. According to available data, the export value of the sector grew from about 110 million US$ in 1986 to about 300 million USS in 1990. The latter year, the value represents32 % of the total revenue for the country.

The great majority of enterprises in Bolivia are very small, having less than 5 employees. Out of a total of more than 12,000 enterprises, it is estimated that only some 1,300 - 1,500 have 5 or more employees and can be considered as true "industries". It is obvious that the very small enterprises are almost exclusively private, and although they are numerous, they are most likely relatively insignificant in terms of total value of production. The small-scale enterprises are mainly active in the sectors food, textiles, wearing apparel, metal products and wood and wood products.

The real industries in the manufacturing sector are mainly involved in processing of primary products: As shown in Table A, petroleum refining, food processing, beverages, basic non-ferrous metals and non-metallic minerals together accounted for over 75 % of total manufacturing output in 1989. State-owned enterprises dominate petroleum refining and the basic nonferrous metal industry (mainly primary smelters), and state ownership is 3 also important in the food industry, when considering its output in absolute value. The state enterprises in the food sector comprise e.g. sugar mills and milk products factories. As a whole for the country, the state-owned manufacturing industry accounted for about 44 % of the total manufacturing output (from industries with more than 5 employees) in 1989. However, about 32 of these 44 % (a fraction of 73 %) were represented by the petroleum refining output from the refineries owned by the state ccmpany "Yacimientos Petroliferos Fiscales Bolivianos" (YPFB). 2.

If the petroleum refining and the nonferrous basic metal sector (mainly the tin and antimDny smelter Vinto, near Oruro), representing 7 % of the total industrial output, are omitted, the state-owned industry represents only 5 % of the total industrial output in the country. The private industry (with more than 5 employees) has its strongest development in the La Paz - El Alto area (about 43 % of the total), followed by Santa Cruz (25 U, Cochabamba (19 %), Chuquisacaand Cruro (see Table B and C). However, the average size (or output) of the enterprises is greater in La Baz than in, for example, Santa Cruz, where there is a great amount of small units producing food, uccden products or other manufactured goods. This means that Santa Cruz accounts for about 38 % of the total number of industrial enterprises, while La Paz only accounts for about 24 %.

Out of the approximately 1,300 industrial enterprises (with more than 5 employees) in Bolivia, scme 50 were visited during the walk-through surveys carried out in november 1992 and january-february 1993. Although this represents less than 4 % of all enterprises in the country, the visited plants covered well over 25 % of the total industrial mark-force. It is also quite clear that most of the biggest industrial working places in the country were included in the sample of plants visited. In fact, 46 % of the plants had more than 100 employees each, and three plants had more than 500 employees.

_ A detailed account of the findings is given in check list forms in Annex.

2. ENVIRONMENTALSTATUS AND WAIER POLLUTIONIN THE BOLIVIANMANUFACTURING INDUSTRY

2.1 Food products

Interviews were held with representatives of eight enterprises, and the production units were visited in all cases except one (Sociedad Aceitera del Oriente S.A., SAD), where a major expansion project was being ipisuented. The eight plants sampled had together a workforce of 1,100, and covered a relatively broad area of activities (see Table D).

33 Traditionally,the most polluting food industries are sugar mills, dairy and milk product factories, slaughter houses, yeast factories and edible oil factories. Since the sugar mills were out of operation at the time of our mission to Santa Cruz, they could not be included in our surveys. Also milk products factories were excluded fron our survey. However, these industries have been surveyed in a recent project by SEARPI of Santa Cruz (SEARPI, 1991). Of the two edible oil producers, one carried out grinding, extraction, preparation of soya and sunflower flour, and refining of the oil at the same APPENDIX IV. 1i1

SECrORAL ENVIRONMENTALASSESSMENT OF THE MININGAND INDUSTRIAL SECTORSIN BOLIVIA

t ENVIRONMENTAL SITUATION IN BOLIVIAN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY

by Lars Landner

I Table 4. AnaytIcal results of river sediments.All values, exceptpHI In mgjl. Locationsaccording to Fig.2. Labortory: MM, Onro.

SampleNo. E42. E73 E74 E75 E77 Egl E82 E84 Al ~~~15. is. iS. 19. 4. 1.25. 2. a- - a - - a

Cd 9. 9L 73. 2&6 51. | 7. 95. 1. 23C& 365. |7?, TM 471 401| 567. 25.

ha r 90. 5S00. 315. 2150. 9S0 1T00. 2650. 495. Pb 181. 935. 410. 110M 24L. 74C| 732. 30.

Sb_: 712 9. 205 _ 19T332. " 1 2105. 3130L 2200 770 1630 z Ta 27300. 69

; eextemelyhigh lead contaminationshould rcpresenta particularrst concerningthe health of those childen who are living in the neighbohood. The possiblecontmimnion with cyanide,xanthats or oter reagents from the small plants (Table2) Is another anxiety,which has not been investigatedin any detail by us.lhe risk is imminent, though, because of the rate haphazard process control in most of the small plants.

- -Thewaste situation in fte adjoiningmining centecs of Parco and San Diego is less problematicas these operations are separated fromthe civil populauonand ambitiousenvronmental programshave been initiated by COMSUR.the owner. However,mtaor pmblemsregarding old wam remain to be solved. The operations at Kumuranaand Andacabaare e nly more problematic,as presentedin chapter VI.A of the main report and App. IV:7.

Snummaryof environmental coucerns The city of Potosiis totaly dependenton mining for its survival and no viable alternativesare in sigbt In this situationof crsis, state autboritleshave been forced to aid in establishingminin cooperatives.This type of smail scale mining follows very old traditions.It is kmownfor exampletha in the eighteenthcentuy the Cerro Rico had more than 3000 entrances.Exploitation methods used today are only slighly differe from tose of that age. Ihus, a major part of the work *xrceconsists of daily paid workers earing less than the equivalentof 2 USS per day and having no socia security. With such a widespred misey and a municipalitywith scarce resources,the neglect and Indifferenceregarding environmental questions may be und able.

; The present precarious environmental situation in the city of Potosi can be summarized in the foUowing main points: - The lack of town planning and control, allowing conaon plant operations in the cenra parts of the city. - The social problem of having tens of thousands of people worling unde utmost primitive and dangeous conditions in undegound mines. - The dischare of acid mine water without previous eatment into a river which Is runnng through an urbanized area j - Ihe ree discharge of waste from concentration plants into rivers within the city boundaries. - The lack of a sewage system, household waste waters being discharged directly into river causeways within the city. - The heavy pollution of a river system with minaon reaching far away firom the source.

AUlof these aspects are obviously unacceptable, both from a sanitary and an environmental point of I view. However, due to the intimate social connection, it is very difficult to isolate any one of these problems for separate remediation. The soluxtionwill have to be sought in general ovemallplanning and -1 economic development Certain foreign companies have stAdiedthe possibilty of exploiting the upper parts of the Cerr Rico mountain by large scale, open pit mining. However, as yet no detailed feasibility study has been carried out. One major problem is the resistance among the population against the removal of part of their "holy" mountain. Neither would such an operation be very pemeonnelintensive, so it would not solve the unemployment problem. On the other hand it could restore relative posperity to the city of Potosi and open up for the possibilities of resolving, among other things, the environmental problems.

7 J

9 as well as in the bottom sediments (Fable 3 and Table 4). The values in wat vary betweea (approximately):arsenic 4-13 mgn , cadmium0.8-1.6 mgAl,copper 14-44 gll, lead 13-50 mgQand zinc 120-358mg/l. This is ten to onc hundredtimes the common internationallyused norms for mining effluents (see Table 2:5 in the main report). Note the very marked contrastto wats in rivers which are not being conminte by minlng/poesing activities.Still 20 km downsteam from the city, where ff river passes the newly constructedmunicipal hot spring baths at Tarapaya,the water is heavily polluted. The amount of suspended solids, almostexclusively originating from pollution,is ukewise excedingly high, namely 15-30 gll where the river leaves the urban ara and still 5-10 g/ at Tarapaya.Ptesming the approximatecontent of 20 g/l of suspendedsolids and an estimatedwater flow in the river of 0.25 m3/s, this would give a transport of solids of around 200 tons per day. TIis is fairly low compared to a preumed dischge from the Potosi plants of 500-1000tons per day, the differenceprobably being due to such factors as possible up-streamretention of material(during the prvailing season of low flow), variadon of discharge during the day, too few samples to get a reliable average,or an e=rori our esdmation of the wate flow.

Based on the availablefigures. the annual transportof heavy metals in wae solution fiom Potoi into the neaby valley amounts to more than 35 tons of arsenic, 4 tons of cadmium,80 tons of copper, 200 tons of lead, 12 tons of antimonyand 800 tons of zinc Presuminglhat the compositionof the susended solids is similar to the compositionof the sediment samples(Table 4), tne tansport of metals in suspensionwould be of the same order of magnitudeas that of metas in solution

TeJ source of the metals should be a combinationof beneficiationplant dischrge. mine water and metals leached from old waste. In fact there is a tendencyfor an increasedcontent of dissolved metals down-stream.which would indicateleaing of metals from the river bed sediments (old waste).

It should be emphasizedthat there are many unceaint concering tefi gures, as well as the conclusions,drawn above. They should serve perfecy well, however,for d ang general eds and indicating the magnitudeof the problem.

The consequenceof the heavy contaminationis a river devoid of flora and fauna and a water which is unsuitable for human consumptin or irrigation puposes for es (or hundreds?) of kilometers along the river course.Ihis is in contrast to the thiving agriculturalactivities along the -Rio LUmpioc(sample location E83). In this river also small scale fish farming ocQltS.Ihe rsticted cultivationin the Alja Mayo river is due to a combinationof relativelyrough tpography, contaminatd water and the previous dredgingof the valley botom for a dista of about ten kilometers.Thc exisdng smaillscale farmingis obviouslyusing the conminated water for irgation. Within the city boundaries,the rver has the characterof a discharge sewage drain in which pigs and other anmals are moving around. The

d. Table 3. Analytical results of water samples. All values, except pH, in mgIl. Locations according to Fig.2. Laboratory: 11MMKOruro.

Sample No. E42 E72 E73 E74 E75 E77 E78

pH 23 3L3 3.9 2.6 4.4 S9 7.8

suspended sothb 3529. 18. 537. 3359. 15230. 14350. 22.

Disolved solds 44690. 69. 3U3. 8 2-7. 2427 46D.

AS 035 0O.O 4.09 4.50 13.0 92 0.0O

Cd 14. 0.00 0.27 I.6 0.75 0.82 0.0

Cr 020 0.00 0o04 023 0.15 0.16 0.00

Cu 252. 0.00 2.23 43S 20.3 19.8 0.01

Fe 5294. 0.39 97.0 1162. 374. 33S. 1.4

Ma 24.3 0.06 5.4 29. 27. 22. 029

Ni 1.30 0.00 0.07 0.63 028 0.30 0.03

Pb 0.13 0.00 24.8 16.7 35.2 13.0 OIS

Sb 0.35 0.15 0.30 125 1.55 1.3 0.10

Z 2942. 0.0 12.6 35S. 120 161. 0.06

So. 7504. 3.0 107. S032. 3352. 1473. 60.

Sample No. E8I E82 E83 EM E85

pH 5.1 5.0 32 53 7.3

Suspended solids 13930. 30600. 36. 3436. 6542.

Disolved sobs 27s. 3098. 480 I136. 1357.

