CALIFOR.'HA STA'rE UNIVEH.SITY, NORTHRIDGE
ADJlLPTA'TION OF KOREAN CEREMONIAL Df INTO AMERICAN DRESS S'I'YLES A thesis submitted in partial satisfaction of the· requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Horne Economics by Sara Soon Yoo June 1981 The thesis of Sara Soon Yoo is approved: Ann~.-stasch, Ph.D. F~ances P. ~?ite, M.S. Nancy Ve ASwens, Ph.D. , Commit ee Chairman California State University, Northridge ii In gratitude for her continuous assistance, this thesis is dedicated to Dr. Nancy J. Owens iii ACKNOlvLEDGMENTS The author wishes to express her appreciation to Dr. Nancy J. Owens for her guidance and assistance in the completion of this thesis, to Mrs. Frances P. White for her help in draping the garments, and to Dr. Ann R. Stasch for her help in the final analysis of this thesis. Special thanks go to all of the women who com- pleted the questionnaire and thereby made this study possible. A special acknowledgment of thanks goes to the faculty members in the Department of Home Economics for their confidence and encouragement. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page DEDICATION . . . . iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iv LIST OF TABLES . . vii LIST OF PLATES . . . . . viii ABSTRI\CT X Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION . . 1 Justif ica t.ion 2 Objectives ... 2 Null Hypotheses 3 Research Hypotheses 3 Assumptions 4 Limitation . 4 Q) H.EVIEW OF LITERATURE . 5 Korean History • 5 Fabrics 8 Korean Women's Ordinary Dress 13 Korean Women's Ceremonial Dress 26. Colors of Costume 38 3. PROCEDURE • • • • .. lllf • •• 42 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION . . 44 Description of Respondents . 44 v Chapter Page Knowledge of and Experience with Korean Costume 46 Opinions on Garments Shown . 48 s. SU.f\Wu"\RY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOi:-Ii-lENDl\TIONS • • • 53 Recommendations for Further Study 58 REFERENCES 59 APPENDIXES A. QUESTIONNAIRE WRITTEN IN ENGLISH QUESTIONNAIRE l\!RI'I'TEN IN KOREAN 62 B. SKETCHES, DESCRIPTIONS AND PICTUHES OF GARMENTS • • • 69 c. LIST OF TABLES . 80 vi LIST OF' TABLES Table Page 1. Descriptive Data on the Respondents . 45 2. Question 4: Have you ever seen traditional Korean ceremonial costumes? vs Question 2: Where were you born? Question 3: How many years have you lived in the United States? (Korean responses only) 82 3. Question 5: If Yes (to #4), what kinds of ceremonial costumes have you seen? vs Question 2: Where were you born? Question 3: How many years have you lived in the United States? {Korean responses only) 83 4. Question 6: Have you ever worn traditional Korean ceremonial costumes? vs Question 2: Where were you born? Question 3: How many years have you lived in the United States? (Korean responses only) 84 5. Question 7: How often do you wear traditional Korean clothes? vs Question 2: Where were you born? Question 3: How many years have you lived in the United States? (Korean responses only) 85 6. Question 8: How many traditional Korean dresses do you have? vs Question 2: Where were you born? Question 3: How many years have you lived in the United States? {Korean responses only) 86 7. Question 9: Could you recognize a Korean woman's social status by looking at her traditional Korean dress? vs vii Table Page Question 2: lvhere were you born? Question 3: How many years have you lived in the United States? (Korean responses only) 87 8. Question 10: If Yes (to #9), what would help you to determine her social status? vs Question 2: Where were you born? Question 3: How many years have you lived in the United States? {Korean responses only) . . . 88 9. Question 11: If these styles were available on the ready-to-wear market, would you choose to wear any of them to replace your American dresses? (for each garment) vs Question 2: Where were you born? Question 3: How many years have you lived in the United States? (Korean responses only) 89 10. Question 12: If these styles were available on the ready-to-wear market, would you choose to wear any of them to replace your traditional Korean garments? (for each garment) vs Question 2: Where were you born? Question 3: How many years have you lived in the United States? (Korean responses only) . . . . . • . 92 11. Question 13: Please rank them in the order in which you like them, with your favorite ranked as 1 and your least favorite ranked as 5. vs Question 2: Where were you born? Question 3: How many years have you lived in the United States? (Korean responses only) . . . . 95 12. Question 14: For each of the garments, please indicate with a check (X) which aspect(s) of viii Table Page the garment you like. (for each garment ) vs Question 2: Where were you born? Question 3: How many years h~ve you lived in the United States? (Korean responses only) • • . . . 96 ix LIST OF PLA'l'ES PLATE Page I. NUBI-CHOGORI ...... 15 II. SOJI.1-CHOGORI ...... 15 III. KEKI-CHOGORI ...... 16 IV. HOEJANG-CHOGORI ...... 16 v. SM1-HOEJANG-CHOGORI . . . 18 VI. BAN-HOEJP~G-CHOGORI . . . 18 VII. CHIHA ...... 19 VIII. CHAN GOT . . . . 21 IX. SOKOT ...... 23 x. PAGI ...... 23 XI. DAN-SOKOT 23 XII. BUS UN . . . . 25 XIII. TANGJU . . . . 27 XIV. YUNJU ...... 27 XV. SUJU . . . w . . 27 XVI. JIN-SHIN ...... 28 XVII. NAJ1.1AKSHIN ...... 28 XVIII. MITURI . . . . 29 XIX. JIPSIN ...... 29 XX. JUKOUE ...... 30 XXI. WONSl\11...... 32 XXII. WHALOT ...... 34 X PLATE Page XXIII. TA..l\JGOUE 36 XXIV. QUEEN'S ORDINARY CLOTHES 37 xi ABSTRACT ADAPTATION OF KOREAN CEREMONIAL DRESS INTO AMERICAN DRESS S'fYLES by Sara Soon Yoo Haster of Science in Home Economics May 1981 Five garments were adapted into modern American styles from traditional Korean women's ceremonial garments by draping them on a dress form. A questionnaire was utilized to obt.ain Cauca.sian and Korean women's opinions about traditional Korean women's ceremonial garments and the derived garments. A collection of five garments with the questionnaires was presented to women who lived in Los Angeles and were members of Korean Protestant churches or the Presbyterian Church in Encino~ The garments designed varied in style from day dresses to formal evening wear. The women viewing and wearing the garments responded to the questionnaire during the modeling of the dresses. A higher percentage of Korean than Caucasian women preferred these dresses. Caucasian women preferred the color of the garments and the Korean women preferred the style of the garments. The garment to which both sets of xii \ ~- ' -, women responded most favorably was the blue silk one adapted from the queen's ordinary clothes. There was a significant difference between the numbers of Caucasian and Korean women who had worn Korean ceremonial costumes previously. There was no significant difference in preference among the Korean women who had lived in the United States for different lengths of time. It '"as concluded that there is a need for dresses specifically designed for Korean women and that clothing manufacturers and pattern companies should be made aware of this need. xiii ' . Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION The essential characteristics of a nation and its customs can be seen by the clothing that the people wear in daily life, with cultural trends being illustrated through upper-class costume {Suk, 1971, p. 7). According to Lillian B. Matthews (1979), writing about the dress and values of women, Dress is the modification human beings make in their appearance. The study of dress, therefore, is a factor of material culture and can provide insights useful in interpreting other aspects of behavior. Analysis of dress in its broadest meaning contributes to the understanding of individual and group social roles, as well as alterations in other cultural forms {Matthews, 1979j. Since dress directly reflects the cultural and social background of a society, research solely on dress and on clothing material cannot be accomplished. An understanding of the history for that particular society is needed. Although Korea has its own traditional costumes, there exists practically no evidence of ceremonial dress prior to the Yi dynasty. However, literature and arti- facts illustrating the dress styl~s and the textiles of the Yi dynasty are available. Therefore, most of the information included in this study originated from or was 1 2 related to the Yi dynasty. For this study, five garments were adapted into modern American style from traditional Korean women's ceremonial garments, with the designs draped on a dress form. Justification Studies available in the English language on Korean dress have been either historical studies on traditional dress or descriptive studies done with women subjects who live in Korea. Many Korean women are now living in the United States, especially in Southern California. Most wear western dress, which is foreign to their heritage. The question addressed in this study was whether styles with a western look derived from Korean traditional dress would be more acceptable to Korean women living in the Los Angeles area than was regular western dress. Objectives The objectives of this study were: 1. to identify traditional Korean women's gar ments which would lend themselves to design adaptation for western styles; 2. to create, by draping, original garments which were inspired by traditional Korean 3 dress; 3. to determine the degree of acceptability of these styles to Korean women living in the Los Angeles area; and 4. to determine the acceptability of these styles to Caucasian women living in the Los Angeles area. Null Hypotheses 1. There is no significant difference in the acceptability of the garments between women of Korean heritage and women of Caucasian heritage. 