Britain and Malta 1787 - 1798 Roger Vella Bonavita

Courtly Love: A Short Note on the Tales of the Franklln and the WIfe of Bath Louis J. Scerri

Hydroponics - Plants without Soli Carmel Galea

1I."Muta Maltl)a" braala Test ta' RHerenza graall-lstraarrlg tal-GraJla tal-Poeil)a Maltl)a Oliver Friggieri

Some Fallacies and Misconceptions In the Maltese Islands Guido Lanfranco

Invito Alia Lettura Del "Saul" Louis D. Baluci

Computer Arithmetic Lawrence Borg

Number 1 Autumn 1977 HYPHEN - Journal of the Upper Secondary School, Valetta.

Editorial Board: Chairman: V.F. Buhagiar M.A. (Lond.) Arts Editor: V. Mallia-Milanes MA Science Editor: C. Eynaud B.Sc. Members: L.J. Scerri MA, J. Zammit Ciantar BA

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Original articles related to the Advanced Level curricula are to be addressed to:

HYPHEN Upper Secondary School Valetta

CONTENTS

Foreward ... Britain and Malta 1787-1798 Roger Vella Bonavita 2 Courtly Love: A Short Note on the Tales of the Franklin and the Wife of Bath Louis J. Scerri ... 19 Hydroponics - Plants without Soil Carmel Galea ... 25 II-"Muza Maltija" bflala Test ta' Riferenza gflall-Istflarrig tal-Grajja tal-Poezija Maltija Oliver Friggieri 29 Some Fallacies and Misconceptions in the Maltese Islands Guido Lanfranco 34 Invito Alia Lettura Del "Saul" Louis D. Baluci 40 Computer Arithmetic Lawrence Borg 44

Copyright held by.respective authors Number 1 Autumn 1977

Foreword

Since Upper Secondary structures were introduced in both state and private systems of educcttion there has been a growing demand for a cultuJ1al link which could draw young students in these schools with similar objectives and aspirations closer together. Hyphen means to forge that link.

Students in this area of education are colflfnonted with problems of adaptation to novel modes of study when more self-reliance and personal research are expected of them. The Upper Secondary School is offering this contri­ bution to help these -3tudents in their studies within and beyond the boundaries of Advanced Level programmes required for admission into institutions of higher learning. This supplement to basic ,text-books aims at easing the arduous work of research without supplanting it. It is meant to anouse the interest of young people and encourage them to search for knowledge beyond the limits of require­ ments of examinations a.t the end of their course of studies.

Our main objective is to make a contribution towards the intellectual and moral development of future Maltese leaders in diverse fields of know/edge during a very impor­ tant phase of their education.

We trust that this journal will help us fulfil our ambition.

Victor F. Buha,giar Head/Upper Secondary School BRITAIN AND MALTA 1787 -1798

Roger Vella Bonavita

The normal school history text-book with Paul I of Russia and a year later does not concern itself with abortive Napolean expelled the knights from diplomatic negotiations. Nor should Malta. After 1798, Britain's policy in it, for to cover minor moves and the Mediterranean was dominated by counter-moves in the extremely com­ a determination not to repeat her plicated world of diplomacy would earlier mistake; it was essential to oc­ obscure the main theme of the text­ cupy or at least to neutralise the tiny, book and thus defeat the purpose for but strategically invaluable Maltese which it was produced - that of pre­ Islands. It is arguable that had Bri­ senting the history ofa period or of tain come to an agreement with the a coun~::.r clearly and concisely. None­ Order, the knights' will to resist the theless the student of history must the french would have been much be reminded constantly that what he stronger and the capture of Malta reads and often what he is taught is that much more difficult, Napolean a very simplified - sometimes gross­ might even have refused to risk ass­ ly oversimplified and hence distorted aulting the strongest fortifications in - account or analysis of a particular Europe. series of events. The earlier inability of the british At times abortive negotiations can government to appreciate the vital throw interesting and useful light on necessity of acquiring a secure base at more important developments and Malta, for a while proved disasterous this is so in the case of the unsuccess­ to Britain's position in the Mediter­ ful negotiations between the Order of ranean. Her fleet and troops had to St. John and Great Britain during the evacuate the area in 1796 for a time, last decade of the eighteenth century. for want of adequate supplies and The negotiations illustrate on the one maintenance facilities. She was un­ hand the Order's struggle for survival able to prevent the french from mov­ in the hostile environment created by ing a large army by the sea to Egypt. french revolution and the wars that France had successfully challenged followed, and on the other Britain's Britain's supremacy at sea and minis­ first unsteady steps towards the evo­ ters quaked at the thought of India lution of her Mediterranean policy - falling to french arms. The govern­ central to a proper understanding of ment's policy in the Mediterranean British foreign policy down to the since Britain joined the war against Suez crisis of 1956. More important France in 1792 was manifestly a com­ the negotiations highlight IYIalta's plete and utter failure. strategic importance, both positive The balance was to some extent and negative, to great powers vie­ quickly restored through Nelson's bril­ ing for control over the Mediterran­ liant victory at Aboukir Bay-the Bat­ ean. The negotiations failed; in 1797 tle of the Nile; Britain's morale and the Order reached an understanding prestige rose - the immediate danger BRITAIN AND MALTA 1787-1798 3