As 8.70 O.O

Cd 1.35 0.77 0.00 017 0.14

Cr 0.21 0.19 0Om 0.07 O.W

Cu 13.3 14.0 02 4M 335

Fe 371. 203. 2.6 53. 48.

Mm 13.4 18.6 0.0 5.4 S.4

Ni 0.40 C30 0.02 0.09 O0A0 Pb 49.6 50.0 0.00 45 7.78

Sb 2.85 3.00 0.25 0.9S 0.75 3Z 302. 192. 0.5 292 1.4 SO. 1623. 1860. 168. 696. 657.

gs S W pH7 *~~~~~~~ONW I~~~~~~~~~I.J All vales,excpt pH,anmgil Lambortr:1M,Ouo

P14~an~ ~ ~

J~~~~~~dL NU Table 2. Production and process data for a number of small beneficiation plants opemting within the town of Potosi. Data are approximate due to the frequent change of ore feed, doslfication of reagents and plant utilization (November 1992).

Sa Miuel r,amaku pan YUnd Ancbi Sa Fra- Tuntoco Minals P zoi

Capwkyiiyd 40 so so IO0 20 24 ISO

PNrduct ZnIAg Zn/Ag APbAg Zn/Ag ZWI/g Zn/Ag WaAg (PAg)_ Pb/Ag _ Pb/Ag Pb/Ag

Ptace.u Flosazi Fklojaon Flaazmk FlatEla Floatauim Floxatioa RWatd.

Xautbae gA 100 40 100 450 ISO 125 250

CuS04 Sh 600 200 360 700 275 125 500 Z7SO4 gA 40

FroihgA 25 15 30 36 vades 30 150

LIme gA 13000 B000 12000 5000 B000 19000 5000

Cyaide &h 12 45 40 s0 25

ProcezpH 11.5 11.5 1 71 105

Wer elm 2.2 23 3.1 21

WoweraUM Muniipal Waste w. Wat w. Municipl Sewp Municipal Waste w.

Recrcuation% 10 10 50 75 70

WSr. solid eam Riv River River River River Rie Pnd

Wasbt water and solid wastes. Most waste water produced within the city goes unteated into the small rivers which join downstram to form the Alja Mayo river (Fig.2). TIbs includes the very acd water (pH 23). rich in heavy metals. that is pumped from the Unificada mine with a flow of 34 V/s.Ibis water joins with process water from the plants (eavy metals and reagents) and bOUseholdsewage water to form a heavily contaminated flow.

Of the beneficiation plants within the city of Potosf. only the Velarde plant discharges its waste into a tailings pond (albeit bein&in a precarioug state). All other solid waste goes to the rivers and streams where it is pady removed in water solution or suspension, and partly deposited as sediments in the nver bed. During the occasional heavy rains most of the sediment material is flushed out to the main river through the rater ste water courses.

Sampling of water and botom sediments were carried out duing our visit (end of November 1992 Nunder very dry conditions) at several different points within the city of Potosi and along the AIja Mayo river (Fig.2). Even if these samples were collected mainly to give a genera orientation of the situation, a rater clear general picture is given, namely one of very high contents of heavy metals in the waters

5 the Cerro Rico ores, very high In copper and arsenic.

*v_/ Due4 toI the cesslon within the NI a 'tst miningsector, many xiners have been made Jobless, mainly z 4 ^ . ~~~~~~~tbrougthe severe oemgn in n.mumaI COMIBOLactivities. As a rl, consequencethis. a mnmber tre ,of so called cooperatives have formm,ed In order to enable : / / t ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~aconmao of mi.nt although in an often very primitive form. Such cooperatives are now active In most pars of the mountain above the level of the Unificada mine, usualy using the adits . (etances) and galleries from old times. It is estimated tat between 10,000and 12,00 men are workimgunder severe is I*s conditionsin the mouain.

Small ore treamnt plts I |I dbThe are pduced by the o0fi * \ 1 cooprves in Cero Rico is '6 ~~~someuimestreated n thei ownl fFs 'n*s_i pls, bUt more , \ S;___ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~of h sold tD ota sml. ! .__' . . ,, "_ ~~~~~~~~~~~ptivateyownedplants or REFERENCIA deiveed to the COMSUR p _* . > '___ at San Diego. The small pla;s ; '_- *_-_ are all located withinor in the ______ouw rtsk of the qty(ig.2). Fig.l. Mainmines and processing plants in the Potsi area substan investments in small plants have occured duing the last few years, party by foign inte (the most exotic being from mailand Cbhi), and the total number is now more than 30. Examples of ope al dcharactesics ate given in Table 2. ihe total treatment capacity of these plants is eStiMatd tbe 1500-2000 tOnSof ore per day. Due to te presendy low metal prices, probably only 40-60 percent of this capaity is utilized. Even so, the to prodution is probably reaing that of Porco, wbich at the moment is the biggest single prducer in the country, amd is severAltimes a Of COMIBOUs Unificada opro In addition to this comes the output by individual artdsa prodcers, which, however, quaniively is of minor imporace.

2 ,1N i"giil

AkVI.I A LI I ii.l. t en -I- f n5 _ r ^ _ ^ v Beveridge,Ki, Stafford, E., and Coutts, R. 1985. Metal concentrationsin the commerciallyexploited fishes of an endorheicsali lake in the tin-silverprovince of BolIvia. Aquacultureand Fisheries Management1985.

FisheriesDevelopment Limited. 1991. FisheriesManagement Review, Boliia. British Overseas DevelopmentAdiIniszation I Montesde OcaGIsmael. 1989. Geogrffa y remusos naturalesde Bolivia La Paz,Bolivia Noras, P., Solis, C. and Tomco, Vilma. 1992. Impactof the mtneals industryon the environmentin some areas of the departmentsof Onuo and Potosi, Bolivha A preliminarysudy of strem waters and sediments.Ministerdo de Minefa y Metalurgla:Proyecto de Rebabilitad del Sector Minero.Informe BO-92005.

3 APPENDIC IV.10

SECTRALi ENVPONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF THE MINING AND INDUSTRLAL SECITORSIN BOINIA

THE ENVIRONMENTAL SITUATION IN POTOSI

by Bo Lundberg

History. The Potosl area has a long history, being developedas a silver mining center shoty after the UaTivalof the Spaniards. The Poro deposit, locaed C. 40 km to the southwestof Potosf, was the first mine to be opened.However, the mountainof Cerro Rico, at whose base the city of Potos came to be built, sooa took over in importnce. It is claimed that Potosfin the seventeenthcentury had a population of more than 120,000inhabitants, which would make it the secondbiggest city In the world at that time, after Venice. Mining has continuedto be the totally dominantoccupation since then, silver being succeededfrst by tin and thn more recently by zinc-lead-silveras the main commodity.

9 Physography. The countrysideof the Potosf area is a dry mountano landscape with deeply cut valleys and elevationsvarying between 3000 and S000 meteusabove sea level (the summit of Cenro Rico stands at 4,794 m). Water Is scarce and is providedto the city of Potosafrom a number of artificial I lakes in the mountainsto the southeast. ihe city is set at the northernfoot of the mountainwith drinage through several small riverswhich join to the Rfo Alja Maya.Ibis latter nver flows to the west, ten makes a bow towards the nortbeast where it, with other tributaris, forms the river of Pilcamayo. The latter is a major river which is dewateringtowards the Chaco in the south. Farmingis mauily restaictedto the more open river valleys.

Present day mining.A major part of the mining activitiesin the area is still focusedaround the Cerro Rico. However, the miningindustry has declined appreciablyduring the last 6-7 years and the populationof the city is down to c. 80,000 pesons. COMEBOLformaly owns most of the Cero Rico. with its remainingminural resoures. but only exploitsits lower parts (Mina Unificada).This ore is processedin the plant of Velarde,located in the lower prs of the city. The privatecompany COMSUR has major operationsat Porco, where a substantialm ion programhas ben carriedout (mine and plant) and at the San Diego plant, which is fed by ore fom several sources. Two new heap leaching plants, extractingsilver by the help of cyanide solutions,have been constue by COMSURand COMEBOL,respectively. These plants are erected in a baren landscapeimmediately to the suh of the Z Cerro Rico, teating old was rock and coDuvialmatera from the slopes of the mountL For dhe location of the diffmentoperations, see Fig.I. Some operationaldata are given in Table 1. The ore from the Cerro Rico, noably the Unificadamine, is vety high in pyrite, which makes it susceptibleto weatheringwhereby acid waters are generated.On the contrary,the loose materialof the slopes is already leached nafturalyfrom its pyrite content Due to scarcityof feed for the plants, new ore types from mines at some dist from Potosi are broughtin for treatmen Some of these ores are, unlike

1 Table 4. Analytical results of stream wates. Sample locations (see Fg.5): 07 Sora Sora river at Sara Sora village, by road to Huanuni. 08 Sara Sora river at main road bddge close to M acamarca 10 Sara Sora river at CapLilaCaravi. E21 Desaguadero divcr, bddge at main road close to Challacollo village. E35 Antequera dver, bridge at main road lmmedately to the south of Pazus village. E102 Santa Fd dver, 1 km downstream from tailings dam. EIOS Japo river. 1 km downszeam from old concenntlon plant Samples 07, 08, and 10 according to Noras ct al. (1992), E-samples this study. All values except pH given in mg/I. Laborty (all analyses): M1M, Oruro.

Sample.No. 921 07 Os 10 E35 5IO2 5105

pH 8.6 2.9 3.0 3.0 7.0 4.7 2.3

Sumpefidd Bold 250. 729. 3I1. 3n73.

FMovudsoft 1732 3100. 1400. 1900 1220. 3039. 4349.

Ag 0Om 0.02 Om0 0.06

As TO.1 T 0.07 0.0O 3.95 0.12

Cd 0.00 1.7 0.6 0.26 1.22 O9m

Or 0.000 0.00 A0S 0.07

oa 0.030 2.0 1.2 1. 004 395 .55

Fe 3.1 176. 19. 41. 01 494. 1L1

He 0.O Q O O 0.011 mu 0.07 11.7 12.6 T 0.0 2.3U 5.70 12.0 5 | Ni | 0M 1s 0.37 0.55

Pb °10.00 0.3 1.0 O0 4.90 59

Sb 0.09 0.10 0.63 0.0

ZL 0.16 105. 32. 49. 51.2 190. 54.

so, 261. 1766.3 817.0 1323.g64. 2993.

Beveridges study alo shows the extensive contaminatiOD of the water of Lake Poopo with heavy metals (Table 5), as well as with phosphorus and nitrogen. Two of the tbree lake samples exhibit high contes of most metals, and particularly e of tin, antimony, lead, and nickel. The tbird sample shows only a modest increase of metal content. possibly as a result of metal precipitation in the alline water (pH 9.9).