2. There is no significant difference in the acceptability of the garments designed, depending upon the number of years women of Korean heritage have lived in the United States. 3. There is no significant difference in the acceptability of the garments designed for this research and the availability of western fashions to women of Korean heritage. Research Hypotheses 1. There is a significant difference in ·the acceptability of the garments between women 4 of Korean heritage and women of Caucasian heritage. 2. There is a significant difference in the acceptability of the garments designed, depending upon the number ?f years women of Korean heritage have lived in the United States. 3. There is a significant difference between the acceptability of the garments designed for this research and the availability of fashions to \vomen of Korean heritage. Assumptions In the context of the current study, it was assumed that: 1. A questionnaire was an appropriate method for obtaining information from subjects. 2. The subjects selected were typical of women of both Korean and Caucasian heritage living in the Los Angeles area. Limitation The study was limited to five garments adapted from Korean traditional dress because of financial and time restrictions. Chapter 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE Modern Korea, in the midst of ~ndustrialization which has been occurring for the past twenty-five years, has maintained its traditional heritage. Five ancient palaces are still present in Seoul, coexisting with modern skyscrapers and industrial plants. One can see on the sidewalks of the city older men and women in traditional costume mingling with young people dressed in the latest western fashions. This review of the literature has been divided into five sections. The first part is a brief description of Korean history, included to define the type of culture influencing traditional costume. A discussion of the types of fabrics used for clothing is the next section. Women's dress in general is then described, followed by information on the five traditional ceremonial costumes which have served as the design inspiration for the garments draped for this study. The meaning and use of colors as interpreted in Korean society concludes the review. Korean History Korea traces its identity as a country back to 5 6 Dun Gun, who was thought to have ruled at approximately 2400 B.C. From 57 B.C. to A.D. 668, there were three kingdoms existing in the Korean peninsula: Koguryo in the north, Paekche in the southwest, and Silla in the east. All began as tribal confederations and there was much conflict between them, leading to frequent warfare over territory and available food. The Chinese influence on the three kingdoms was strong, affecting the older native traditions but never completely replacing them. All three kingdoms eventually came to a high cultural development as a result of the absorption of Chinese ideas. In A.D. 668, Mu Youl, king of Silla, the strongest military power, united the three kingdoms with the help of the Tang dynasty of China. Buddhism became a dominant force in the spiritual and cultural life of the new country and many years of peace and prosperity followed (Suk, 1971, p. 17). The people of Silla built magnificent temples with beautiful Buddhist sculptures and established astronomical observatories, some of which still remain in Kyong Ju, which was the capital of Silla. The court of the united Silla, which interacted wit,h Tang China, adopted as the official uniform of the court the costume of the Tang Chinese emperor, and this costume was worn up 7 to the end of the Yi dynasty. Whenever the Tang dynasty came in contact with the Yi dynasty, the Chinese emperor sent official clothing to the Korean emperor and his court (Suk, 1971, p. 23). However, the united Silla was gradually \veakened, with the last king of Silla surrendering his kingdom to Wang Kon without resistance. Wang Kon founded a new kingdom named Koryo in the western area of the Korean peninsula in A.D. 918. At this time, schools were established, and tax laws to stabilize national revenues were adopted. During this period,bronze coins were used and refined porcelain household objects were produced (Woo, 1970, pp. 132-34). Yi Song Ge came into power in Korea in the year 1392 and founded the Yi dynasty (1392-1910). The people were called Yi Se Jo Sun (Pow, Cho, and Hong, 1972, p. 60). Yi Song Ge reorganized the entire system of government and administration. The reign of the fourth Yi king, Se Jong (1418-1450), was the most creative period in the history of the Yi dynasty. Se Jong created the alphabet known as Han Gul, which is still 'used in Korea. Until this time, the Chinese alphabet had been used. Se Jong was responsible for progress in education, astronomy, art, and politics. During the latter half of the Yi period, Koreans became aware of Western European ideas. In reaction to the sudden changes in Korean society 8 caused by these ideas, the farmers rebelled, causing the Dong-Hak revolution which was anti-foreign and reformist. This movement started in the southeastern peninsula and spread rapidly throughout the country. The government repressed it with the aid of the Japanese army (Woo, 1970, PP o 4 0 5 1 413 -14 ) o Japan, under the leadership of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, conquered Korea in the sixteenth century. Korea was opened to the outside world by Japan in 1876, and a treaty with the United States \vas made in 1882. Korea proclaimed its independence from Japan on August 25, 1945, thus ending the 500-year Yi dynasty (Cho, 1956, pp. 213-16). The Korean War began in 1950. Since the 1953 armistice, Korea has had close relationship with western culture, chiefly through personal contacts between· Koreans and the American Armed Forces and through economic aid projects, films, magazines, and television. Fabrics There are no exact historical records as to when the ancient Koreans started using mapo (a type of ramie) or silk in their daily lives. Ramie According to Done-E-Joen, written by an early Chinese historian, early Koreans in the Sam-Kuk dynasty 9 already knew.how to spin yarn and make and process fabric from ramie. In A.D. 284, during the Korean Packche dynasty, King Kori sent an expert in the art of making fabrics of ramie to Japan {Anspach and Kwon, 1976). There is also a written record that King Chon-Chie, during the same Packche dynasty, sent white mapa, the finest ramie fiber available, to Japan (Suk, 1971, p. 159). In a later period, there was a popular custom wherein all the ladies in the palace participated in a competition to determine which group could make the finest fabric from ramie. The winning group received a prize from the king. All enjoyed the festival fun, which promoted the importance of fabric making (Suk, 1971, p. 160). During the reign of King Eun-Hae in the Silla dynasty, the fine ramie was treated as very important merchandise in the trade with Japan. The luxurious life style of the most famous queen of Silla, Chin-Duck, inspired various styles of clothes and fabric patterns. Eventually this stimulated the textile and apparel industries and provided the basis for the design and fabrics used in the formal palace clothes. Several grades of ramie fabric, based on fineness, already had been developed by that time. Quality grades from a minimum of thirteen to a maximum of twenty-eight were allowed to be worn by officers in the government. The top-ranking 10 officers, called Ghingol, could use group twenty-six. However, their wives were only to wear up to the highest grading, twenty-eight. It is interesting that, in general, females -.;vore better quality fabrics. The king assigned several officers to travel around to inspect and encourage the product.ion of ramie in order to improve the quality of the textiles made from this fiber (Suk, 1971, p. 160). Fabric production was an important industry in the Korean kingdoms. The technology was at a high level due to the demand for luxurious life-styles by the upper class. A fine quality fabric of ramie, called ~yong-Joo fabric, is still popular in the countryside of Korea, particularly for burial clothes. The finest quality ramie .l >-J fabric, called mosi, originated in a city named Mosi was a sunbleached white fabric. Ham-Sam is famous for its hand-made fabrics of mosi, which is still very popular and used by elderly people during the hot summer (Suk, 1971, p. 160). The raw material of sam-be, a type of unbleached muslin, is obtained from the stem of a plant called ~· Sam-be looks like a fabric made from hemp. This plant is cultivated in early spring and grows to the height of 2 to 2.5 meters by August. It is harvested in early September. Sam-be is also favored by many Koreans for hot 11 sununer wear (Suk, 1971, p. 165). Silk The et:ymology of the word "silk" points authori- tatively to the East as the origin of the luxurious fabrics made from this fiber. "Silk" is derived from "Seres," the name given to the ancient Chinese and the other inhabitants of Eastern Asia. Sericulture was developed in China. According to Walton (1925, p. 46), It was not until the third century A.D. that the Japanese learned of the manufacture of silk through the Koreans, and then they sent Koreans to China to engage people to teach the art to the Japanese. Three Chinese girls were brought back, who taught the Japanese court and people the art of plain and figure weaving. Silk was used only by the upper classes in ancient Korea. Although records are not clear as to when seri- culture reached Korea, they do indicate that the emperor of China was presented with a gift of an embroidered silk wall hanging made by the queen of Silla in the sixth century A.D. (Yoo, 1975, p. 120). Ear~y silk patterns captured the peculiar exotic quality of the country. Early silk fabrics were hand- woven with softly blurred warp print patterns. Certain traditional designs are still used in modern fabrics. Maebong, an early chrysanthemum pattern in gently undulating repeats, is printed in soft bronze-like colors. 