was over. But Britain's supremcy in interest in Malta.1 But in fact, the de­ the Mediterranean was not fully es­ lay was caused by William England's tablishe.d until Malta was· unquestion­ unsllccessful efforts to collect the ably under her sole control and this commission without paying the nor­ was not absolutely. certain until 1814. mal fee. The consul does not appear The failure of Pitt"s government to to have been a man of any great abi­ come to terms with the Order of St. lity and the british government never John cost Britain dearly - it also cost trusted him with any important mat­ the Order the principality of Malta. ter. He was obviously a creature of De Rohan, the Grand Master of. the De Rohan for the Grand Master also Order, made the first of a series of made him consul for Sweden and the moves between Malta and Britain. In Baltic states in 1787, created him a 1789 he heard that the british govern­ Donat of the Order with a pension of ment intended to appoint a resiOent 100 gold scudi and in 1787 granted agent in Malta, subordinate to the bri­ him the reversion of the post of tish consul-general in Sicily. The mat­ cancelliere delle milizie (which was ter was not terribly important, but De worth 2,000 scudi a year) and in 1796 Rohan, Uke his predecessors, objected made him the first consul for the to any· suggestion, however trivial, United States in Malta. The foreign .that Malta was in any way part of, or secretary was wise to ignore him. dependent on, the Kingdom of the The effects of the french revolution Two Sicilies. Moreover, he had two on the Order's ifortunes are well · years earlier, as was normal practice known. On September 19th, 1792, in Malta appointed one William Eng­ the property of the knights in France larid to the post of british consul in was confiscated. The next day, french Malta. Accordingly, on 20th May forces under Kellermann and Dumou­ 1789, De Rohan wrote to the british riez forced the prussian army, repute­ foreign secretary explaining that an dly the finest in Europe, to retreat at agent dependent on the consul-gene­ the cannonade of Valmy. The follow­ ral in Siciily was incompatible with ing day, 21st Sept. 1792, Louis XVI the independent status of the neutral was deposed; France became a repub­ principality of Malta. He suggested lic. Within a few weeks french arms that the foreign secretary should con­ succeeded when Louis XIV had failed: firm the appointment of William Eng- Nice, Savoy, most of the left bank of · land. The foreign secratary, on 16th the Rhine and the Austrian Nether­ October the same year, wrote accept- lands were occupied. Naturally the · ing De· Rohan's proposal and thus Order's property in these areas was William England became the first confiscated. Then, on 19th November, (and the last) british consul in Malta the republic proclaimed that France to hold the . King's commission; as would assist all people to gain free­ well as the Grand Master's patent, for dom and thus declared war on the his office. . monarchies and aristocracy of Europe. . In practice William England did It is in this context of violent not obtain his commission until 1794 change and of fear of the new force and this long delay has 1;>een regarded unleashed in Europe that we must as evidence of Britain's total lack of view an appeal for british protection

J.. Cf. CavaJiero, RE., The Last of the Crusaders, (London, 1960), p.206. 4 HYPHEN