Co ring the analyses of fish, the ruts sowed an increase of most of the meavymetals with a factor of 5-10 tis in compasn with Canadian fish. Fish captured duing the last few yeas is I repor as being much smae than in previous yean and also, in many cases, extremely tin Ibis is thought to depend on two causes: the collapse of the food supply due to the last years' drought; and the N supply of heavy metals from the mining areas (Fseries Devdopment Limited 1991)

10 Tale 5.. Anlytical results of wats from Like Poopo and some intlowingrivers, ccordingto IBecveridge(1983). Samplelocations (see Fig.5): B9 Sora Sora river at MachaCaMarca.B II Desaguadero river. B12 Desaguaderoriver, new wester fork B13 Challa Vinto,Lake Poopo. B14 Phuyopata,Lake Poopo. B1S Jos6 Pimpat Lake Poopo. Sampleswere taken durng de pedod 2-6 November,1982, and I analyzedIn Stiring. Grt BritaiL

SampleNo. B9 BIt BIZ B13 B14 BIS pH 3.6 33 39 L6 S1i 9.9 A 0.O3 .00 0.00 Qll 0.0 0.00

Cd 1 am07 _ Om_ 06_ Co 038 0.04 0.03 045 039 am1

Cr Q15 0.00 000 0.1 0.01 o0r co 3.24 o.m0.0 0.10 0.07 0.00 Fe 391.0 156 1.57 0.55 1.46 0ll Mm 13.0 0.07 0.10 010 0.11 0.03

1 Ni 0.54 0.04 006 059 0.47 O.03 Pb 4.72 00 0.01 0.71 0.56 Q06 Sb 0.30 0.20 .10 2.90 2.80 .50 SR 3.4 0.0 0.0 17.0 14.6 M7 3 781 65.0 0.07 0.05 0.10 0.11 M0O 0so, 2250. 2000. 480. 570. 625.0 590.0

It is obvious [bat tde delicate Popo ecosystm is senausy treatened by contaminaos from mining opatons (past and present) as well as by apogeoc pollutionfrm tbe city of Ozum Howe, the issue is complexand many of the &Ctorsinfiuencig the survivalof the lak ae little known. As remediation can be foreseen to be quite expensive, it is most desirable to urgeatly cany out the necessaryinterdisciplinary studies, on which mitigadon meas can be based.

References

Aramayo,Luis. 1992. Necesidad de estudio de impacto ambientalen las operacionesmin de COMIBOL Seminariosobre Control de la Co i n AmbientalProducida por la Indusia Minm | La Paz. Bolivia.

Bevendge, M. 1983. Un estudio de los niveles de metalespesados en el Lago Poopo, Bolvia. Ifore I pam el Depatamento de Pesquerfasdd Centro de desar4o Forestal.

11 pyrite which easily oxidizes and, with wat, forms sulfwlc acid Ihe latter leachesout metals, the result being watersof the same characteras mine wate fbis effect Is very prominenzparticularly in areas where artisanal or small scale miningis occurring.

Solid waste and was effluents from mime. Tailngs om the operationsIn the San Jose-Itos plant have been dischargedto simpleimpundments which today host more than 3 million tnncs of waste. Pilot tests have receny been caried out in orde to determinethe tcnical and economicalfeasibility of rating this materialfor remainingsilver by heap leaching.This would involve movementof large I quantitiesof material and thidr placing in new heaps ouside the present wae area. As the le1acg would involve the use of cyanidesolutions, the neares to uba aes will have to be n into considerationIn the design and engineeringof the opeatons.

The management of the tailings Im mes at San Joseltos has not always been very approprate. The walls have sometimescollapsed, in counecdunfor example with heavy ruins, casg fine wast and metal-richsolutions to be dischaged intoDo1C stnms and the surounding fatland In Huanunithe fine waste. rich in pyrite and other ore mineals, is let dircly to de river. The same procedue has recentlybeen introducedat the Santa Fe mine in orde to avoid the cost of pumpingwaste from the teatment plant to the disposaldam. Old aadoned wasteis widespead also to the south and to the west of Poopo village. that is in an area which is lose to LakePoopo and In a plaia which is oftn flooded during the wet season. The often deficient functiomng of stng l imndmtsIs |exempliied by fte sometiles high conet of metls in the overflowwater (Table 3).

The total contaminationof heavy metals from mines,plants and fhm acid rock leaching,is paricularly serious in the Sara Sora rver, which caries pollutans from t Huanuni valley and the mining ar of Santa FR and Japo intDthe UIn Uru-Poopolake systm (Table4). The contrast against the relatively clean water of the Desaguaderoriver is conspicuous.

ContanInatlon of Lake Poopo. The Lake Popo a represens an Import ecosystemin the Altiplanoand in Bolivia. Its shallow depth. the conspicuousvariation in its extesio and the high salinity are some of the factors whicb makes it unique. Rsh, duck and flamingo are prominent membersof the fauna

Regardingfish, the only indigenousspecies in the lake is the karacbe (Oestias luus). With the inoduction of the Argentineanpejery in 1962, a developmentstarted which woud later becomea rather importantfishing. Presentfishing is caied out frm three vilages from the easten shore of the lake. Two of these communities are the last relicts of the Uru Murats tribe, who oigially ved on reed islands on the lake and stil keep to thbir own particulararchitectue when buiig thir houses.A study made in 1990-91showed that close to 500 fishermenwere engaged in fishing,landing about 720 tonnes of pejerrey (1990) at a total value of 184,000USS (Fishes DevelopmentLimited 1991).

3 Table 3. Analyticalresults of mill effluents and overflowwaers from tilin dams.Sample locaions: 06 Huanuni.oulet from plant intDdiver. 09 M plant, dlsdwagecel. 22 San Jose-Itos plunt, dischage channel.E36 MwanacuPoopo plan, overflow from talings pond. Samples 06. 09, and 22 accordngto Noas et al. 1992) E36 is study. All values except pH givellflUnmgfI. LbIt (all analyses): MM, Ou. For comparison,the Canaian standardsfor mine effluents(monthly aveges) are given; the value for cadmiumIs taken from cosnng US-EPAsandards

]~~~______5anqphNo. 06 09 22 MG6 Nwm

pH 3.0 3.1 3.3 4.9 >6.0 suaves"e lds 650. 25.0 D!aovedsoLds 700. 1900. 6500 9865.

As~ ~~ ~ ~~~~~~O 0.06A o

Cd OSs(ko O Cr am

Cu 12 1.6 3.6 S 03

Fe 16. 39. 115.

Hg 0.000 0.001 Mn 3S 18.0 42 .73

Ni 0.15 05

Pb -ca01 1.1 3.5 291 0.2

Sb 0.23

Zn 1s. 4< 16. 50.4 0.5

SO, 380.1 1117.6 1963 133L

Alreadyin the beginningof the 1980s,fisbermen wer complainingabout the poor captures along the easten part of the lake, supposedlycaused by metal conamintion from miningoperns. This was investigated by Beveridge (1983), who caried out a study regarding the chemical compostion of waters, soils, pls and fish from the lake, rveading anomalousbigh metal contents in all of tese media Someof hs ruts regardn waw are repned here in Table 5. As seen. the Soa Sora river J' was heavily conaminad already then, the figur being similar O thoset orm pst survey 10 years laer (able 4).

9 I l~ ~~ D ~ ~ ~ ~~~a Jos RU-.

~di~ ~~~~~~ I '.a I~~~~~~~~~~~I

I Fig.4 Index map of the Ormo aea showing the locationof the main mines (acossedhammers), beneficiationplants (filled squares) and numbeed samplepoints.

6 Table 2. Analytical results of mine waters. Sample locatons: San Jose according to Aramayo (1992). 21 San Jose according to Noras et aL (1992). E27 Mlxed Waterin Canal at bridge In Oruro along the Onur-Cochabamba road. E33 BoUvar mine. EIOO Santa Fe mine. E103 Japo mine (Inacdve). All values exceptpH given In mg/. Laboratory(all analyses):IIMM, Orum For comparison,the Canadian standards for mine effluen (monthly averages) are given; the value fbr cadmium Is taken from corresponding US-EPA standards.

saml NO. Amm| 21 | 27|33 | l00 E103 Nmm 19 2 ______(CanMda

pH 1.2 1.7 2.3 2.9 3.0 3.0 16°

Suspended 1M 3819. 210. 575. 25.0 Dismyedsolids 3500 21515. 1917. 1904. 2493.

Asl 1 1.10 0.30 05 0.02 Q°°0 0OL.

As 12.2 0.01 0.36 103 0.5

Cd 7.95 4.3 1.2 1.1 0.47 10I4 0S05

aC 0.75 0.22 0Mn°02 0.02

cm 62.60 473 10.6 0.14 QOO S33 03

Fe 5610. 2960. 1019. 129. 328. 458.

HS3 0.009 0.000 0.002 0.001 0.901

mma 21.5 L3 433 2.45 2.35 3 | Ni | 4.05 05 03 0.07 Q023 0.5 Pb 20.75 15.5 12.7 0.2 0.00 0.10 0.2

Sb 9.30 1.65 0.26 03 0.12

241. 31. 38.0 356. 34.0 30.0 0.5

S0Q 27740. 6216. 3849. | 1203. 145L

A very major investment win be the reewa of water and sewage piping within the city. Not to mention the arangement of an adequate sewage waer colection and tratment system and the estabhlishmentof communal waste disposal facilities.

Ihe water from the Hbanuni mine is someinmes used in thie concentran plat (dming periods of drought), otherwise dischaged to the neaby river. The mme water from Santa Fe goes direly to the local river and downstream jos wara fom the abandoned mine of Japo. the Huanuii water, as well as waters from oth sources, to form the San Juan Soa Sra iver. Ihis latter nver, which Is serously cnaminated with heavy metals, fi into Lake Um UnL

Waste rock from mines, as wel as tailings, located in me or spread out along slopes and in river beds, occur extensively in all of the mining aeas. This matedal usualy contains bigh amounts of

7 However,due to an unfortunatetradition of hr nosiblelabor union interfeence, as well as a weak and polUticizedmamgement, the opeational conditionsare very chaotic.It Is estmated , for example, tham 30-S0% of the tin leaving the mine (occurringIn the form of the mineralcassiterite), disappears hough tbefls The sbberswe the minersthemselves (totally about 1000 employees)as well as gangs of severalhundrd individuals,who enter the mine throughits countlessentrances during the night. he habit of discarging the fine taings to the dver 1s awgravatedby the poor disciplinein the concentration plant wherebylarge amounts of metals are let out with the waste, deliberatelyor through ignorance.

Other mines in the area to the southof Ommroinclude: the Santa Fe mine. about to be closed due to the lack of ore reserves;the Bolivar mine, wich will be reblitated and reopend witin short tlrugh a join venturebetween COMIBOLand a privet prtner, and a numberof small mines worked by the fwanaku company,the ore teated in Its Poopo conc aton pliant.iLMedawhacamarca concentron plan, locaed to the cast of Lake Ur Uru, was rcentay shut down due to lack of feed and profitability.

About 40 km to the northwestof Onufo,the new gold mine of Ind Raymiis active. Tbe previous heap leaching operation is pesently being converted to a CIL (carbon In leah) process and extended appreciablyfor a treatmentof 14,000 tonnesof ore per day. Mheore Is exploitedin an open pit The ilngs from this cyanideleaching will be channeled to a circular tain mpoundnent, 2,500 m in diameter,in which the cyanidewill be rmoved by naturaldegadation and the water by evaporioL

Unlikein Potosi, there is nD small scale or cooperativemining within the city of Oruro. However,such operaions are common in the Huanumiarea (treatg ore fom the upper prs of the deposit or waste from the concentaion planit)and at abandonedmin In the Santa Fe and Bolivar are In the area of Catavi,about 50 km to the souteast of Hanuni, it is estimatedtba as much as 10,000people are engaged in muchactivities. 'ibis area belongs,though, to the de Potod. and also drains in an easterlydirection; for this reason It wiU not be dealt with furter in this chapter.

The Viato smeltercomplex is locatedabout 6 kimto the south of Omro. Here cocenurates from Huanuni,Colquiri and other tin mines (includingfrom the neighboriogcountes) is ncated for the pion of tin metal. In a separateplant, antimoy Is produced.Other small pyrometalurgicalplans are located in the city of Or0ro, treating lead concentrates or volatilmng tin (dctu or antimony (experimental).