12 Koryo, with its small elongated and curled puffs of clouds, appears in pastels. Rose, a stripe of large flower faces, is in intense hues. Tangun, a stylized heart motif, has large ombre shifts of intense colors~ Chunchon Mountains, named for a mounta.in range near Seoul, is depicted as rmvs of peaked color in bronzy earth tones, interrupted here and there with a jolting spot of brilliant color. Chevron, a subtle broken herringbone, appears in pale milky-white colors. Toksu is a pattern of hanging chains of diamonds in tones of a single color with a simple design {Kavanaugh, 1976). Cotton During the reign of Kong-Ming, the thirty-first ruler in the Koryo dynasty, Moon Ik Cham brought cotton seed to Korea from China. He planted the first cotton seeds in Korea and introduced the technology of making yarns and fabric from cotton. Moon served as a diplomat to China and was honored for his contributions to the revolution of the old Korean textile industry {Suk, 1971, pp. 159-60). Cotton was used for the clothing of common people. They grew the plants, separated the fibers from the plants, spun the yarn, and wove the fabric by hand. To prepare the fabric for a garment took a great deal of time. Cotton was also used for padding in quilted 13 garments. Lowell described its use as, "Wool is quite unknow·n, for there are no sheep any¥1here on the peninsula. But on the score of warmth, wadded cotton, although perhaps a little bulky, serves equally well" {Lowell, 1951' p. 325). Korean Women's Ordinary Dress According to Lmvell {1951, p. 319), The v1ay in which the far-Oriental regards dress is somewhat peculiar. I can think of no simile so descriptive as the connection we tacitly assume between spirit and body. We hardly, in ordinary life, think of the one as devoid of the other, and we regard the latter as at least the sense impression to us of the person within. So do they with dress. The ordinary women's costumes developed without great influence from any foreign country, while the official male costumes were strongly influenced by China. The basic silhouette was retained in all clothing regard- less of social status, although social status was identifiable by the material, color, and ornamentation of the costume (Suk, 1971, p. 77). Chogori Korean women's clothes were traditionally simple in style and two-piece garments. The short jacket was called a chogori {PLATES I-VI, pp. 15,16,18). It had a white collar which was sewn to the j acke.t but could be removed and replaced when it became dirty. The top of 14 the sleeves was cut square with the shoulder line with the circular cut undersleeve seam taped back to fit tight at the wrist. This jacket fastened in front with two long strips of cloth in place of buttons and buttonholes. It was worn \vi th a chima (PLATE VII, p. 19), a long skirt which was full and worn high on the figure with the waistband of the skirt compressing the breasts. The total effect of this Korean costume was similar to that of a short jacketed gown with an empire waistline and a long full gathered skirt. The chogori is worn with the chima top" (Anspach and Kwon, 1976). There were several types of chogoris, separated according to their use by ancient Korean women. The nubi- chogori was made of two layers of silk or cotton fabric, with layers of extra cotton fabric between, which were quilted at narrow intervals. There were four different nubi-chogoris (PLATE I, p. 15), called jan-nubi, nap-jac- !!ubi, oue-mok-nubi, and jan-ju-nubi, depending on the quilting pattern. Most of them were made by hand. Jade green was the most popular color during the Yi dynasty ( S uk , 1 9 71 , p . 516 ) . The som-chogori (PLATE II, p. 15) was padded with cotton fabric and fiber but was not quilted. Both the nubi and the som-chogori were worn during the winter to protect the wearer from the cold. The keki-chogori (PLATE III, p. 16) was a lined top made of semi-opaque fabric stitched three times on one line so as not to show the seam allowance, and the 15 PLATE I NUBI-CHOGORI PLATE II SOM-CHOGORI ( S uk , 1 9 7 1 , p . 51 6 ) 16 PLATE III KEKI-CHOGORI PLATE IV HOEJANG-CHOGORI (Suk, 1971, pp. 516-17) 17 juksam was a.single layered top. Both the keki-chogori and juksam \\7ere worn in the summer time. For spring and fall, chogories were made of double layers of cotton or silk. There were two kinds of hoejang-chogori (PLATE IV, p. 16) which were identified by style and color. The sam-hoejang-chogori (PLATE V, p. 18) used a crimson fabric for the collar, the end of the sleeves, the ribbon ties, and the decorative gussets and was worn by upper class young women. The ban-hoejang-chogori (PLATE VI, p. 18) had indigo fabric for the end of the sleeves and crimson fabric for the collar and the ribbon ties and was similar to the sam-hoejang-chogori except that it did not have decorative gussets (Suk, 1971, pp. 517-18). Chima The chima (PLATE VII, p. 19) was a finely pleated, floor-length long skirt which had a long cotton band on top to tie it around the bosom, similar to the skirt of a surplice gown. Usually the chima was made with twelve pieces of thirteen-inch-wide fabric sewn together, but the upper class women's chimas were made with thirteen pieces of thirteen-inch-wide fabric. Common people wore a cotton chima (Suk, 1971, p. 518). How the chima was worn indicated the social status of the person. For example, a gisan~ or concubine would wear the chima with the left 18 ' . PLATE V SAM-HOEJANG-CHOGORI PLATE VI BAN-HOEJANG-CHOGORI (Suk, 1971, p. 517) 19 PLATE VII CHIMA (Suk, 1971, p. 518) 20 side lapped over the right side, while ordinary wives wore it with the right side lapped over the left. Lower class \vomen, such as the gisang, could not wear a lined chima but only one made of a single layer (Walton, 1925, p. 495). The sulan-chima had a detachable sulan trim at the top and the bottom of the chima. The sulan trim was about fifteen to bventy centimeters in width; thus the sulan-chima would drag on the floor about thirty centi meters with the sulan trimdragging on the floor an additional thirty centimeters. The sulan trim had golden foil patterns on it and it could be unstitched when the garment needed to be laundered. 'Ghe golden foil patterns varied with social status~ such as a dragon pattern for the queen, a phoenix for a princess, and Chinese charac- ters and flowers for a high officer's wife (Kim, 1963, p. 845).' If there were two detachable sulan trims, the garment was called a tealan-chima. The middle and higher class women in Korea wore the changot (PLATE VIII, p. 21) or sugea-chima to veil their faces when passing through the public streets. These veils concealed a woman's faGe, which gave her higher status. Women in the Yi dynasty wore veils while riding horses. The sugea-chima was made of light blue cotton and was worn by middle class women for ordinary day wear, while the chanaot was worn for formal occasions. 21 PLATE VIII CHANGOT (Suk, 1971, p. 513) 22 Undergarments For undergarments (PLATES IX-XI, p. 23), Korean \vomen usually wore three baggy trousers which had bands on the top stitched to pleats. The inner layer was called sokot, over which the pagi (knee-length) was worn, and finally the dan-sokot (calf-length) was worn (Suk, 1971, p. 519). The sokot was made from cotton or hemp for the middle class and silk or ramie for the nobility. The woman's ~differed from the man's, which was used as an outer garment. The function of the dan-sokot was similar to that of a slip (Kim, 1963, pp. 496-98). Commoners wore a chima on top of these underpants for daily use, while on special occasions, upper class women wore three underskirts over the trousers. Kim (1972, p. 24) described these as follows: The first one was the mumiki, which was a three, five or seven-layered pleated under skirt reaching to the ankle. Each layer used different colors, so it was called mujiki, which means rainbow. The mujiki was made of hemp. The next underskirt worn was longer and fuller than the first one. It was made of twelve pieces of ramie and a four to five centimeter piece of Chinese paper was attached at the hem to make it stiff. However, this underskirt was worn only at the palace. Above the waist, ancient Korean women wore a sog- juksam, which was similar in style to the chogori but a little smaller in size. In winter, they vmre an addition- al top, which was called a sog-chogori. Thus there were three layers: first, the sog-juksam next to the skin, PLATE IX SOKOT PLATE X PAGI PLATE XI DAN-SOKOT ' - ( S uk, 19 71 , p. 519) 24 the second layer a sog-chogori, and the outer long chogori as an undergarment (Yoo, 1975, p. 495). With all these layers, the women still had to maintain a rr..odest appearance. During the latter portion of the Yi dynasty, because the chogori was made shorter, the huridi was worn to prevent exposing the bosom. It was made of cotton or silk. For winter, it was quilted or padded and tied around the