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Home , Christopher of Bavaria, Denmark, Harald Bluetooth, Harald III of Denmark, Kalmar Union, Lund Cathedral

SCANDINAVIA IN THE HIGH AND LATE

BEÑAT ELORTZA LARREA [email protected] Introduction

Long-term overview of from around 1000 to 1450 Four separate parts: • The unification processes and political history until c. 1200 • Political, ideological and economic reforms c. 1200-1250 • Inter-Scandinavian entanglement and political tensions c. 1200-1400 • The rise and fall of the Union PART I: UNIFICATION AND CONSOLIDATION, C. 950-1200 The Danish unification process

Possibly the earliest Scandinavian kingdom to unify, even before 800 CE. New phase of unification in the -: the , Harald and Territorial expansion in the early : domination over , , by Knut the Great (d. 1035) Stable succession after Svend Estridsen (d. 1076) – five of his sons go after him

The Jelling Stone, which tells the achievements of The Norwegian unification process

Norðrvegr – the northern way Coastal dominated by -kings; they asked for tribute when using the sheltered channels along the coast Unification through force – Harald Hårfagre, late Continuation of royal power was marred by Danish interference until 1035 In the eleventh century, Norwegian kings led expeditions abroad often – e.g. England, Ireland

The Norwegian petty kingdoms around 850 The Swedish unification process

Sweden was formed by two large population groups – the Svear and the Götar – Svear – centred around Mälaren, traded and raided in the Baltic – Götar – fields and forests of Götaland

Both groups were divided by deep forests and lakes, but they were in contact

Olof Skötkonung of both peoples c. 1000; resisted Danish interference, but perhaps paid tribute The ‘civil war period’ – what was it?

Were these really civil wars? Only the aristocracy took part most of the time, and long periods of between conflict. Period of intense competition (through warfare) among different branches of the royal in Scandinavia Denmark – 1130-1157 Norway – 1130-1240 (but peaceful after 1217) – 1130-1250 (but peaceful after 1210)

Håkon Håkonsson and Skule Bårdsson (right), who would lead the last revolt against Håkon in 1239-1240 The ‘civil war period’ – perspectives and comparisons

In all three , conflict stemmed from the large size of royal families – it was not only legitimate sons who could inherit Co-rulership seldom worked, especially when the two (or more) kings were not brothers Main consequences: Many aristocrats, kings and claimants died; the pool of claimants shrunk heavily due to these deaths.

Reconstructed wax effigy of (d. 1266), whose scheming brought his son Valdemar to power Stable , unstable kings? Scandinavia c. 1210 PART II: THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE MEDIEVAL KINGDOMS Kingship and sacrality

From the mid-, kings are anointed and crowned – use of regalia, religious ceremonies Hereditary kingship in Norway (1260), and elective in Denmark and Sweden (but ’more’ elective in Sweden) Friendship between kings and their friends changes – to the 12th century, bilateral relationships – In the 13th, hlýðni (obedience) and þjónusta (service) become important

Valdemar I (r. 1157-1182), the first Danish king to be anointed and crowned. Political administration

Aristocrats begin aiding the kings in governance Jarls: Political and powers, receive part of the , lead military expeditions Other high- figures: Chancellor (administration), marshal (military obligations), fehirde (treasury)

Tombstone depicting Birger Jarl, his wife Matilda and their son Erik New societal structures and taxation

A clear division of society happens and this time: • Privileged aristocracy – provide armed service in exchange for exemption from taxes. 1170 in Denmark, 1270 in Norway, 1280 in Sweden • Non-privileged groups (mostly farmers): Divided into landowning (allodial) and tenant (landbor) peasants The leiðangr (naval levies) are brought under royal control, and are used as a way of collecting taxes. structures and the written word

Church structures begin expanding in the eleventh century. By the twelfth, Scandinavian ecclesiastical provinces begin to form: • Archbishopric of (1104) • Archbishopric of Nidaros (1152-1152) • Archbishopric of (1164) This creates a level of ’collusion’ between archbishops and kings High level of ecclesiastical literacy creates the growth of written administation

Lund , see of the first Scandinavian archbishopric Laws and law-giving

Old laws are written down (and edited), and new laws are created by the kings: Irredeemable crimes – edsöre (Sweden), ubotamål (Norway), orbodemål (Denmark) Some laws: • Denmark: Skånske lov (1202-1216), Eriks sjællandske lov (?), Jyske lov (1241) • Norway: Gulatingsloven, Frostatingsloven, Eidsivatingsloven, Borgartingsloven (all reformed in 1260s), Landslov (1274) • Sweden: Äldre västgötalagen (1220s), Upplandslagen (1296)

First page of Landevernsbolken, from the 1274 Landslov From external to internal exploitation

External Appropriation Internal Appropriation

• Predatory economy • Based on peasants’ labour

• Trade, exchange of • Rents (avrad in Sweden)

products • Tithe

• Pillage, plundering • Services to the • Tributes, yearly plundering • Billeting • Conquest • Fines • ‘Colonisation’ • Taxes Some remarks

Clear rapprochement to European styles of governance: sacral kingship, privileged aristocracy, ecclesiastical administration HOWEVER, there are a few unique features: the centrality of the laws, the public nature of the judicial system

Haconvs Rex: Håkon Håkonsson (r. 1217-1263) depicted as an ideal king PART III: SCANDINAVIAN ENTANGLEMENT AND POLITICAL TENSIONS, C. 1200-1400 The thirteenth century in Scandinavia