The cty of Oruro. Oruro has a population of cose to 100,000 InhabItants.Ie seting of the city is in the lowerslopes and at the foot of the mountainin which mininghas occrred during several centuries. The physical conditions are thus dermined to a lage extent by te mining activities (excavations, waste rock disposal,mine wat discare, etc.) as wel as by the surounding dry, flat plain with its poor drainageafter rains. Apart fim the mining activities,a rather varied industry exists. TIds industry is partly related to mining, as for example smelters. small fomndes and service industry addrssing the minng requirments However, there is also a reaively thivig small to medium sized industry witbin the food and the mechancal sectors.

Fresh water supply. As mentioned above, the city of Orumrois supplied with water from driled wels. The concentration plant of the San Jose mine (Igenio Itos) takes it watr (when operating) from the Desaguaderonver. Due to the change of the courseof this nver during dry periods,confLicts with local famiers about the right to remammgwater ponds someumeshave occured. In Huauni, the plant partly

4 taes It water fom a river dam (Venaimedla) in competiton with fte needsof the local communiq (about 20,000 Inhabats). The siuaton Is unsatisctory, the obvious solution being tha mine water is used to a higher degree in the process and that recrculadon is employedwith a better efficiency.At the Bolivar mine, it is plaed to conmie in the new plant the procedues used in the existingpilot plant, involvinguse of mine wat in te process. Thank to the low pH employedin the initial phase of the Iconcentrion process (flotationto give a lead conce), no major previoustratment of the water is needed.

Add rock (mine) drainage Water pumped from the diffen mines in the region is very acid (Table 1). An exteme example is the water flom the San Jose mine in Onro, which has a pH as low as 1.2- 1.7. bIfs and other mine waters in the Oruto ra are extxemelybigh in heavy metal contet (Table2). The San Jose wae is pumped from the mine to an exit in the sope of the mountainabove the cty. From there ft is take in an open chae to the notern outakiUtsof the city where it is mixed with I sewage water and garbagein wide chmnels, flowingtowards the south in the direcon of the Lake Unu Ur-Lake Poopo. However,pat of the water is also Infltradng the ground causing cxroslon on municipal warw pipelinesas well as on concretesewage tubes. Ibis sometimesresults in water losses as well as the mixing of drinking watr with acid mine water and sewage water. As the piping systms get older, this problem is bound to be more and more acute. A possibleclosure of the mine and a cease of pumping would not solve the poblem to any greater extet, as acid water would sil emerge tbhogh naral flow. In one way or the othr the water will have to be comrolledand trad A treatment would presumablyinvolve an additionof lime in orderto neutaize the solution and precipitatea major part of the dissolvedheavy metals. Mhecost of doing this includean inveslmentin the order of _] nmagnitudeof 100,000 USS (Aramayo 1992). To this should be added the cost of operation, which includes the conumption of about 19 tonnes of lime per day at a cost of 800 USS (Le. dose to 300,000 USSper year). he possi ty of extaing metals in the process,tbus reducingte cost of _tatment, I has been suggested (Aramayo 1992). Obviously, before taing aon, extensive nitial studs wil be needed to defie the problem and indicate the opfions. A complicatng fctor is the unertanty about fture mining activitiesin San Jose.

Table 1. Mine water flow and pH fom some mines in the Omm area (Aramayo1992)

MNE: pH Flow lls Flow m.day Huamum 2.8 57.0 4925 San Jose lS15.0 1300 Santa Fe 3.0 365 3110 Bolivar 3.5 50.0 4320

5 precipitaion,this lake may dry out completely. Rainfall

435mm per year (averge ALTIPLANONORTE value during the years 1980- , Ew o 1990).Nearly 95% of the loss of water is through u evapoton. The mean snnual / - . <_ ._ unover of the water in the lake is veryhIgh (140%), whfic is mre atan one hundred times higher than A- that of for example Lake TItcaca Ile salinity readces - ~~upto 4*. Ihe very spoda 00 Wt popertIes of the lake makes It an unstable environment with wide fluctuations also as regardslimological character (FisheriesDevelopment Limited 1991).

AquIfers As regards g,;und water resourcs te Altiplano U forms an extensive basin of water-beating sedimetay formations. According to the I7 topography of the underlying bard bedrck, this major basin can be subdivided Into a number of sub-basins, one _. ofwhich is the Caracollo- Omro-Vinto sub-basin (Flg.) FIg2 Hydrological basins of the Altiplano In the central part of this latter area, the thickness of the sedimems amounts to 80- 125 meters. Aquifers occur in different locations and at vacious depths. The geneal ground water flow is towards the southwesL A number of drilled wells to the north of Omro supply the city with water of good quaity (Montes de Oca 1989), (Fig.3).

2 Moning acdvity. Maning has a very old tradtion in the Oruro ga and Is stD a main occuPation.in sPite of the receson within the sector during recent years. I Thehistoically moMt impoftnt mine is the San Josecmine in Oruro. Ihe w operations in this mine has recently been suspended due to dhediMculties of 1selngthe product. a lead- silver concentrate rich in antimony.From having ipreviouslybeen paid for 1 as a by-product, the antimoy in the conentateisnowadays regardedas an unwanted contamnation by thos fbreign smelters w'hich have been dhe customary buyers (a result of the inrOxc mionof stricter

and North Ameri-OR can smelters).

Anoterenvironmental) old major r=equire e in thearmmis the *COMIBOL mine of **~ ~ Huanuni,situate about 50 km to the southeastof Fig.3 Details of fth CwaraUlo-Onrosubbasin *Orumo (Fig.4). Here a rich tin deposit is exploited with what should under normal be a very profitableoperation.

3 APPENDIX IV.9 I SECTORALENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF T MININGAND INDUSTRLAL SECTORSIN BOLrIVA

I ENVIRONMENTALCONCERNS IN THE ORUROAREA AND LAKE POOPO

by Bo Lundberg

The Atiplano. Te city of Ouro is set in the Atiplano abou 250 kilometersto fte south of La Paz. -1 ITheAltiplano is a vt high plateau of westen Bolivia at an alttude of between 3,500 and 4,000 meters above sea level. It is baored by two mountainchains, the CordillemReal in fte east and the Cordilera Occidentalin the west MIesetbree major physiograpiicfeatmes form the Andeanmotin systemin Bolivia.The northen and central parts of the Altiplanodrins from north to south. Thus, the Lae 1fticaca, at the borde between Peru and Bolivia, is dewatezedtowards the south though the Desaguaderoriver. This latter niver flows to Lake Poopo in the Departmentof Onuro.

Rg.l Hydmgraphy LAPAZ of te Altiplano

Lake Poopo. Lake Poopo is endodieic,i e. it has no outflow.I drains an area of 55,000 m2(Figl). The mean srface of the lake is aboutt 2,600 hn2 but vares between wide *limits during the year as weD as between differentyears. Iiis is dce to variationin water inflow, the flat lanscape in which it is set and the very shallowdepth - on averageonly 2-3 meters. A smaller lake. Lake Uru Uro, is situated to the north of Lake Poopo and onnected with the lauter as an antechamber.In years of little

.P~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Environmentl aspes. beMmflluni mine operationhas had duheemain adverse environmental effects, namely 1) the flling up of the valley bottomwith tailings, 2) the destructionof fauna and flora, and 3) the contaminationof water needed for human consumption.

Due to the fat valley bottom. in combinaion with a defcient wate management,an aea c. S km2in size is now covaed by tailings, eradicatinga formernural lake. Ihis mprsents an extensive area where grazing of animals no longer can tke place.The degradaon of the landscapealso me that the naurl sceney is much disurbed. Researchcarried out duing the last few years,regarding chemical and biologicaleffects of miningin the area, has shown that the nthon has not only totaly destoyed the natlral ecosysm of the Muni lake, but also seriously effectedput of the Jano DIota lak (Apaza 1992).Ihs is In contMstto the abundant aqutc flora and fauna of tbe PMaDita lakeA I As twedabovc, from the Millunidam contitutes main part of the watr sopyly fr La Paz. A special canal constructedfor the by-passof wat fom the Jankho lhoa lake (analysis No.14)seems to have only a restricted effect on the quality of the tDtalbody of water collcted (anaysis No.12). Tbis latter sample exhibits the very low pH of 2.9 and high contents of sulpbateas well as heavy metals Fe Mn, Zn, Cu and Cd). As a consequeac of this, neutal on has to be caried out in the team pn I order to adcieve a pH above 7 and to pecpitate metal ions For tis c lO tones of lime per day is being consumed at a cost of c. 40 USS per tume, Ie. 146,000USS per year. The quality of the resultig potable water is not known to us. lhe collectedsolids are dischargedto the maLnLa Paz nver(Rio Choqueyapu)as descxbed above. In addition to this, the acid compositionof the raw water is causing poblems in the turbines of the smal hydro-ectric plant, thrgh whichit is made tD pass on it course to the teatment planL

Reerence: Apaa Roberto. 1992.Conaminaon of lakes by miningeffluents. Seminatio sabre Control de la Contaminaci6nAmbiental Ptoducida por la IndustriaMinera La Paz, Bolivia

Fig.3 Viw towards the nortat with te abandonedindustral area of the Miun mine in te foregroundand the Lake Jankbo Kha In the background.The ore depositis to the right of the pictue (south) with the wAin gallery entering at a level slightly above thc lak.

Fig.4 Photographtan towards the east fom a pace downstrem (to th west) of Rg3. Oxidized I tailings in the fliegwund, the mountainof HuaynaPotos in the bacgrund. I Fig.5 Mbeman tailings pond (LagoMilun) with its outlietof We, whichIs canneed to La Paz Fig.6 Water enteing the pie-sdimentation dam of the Achachicalatreatment plant in La Paz.

S The Mllluni dam. This water reservoiris acually the old taiUngsdam of the Mlluni tin mine, which wasactve until die mid 195CYs(FIg.2). Water is enteringthe damfrom mountainstreams and the lakes Jankho Khota and Pata Khola fiuer up In the valley (towardsnortheast). Some water is also supplied rormthe deserted main mine gallery.This latter water has a flow of c. 20 Vs (December 1992) and Is highly acid. The influenceof mine water and acid rock drAinagefrom waste rock and I taillngs is very profound, a fawtch is refleted in a pH as low as 2-3. Sill at tbe arrivalto the treatmentplant, when the wat has aready been mixed with the neutral,clean watersof the Tuni dam, the pH Is as low as 2.8-3. As can be seen from the analysesof Table 1, the water from the mine as well as the water channeledto the treatmentplant are highly contaminatedby heavy metals in solution as well as by suspendedmaterial.

The tresamnt plant of Achachiala. After servingIn a minor hydroelectricplant, the water is entefrng into the tament plant of Achachicala,located In the upper part of the La Paz valley. The water is tmated In the followingmanner - Pe-sedimentation followedby decmzton - Addition of chlodne to prevent t gwth of algae - Additionof lime and aluminumsulphate for neuaization and flocculation - Sedimentaion and removalof flocks - Filtering through sand beds - Disinfecdon by chlorine - Result: potable water I The mud producedduring fte pre-sedimentationphase amounts to c. 200 ma per week. It is removed from the sedimentationbasins every four monts and diveted to the Cboqueyapunver, this being the 0 river which passes along the deep valley In which the dty of La Paz Is set. The flocclated materal amounts to 1500 in3 per week. It is given off to the river once a week ("on Sundaysin order not to bother the people who work in the river downsteam collectingsand")

3 I Table 1. Analytlcalresults of water samples. Samplelocadons: E12 Chamel brngng water from the Milluni dam to the Achachicalatreatment plant, at a point 2 km from its source.E13 Mine watr from theMllluni mine at its outflowfrom the main gallery into the tailngs dam. E14 Water frm the Jakho Khotalake at Its oulet. Laboratory:[IMM, Omro.