bust (Kim, 1963, p. 500). Korean women spent a lot of time and energy in taking care of their clothing. When washing needed to be done, most of the garments were taken apart piece by piece, washed, and soaked in a rice starch to restore the fabric's crispness. They were then stretched and pounded with heavy sticks to dry smoothly. When dry, they were beaten again upon a smooth tree trunk until the cloth had a brilliant luster (Hamilton, Austin and Terauchi, 1910, p. 30). Footwear Korean women wore busun (PLATE XII, p. 25), Korean socks, and shin, which are Korean shoes. Busun were worn in all seasons and were padded with cotton for the winter. Busun were usually made of white cotton and fitted the foot tightly. Shoes were shaped like canoes and were very stiff. The left and right shoes were shaped alike and therefore were interchangeable. Both men and women wore certain types of shoes, depending upon 25 PLATE XII BUS UN (Suk, 1971, p. 518) 26 their social position. Tangju, yunju, and suju (PLATES XIII-XV, p. 27) \·lere made of leather on the bottom and silk on the top and were worn by the nobility. The yunju had a cloud painted design on the front and back. Jin shin (PLATE XVI, p. 28), which had hobpails on the bottom, were made of oiled leather and were worn by women on rainy days. Namakshin (PLATE XVII, p. 28), or wooden shoes, were also used on rainy days (Suk, 1971, p. 585). Common people wore grass shoes or hemp or straw sandals. Middle and lower class women wore shoes called mitur~ (PLATE XVIII, p. 29} and jipsin (PLATE XIX, p. 29} for everyday wear. Mituri and jipsin were similar in style and shaped like canoes. The mituri were made of hemp and were finer than jipsin, which were made of straw (Yoo, 1975, pp. 504-05}. Korean Women's Ceremonial Dress Five different kinds of garments were basic to ceremonial dress and were worn by the princesses and upper class women in ancient Korea. These were called jukoue, wonsam, whalot, tangoue, and queert's ordinary clothes. Jukoue The juk~ (PLATE XX, p. 30} was one of the highest ranking ceremonial costumes used in the palace; 27 PLATE XIII TANGJU PLATE XIV YUNJU PLATE XV SUJU (Suk, 1971, p. 597) 28 PLATE XVI JIN-SHIN PLATE XVII NAMAKSHIN (Suk, 1971, p. 599) 29 PLATE XV III MITUR I PLATE XIX JIPSIN (Suk, 1971, p. 594) 3 0 PLATE XX J UKOU E ...... ••••••••••••••••••• .••••••••••• ··-·····••••••• •••••••••••••••••••••• ~111111 I 11111111111 ••••••••••• ••••••••••• ••••• ••••••••••• ••••••• ••••••••••• (Suk, 1971 , p. 492) 31 it was presented as a gift from China during the Mung dynasty (A.D. 1370) for the formal costume of the first queens of the Yi dynasty (Suk, 1971, p. 499). This dress was used as full formal dress at coronations until the end of the Yi dynasty. The jukoue \vas distinguished by pictorial embroidery which included 160 pairs of pheasants and 472 large and small size flower patterns throughout the dark blue silk satin. A seven-foot-long red band with a gold dragon or a phoenix stamped or embroidered on it was attached at the neckline, front opening, skirt hem, and end of the sleeves. A decorative panel hung around the neck and down the front of the garment (Suk, 1971, p. 492). Wens am The wonsam (PLATE XXI, p. 32) was worn as a ceremonial costume in the palace as well as by ordinary women during the reign of King Kong Min of the last Koryo dynasty (A.D. 1370). The wonsam worn in the palace was more luxurious than that worn by ordinary women. Also, the palace wonsam had a back panel which was longer than the front. The wide sleeves, edged with crimson and yellow, had attached white silk pieces to conceal the hands. The crimson silk belt, which was four to five centimeters in width and four to five meters in length, 32 PLATE XXI WON SAM (Suk, 1971, p. 494) 33 was tied around the bust and dropped down to the floor in the back {Suk, 1971, p. 122). Various gold designs were used on the belt: dragons for the yellow wonsam, phoenixes for the crimson wonsam, and flowers for the green wonsam. The empress wore a yellow wonsam, the queen a crimson wonsam, and a princess or commoner a green wonsam. Ylonsams \vorn by ordinary women were less luxurious and ornate than those which were worn by women of the royal family. Women we~e expected to be calm and self-composed when wearing the wonsam (Suk, 1971, p. 494). Whalot The whalot (PLATE XXII, p. 34), made of heavy red silk, was used as a ceremonial costume for the women of the royal family. Designs of lotuses, peonies, phoenixes, clouds, waves, butterflies, and mountains were embroidered on the shoulders, the end of the sleeves, and the lower part of the gown. Later, the whalot was per- mitted to be used as a wedding gown by the middle class. The front of the dress was about thirty centi- meters shorter than the back. The underarm side seam in the bodice area was left open. The embroidered-sleeves of yellow, crimson, or deep blue signified good fortune. This whalot was first made during the Silla united period (A.D. 826-835) (Suk, 1971, p. 122). l ,-~'" 34 PLATE XXII WHALOT Back View (Suk, 1971, p . 497) 35 Tangoue The tangoue (PLATE XXIII, p. 36} came from the Chinese Tang dynasty costume, and it was the simplest ceremonial attire during the Yi dynasty. It was similar in shape to the chogori, except that the front and back bodice extended down to the knees and "curved beautifully at the ends. The tangoue was made of green silk with a crimson lining and had dark purplish-red strips that tied at the center front below the collar. fA gold foil pattern of flowers, bats, and letters meaning longevity and happiness was placed on the area from the shoulder to the sleeves and on the front and back bodice. This dress was worn only by women of the royal families and those of nobility. The queen and princesses wore the tangoue daily so that they would not be confused with other palace women (Suk, 1971, p. 122). Queen's Ordinary Clothes TThe queen usually wore a dark blue chima and a J jade chogori1 (PLATE XXIV, p. 37). The queen avoided \ wearing a chima and chogori of the same color by tradi- tion (Suk, 1971, p. 123). The ceremonial dresses for the queen for various occasions were kept constantly ready in a special facil- ity by expert servants. Usually there were specialized groups of trained servants to prepare the necessary clothes for the royal family in rooms set aside for the 36 I • PLATE XXIII TAHGOUE -- ! •. .. • - ~ l Front View Back Vie·w (Suk, 1971, p. 501) 37 PLATE XXIV QUEEN'S ORDINARY CLOTHES (Suk, 1971, p. 504) 38 tasks. The chimbang was the room where sewing was done. Other s~rvants were assigned to embroider, starch, and iron in the soobang. Most garments used for the queen or princesses were specially made from silk, using special techniques. The queen wore a garment only once or bvice. The worn garments were then given to women of the royal family to honor them. Colors of Costume Five basic colors were used in Korean traditional costumes--white, yellow, red, blue, and black (Choe, 1971, p. 1). These colors were seen as harmonious with the yin/yang system and the five elements theory. The meaning of yin/yang and the five elements theory was explained in the Encyclopedia of Philosophy as follows: Basically, it is conceived of two cosmic forces, one yin, which is negative, passive, weak and disinte grative, and the other yang, which is positive, active, strong, and integrative. All things are produced through the interaction of the two. Associated with the theory of yin and yang is that of the five agents or elements (vlo-hsing) : metal, wood, water, fire, and earth. According to this theory, things succeed one another as the five agents take their turns. Yin, yang, and the five agents are forces, powers, and agents rather than material elements. 'I'he whole focus is on process order, and laws of operation. Existence is viewed as a dynamic process of change obeying definite laws, following definite patterns, and based on a pre-established harmony (Choe, 1971, p. 1). 39 Individual Colors Each color S}Tibolizes one of the five elements plus a compass direction and a season. White is the basic color in Korea. White symbolizes the element metal and the \\'estern direction and represents all seasons. It can be worn for all occasions and by all ages {Suk, 1971, p. 112). In order to make clothing white, Korean women historically boiled their clothes in ash water {lye) and then dried them in the sun. This process was especially effective on cotton. The color yellow stands for the earth, the middle direction, and autumn. Yellow signifies nobility. During the Yi dynasty, only the Chinese emperor could wear a yellow robe. The Korean king was not allowed to wear yellow until after the Chinese lost their control of the country. Red was worn by the kings of Korea. Red symbol izes fire, south in direction, and summer. The color blue stood for the element wood, the east direction, and spring. Traditionally, Koreans had worn mostly white, but during the Yi dynasty, people were frequently ordered to wear blue-colored clothing because blue represented the color of the east point of the compass, on which Korea was located, while white repre sented the west. The officials dressed in blue, but the people returned to wearing white again at the end of the 40 Yi dynasty. The color black stood for water, north, and winter. The government recommended that officers wear a black hat and a blue robe. In addition to these five colors, gray, light green, green, and light blue were used. There were various color combinations that were consistently used in ancient