1208-1210: The battles of Lena and Gestilren. Succession between Erik and Sverker will become peaceful 1217: Håkon Håkonsson elected in Norway 1227: Valdemar II is defeated at Börnhoved 1240: Battle of . The last rebellion in the Norwegian wars is defeated 1241: Jyske lov promulgated. Valdemar II dies. 1250: Erik Eriksson dies. Valdemar Birgersson is the first Bjälbo king in Sweden 1260s: Håkon Håkonsson reissues the provincial laws 1263: Håkon Håkonsson dies 1274: Landslov issued in Norway by Magnus Lagabøter 1275: Battle of Hova – Magnus Birgersson deposes his brother Valdemar 1286: Erik V murdered in Denmark. Exiled Danish nobles will invade Denmark with Norwegian support 1290: Birger Magnusson succeeds his father. Birger’s brothers, Erik and Valdemar, are made dukes The fourteenth century in Scandinavia

1305-1318: The Swedish Brothers’ War. Erik and Valdemar Magnusson oppose their brother Birger. Norway and Denmark are involved in the war 1319: Magnus Eriksson becomes king of Norway and Sweden 1332: Christoffer II dies. Denmark becomes non-existent for eight years 1349: The arrives in Scandinavia. First wave will last until 1351 1361: Valdemar IV invades 1376: Olav II becomes king of Denmark 1380: Olav II (IV) becomes king of Norway 1387: Olav II/IV dies. His place is taken by his mother, Margrete, as 1389: Albert of is ousted by the Swedish aristocracy, with Danish-Norwegian support. Margrete becomes the regent of Sweden 1397: Erik of Pomerania is crowned as king of Denmark, Norway and Sweden in Kalmar Tensions and tendencies: Scandinavian entanglement

There is an increased entanglement in foreign policy and marriage in Scandinavia during this period. The Outlaws’ War (1289-1296): Norway interferes in Danish politics The Swedish Brothers’ War (1304-1310, 1318): Danish and Norwegian interference The Swedish invasion of Skåneland, 1332

The Danish invasion of Gotland, 1361 Erik V (d. 1286), whose murder precipitated the Outlaws’ War. Marriages: Erik Magnusson and (producing Magnus Eriksson); Margrete of Denmark and Håkon VI Magnusson Tensions and tendencies: Aristocratic opposition

Regimen politicum vs regimen regale

The Swedish charter of liberties (1319), later included in the Landslag Denmark – håndfæstning as a tool of aristocratic pressure (common until the 1320s) Norway – downfall of the hirð and the service aristocracy; rise of an aristocracy of birth

Organised aristocratic opposition to unlimited royal rule in Sweden took place during Magnus Eriksson’s reign (1319-1364) PART IV: THE RISE AND FALL OF THE What was the Kalmar Union?

Margrete I became the regent of all three kingdoms in 1389, and promised to find them a common king Erik of Pomerania was crowned in Kalmar as triple king in 1397; he would not control much until Margrete died in 1412 Unlike previous unions, this unification was not simply limited to a common ruler

Coat of arms of the union kings from 1460 onwards Kalmar, 1397: The two charters

The Coronation Charter: The nobility and royal councils agree to do obey the orders and wishes of their ruler The Union Charter: More detailed, along aristocratic lines. Highlights common elective , observance of each kingdom’s traditions and laws, and the role of the royal councils Margrete I and Erik of Pomerania

Unequivocal supporters of the Coronation Charter. Individual royal advisors used to govern; travels outside Denmark were uncommon Most local administration was made through the /län. Many lensherre were German or Danish throughout the union Expansionist (and expensive) foreign policy; Engelbrekt rebellion in 1434

Erik of Pomerania, union king 1397-1439 and ‘Council Constitutionalism’

Erik went on self-exile to Gotland and was deposed Christopher of Bavaria as new union king (elected 1440- 1442) Governance relied more on the Union Charter – permanent royal councils were established and royal power was limited Christopher died in 1448; succeeded by Christian I (Denmark and Norway) and Karl Knutsson Bonde (Sweden)

Contemporaneous depiction of Christopher of Bavaria as union king Tensions between centre and periphery

Strong tensions between the Danish centre and the periphery, especially Sweden Inability to settle on a common king – the Swedish aristocracy might have seen the advantages of the Kalmar Union, but extremely wary of recentralised Danish rule Danish kings invaded Sweden several times, but never consolidated their rule Division among Swedish aristocracy – certain factions (e.g. archbishops) supported the Danish kings

St George and the (1489); allegorical sculpture depicting the Swedish victory at Brunkeberg. , The inevitable arrival: breakdown

Battle of Bogesund, 1520: Anti-union forces defeated, and Christian II secures Sweden He is invited to be crowned, in exchange of an amnesty of his opponents, and agrees : Over 100 opponents of Christian are murdered during his coronation celebrations Immediate and unequivocal response: rallies around Gustav Vasa, who will be elected king 6/6/1523 A victorious Gustav Vasa enters Stockholm, ’s Eve, 1523 The aftermath

Christian II deposed in Denmark, the new king – Frederik II – recognises Swedish independence The following centuries will be marked by Dano- Swedish warfare; most importantly, Sweden receives Skåneland in 1658 The Treaty of (1814) will finally the end of these wars; Norway enters a with Sweden

The end of the road: Norwegian delegates draft the at , 1814 Concluding remarks

We have looked at a long, diverse period covering many different events:

• The political history of Scandinavia from unification to the Early Modern Period

• The tensions underneath the surface shown by the events; the state formation processes, intermarriage links and aristocratic forces that caused these changes