SampleNo. E12 E13 E14 2 pH (lab) 2.8 29 7.1 pH (field) 2.9 69 Suspended| solids 148. 35. 37. Dissolvedsolids 90. 2872. 58. Hardness(CaCO) 601. 175. 44. Ag 0.00 0.00 0.00 As 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ca 195. 71. 14. Cd 0.11 0.28 0.00 Cr 0.000 0.000 0.000 Cu 0.460 0.405 0.010 M1 Fe 96.0 424. 1.1 HS 0.000 0.000 0.000 Mg 98.5 25.6 19 Mn 10.3 1.03 025 0.18 0.48 0.03 Pb 0.08 0.05 0.01 Sb 0.13 0.08 0.09 Se 0.000 0.000 0.000 Za 0.51 123.0 0.65 CO% 0.0 0.0 0.0 HCO% 0.0 0.0 49. ca 14. 35. 7.1 SO. 553. 1742. 37.

4 APPENDIX IV.8

SECTORAL ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENTOF THE MINING AND INDUSTRIAL SECrORS IN BOLIVIA

I MILLUNI TAILINGS DAM AS SOURCE OF WATER FOR LA PAZ t by Bo Lundberg

|he provisionof potable water to La Paz and El Alto is throgh a mnmberof ardfidal lakes along the mountainchain situed to the northeast of the city (1ig.1).IThe wate collectedIn these dams originatesfrom gaers, snow and rainfall.A miwr sourceof watr, with supplyto pat of El Alto. is through drilled wells, which yield fossil water from depthsof 12-50 mets In prnciple, each dam provides watr to a particularpart of the La Paz and El Alto ities. Thus is the central pert of La Paz supplied with water fm the Millumdam. 65 %, and the Tuni dam 35 % (tbe later dam also provides the main part of El Alto with water).Ibese two flows am joined in a place locaed to the northeastof El Alto and than take as ow flow, amountig to c. 2300 m3per hour,to the tt plant of Achachicala. he overall picture is that the wat esourcesare scarce, with occasional rationing during dry periods (as at the time of wring in December 1992). Tbe succesive melting of the glaciersduring the last decadespresents a fundamena problem for the water supply in the futr

WLMA Fig.1 Indexmap I

I l~~~~~ Feu ~ ~~~~~~~,-;SZf N L#AUMAA

zT] 2 { SPATAIGOYA

Flg.2 Map of i LAGUNA the Milluni amta, 0 Los vwthinthe de- WAmAZ partient of La t92(). 4 , 1 ~~~~~~~~~CoUon Ike Lbwi

n ''s!i \n f~\\.

I K

2P - ZI_k

2 Chemicalanalyses of watersamples from the Andacaba.LaLava area (see map for location). All valuesexcept pH In mg/i.Laboratory: IIMM, Oruru.

SampleNo. 1 2 3 4 6 6 7 5 Recommendations FieldNo. 61 62 60 59 55 57 56 58 A B pH 6.8 9.0 3.4 3.0 4.2 3.0 7.0 3.2 TDS 172 616 552 706 949 575 694 890 2000 As 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.19 4.60 0.20 0.22 0.03 0.10 Cu 0.06 1.63 0.23 12.08 14.28 12.15 0.19 1.34 3.00 0.15 Pb 1.51 0.25 6.37 1.85 00.40 0.25 12.05 1.10 0.20 0.30 Zn 8.01 1.03 16.30 37.70 363.20 35.60 14.20 84.00 20.00 0.75 Mn 1.64 0.11 5.40 6.10 49.20 5.60 3.01 7.00 5.00 Fe 14.40 1.12 49.20 98.50 83.80 72.21 5.05 2.68 5.00 Ag 0.02 0.00 0.03 0.03 0.07 0.01 0.01 0.00 Cd 0.02 0.01 0.14 0.44 2.06 0.34 0.18 0.24 0.50 0.05 Ni 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.13 0.55 0.11 0.06 0.06 Cr 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.20 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.00 8b 0.20 0.30 0.30 0.45 4.45 0.15 0.25 0.15 Hg 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 Ca 30.23 119.34 68.03 70.01 87.63 149.57 140.82 85.92 500.00 Mg 8.20 2.90 24.61 26.54 40.06 22.68 9.65 19.78 400.00 Cl 14.18 21.03 14.15 10.61 14.50 14.13 14.18 21.23 1000.00 804 79.80 279.11 288.40 412.30 475.95 383.58 391.40 390.90 1000.00 TDS Totaldissolved solids Samples: i Minewater from the Andacaba mine (lime possibly added In themine); flow 23 is 2 Owertlowwater fom thetallings pond at iheAndacaba mine 3 Minewater from the SantaCatalina mine; flow 16 i/a 4 Waterfrom the Santa Catalina lake 5 Wastewater frOm the Jukhucha plant, before entering the pond 6 Minewater from the SantaCatalina mine when passing beside the Jukhuchaplant 7 Overflowwater frOm the Jukhuchatailings pond after the addingof lime 8 WaterIn the Andacaba river (mixture from several sourmes) Recom.A Maximumrecommended values for Irrigatlon water accordlng to Reglamentosobre Lanzamiento de DesechosIndustdlales en Cuarpos de Ague,1io0 Recomi.B Um;taUlonsfor theore mining and dressing Industry (monthly average for newplants according to USEPA) CompaMfaAndacba. The operadonsof this companyoccur at high altitudes to the north of fte Kumurana From being a small mine producing30 tld, It has recenay been devdoped into an operationwith a new plant of a raed capacity of 230 t/d. Two concoenaes are produced,namely Pb/Ag and ZnJAg. Theold tailngs impoundmentis very primitivebut a new one, with an eight meter high dam saucre. Is being const d preently.

Water from the main mine (wee) is pumpd to an artifiial lake at the srfae for use in the beneficiationpmcess. The pumpingIn the eastem mine sector produceswater, which is te mai supplyto the Sat Catalina lake. The me wate is neutra, whlle the lake water has a pH as low as 3.1. TIbs Indicatesthe existenceof extensivesurce leching of sulfide minals, thus producingacid ! waterswith high contentsof heavy metals.

Water quality. The acid water from the Sata Ctalina lake has since long been used, in spite of its acidity, by the Okomro communityfor irrigatio. The water is conveyedfom the lagua in the nathal river course and then divertedthrogh a mountain-sidechnel to the farming area Part of this lake water is used as prs water in the Jukhuchaplan and still anotherpart is followingthe old |Andalcafriver coxsc, passing beside the Jukhcha tailing ponds.

The lower part of the flow of the Andacabariver joins water from thee sourcs viz. 1) the Santa Cataina lake wae, 2) the mine water from the Mba Santa Cataina, and 3) the p ss waterfrm the JukhuchaplanL AUlof these waters ae highly acid, the pH varying betee 2.7 and 3.2 (see Table).The amount of suspendedsoids vares but will pmbablyduring rains be very highadue to an i uncontrolledoverflow fromthe Jukhuchatlings ponds Te waer aiginatg fm the saa Catalina lake wIll probablyalso incorporateslime as it passes by the foot of these same ponds. As can be seen from te analyses,both the Andacabariver and the Sant Catalina lake providewater with exceptionallyhigh contents of heavy mets far higher for severl crucialelemets li copper, lead and cadmium) than what is recommendable.

The Jayaqula river has for a long time received water from the Andacabamie and prcess water from the plant Tbroughthe recent developmat of the mine, w wa-beaing strus have bcen met wnth,this causing an increasedflow to the river. Tbis zuisedflow Is obviouslyhadin old waste sedimentsas well as the incread amountof process wase, tus minatingte river mIre than before.

As can be seen from the presentedanayses. t overflow watr fom the dam (sample 2), has a high pH and a comparaively low conte of most leavymetas. Ibs Is an efft of the addition of substantialquantities of lime in the process (3 kg per ton), which incrses te pH and prcpitates iron and oter metals Anotherreactive addedi the process is copper sulpte, giving rise to the increasedcontet, as dmonated by the analysisof this substance.Unfountely it has not been possible to have analysesfor cyanide and xanthates,other chemicalsused in the process A more detailed study of the situaion would also have to include samplingof the river downsteam as far as I the village of La Lava

Conslderatlons. Ie use of contaminatedwater for irrigation the Okonro-a Iava area is apparentlyan old habit The two factors which have probablyaggravated the sitation at preset is the draught,involving less rain water dilution (i.e. a higher conentatio of onminants in the river wates) and the increased mie water and waste production at the Andacaba minr This last problem

A should.be solved oce the new tailings pond is consdtuctedand a camefl managementof the waste is introduced.

MhepoUudon of the Andacabariver Is a more complexproblem, incopating sevemalsources of .contamination.be obvious solutionwould be to constuct a major dam for collecang all watersand have *tmtrated to aclieve an acceptablewater quality. lbis, however,rpresents a substantial investmentwhich hmndlycan be Justfied flnanciallyby the presentlow mine production.A demandfor such measures would probablymake the operaion unprofitble with closure of the operton as a oonsequenc.MIis would certaily solve pat of the poatllon problem but leave the significan questionof the coninating old waste unsolved.Thare is also some doubt about the suitablity of the San Catal dam water for irrigation,witout previousteatmefL

A more definite ecommenaon regarding the operationsof the Compafia Kmurana would require more thoroughinvestigations an the present quick survey (it should be noted that we did ot have the poSsibilityto visit the affectedvillages). Questions which sbould be treated include at least te following:

- What is the technicaland financialpotential of the operations,and wolld a modernization and extensionof activitiesbe feasible? - What is more preciselythe acter, etent and coseqences of the polludon caused by the | ~~~mining? - How extensiveis the faming (in employedpersos and financialterms) which depend on the use of polluted water? - To what extent wold a profound increasein water quality assist the faming? Is potable water a scarcity? - What alternativesources of water exist in the villagesin question? - What is the legal base for the activitiesof the differentinvolved partes (water right I cleaning requirements,etc)? - Based on the outcomeof the questionsabove. what is the econmic and social jusifiation for an ovea solution of the problem? I-f deemed to be justified, how could the required measuresbe fnanced?

A confict of interestof the type presentedabove, illustratesthe possiblecomplexity of problemsand the need for rules of the gam An efficienthandling of the problem requires a numberof different tools as, for example, a) a legislationin envi nl mattersinluding regulationsand/or recommendations.b) the existece of a state authrty witnhthe power and capacity to control and advice, c) the availabilty within the countryof technicalleavironmena expertisewhich can assist companiesand other parties, and d) possibleincntives to promotee quality.

A APPENDIX IV.7 I ~SECTORALENVIRONMNTAL ASSESSUMT OF THE MININGAND INDUSTRIAL SECTORS IN BOLMVA

I MINING VERSUS AGRICULTURE IN THIE ANDACABA-LA LAVA t AREA

* by Bo Lundberg

Background. A presentconflict between farmers and mining companiesin the Andacaba-LaLava area, c. 40 km to the south of Potosi.serves well for exempHfyingthe sort of controversieswhich may arise in connectionwith mining.The seting of te area is where a deeply act mouinus twa, with peaks reaching more than 5000 meters above sea level, opens up towards the souteast no an open valley at c. 3600 mete altitixi. Mining in the mountainarea has old trdtions. At present,two nminingcompanies are active in the aea, the CompaifaCumurana and the Compafa Andacaba.