Korean women's costumes to indicate social status (Rutt, 1972, p. 223). Color Combinations Palace and upper class women during the Yi dynasty wore yellow chogoris and red chimas. This color combination was also used for wedding gowns. Red symbolized wealth and force, and yellow meant fertility. The red chima was worn only by young women of high class. Lower class women wore pink chimas. Matrons wore a yellow chogori and a blue chima. The blue represented everlasting youth, as well as being the preferred color of the Yi dynasty. Old women wore a light green chogori and a blue chima. Middle class women wore a light blue chogori and a blue chima for ceremonial occasions. The everyday costume of forty to fifty-year-old women was a blue or gray chima and a white choaori. A cri,.mson ribbon at the front of the chogori indicated that the woman was married. Indigo fabric bands at the ends 41 p • of the sleeves meant that she had a son or sons. To wear both the indigo bands and the crimson ribbon was a source of pride. The combination of a light blue chogori and dark blue chima was called a chumdambog. The Koreans wore the chumdambog while visiting neighbors or relatives (Cho, 1956, p. 26). A white chogori, a black chima, and a white apron were worn by a lower class woman. In later periods, these color combinations lost their class meanings except for special occasions. Chapter III PROCEDURE This study was designed to investigate the possibility of introducing adaptations of Korean women's ceremonial dress into current American styles. The primary resource for the historic ceremonial costumes was the History of Korean Traditional Costumes by Suk Ju Sun (1971). Five court costumes were selected as being adaptable to American styles. For each costume, a sketch was made of a garment that incorporated the de sign theme into a western style garment. (See Appendix B, pp. 70-79). Colors were selected in line with those used in the original ceremonial garments. Traditional fabrics were used for two garments, but American fabrics with the same design feeling were selected for three garments. Draping was used to develop the toiles for the patterns to be used for constructing the final garments. The dress form used was the researcher's personal one. This was in a small size which would be appropriate for many Korean women. Questionnaires were developed ~o assess the subjects' opinions about their experience in seeing or wearing Korean dress and about the acceptability of the five draped garments. 42 43 The five garments were shmvn to 70 Korean women who had lived in the United States for different periods of time and to 30 Caucasian women. A group of thirty women of diverse ages of Caucasian heritage was used for comparison. All subjects were obtained from church groups in the San Fernando Valley--the Koreans from various Korean congregations, and the Caucasians from the Presbyterian Church in Encino. At each church service, the minister invited people to see the garments after the service. Garments were displayed and modeled in the fellowship hall or a classroom in the church building. At the Caucasian church, only the women attended. At the Korean churches, the entire family was present for the presentation, but only the \vomen' s responses to the questionnaire were used in this study. A chi-square test was used to determine the ~·-Z-·- significane~ of the differences in frequency of responses for eachc.r:uestion. Chapter IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Description of Respondents The first question asked for the respondent's age. (See Table 1, p. 45.) There was no significant difference between American and Korean women in their age groupings. Half of the Korean women were in the 35-49 age group and twenty-nine percent were in the 20-34 age group. Of the total group of women, forty-three percent were ages 35-49 and twenty-eight percent were ages 20-34. The second question was, "Where were you born?" The majority of the Caucasian womeu were born in the United States. One person each was born in England, Scotland, and Germany. Four Korean women who were under 20 years old were born in the United States; th~ rest were born in Korea. The third item asked, "How many years have you --- ·---~~-' lived in the United States?" All of the Caucasian women who were born in the United States had lived their entire lives in the United States. Those born in other countries had lived in the United States more than 20 years. The Korean women were divided into three groups. Twenty-nine of the Korean women (41 percent) had lived in the United 44 45 TABLE 1 DESCRIPTIVE DATA ON THE RESPONDENTS Descriptive Data Korean Caucasian 'l'otal Age Under 20 yrs. 6 3 9 20-34 yrs. 20 8 28 35-49 yrs. 35 8 43 50-64 yrs. 5 5 10 65 or more yrs. 4 6 10 70 30 100 Chi square -- 8.922 Degrees of freedom == 9 Significance == 0.5 Country of Birth Korea 66 0 66 United States 4 27 31 Scotland 0 1 1 England 0 1 1 Germany - 0 1 1 70 30 100 Chi square == 12.437 Degrees of freedom == 9 Significance == 0.2 Korean Percent Years of Residence in United States 1-4 yrs. 29 41 5-9 yrs. 22 31 10 or more yrs. 19 28 70 100 46 States 1-4 years, twenty-two (31 percent) had lived in the United States 5-9 years, and nineteen {28 percent) had lived over 10 years in the United States. There was a significant difference between Caucasian and Korean women in the number of years they had lived in the United States, with Korean women having lived in the United States for a shorter period of time. Knowledge of and Experience with Korean Costume Item 4 was, "Have you ever seen tradi·tional Korean ceremonial costume?" There was a significant difference between American and Korean women. The major ity of Caucasian women had not seen traditional Korean ceremonial costume. The majority of the Korean women (94 percent) had seen traditional costume. (See Table 2, Appendix C, p. 82.) Item 5 asked respondents replying "Yes" to Item 4, "~vhat kinds of ceremonial costumes have you seen?" Only three of the Caucasian women had seen Korean cere monial dresses. In contrast, 91 percent of the Korean vmmen had seen Korean ceremonial costumes. Costumes ranked in order of frequency were whalot, wonsam, tangoue, queen's ordinary~ and jukoue, with no responses made to "others." (See Table 3, Appendix C, p. 83.) Question 6 asked the respondents, "Have you ever worn traditional Korean ceremonial costumes?" None of 47 the Caucasian \vomen had ever worn Korean ceremonial costumes. Only 16 (22 percent) of the Korean women had actually worn Korean ceremonial costumes. There was a significant difference between the number of Caucasian women and Korean women who had worn Korean ceremonial costumes. When the three groups of Korean women were considered separately, no significant difference was found among them. (See Table 4, Appendix C, p. 84.) Item 7 asked, "How often do you \vear traditional Korean clothes?" The Caucasian respondents had never worn traditional Korean clothes. Of the Korean women, 6 percent wore Korean costumes at least once a week; 18.5 percent of the respondents wore these garments at least once a month; 40 percent indicated that they wore them at least once a year; 18.5 percent answered that they wore these garments less than once a year; and 17 percent had never worn Korean ceremonial costumes. There was no significant difference among the Korean women in terms of years lived in the United States. (See Table 5, Appendix C, p. 85.} In response to Item 8, "How many traditional Korean dresses to you have?", two of the Caucasian women indicated that they had 1-5 traditional Korean dresses, while almost three-fourths of the Korean women noted that they had 1-5 traditional Korean dresses, 17 percent of the Korean women had more than 5 traditional Korean 48 dresses, and 10 percent had no traditional Korean dresses. There was a significant difference between Caucasian and Korean women on responses to this item but no significant difference among the three groups of Korean women. (See Table 6, Appendix C, p. 86.) The ninth item asked, "Could you recognize a Korean woman's social status by her traditional Korean dress?" A majority of Korean women (69) indicated "Yes," but 28 of the Caucasian women answered that they could not recognize a Korean woman's social status by her tradi tional Korean dress. (See Table 7, Appendix C, p. 87.) Item 10 asked of those women responding with a "Yes" answer on Item 9, "What would help you to determine her [a Korean woman's] social status?" One of the two Caucasian women indicated that fabric would help her determine social status. Fifty-four Korean women reported that they would look at the garment's style to determine social status. Color was selected by eighteen women, fabric by eighteen, and other factors by three as helping them to evaluate a woman's social status. (See Table 8, Appendix C, p. 88.) Opinions of Garments Shown Questions 11-14 on the qu~stionnaire dealt with the five garments that were adapted in a modern American style from traditional Korean ceremonial costumes. These 49 garments wer.e sketched on the questionnaire in addition to being shmvn to the respondents. Item 11 asked the respondents, "If these styles were available on the ready-to-wear market, would you choose to wear any of them to replace your American dresses?" There was a significant difference between the responses of the Caucasian and Korean women. In all cases, a much higher percentage of Korean women than American women reported that they would select these garments to replace their American dresses. There