sent from Malta by William England Order. in December 1792. Presumably the The british government's attitude consul would not have made such a to the flagging fortunes of the Order, request on his own initiative and to the situation in the Mediterranean without reference to his patron the and possibly to the Order's request Grand Master. The original document for protection, is perhaps to be found is lost but William England wrote in an unsigned and undated foreign again in January 1793 referring to an office memorandum on Malta written earlier letter "in which I petitioned very shortly before 1st February 1793 your Lordship's interference with His when Britain declared war on France: Majesty towards granting this Island His Majesty's protection." This re­ "The following Report is respect­ quest for protection was possibly the fully submitted for the considera­ reaction of a Grand Master panic­ tion of Lord Grenville: stricken by the news of disaster The confiscation which has taken after disaster to the Orders's finan­ place in France of the property ot ces in Europe. With Britain's entry the knights of Malta will, it is into the war against ,France in Febru­ believed, lay that Order under ne­ ary 1793, De Rohan was anxious to cessity of negotiating with one or show that an understanding with the other of the great maritime powers the Order could be of some value to for protection. Britain. There was at this point no This protection will imply on the british squadron in the Mediterranean part of the Order the sovereignty and french privateers played havoc of the Island and disposal of its land with british shipping. William England and sea forces. (There belong to informed the foreign secretary that Malta three or four line of battle the Order's fleet would patrol the sea ships, four galleys; of which one between Malta and Sicily to protect has a crew of 700 and the others vessels flying the british flag. 500; many xebecs, gaIliots, corsairs; Neither the british government nor in all carrying 200 men; a regiment the Order seem to have been in any of infantry of about 1,500 men be­ hurry to take matters any further. In­ sides about 2,000 destined for mili­ deed, during the spring and early tary service on ship board. summer of 1793 the european situa­ Malta exclusive of Gozo can raise a tion changed radically. -France was militia of about 25,000 men. The crippled by civil war and economic impregnable strenght of Valletta is chaos. The allies forced the french to well known, it contains an arsenal retreat from many of the territories with arms for 35,000 men.) Should occupied in 1792 and threatened to the french be the contrary party, invade France. The republic seemed that Island will give them nearly doomed and the restoration of the the same command of the trade to monarchy by the end of the year was the gulf of Venice, the Archipelago, a distinct possibility. The restitution ConstantUnople, Egypt and other of the Order's property would doubt­ parts of the Levant as the danes !ess follow and in this situation it was have of the Baltic trade by being in not necesary for the Order to seek possession of Elsinore. protection from Britain nor indeed for Should the russians gain possession Britain to involve itself with the of it, they will have in their power BRITAN AND MALTA 178'A-1798 5

to starve Constantinople, reduce tion, which from its importance. the greek islands and similar to the will require dexterous management. french to dictate the terms of inter­ There are in London persons from course to the Levant. their connections and rank in life To Spain the fate of Malta is more equal to the business and who may an object of indifference, as the be prevailed on to engage in it."1 trade of Spain in the Mediterranean is chiefly coasting or at the farthest The report analysed, quite accura­ to the western coasts of Italy and tely. the stategic and commercial Sicily. value of Malta to the various mari­ To Great Britain the possession of time powers. However, the overall Malta would secure in time of peace impression it gave was that Malta was every advantage of commercial in­ only worth having to prevent another tercourse with Italy. the eastern power from acquiring it. To Britain, half of the Mediterranean, Egypt Malta's positive value during war-was and the coasts of Africa. It would limited to the protection of shipping be a great warehouse for the com­ and to sapping' the resources of the modities of England and by means enemy if he tried to capture it. This of its Lazarettos would enable the view was held by at least one of merchants to carry on without loss Pitt's ministers. Later in the 1790s of time the Turkey trade. Dundas, minister of war, said that he In time of war it would give the had been aware Of the importance of most effectual protection to our Malta since 1792 - about the time trading vessels and if attacked, it this memorandum was written - but would occasion such a diversion of he felt that the Island was too far to the forces of our enemies as would the east to be of any practical use to necessarily weaken their efforts the british navy during its operations where we are most vulnerable. off the south coast of France. 2 In­ As to the jealousy which might be deed, until 1798, british policy in the excited against whatever power Mediterranean was to acquire a base might make this acquisition; there as close as possible to Toulon; at Cor­ is reason to think that France would sica or Minorca. sooner submit to see it in the pos­ Then, contrary to all expectation, session of Great Britain than of the republic made a remarkable reco­ Russia, and that Russia would give very during the summer of 1793. Un­ us the same sort of preference over der the leadership of Robespierre and France. Nor is there occasion to and Carn6t, draconian measures res­ doubt of Spain and the Italian states tored the authority of the central entertaining similar sentiments. government over most of France and The present is apprehended to be the allies were forced to retreat from the proper time for such a negotia- french soil. By the end of the summer