The climateis very dry. water supply mainly deriving from the collectionof rain water in artificial lakes (lagunas) at high altitdes. The dewateng of mines also contributes substantia quantities of water to these lakes. Mher are two main nvers in the area, the Rio JayauBilla and te Rio Andacaba, both flowing to the south (Fig.1). The saion is compkx as the water of these rivers pally originates fiom mines, with the obligatory containation this involves. In the present situaion of 1 drought,with lile rainfll and posible altenative souces dng out, the m io aspect is aggravated.Two communitiesdepend on the water from these rivers for Iigation, the La Lava village in the valley bottomand the Okonurovilage in the gentle slopes. Bodi of dtesc communitiesarc wel , outspread and live from frming.

Compafifs Kumurana This companyexploits the tin deposit of Santa Calina, an ore which besides cassiterite holds high conns of pyrite as well as minerals continig lead, zinc and areic. The are is treated in the Jukbucbaplant by gravity concentaton and subsequen flotation of the preconcen- trate in order to remove pynte and other sunlSdes.

The tailings are traed to remove the coarse sand. while the rem ing shmiesare channeledto small ponds in the namrowvaley for setlng and tatment of the overflowwater with lime (the later probably only of symbolicvalue). The managementof the waste is very deficient and there are obvious signs of ollapses in tbe pond strucmuesduring rainfls The acid water pumped from the Santa Catalina mine is conveyedby a constucted canal beside the neaby lake and besde the Jukhucha plant to join the Andacabariver futher downstream

1 I A~~~~~~~MA

:-ItA" ; f i

Fig. 1 Index map of the La Lava - Mina Andacabaarea

2 l less sicknessabsence. It is a good affair for the person involved,for his employer .. |and for the society in general. The base, as said, is a well functioninghealth monitoringand recording system. Possiblysome type of incentiveshould be I establishedin order to convince employers,as well as employees, about the need for such measures.

Thereforea very important step are creating and implementinga functionreport- system for aLlaccident and injury at work. L' order to get the systemswork some type of economicincentive for the companiesas well as the worker himself may be have to be created.

i The problemsof chemicals in the workingenvironment are to be solved by means of technical and organizationalmeasures, such as the substitutionof a less hazardous process or substance,encapsulation or extraction.In the short term, however, adequatemeasures of this lknd axe not alwayspossible. Employeeswill at least temporarilyhave to wear safety equipmentin the form of breat protectors,eye shields,protective clothing and gloves.

The short-term,most efficient way of rapidly an improvementof the occupational health situation in Bolivian workinglife, is probablywithin the sector of hearing protection. . The present situation of widespreadindifference is most tragic as even restrictedmeasures could improvethe situation appreciably,not to mention such a simple act as the wearing of hearingprotectors. And note that it should be the responsibilityof the employer not only to supply these devices but also to enforce their use. j Simple "cost-effective"measures can easily be identified also within other sectors of health and safety. I wilL however.stop here. hoping that you have got somethingout 3 of this presentationand will initiate work within this field. Many of you are surely well aware of the facts and prnciples I have stated here. Others are maybe less

8 conscious.But I think we all agree that it is a field of utmost importance,open for | initiadvesand dedication.In order to assist a bit in your furtherwork I have brought from Swedena few copies of a set of training materials. I will be able to arrange for more copies for those interested and I also just found out that there is a Spanish version.Just please write your name and address on the prepared list and a copy will ] be sent to you as soon as it can be arranged.

' ~~~~~~~~~~~9 INSO is active controllingthe workingenvironment in refineriesand some other critdcalindustries. Unfortunately it is done only as a service to be paid for and then, consequently,does not include the less serious but more polluting industries. In some industrieswith an internal polluted atmospherewe could observehow exposedworkers were using respiratoryprotecfive equipment This is of course I gratifyingeven if, in many cases, there way be reasons to doubt that the equipment is maintained in a saisfactory manner. In other cases the workers do not use respiratory protectiveequipment even if there are very good reasons to beLievethat I ~~theyshould. Regardingchemicals being used, labeling,directions for use and safety instrucdons are often deficient.

Noise Noise is a very commonproblem in both the industial and the mining sectors in Bolivia. According to INSO, more than one half of the total work force are exposed 3 to exorbitant levels of noise. 40 % of the workforceis said to have impaired hearing. Our observationsconfum these statements.In most industies we have visited, the noise level in the factory as a whole or in some areas, is so high that there is no doubt whatsoever at it vAIlldamage hearing.The frequency of workers usmg hearing protectors is nevertbelesslow and very few meaes are tan to decrease the high noise leveL Even rsticted measurescould improve the situaton appreciably,not to mentionsuch a simple act as the wearing of hearing protectors

Lighting Lighting is a neglected area of concem within the Bolivianindustry. A majorityof workplacesvisited had unsatisfactorylighgng. What is often not rememberedis that a certain amount of light may be sufficientfor "doing the job" but stdl insfficient 3 for the avoidance of accidents.

a Workplace clinate Within the mining industry,smelters and some other industry, high temperaturesare a serious problem. Often they are combinedwith poor ventilationand a poor air quality.

] ~E:rgonumks , i the mining industry particularly,but in the industrialsector as well, there are many heavyjobs, difficult work posturesand inticate work movementsthat create 1 risks for over-load and accidents.

-I Less frequent in the Bolivian workinglife are the short-cycle,monotonous, frequentlymachine-controlled jobs which are so commonin the highly industralized li world. Such jobs cause high frequenciesof strain injuries and other musco-skelletal diseases.

Ways of Improving the working envlronmenL

One of the most important task is to raise the managements'awareness of worldng environmentand have tbis knowledgeimplemented throughout their respectve companies.One way to start is to introducea proper recording of injury stistics I which will highlight the grave (presumably)situaion and point out the involved problems and costs in connectionwith rebabilitationand sicknessabsenteeism

However.improving the workingenvment requires knowledge.Workinjury statistics are only one integral part in the preventionof accidents.A profound knowledgeof injuries and their causes is essentialin order to intlligently manage | Xt promotion of health and safetyin wor

5 Work injury prevention is not just a duty; it is a kind of planningthat often pays off even economically.A better workingenvironment means fewer work injues and

7 the operations,i.e. small groups of miners excavatingmore or less at random where good ore happensto be found. has as a consequencethat support pillars are removed, waste rock is left in the galleries making access and vendlationdifficult, explosives are used in a carelessway etc. Silicosisis a very serious problemalso in many of these operations.Accidents are known to be very common (althoughno statstics exist) and life expectancyis obviouslyvery low.

After this panoramaof impressionsfrom my industryvisits, I will shift to treating some of the main factors of concern within the field of workdngenvironment

Accidents TaUlingto the responsiblepersons within most companiesof the industrialsector as well of the ore concentrationplants, you are told that they have few or no working accidents whatsoever.We have been informed that every company is obliged to report over worldngaccidents to the "Mnisterio de Trabajo y DessarolloLaboral" every third month Only a few companes have been able to demonstrateto us that they respect these regulatons. In visting many indust which give an impression of general disorder, lack of safety equpment, slippery or greasy floors, ris for stumbling,lack of banisters,bad lighting conditionsetc. it is hard to believe that there are no, or very few, accidents.ITe explanationmay possibly be found in the manner of defininga woring accident With an workingaccident I do mean all events which cause some kind of injury, big or small . If the company does not pay attention to, or puts on record. every accidentoccurring, it might be difficult afterwards to rememberaccidents which have not been fatal or very seriou For obvious reasons the informationprovided by the Winister de Trabajo" or the "Caja Nacional de SaludWis very incomplete.However, as said before,part of the mining industry and the petoleum industry (refineries)stand out as good examples regarding the reportng of accidentsand the keepingof records and statiscs.

4 Chemical hazard In many of the workplaceswe visited, the workers are exposed to chemicals of different kinds: chromiumcompounds and other chemicalsin tanneries arsenic, antimonyand sulphur gases in smelters lead in batty production solventsin graphic industry cyanide in leaching and mineral flotation plants dust in cement production quartz dust in mines PVC, acrylate and styrene in plastic industry benzene and thouluenein refineries formalin in chickenfarming and in foundries tensidersin detergentproduction asbestos in production of roofing tiles

A recent study by INSO at the Vinto smelter points out that, in spite of the ongoing improvements,too high contents of arsenic,antimony and sulphur gases occur m certain parts of the plant and that high contentsof asemnicand antimonyappear in the urine and blood of some of the workers

Already in 1979 it was establishedby INSO that more than 60'6 of the workers at a minor smelter had high contents of lead in the blood. More than a decadelater, as reported by CNS in 1990,47% of the investigatedworkers (45 persons)sdill presented values of mtoxication.

A study by INSO in the now inactivePalca smelter (1983) proved the existencein the plant of much too high concentrtaionsof dust, lead as well as sulfuiic compounds.Ihese problemshave been solved only through the closur of the plant (for other reasons than those of occupationalhealth).

5 Another third of the visited companies (13) had a fairly aceeptable working envlronmenL In this group of companiesthere are stil many issues which remainto be solved. However,the problemsseemed to be manageable.There was a certain | knowledgeand awarenessin espect of working environmentquestions and a number of measureshad been take.

The minor group compnsing7 companieshad a poor worlkng envlrountenL The general awarenesswas very low and very little had been done in order to protect the workers from the risks in Ehework. High noise levels, a general disorder and I machinery without safety protection were common in these workplaces. However, even if the conditionsin these places were alarming,it would not be impossibleto change the situation.A lack of awarenessseemed to be the main problem, more than a shortageof resourcesand possibilities

Finally, a group of 5 companiesexhibited a totallyunaccptable worldng environment The deficiencieswere so fundamentaland grave that it is hard to say I bow improvementscould be made without changingthe whole productionprocess, machinery,premises etc.

I will now turn to the Mining sector.

Mining sector

Undergroundmin work is always a problem from a working environmentalpoint of view and partcularly so in small mines exploitingnarrow veins as in Bolivia. The physical risk for injuries is a primary problem.Other health risks include gases from blasting, quartz dust, high temperatues, noise, over-extentionetc. At an internationalcomparison, the accident rate in Bolivianmines is very high. On the I other hand, it is above all within the ining industrythat a well managed reportng and statisticsregarding work accidentsar found.The frequentlak of such statistics

2 l~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

in other industry makes comparisonsdiffiCUlL

The rate of observed siLicosisamong undergroundminers is also very high. A number of studies during the 1970sand, with support of the WHO, during the period of 1978-82,show an average rate of silicosis among undergroundworkers of 11%, an extremely high figure. Values from different mines varied between3.5 and 22 %, while the rate of silicotuberculosisvaried between 1.4 and 4.6 %. The variation between different mines presumablydepend on a combton of such factors as the content of silica in the rock, the mining method employed,the degree of efficiency of ventilationand the humidity of the mine.

Howeverin some mines the management'sawareness of the problem is high and a number of measureshave been taken to improvethe woring conditions.Examples are regular inspectionsand close control of the work environmentas well as the health of the worker, infonnation campaignsand training. In such well run mines are for the workers,for example, forced to wear adequateprotective equipment However, it was also witnessedhow difficultand what a long term mission it is to defintely raise the general awarenessabout occupationalhealth and safety among the 1j workforce.