was no significant relationship between the Korean women's willingness to wear each garment and the number of years they had lived in the United States. For the Caucasian women, the order of preference was as follows, starting with the most popular garments: Dress 5, adapted from queen's ordinary dress; Dress 3, adapted from whalot, Dress 4, adapted from tangoue; Dress 2, adapted from wonsam; and Dress 1, adapted from jukoue. For Korean women, in order from highest number of "Yes" responses to the lowest number of "Yes" responses, the garment order was Dress 5, Dress 2, Dress 3, Dress 4, and Dress 1. (See Table 9, Appendix C, p. 89.) Item 12 was, "If these styles were available on the ready-to-wear market, would you choose to wear any of them to replace your traditional Korean garments?" There \ Caucasian and Korean women. A much higher percentage of Korean vmmen noted that they '\•JOuld select these dresses to replace their traditional Korean garments than did Caucasian women. There was no significant difference in the Korean women's interest in using any of the displayed garments to replace their traditional Korean garments based on the number of years they had lived in the United States. For the Caucasian women, the order of preference was as follows, starting with the most popular replacement for traditional Korean garments: Dress 5, Dress 3, Dress 4, Dress 2, and Dress 1. In order of highest number of "Yes" responses to lowest, the garment order was Dress 5, Dress 3, Dress 2, Dress 4, and Dress 1 for the Korean women. (See Table 10, Appendix C, pp. 92-94.) Question 13, "Please rank them in the order in which you like them, with your favorite ranked as 1 and your least favorite ranked as 5," invoked the following responses. Caucasian women's favorite garments were ranked as Dress 5, Dress 3, Dress 4, Dress 2, and Dress 1. The Koreans ranked the garments as follows, starting with the favorite as Dress 3, Dress 5, Dress 2, Dress 4, and Dress 1. There was no significan~ difference in ranking between the Korean and Caucasian groups. (See Table 11, Appendix C, p. 95.) The last item, No. 14, was, "For each of the garments, please indicate with a check (X) which aspect(s) 51 of the garment you like." For Garment 1 (from the jukoue) , both groups of women liked the style best, then the color, and last, the fabric. For Garment 2 (from the wonsam), the Caucasian women liked the color best, then the fabric, and last, the style. Korean women liked the style best, then the color, and last, the fabric. For Garment 3 (from the whalot) , both groups of women indicated they liked the style best, then the fabric, and last, the color. For Garment 4 (from the tangoue), Caucasian women liked the color best, then the fabric, and last, the style. Korean women answered first "style," second "color," and then "fabric." For Garment 5 (from queen's ordinary clothes), Caucasian women indicated they liked the fabric best, then the style, and last, the color. Korean women indicated that they liked the style best, then the fabric, and last, the color. In all garments, a majority of Korean women liked the style best. Only on Garment 4 was there a significant differ ence between the responses of the Caucasian women and the Korean women, with the Caucasian women preferring the color and the Korean women preferring the style. There was no significant difference in the responses between the three groups of Korean women on any of the garments. (See Table 12, Appendix C, pp. 96-98.) Several Korean women told the researcher that they were glad to see that someone was interested in 52 clothing needs of Korean women and hoped that someday they would see the garments available in ready-to-wear. Chapter V SU.l'vlHARY, CONCLUSIONS, .A..ND RECOMMENDATIONS Clothing is a many-faceted subject. The dress directly reflects the cultural and social background of a society; research on dress and on clothing materials cannot be accomplished by itself. Thorough understanding of the history for that particular society is required. The costume of a people is influenced by many diversified factors. /Although Korea has had its own traditional costumes, there exists practically no evidence of cere- menial dresses which belonged to the kingdoms before the Yi dynasty.) Most of the information included in this ~~·--·"-! study originated from or was related to the Yi dynasty. The number of Koreans in American society is continually increasing, with about one hundred and fifty thousand residing in Southern California {"First Day ... ," 1981). Korean women, in particular, may have difficulty in adapting their traditional lifestyles to blend with those of their American neighbors. One problem they may have is in finding clothing that is sized small enough and that is sufficiently related to their traditional clothing to be comfortable for them to wear but which is 53 54 also appropriate for their new lifestyles. This need can possibly be met by using designs adapted from traditional Korean dress to make western-styled garments. For this study, five garments were adapted in modern American style from traditional Korean women's ceremonial garments. The fabrics selected varied. Garment 3 was made from a Korean red silk fabric embroi dered in the traditional manner with small flowers strategically placed on the fabric to facilitate sewing the garment into a traditional whalot. Garment 5 was a bright blue silk with a woven-in traditional design signifying good luck. The other three garments were made from 100% cotton fabrics. Garment 1 was an orange flower print made by Liberty of London. The bands on this garment were made of an orange cotton fabric made in the United States. Garment 4 was made of a natural color cotton and a harmonizing cotton print in brown fabric. Garment 2 was a purple print cotton velveteen with purple cording trim. The patterns for the garments were draped on the researcher's dress form, a typical size for a Korean woman. The five garments were shown to 70 Korean women who had lived in the United States for differing numbers of years and to 30 Caucasian \-lomen. The Korean women were divided into three groups: those who had lived in 55 the United States for one t.o four years, those who had lived in the United States from five to nine years, and those who had lived in the United States ten or more years. The purpose of this classification by years of residency was to determine whether Korean women would become more acclimated to western styles if they had lived in the United States for a longer period of time. The Korean Homen we_re selected at three Korean Protestant churches in the San Fernando Valley. The Caucasian women were selected from those attending the First Presbyterian Church in Encino. At tHo Korean churches and the Cauca sian church, four garments were displayed on a dress form and one garment was worn by the researcher. Four Korean women plus the researcher modeled the garments at the other Korean church. The 100 women respondents gave information about their backgrounds and about their familiarity with Korean dress on a questionnaire. {See Appendix A, pp. 63-68.) They also indicated their preferences for the garment styles, fabrics, and colors as they viev1ed the garments. One-way chi squares were calculated for each question based on the total number of responses of the Korean \olOmen and the Caucasian women to determine whether there was any significant difference bet\veen the two groups in terms of background and preferences for the garments shovm. In addition, a comparison was made among 56 the Korean women who were divided into three groups based on the number of years they had lived in the United States. The results of the study shO\ved that a significant number of Korean respondents '"auld v1ear all of the five garments and that the majority selected their preferred design on the basis of style, then fabric, and last, color. The Caucasian women selected first on the basis of color, then on fabric, and last, on style. A significant number of Korean \vomen also indi cated that, if the five garments were available on the ready-to-wear market, they would choose to wear them to replace their American dresses and that they would choose to wear them to replace their traditional Korean garments. This finding was not affected by the number of years the subjects had lived in the United States. Korean women ranked the garments in order of preference as follows, starting with the highest ranked: Dress 3 (from whalot), Dress 5 (from queen's ordinary clothes), Dress 2 {from wonsam), Dress 4 (from tangoue), and Dress 1 (from jukoue}. The Caucasian women's favorite garments were ranked as Dress 5, Dress 3, Dress 4, Dress 2, and Dress 1. There was no significant difference in ranking between the Korean and Caucasian groups. The results of this study were evaluated in terms 57 of the previously formulated null hypotheses. Hypothesis 1. There is no significant difference in the acceptability between \vomen of Korean heritage and women of Caucasian heritage. Since a significant number of Korean women indi cated that they would \vear the garments 1 that they ranked the style of the garments higher than the color (the Caucasian women selected the style as last place) 1 and since a much higher percentage of Korean women would select these dresses to replace their traditional Korean garments than would Caucasian women, the null hypothesis was rejected with a .05 level of significance and the research hypothesis was accepted. Hypothesis 2. There is no significant difference in the acceptability of the garments designed, depending upon the number of years women of Korean heritage have lived in the United States. There was no significant difference in the acceptability of the designed garments by Korean women, relative to the number of years they had lived in the United States. Hypothesis 3. There is no significant difference in the acceptability of the garments designed for this research and the availability of western fashions to women of Korean heritage. There was no significant difference between the 58 acceptabili~y of the designed garments and that of available American fashions to the women of Korean heri tage. There appears to be a need for special designs for dresses for women of Korean heritage and clothing manufacturers and pattern companies should be made aware of this need and be encouraged to pursue the subject. Recommendations for Further Study The following recommendations are set forth for those desiring to continue research into this area in the future. 