Regardingthe ore concentrationplants, the situationis similar to the one prevailing in other industry,Le. it varies between wide limits from pretty good to unacceptable. Noise. dust. chemicals ( i.a. cyanide).genral disorder and lack of safety equipment are some of the facrs which create risks for the workers.With some good exceptions,the environmentalawareness of managementsis low.

| Most cooperativemining is carried out under utmost primitive cicumstances with very litte of health or secuity control. The work is often caried out in old abandonedmines lacking the old service and control regarding ventilation,hoisting, blastingetc. Ihis causes the exposure of the miner to extreme hazards.The nate of

3 APPENDIX IV.6 I SECIORAL ENVIRONMENTALASSESSMENT OF THE M]NINGAND DUSTRIAL SECTORSIN BOLIVIA

J t TE WORKING ENVIRONMENT IN BOLIVIA; EXPERIENCES AND IMPRESSIONS

by Bengt Knaborg *1

.I THE WORKING ENVIRONMENT IN BOLIVIA Experiencesand impressionsby Bengt Knaborgpresented at workshopin La Paz, February 11, 1993

IS Visits In November last year and during the two last weeks.I have, togetherwith other members of a World Bank team visited 36 companieswithui the industial sector and, besides that, 7 minesand 16 ore concentrationplants. The pupose of the visits has been to study the workingconditions and try to get answers on questions -egardingworking environmentproblems, work accidents,illness, absenteeismand protectionequipment (the need for it, availabilityand frequencyof use). I have also tried to evaluate the awarenessof the different managementsconcerning working environmentproblems.

General impressions Regardingthe general staus of the working environmentsmet with, I would like to make some simple, overallgeneralizations. I will begin with the indusri sector.

Industnalsector Out of the 36 companiesI have visited, about one third (11 to be exact) had a satsfactory working environment Ihis does not mean that no improvementswould be needed, but that the deficienciesare minor. 'he general impressionis about the same as the one you meet when you visit an average industry in Swedenor another industialized country. In all these places, there was a general awarenessof the importance of working environmentalquestions, even if they seldom had the highest priority.

1 the productionof sulphuic acid and heavy metal leachingis avoided.This cover an either be made by creating a lake over the dam or to cover the dam or dump by a layer of mateial that Is impermeabicfor oxygen as well as water.The methodof covering by water, i.e. cang a lake, is usualy much cheaper thn to cover with solid material,te differencebeing S to 10 times. However,creating lakes Is for naturl reasons not alwayspossible, partcularly in a dry climate as that of the BolivianAltiplano. I

Table 4. Examplesof redamation costs in Swede

prjed Tailing:darm or Talings or d&=p Toa cm US$ USSper of USS1 cc l~~~~~~~~~~Man dump I_ r"ec d am MaaIm l Reelljokk 1.1 i auilis 4.4 miL 2300.000 2S5 CL twaa dam Suxbert (clay 51 becur 5.0 milL 6.600.000 12.10 1.40 &mod ann (SEK 37 miL) dam)______

Beabo(dLy & 19b IAar1.0mSL .300.0 2790 530 . . ~~moaie oa

& cr onan

: An important aspect, from a cost point of view,is whete it is possibleor not to economically recovermmerals from the old tailings dams or dumps. Many of theseold dams and dumps contan apprecable amountsof metas that can be recoveredby today's more sopisticatd mehods In this way the cost of reclamationcan be subsantiallyreduced, or carxiedout with a profit. Thus Comibolhas made agreementswith some foreigncompanies for t reproessing of odtailings. However, this requires at sufficientlystrict e mental requements are incorporaed into the lease or joint ventue conrcs. lids has not been the case up to now, but steps have recently been taken to guaranteesuch precautions.

In our estmate below we have not discountedthe possibilityof reprocesng the waste for its remaiing metal conte Wriththe present low metal prces, the econmy of such opeations are in most cases questionable,a siaon whichwill of comse change if the marketimproves. Our cost figures are based on cost experences from Sweden(Table 4) and USA. As presentedin TableS, the reclamationof rematning major tailingsdams and mine dumps would involve a cost of approximatelyUSS 72.5 million. It is possiblethat some of these renediafion objects will be 3 attendedto within new joint venue operationsor throughspecil reprocessingprojects. However,

5 a large part will still remain as tie responsibility of the preseat owner, i.e. primarily the Bolvian state.

Table 5. Cost estmate for reclamation of old tailings dams and mine dumps.

MINES TONNAGE COSr TOrAL COST million Wan US$/t m iion USS TAILINGSDAMS: Comibol min 53 050 265 Mediumminmg seor 10 0.50 5.0 SUBTOTAL 63 315

.I ; MINE DUBMP: Comibol min . 36 1.00 36.0 Mediummining secto 5 1.00 5.0 SUBTOrTAL 41 41.0 3 GRANDTOTAL 104 _ 725

6 Comsur.acoounting for 6 of the members(subsidiaries), so in reality there are only about 15 companiesin the association.In 1991 Comsuraccounted for 56 % of the total value of the mine productionof the group. In tenmsof sales and mine productionComsur will probably surpass Comibolths yea ( 1993).The second largest produceris Inti PRaymiwith about 12 % of the productionin 1991. With its new gold mill, due to start prduction In Marchthis year (5 million tonnesof ore per year), Int Raymi wnllsurpass Cosr in terms of mine productionand net sales, and the com'ined producion of the two wiUconstitute more than 90% of the groupVstotal 3 ~~producdioN. Both Comsurand Iiti Raymiare companieswith great ambitionswith respect to the protectionof the envirnnmentand it is not considerednecesay to define any additionalinvestments ia tailings damsbesides what is alreadyplanned for by the companiestemselves. Othe operations within this group, however,will need substantialimproveents, the costs for whid have been includedin fit etiri below.

Small Mning. This group is large in terms of number of opeons: 1,000-1,500according to the NationalChamber of Mines, the la being the entity wbidco these companies.However, its role as a contributorto the nationalmme producton was only about 9% in 1991.Ihe opeations within this group. Vlmostenizly lack protectionfalifies It is very difficult to estimate the cost of remediationof these opations without malkin an extensivefield survey. Except in a few cases, it is nOt liey that the constrction of tailingsdams is economically feasible.

Mining cooperatives. Regarding Jhisgroup, it is even more difficut to get reliable infornimation.lt U includes thousands of operations,which are usually very small scale and pmitive. However,a certain mhanizaion is not ucmonl and the value of the productionis reported to Le between I00 and 200 million US$. In the operatons, no e rnental d os are tken. Also for this gup, it has not been possibleto make any esimation of remedation costs.

Cost of tailngs dans. As a basis for cost evaluations.we have studieda number of recedy built tailings dams as well as cetain companes' cost estmates for new dams.Mie costs vary substantially,from about US$ 1S50annualtone of mine capacty for the largest operations to about US$ 4 - 5 for the smallerand more expenive installation We have arrived at an averageof USS 2.60 which also includes some improvementof the sewage systemsin fte associatedmining towns (Table 2). Using this figure and presming an annualtailings productionof 25 million tonnes.result in a total cost for the constructionof taiings dams of USS 6.5 million The dams are usually built for a perod of stowageof 10 years. As noted above, the cost figues do not include possiblerequirements within the smal scale and cooperativesect Nor do they include investmentsby those companes which are aready cari out or plannig such mediation I measures.Furthermore, it is presumedtbat all investmentsin new mining venues will include adequatefacilities for waste disposal.

3 I Table 2. Examples of tailings dam costs in Bolvia

Tailis dam Mine cacity Fia dam CoKfr the dam Coa per u Cot pa tomes I WA/~~~Vyd capacit USS anda dja. eaaqt. Toans me cay. USS

Don Diego 270.000?11O0 3.000.1300 400,=00 1.50 0.13 Porno 400.0001.200 400,COO 300.000 2.00 020 Taai 75.0001U0M 7500 270,000 3.60 0.36 San Vicenw 135.000/0 13M0.000 270.000 2.00 020

Huam_n 336.000/100D 3.360.000 1.094000 325 0.33 Sa Jew' 135.O0040 13SO.O0 77.000m.40 054 I ;Boliur 336.000/1000 30.0W 580.000 1.7S 0.131 [iRas S n114000 Ss II 6.000 120 011

t~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~26 0.26 1 Averae 2.00 0.20

I Table 3. Cost estimate fbr required tailings ds

MINES MINECAPACrIY cosr TOTALCOST

______tenDer/yea USS1$ mion USS Comibol mnes (continuedopeumnons 1M 2.60 3.9 joini venums,leasing to cooperadves) Medium ning 1,00000 260 2.6 TOTAL .2500.000 6.5 I Cost estimate for required redmauonaoiprojects it is only during the last decadesthat mininsg companes have stared to reclaim old tailing dams and mine dumps.For this reso the experienceis limited.One thing is clear, however.such projects are expensve. To eclaim an old I ~~tailhngsdam or a mine dump usually costs 5 to 10 times the cost of building a tailing dam, calculatedper ton of Mtaingsmaterial contained in the dlamor dump. The usual conceptis to cover the dam or dump so that air cannot reach the sulfide minerals,whereby oxidation is preventedand

4 APPENDIX IV.5

SECrORAL ENVtRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF THE MINING AND INDUSTRIAL SECTORSIN BOLIVIA

I COST OF REMEDIATION OF MINE TAILINGS DAMS AND MINE DUMPS IN BOLIVIA

by Anders Swartling

Introductdon. Depositsof til and wast rock fom minin operationsoccur In large quanuties in present and previousmining areas in Bolivia.The managementof these waste pmducts has historicly been very deficientand this is still the case in many places. As a consequenceextensive contaminationoriginates from tese sources, both from acual miningoperations and from abandoned areas. A particularconcer is the usuly very high content of pyrite and pyrtotte in the waste, which is being oxidized,forming acid waten MIesewates, in tek tun, are leachig out heavy metals, thus minatingnature.

As part of the World Bank environmentalassessment of dt mining and industal sectors in Bolivia, an estimate bas been mi of the approximatecost for isfactry taiings dams at present oprations and the order of magnitudeof costs for vclaiming old waste rock dumps and tailings dams. The estiat is restrictedto the Comid mis and the mi of the "Medium Miningsector " (the larger pnivatemi ) and does not Include the severd hundred small mines of the "Smal Miningsector, nor the tosands of small "cooperative opeations An evaluation of the latter two groups would require an extensivefield survey as little or w data are available.It can also be assumedthat a remedistionof many of the small opeations will be cost prohibitive.

The estimate has been dividedinto two parts:

1: Estimateof the cost of constructionof adue talings dams at those existingmines whe such measuresare not aready included as an inta part of opeaons.

2: Estimate of the cost of recamation of major old talings dams and mine dumps.

The estimate is based Oncost experiencesfrom dam constructionsin Bolivia as well as reclamation projects in Sweden and USA.

Conibol. Since the nationaization of the major mines in 1952,Comibol has mined a total of about 115 milliontonnes of ore.Tbe mined tonnge between 1900 and 1952 in the larger pdvate

1 .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~IS

mines is estimated to another 75 - 100 million tonnes.Afta tatmen 80 to 90% of the mined quntties remain as waste. Therfore, eoredcally, about 150 - 175 million tonnresshould have been stored in tailing dams. However,many mines had no tailing dams (and some still do not have) and where dams exist, erosion has sometimeswashed away tailings into streams and dvers.