1. A study to determine whether Korean men find American garments suitable. 2. An anthropometric study of Koreans and other Orientals to develop more appropriate sizing standards for manufacturers desiring to produce garments for this market. 3. A study researching the ready-to-wear market to determine v1hat manufacturers are doing to meet the needs of women of Korean and other Oriental heritage. 4. A study to investigate the marketing of a new line of clothing based on Americanizing of traditional Korean dress. REFERENCES Anspach, Karlyne A., and Yoon Hee Kwon. "Western Dress Styles Adopted by Korean Women." Home Economics Research Journal, 4:235-42. June, 1976. Cho Chung Kyung. Korea Tomorrow. New York: Macmillan, 1956. 1 Choe Ok Ja. "Study of Color and Design of the Yi Dynasty by Observing Contemporary Relics of the Period." Sudo Education College Treatise, V, 1971. "First Day of President's U.S. Visit." The Hankook Ihbo, January 30, 1981, p. 9. Hamilton, A., H. H. Austin, and M. Terauchi. Korea. Boston: Millet, 1910. Kavanaugh, Gere. "Silk Textiles: Korean Treasures in Silk from Korea." Journal of Interiors, 5:127-39. October, 1976. ~irn Bun Og. The Pattern of Korean Traditional Costume. Seoul: Seoul National University Press, 1972. /Kim, D. U. A Study of Dress and Clothing in the Early Yi Dynasty. Seoul: Korean Research Center, 1963. Lowell, Percival. Choson: The Land of the Morning Calm. Boston: Ticknor, 1951. Matthews, Lillian B. "Relationship between Traditional ism of Dress and Social Values of Ghanaian Women." Horne Economics Research Journal, 7:389-98. July, 1979. Pow Key Sohn, Cho Choon Kim, and Yi Suo Hong. The History of Korea. Seoul: Royal Asiatic Society, 1972. Rutt, Richard. History of the Korean People. Seoul: Royal Asiatic Society, Korea Branch, 1972. /Suk Ju Sun. The History of Korean Traditional Costumes. Seoul: Pojinje, 1971. /Walton, Perry. The Story of Textiles. New York: Tudor, 1925. 59 60 \voo Keu Han. The History of Korea. Seoul: Eul-Yoo, 1970. Yoo Hi Kyong. A Study of Korean Traditional Costumes. Seoul: Ewha \vomen's University Press, 1975. APPENDIXES 61 APPENDIX A Questionnaire Written in English Questionnaire Written in Korean 62 QUESTIONNAIRE 1. What is your age? a. under 20 years old c. 35-49 e. 65 or over· b. 20-34 d. 50-64 2. Where were you born? a. Korea c. Other country (please indicate) b. United States 3. How many years have you lived in the United States? 4. Have you ever seen traditional Korean ceremonial costumes? a. Yes b. No 5. If Yes, what kinds of ceremonial costumes have you seen? a. Jukoue c. Whalo·t e. Queen's ordinary clothes b. Wonsam d. Tangoue f. Other (please indicate) 6. Have you ever worn traditional Korean clothes? a. Yes b. No 7. How often do you wear traditional Korean clothes? a. At least once a week c. At least once a year e. Never b. At least once a month d. Less than once a year Cl'l vJ 8. How many traditional Korean dresses do you have? a. None b. 1-5 c. More than 5 9. Could you recognize a Korean woman's social status by looking at her traditional Korean dress?· a. Yes b. No 10. If Yes, what would help you to determine her social status? a. Color c. Style b. Fabric d. Other (please indicate) YOU HAVE SEEN FIVE GARMENTS THAT ARE ADAPTED IN A MODERN AMERICAN STYLE FROM TRADITIONAL KOREAN CEREMONIAL COSTUMES 11. If these styles were available on the ready-to-wear market, would you choose to wear any of them to replace your American dresses? 1. 2. 3. ~ 4. 5. Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No No No No ""~ 12. If these styles were available on the ready-to-wear market, would you choose to wear any of them to replace your traditional Korean garments? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No No No No 13. You have seen five garments. Please rank them in the order in which you like them, with your favorite ranked as 1 and your least favorite as 5. (Please rank all garments.) __garment 1 __garment 2 __garment 3 __garment 4 __garment 5 14. For each of the garments, please indicate with a check ( ) which aspects of the garment you like. 1. color 2. color 3. color 4. color 5. color fabric ·fabric fabric fabric fabric __style __style _style __style __style 0'\ (.,11 66 ~ 0 o{rJ .J\0 0 ~ 1 1 0 0~ to" c» (V. I. -'- "f ~ --:;1 ~ ~- ~ 1 ~ ~" ~ tJ . i;,\ \.J') ~) \-\ ~ ot --< ::J" <:)~ .L. ~.-:;:? ~~ 3 0 0 ():::\ o\ ~\- ~ -"" ~ ~ ~0 .,...)- :!) ~ ~Q ~ ~ t.'S) ({) \< V>' o\\'J ~ 1\}\ --... ol ~\ <> ~ o-1 ~~- ~ .l.- I.J o\CJ I ~ ~ g 'T k 8~ -...... / £l -.J ~~ 1,.0 ~ (,IV JJ\1' .;;::-\ u .l- t 0 ....: 68 (JV ol \r)" ~ ~ J o\<.. ..L -g ...L ~~ ~ ~ 0 ..L\ ) ~ o'vl 0=1 \)\ 71- -< ::t.~ od .\._'<;- \:..'-" '< ~ :z~ \t) 2 ~\- ~ lri A.O "lP ;_a ~ ~ ~ 1\.) ~ l\ 11) ~ (J\1 ~ ~ '!:-.o r,I.) ~ i< ~() oK <.I i;r- ol ~ I ~ r-1 ...J.. "& Q r:-l -t..l ;! ;G ~ ...... " \J{ I'< _,_ lll!rJ f'( 1"- "m> l.r) .(/ ..!..I ri. ;t, JJ L)J .(J- IJf -au i(i ..L. \II ~ ~ ~ ;,p. . 'IJ J( -l.]. K ok I ...... J.. ~f\ (J \3 0 "- \)~ !C) I.e) Q " m ov oiJ 2: -J ";;(} oJ fp tp -.-« --i d !2 ~ APPENDIX B Sketches, Descriptions, and Pictures of Garments 69 70 Garment 1: Style Adapted from Jukoue Back Front V-neckline, short sleeves and mid-knee length. Orange color bia s band e x t e nding down the front. Slit trimmed with orange bias band. Two tucks on front shoulders. Back zipper. Front closing with three buttons. 100% cotton, orange flower print made by Liberty of London. Bands of an orange cotton fabric made in the United States. 71 JUKOUE Displayed on Dress Form 72 Garment 2: Style Adapted from Wonsam Back Front Ankle length, semi-fitted one-piece dress with v neckline and cording trim at neckline, end of ~leeves, and raised waistline. Back invisible zipper closing. Princess line seaming front and back. 100% cotton velveteen with purple flower print for garment with purple velveteen for cording. 73 WOMSAM Displayed on Dress Form .... ·,-...., ., I - . ,' ,• . .,...... 74 Garment 3: Style Adapted from Whalot Front Surplice neckline to waist. Long dress with side zipper closing. Full rounded shaped sleeves. Two pleats in skirt at waist. Korean red silk fabric embroidered in the traditional manner with small flowers placed strate gically. 75 WHALOT Modeled by Researcher 76 Garment 4: Style Adapted from Tangoue Back Front Back zippered midi-length dress with a two-piece stand-up collar. Long sleeves gathered into cuffs. Princess seaming. Combination of 100% natural color cotton and a harmonizing print in brown fabric. 77 TANGOUE Displayed on Dress Fo rm 78 Garment 5: Style Adapted from Queen's Ordinary tlothes Back Front Mid-knee length gathered one-piece dress with surplice neckline to waist, full-length set-in rounded sleeves, self-tie belt in back. Back invisible zipper closing. Bright blue 100% Korean silk. m~Od sse~a uo peX~1ds~a s~H~O~J x~NrGHo s~N~~no 6L APPENDIX C List of Tables 80 81 Chi Square Analysis Levels of probability used to test for significance were .OS and .01. The symbols used to denote significance were: .OS level * .01 level ** .001 level *** 82 TABLE 2 Question 4: Have you ever seen traditional Korean cere- monial costumes? vs Question 2: Where were you born? Question 4 I Question------2 Yes No Total Caucasian 3 27 30 Korean 66 4 70 69 31 100 Chi square = 69.744 Degrees of freedom = 3 Significance = .001*** Question 4: Have you ever seen traditional Korean cere- monial costumes? vs Question 3: How many years have you lived in the United States? (Korean responses only) Question 4 Question 3 Yes No Total 1-4 yrs. 29 0 29 5-'-9 yrs. 20 2 22 10 yrs. and over 17 -2 -19 66 4 70 Chi square= 3.038 Degrees of freedom = 5 Significance= 0.7 83 TABLE 3 Question 5: If Yes (to #4), what kinds of ceremonial costumes have you seen? vs Question 2: Where were you born? Question 2 Ld~0~0 Caucasian 0 0 0 0 0 3 Korean 24 45 44 40 32 0 24 45 44 40 32 3 Chi square = 185.531 Degrees of freedom = 11 Significance = .001*** Question 5: If Yes (to #4), what kinds of ceremonial costumes have you seen? vs Question 3: Ilow many years have you lived in the United States? (Korean responses only) Question 3 1-4 y.rs. 10 18 19 18 10 0 5-9 yrs. 8 19 16 16 15. 