Comibolhas made an esfimateof the remainingtonnage in tailings dams and in mine dumps (Table 1). As seen. remainingtaiings dams contain about 50 million tonnes and mine dumps 36 miDon tonnes of material.Out of the approximately30 mines that Comibol has opeated since 1952 about 12 were still in operationin 1991. About 5-6 mines are considered for pfvatzation Z and another 5-6 will be leased to cooperatives.The rest will be closed

Table 1. Comibol reservesof metal-bearng waste materialfor possiblere-teatmenL

Mininet Coce wav Fan ailsq Ss Z* Pb AB VW VW t 000 % % Bt Huaani 22 2375 0.42-.36 Sa Jose 1242 1397 0.34 0.47 39-152

Baliwr _ _ 330 7 0.76 3.97 0.92 75

JvaP 201 425 0.042

Colqti 12016 0.51 3.74 3 Cuaca a T 137 2065 0.31 San vicM 155 23 1.69 203

_ Tazami 133 720 1.0D0123 1200.35 95-56

Anima. 6 4355 030 0.3 0G7 73

Cioralquc 193 392 0A.-0

Tame 250 193 0.44-024

Unificad 6550 519 027-0.79 196-75

C"vi 25897 19670 0.26.44

TOTAL 35966 49332

Mediumm ndiu Mmimportance of thiS sector wtin thteBoivian nindustry hm ineased appreciablyduring years During the 1950sup t the 1970sit aco fr about 15-20 % of the total mineral production. In 1991 it had grown to 41% and in 1993-1994 it Is expectedto account for more tuan 50%. The "Asocadn de Mines Mediuos" has today 22 members. A majonty of these are active mining companiesbut some are taders. The biggest prducer is

a sodium pottasium calcium magnesium iron manganese zinc copper

lead cadmium mercury arsenic chromium(VI) aluminium cyanide xanthates

oil/grease detergents phenols boron organophosphate aldrin DDT dieldrin heptachlor lindane toxaphene e A- l

I methoxychlor chlordane I endrin I PCB PCDD/PCDF I total coliforms fecal coliforms

I total bacteria '1

i -~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~m I i

I. reactivity. Besidehouseholds, the privateindustry in lackof own facilitiescommonly uses this municipalservice.

Sewage sludgefrom aeration-oxidationand sedimentation ponds is producedby disLilleries, breweries,edible oil manufactureand tanneries and often usedfor ameliorationof agricultural land,but no regularsolid wastemonitoring is included.

A papermanufacturer visited uses mainly waste paper as secondaryraw materialfor producing lower qualitypaper however, without retainment of fibric wastemateril.

The town'smain brewery has built-up an ownconcept for wastewater treatment and solid disposal,in thatthe sewagesludge from the aerationand sedimentation poads is usedas fertilizer,after further composting.

Problematicseems the safemanagement of theoil-contaminated sludge from the separation, aerationand sedimentation ponds of the oil refinery,despite the factthat about 30 % of the oil is recovered-andused as secondary energy source. Evenmore crucial maybe the drilling sludgesproduced during raw oil extraction,as this typeof partlyhazardous solid wasteis simplyjust depositedanywhere, without any particular safety measures.

3.2. Cochabamba

Concerningdomestic wastes, the city hasorganized, a regularcollection system, but without X any prior separation,neither at thecollection points nor at the dumpingsite. Here,all solid wastesboth from industriesand households are deposited, regardless of their reactivityor possibleeffects on ground-water,except chemical wastes from tannerieswhich are deposed at a differentplace.

Althoughthe municipalityhas partly managed to build-upa sewagesystem for pre-treated industrialand for householdwaste waters, no equivalentdesign exisls for solid residuals.The dischargeof plantand animal residues along the river banksof RiverRocha is indicativefor this failingand has caused major public concern.

Again,in thosecases, where pre-treatment of wastewater (e.g. tanneries, oil refinery, edible oil anddetergent production) or air (explosivemanufacturing) is included,the resultingsewage sludgesare directly disposed without any furthertreatment, classification or chemicalanalysis to assesstheir hazardand longterm potential.

Despitethe overallmissing responsibility of mostcompanies for takingcare of their waste products,some few exceptionsexist which mayfunction as cataiystsfor thefuture development,also for otherindustrial lines.

As an example,tanneries may reuse solid residuals,e.g. leatherpowder or hideresidues as compostor for the productionof glue,respectively, thus decreasing waste production and by 3 creatingsecondary.

3 By installing an adsorption equipment to control air emissions, a cement producing factory succeedednot only to recoverabout 99 % of its primary material(carbonate), which would have beenlost otherwise,but also to considerablyreduce its wastegenerating potential by reuseof the filter sludgeand clinker.

Despitegreat efforts were madeto mitigate possibleimpacts by liquid eMuentsfrom oil refinery, the lack of impermeablebase layer at the sedimentationponds and the municipal wastesite (to which the oil-rich sludgeis tipped) may still causegroundwater contamination.

3.3. Oruro

Trhedisposal and remov31of urban garbageis carried out by tie municipalily, wiLhoutany fuirthercare of materialseparation and the recoveryof valuables. In addition, privategroups are involved and chargedby the city for wastecollection. The centraldumping site looks like a real disaster,as solid wastesare indiscriminatelydisposed of or usedas energysource on- site by small-scale,inrormal brickmaker in an uncontrolledway, thus contributingto considerableair contamination.

Of cuurse,main concerin,witb regardto solid wastedisposal, arises from mining and metallurgicaloperations nearby, as well as from metal-mechanicalindustries. In particular, the formation of galvanicsludges, rich in lubricants,Zn-sulfate and hydrochloric acid, may createmajor impactswhen disposedwithout any controlor not fed back into the production cycle. Crude metallic residuescan, however, be sold to the big Vinto Smelter, dose-by. The a situation mine tailings producedwithin the municipalarea and departmentof Oruro is describedin more detail elsewhere.

3.4. La Paz/EI Alto

Untreatedprocess residues and sewagesludges from simple treatmentplants are taken by tie municipalitiesof both cities and disposedof at their respectiveland-fill sites at 'Sopocachi', 'RellenoSanitario de Mallasa' (La Paz) and at 'Relleno SanitariosHichusirca Chico' (El Alto) togetherwith domesticsolid waste.

Wastepaper from the paper industry ('La Papelera',La Paz) is processedfurther to carl board andother lower gradepaper material. Equally, the-collectionof plastic (polyethyiene) wasteby private individuals(including children and invalids) is favored to produceplastic foils.

Hazardoussolid wastes(e.g. sludge, chemicals)from tanneriesare disposedwithout any registrationor pretreatmentat the municipal wastesites, whereas also here hide residualsare usedfor glue production(wilhin the manufactureof furniture).

It is said, however, that plans exist with the 'Camerade Industria' for future waste pretreatment.

Wm Also from foodproduction (e.g. 'VENADO': 3 trucksper week)and textile industries (e.g. 'FORNO'), solid residues(e.g. melassicwaste, waste wool) are taken by private carriers to the municipalwaste site, regardless of their composition. In the latter case it wasobserved thatwaste water was released untreated to Rio Choqueyapu,while a mixtureof residualsolids wasburned-off directly beltw a school without any smoke protectionor emission control.

The recovery.ofabout 98 7. of dustparticles by an installedelectrostatic filter andthe useof a dustcollector at themill of the cementplant at Viacha/EIAlto guaranteesan almostcomplete recyclingof otherwiseemitted huge amounts of raw materialinto the currentproduction process.

Plasticwaste of a plasticmanufacturer ('PLASMAR') amounting at about 0.5 t/dayis also almost100 % recycled,whereas plastic residuals from a food factory('FRANCESA') is simplyburned.

Scrapfrom mechanicalindustries (e.g. 'CIMAG') is eitherreused as buildingauxiliary, sold to galvanicmanufacturers or storeduncontrolled in wastepits (CIMAG' producesas an exampleabout 50 t scrapper year).

Duringthe productionof cleaningagents, fatty substancesare separated from the boneslfibers andthe residuessold as fodder. However,about 300 400 kg permonth of solid waste (sludge)is ??M.?in onecase visited ('PATRIA') anddisposed by the municipality.

Oneof the worstexample of solid wastedisposal system was observer in a tannery g ('ILLIMANI') whereall wasteresiduals (e.g. NaS 2, site withoutany segregation (ca. 15-20t per 3 months).

4. GroundwaterContamination

Thereis onevery well documented,recent example on the contaminationof groundwaterby percolatingwaler from solid wastedisposal sites (J. CaceresM. 1992. Contaminacidnde Acuiferaspor Lixiviadode ResiduosS61idos Urbanos: Caso de la ciudadde La Paz. RecursosHfdricos y MedioAmbiente).

Thestudy describes the design and performance of solid wastedeposition at the "Botaderode Sopocachi-(dose to thecity of La Paz)and at the aReleno Sanitariode Mallasa"(close to Rio Abajo, operating since 1989). While the first one has been closed, the 'Releno Sanitario' receivestoday the main part of all domesticand industrialwaste materialfrom La Paz. "Sopocachi' can be looked at as a typicalold waste disposalsite, with no impermeable base concealingor lateral walls, thuspercolating water is moving both into groundwaterand adjacent rivers (from Rio Cotaumainto Rio Choqueyapu). Due to the lack of slope X consolidation,gliding increasesadditionally the mobilityof percolatingwater.

Concemingthe situationat the sanitary landfill 'Mallasa', the percolatingwater passes a filter bed, which is supposedto be able to prevent groundwatercontamination (according to a I computer modellingof fluid migrationin soils). However, the percolatingwater may have reached the aquifer via Rio Choqueyapu,at these waste sites may not threaten directly the

5 drinking water supply of the city of La Paz, but may perhapsaffect the quality of irrigation water taken from Rio choqueyapudownstream.

In addition,the increasedwater treatmentmay producecontaminated industrial sludge enriched with persistentelements, like Pb, Cr, Zn and Sn, which becomedeposited at these landrills, thus increasingthe load of lhe percolatingwater with these contaminants. It is ihererorehighly required to collect and treat the percolatingwater befioreit may enter receivingsystenms.

5. General Outlook

Besideprivate householdsand commerce, it is supposedthat industriesproducing most solid residuals in Boliviaare as follow:

o breweries(e.g. cereals, yeast, sewagesludge) O slaughterhouses (blood, tissues) o textile (wool, cotton, dirt, fatty substances,soil, fibre, syntidetics) oa tanneries(culling residuals, tanning agents) o pharmaceutics(waste solvents) v paintings(solvents, paint sediments) o oil refineries(oil and toxic mud)

However, no data is presently availableyet about the amount of solid wastes produced by X these (and other) types of industries.

Some estimateddischarge rates for solid waste may be done by the use of internationally I derived empiricaldata (for the respectiveindustry) multiplied with the production rate (amount per time unit). As an example,the amountof solid residuesproduced by the municipal slaughterhouseof La Paz and by the country's brewerieshas been calculatedas around 30 tlday, and 7 tJday, respectively(1982) (1. Diaz B. 1986. La ContaminacidnOriginada por la Industria en Bolivia. In: Impactodel Desarrollo en la Ecologladel Tr6pico Boliviano, simposioEcoldgico, St. Cruz; see also appendix: Informede Alcaldfade El Alto).

It is still a rather commonpicture in the country that solid wastes are deposited in receiving waters or in their immediatesurrounding, thus causinga high risk potential for infectious diseases (by flies, mosquitos,rats, etc.) for those using this water.

In the study cited above, the followingreconmnendations were given in order to reduce the contaminationby residual industrialsolids:

o improvingmunicipal recollection of residual solidsto preserve water bodies and soils of disposalsites o enhancedrecycling and reuse of residualvaluables in wastes (o increasingpublic awarenessand concern o realizing the 'Reglamentosobre ResiduosS61idos'