0 10 yrs. and 6 8 9 6 7 0 over - 24 45 44 40 32 0 Chi square = 18.77 Degrees of freedom ::: 17 Significance = 0.5 84 TABLE 4 Question 6: Have you ever \vorn traditional Korean cere- monial costumes? vs Question 2: Where were you born? Question 6 Question 2 Yes No Total Caucasian 0 30 30 Korean -16 54 70 16 84 100 Chi square= 8.162 Degrees of freedom = 3 Significance = .02* Question 6: Have you ever worn traditional Korean cere- monial costumes? vs Question 3: How many years have you lived in the United States? (Korean responses only) Question 6 Question 3 Yes No Total 1-4 yrs. 7 22 29 5-9 yrs. 5 17 22 10 yrs. and 5 14 19 over - 17 53 70 Chi square = 0.185 Degrees of freedom = 5 Significance = 0.99 85 TABLE 5 Question 7: How often do you wear traditional Korean clothes? vs Question 2: Where were you born? ..z, 0 0ro- ro- "y 0 ~~ I X., (; 0 Question 2 "\' OJ:: ~0 Caucasian 0 0 0 0 30 Korean 4 13 -28 13 12 4 13 28 13 42 Chi square = 59.081 Degrees of freedom = 9 Significance = .001*** Question 7: How often do you wear traditional Korean clothes? vs Question 3: How many years have you lived in the United States? (Korean responses only) ra-J:: Sro- Question 3 1-4 yrs. 3 7 15 2 2 5-9 yrs. 1 3 7 6 5 and 10 yrs. 5 over 0 3 6 5 4 13 28 13 12 Ch1 square = 13.28 Degrees of freedom = 14 Significance = 0.5 86 TABLE 6 Question 8: How many traditional Korean dresses do you have? vs Question 2: ~-J'here were you born? Question 8 Question 2 None 1-5 More than 5 Toi:al ~~------Caucasian 28 2 0 30 Korean 7 52 11 70 35 54 11 100 Chi square = 64.14 Degrees of freedom = 5 Significance = .001*** Question 8: How many traditional Korean dresses do you have? vs Question 3: How many years have you lived in the United States? (Korean responses only) Question 8 Quest.ion 3 None 1-5 More than 5 Total 1-4 yrs. 2 21 6 29 5-9 yrs. 4 16 2 22 10 yrs. and over 1 15 3 19 7 52 11 70 Chi square = 3.27 Degrees of freedom = 8 Significance = 0.9 87 TABLE 7 Question 9: Could you recognize a Korean woman's social status by looking at her traditional Korean dress? vs Question 2: Where were you born? Question 9 Question 2 Yes No Total Caucasian 2 28 30 Korean 61 9 70 63 37 100 Chi square= 58.344 Degrees of freedom = 3 Significance= .001*** Question 9: Could you recognize a Korean woman's social status by looking at her traditional Korean dress? vs Question 3: How many years have you lived in the United States? (Korean responses only) g_uesti_on 9 Question 3 Yes No Tot.al 1-4 yrs. 28 1 29 5-9 yrs. 17 5 22 10 yrs. and over 16 3 19 61 9 70 Chi square = 3.85 Degrees of freedom = 5 Significance= 0.7 88 TABLE 8 Question 10: If Yes {to # 9) , what would help you to determine her social status? vs Question 2: Where were you born? Question 10 o"- / ,.,..,6 ~ Question 2 .0fL_ - ~1Y Caucasian 0 1 1 0 2 93 Korean 18 18 -54 -3 18 19 55 3 95 Chi square = 35.334 Degrees of freedom = 7 Significance ~ .001*** Question 10: If Yes (to #9), what would help you to determine her social status? vs Question 3: How many years have you lived in the United States? (Korean responses only) Question 3 1-4 yrs. 9 5 25 1 40 5-9 yrs. 8 9 15 2 34 10 yrs. and 1 4 14 0 19 over - 18 18 54 3 93 Chi square = 12.592 Degrees o£ freedom = 11 Significance = 0.3 89 TABLE 9 Question 11: If these styles were available on the ready-to-wear market, would you choose to ·wear any of them to replace your American dresses? vs Question 2: Where were you born? Dress 1 Question ~~------11 Question 2 Yes No Total ------~------Caucasian 8 22 30 Korean 55 15 70 63 37 100 Chi Square = 31.551 Degrees of freedom = 3 Significance = .001*** Question 11: If these styles were available on the ready-to-wear market, would you choose to wear any of them to replace your American dresses? vs Question 3: How many years have you lived in the United States? (Korean responses only) Question 11 Question 3 Yes No Total 1-4 yrs. 19 10 29 5-9 yrs. 19 3 22 10 yrs. and 17 2 i9 over - 55 15 70 Chi Square = 5.04 Degrees of freedom = 5 Significance = 0.5 90 TABLE 9 Dress 2 Question 11 Question 2 Yes No Total Caucasian 13 17 30 Korean 64 6 70 77 23 100 Chi Square = 27.428 Degrees of freedom == 3 Significance = .001*** Question 11 Question 3 Yes No Total 1-4 yrs. 26 3 29 5-9 yrs. 20 2 22 10 yr:s. and 18 1 19 over 64 6 70 Chi Square = 0.37 Degrees of freedom = 5 Significance = 0.99 Dress 3 Question 11 Question 2 Yes No Total Caucasian 19 11 30 Korean 62 8 70 81 19 100 Chi Square = 8.690 Degrees of freedom = 3 Significance = .05* Question 11 Question 3 Yes No Total 1-4 yrs. 26 ·3 29 s-q yrs. 21 1 22 10 yrs. and 15 4 19 over 62 8 70 Chi Square - 2.79 Degrees of freedom = 5 Significance = 0.8 91 TABLE 9 Dress 4 Question II Question 2 Yes No Total Caucasian 18 12 30 Korean 60 10 70 78 22 100 Chi Square = 8.091 Degrees of freedom ::= 3 Significance ::= .05* Question 11 Question 3 Yes No Total 1-4 yrs. 24 5 29 5-9 yrs. 18 4 22 10 yrs. and 18 - 1 19 over 60 10 70 Chi Square ::= 1. 73 Degrees of freedom = 5 Significance = 0.9 Dress 5 --Qu_e s t io-n-! .....,1~1::---- Question 2 Yes No Total Caucasian 22 8 30 Korean 67 3 70 89 11 100 Chi Square = 10.742 Degrees of freedom = 3 ~Sig:nificance = ~*-- ======-=-=~~-~~~~~~~~~~==~ Question 11 Question 3 Yes No Total 1-4 yrs. 28 1 29 5-9 yrs. 21 1 22 10 yrs. and 18 1 19 over 67 3 70 Chi Square = 5.991 Degrees of freedom = 5 Significance = 0.5 92 TABLE 10 Question 12: If these styles were available on the ready-to-wear market, would you choose to wear any of them to replace your traditional Korean garments? vs Question 2~ Where were you born? Dress 1 Question 12 Question 2 Yes No Total Caucasian 8 22 30 Korean 46 24 --70 54 46 100 Chi Square = 12.888 Degrees of freedom = 3 Significance == .01** Question 12: If these styles were available on the ready-to-wear market, would you choose to wear any of them to replace your traditional Korean garments? vs Question 3: How many years have you lived in the United States? (Korean responses only) Question 12 Question 3 Yes No Total 1-4 yrs. 17 12 29 5-9 yrs. 18 4 22 10 yrs. and -11 8 19 over 46 24 70 Chi Square== 4.34 Degrees of freedom == 5 Significance == 0.5 93 TABLE 10 Dress 2 Question 12 Question 2 Yes No Total Caucasian 10 20 30 Koresn 57 13 70 67 33 100 Chi Square = 21.970 Degrees of freedom = 3 Significance= .001*** Question 12 -=------Question 3 Yes No Total 1-4 yrs. 25 4 29 5-9 yrs. 16 6 22 10 yrs. and 16 3 19 over 57 13 70 ------~Chi Squa_r_e-.--=~3-.~6~2~--- Degrees of freedom = 5 Significance= 0.7 Dress 3 Question 12 Question 2 Yes No Total ~~------Caucasian 19 11 30 Korean 63 7 70 82 18 100 ------Chi Square = 10.115 Degrees of freedom = 3 Significance = .02* Question 12 Question 3 Yes No Total 1-4 yrs. 24 5 29 5-9 yrs. 21 1 22 10 yrs. and 18 1 19 over 63 7 70 ----~-c=h~i· Square = 4.44 Degrees of freedom = 5 Significance = 0.5 94 TABLE 10 Dress 4 Question 12 Question 2 Yes No Total Caucasian 10 20 30 Korean 50 20 70 60 40 100 Chi Square = 12.696 Degrees of freedom = 3 Significance= .01** Question 12 Question 3 Yes No Total 1-4 yrs. 22 7 29 5-9 yrs. 17 5 22 10 yrs. and 11 8 19 over 50 20 70 ~------Chi Square = 2.512 Degrees of freedom = 5 Significance = 0.8 Dress 5 Question 12 Question 2 Yes No Total Caucasian 22 8 30 Korean 66 4 70 88 12 100 Chi Square= 8.728 Degrees of freedom = 3 Significance= .05* Question 12 Question 3 Yes No Total 1-4 yrs. 27 2 29 5-9 yrs. 21 1 22 10 yrs. and 18 1 19 over 66 4 70 Chi Square- 1.334 Degrees of freedom = 5 Significance = 0.95 9S TABLE 11 Question 13: Please rank them in the order in which you liked them, with your favorite ranked as 1 and your least favorite ranked as 5. vs Question 2: Where were you born? Question 13 Spearman Question 2 Garment l 2 3 4 5 rho Caucasian Total 118 103 70 92 67 .050 Rank 5 4 2 3 1 Signifi- cance = N.S. ------Korean Total 298 222 152 225 153 .050 Rank 5 3 1 4 2 Signifi- cance = N.S. 96 TABLE 12 Question 14: For each of the garments, please indicate with a check (X) which aspect(s) of the garment you like. vs Question 2: Where were you born? Dress 1 Question 14 Question 2 Color Fabric Style Total Caucasian 9 5 16 30 Korean 18 14 47 79 27 19 63 109 Chi Square = 0.9 Degrees of freedom = 5 Significance= 0.98 Question 14: For each of the garments, please indicate with a check (X) which aspect(s) of the garment you like. vs Question 3: How many years have you lived in the United States? (Korean responses only) Question 14 Question 3 Color Fabric Style Total 1-4 yrs. 3 3 17 23 5-9 yrs. 10 7 15 32 10 yrs. and 5 4 -15 24 over 18 14 47 79 Chi Square = 4.32 Degrees of freedom = 8 Significance = 0.9 97 TABLE 12 Dress 2 Quest-ion 14 Color Fabric Question 2 - Style Total Caucasian 15 13 10 38 Korean 28 25 44 97 43 38 . 54 135 Chi Square = 4.19 Degrees of freedom == 5 Significance - 0.7 - Question 14 Question 3 Color------Fabric Style Total 1-4 yrs. 10 11 16 37 5-9 yrs. 8 7 10 25 10 yrs. and 10 7 18 35 over 28 25 44 97 Chi Square :::: l. 37 Degrees of freedom :::: 8 S:ig_nificance :::: 0.99 Dress 3 Qu~stion 14 Question 2 Color Fabric Style Total Caucasian 13 13. 23 49 Korean 25 33 48 106 38 46 71 155 Chi Square :::: 0.58 Degrees of freedom :::: 5 Significance = 0.99 Question 14 Question 3 Color Fabric Style Total 1-4 yrs. 10 14 20 44 5-9 yrs. 10 10 15 35 10 yrs. and 5 9 13 27 over 25 33 48 106 Chi Square - 1.58 Degrees of freedom = 8 Significance = 0.99 98 •rABLE 12 Dress 4 Question 14 Question 2 Color Fabric Style Total Caucasian 14 9 6 29 Korean 27 10 50 87 41 19 56 116 Chi Square = 12.98 Degrees of freedom == 5 Significance = .05* Question 14 Question 3 Color Fabric Style Total 1-4 yrs. 10 3 20 33 5-9 yrs. 10 6 15 31 10 yrs. and 7 1 15 23 over 27 10 50 87 Chi Square = 3.79 Degrees of freedom = 8 Signific_ance = 0.9 Dress 5 guestion 14 Question 2 Color Fabric Style Total Caucasian 20 24 22 66 Korean 38 39 -57 134 58 63 79 200 Chi Square = 2. 69 3 Degrees of freedom = 5 Significance == 0.8 Question 14 Question 3 Color Fabric Style Total 1-4 yrs. 20 15 25 60 5-9 yrs. 8 15 17 40 10 yrs. and 10 9 15 34 over 38 39 57 134 Chi Square == 6.16 Degrees of freedom = 8 Significance = 0.7 ----