1. Printed with minor errors in Ryan, F.W., The House of The Temple, (London, 1930). pp.225/226. Cavaliero, op.cit., pp.207/208 erroneously ascribes the report to \Villiam England. The phrases in italics provide the terminus m~te quam and the terminus post quam for dating the document to between September 1792 and January 1793. See below p. 16. 6 HYPHEN

. the new armies raised by the levee en not inviting Britain and Russia to masse were ready to take the offen­ send a garrison to Malta; for having sive. It was in this situation that con­ waited silent and inactive while the tacts between Britain and Malta were financial situation deteriorated from resumed. day to day. But as the state was weak The Order was desperately short and stripped of' all its revenues per­ of money and deep in debt. Already haps this policy was the only safe crippled by the loss of its property in course open to him." 3 France and elsewhere, its revenues . De Rohan, it seems, decided to give continued to shrink as other states total co-operation to whichever go­ imposed taxes on the Order's estates vernment offered adequate protection to finance their own war efforts. The and (above all) financial assistance, unfortunate De Rohan was in a dilem­ even if the price was the end of the ma; on the one hand the Order was Order's neutrality. Around September . obliged by its statutes to' remain 1793, only Britain could have any strictly neutral during wars beween interest in negotiating with the Or­ european countries - a principle der rather than seeking its destruct­ often strained in the past but never ion or being indifferent to its fate. In violated - on the other, all his ins­ fact, Britain's need for men and mu­ tincts of self-defence, of self-preser­ nitions in the Mediterranean - for vation, of revenge and his total re­ the fleet, for Toulon, for Corsica - pugnance of the republic urged him gave De Rohan the only cards of any to strike against the state that had strength in an otherwise very weak dealt such terrible blows to his Order. hand. He could offer :Britain troops, De Rohan's french secretary, Doub­ seamen, munitions, stores, limited let, had already urged him to preserve nayal support, and (though its value a strict neutrality in spite of all pro­ was as yet under-estimated in Lon­ vocation lest France or any other don) a strong strategic fortress with maritime power have any excuse for superb harbours . attacking Malta. 1 Even the Chevalier . On 1st November .1:793 Lord Robert de Maisonneuve, one of tne Order'·s Fitzgerald, the british ambassador to most able diplomat and a confidant of Switzerland, wrote to the foreign sec­ De Rohan, could see a case for neutra­ retarY,Lord Grenville, enclosing lity, though he did try to negotiate a " . .. the origInal letter and memorial treaty with Britain, and later support­ which I have lately received from the ed the connection with Russia. 2 "If Commander Maisonneuve, Minister . one has to reproach Grand Master De Plenipotentiary from the Sovereign Rohan", he wrote' in 1799, "it is for Military Order of Malta to Poland, '" not putting forces into the field; for and as they contain ceitain very inte-

1. See Douulet, P., Mnnoires de Ma.ite,. (Paris, 1883), p.343. Doublet stressed to De Hohan that the Order had preserved its neutrality even during the Reformation and wars of religion in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries when the Order lost much property in many countries. 2. Hyan, op.cit., pp.215/216. . 3. [de 11aisonneuve], Annales Historiques de l'Ordre Souverain de St. Jean de Jeru­ salem depuis l'Annee 1725, (St. Petersburg, 1799), pp.32/33. BRITAN AND MALTA 1787-1798 7

resting points I beg leave to recom­ disarray. mend them to your Lordship's peru­ Although de Maisonneuve claimed sal ... " to be acting according to instructions The letter and memoir written by sent to him by De Rohan, he could de ~aisonneuve to Fitzgerald survive only show Fitzgerald his credentials and make interesting reading. The as minister plenipotentiary to Poland. Order's much vaunted neutrality, he These, one would suppose, did not wrote, was a thing of the past as the authorise him to open negotiations Grand Master had decided to pursue with Britain on the terms described a policy of open hostility to the french above. One authority asserts that De republic. The french royalist govern­ Rohan immediately vetoed de Mai­ ment in exile was recognised in Mal­ sonneuve's overtures.1 However, De ta as the true government of France. Rohan's subsequent behaviour sug­ French - vessels in Malta had been gests that if he did indeed order de disarmed and were not allowed to Maisonneuve to break off the contact fly the tricolour. De Maisonneuve with Fitzgerald, this was not because claimed that he had instructions from he did not want to try to reach an un­ De Rohan authorising him to conduct derstanding with Britain but rather all the necessary negotiations preli­ because de Maisonneuve had botched minary to a formal treaty between the job. He had not made it absolute­ the Order and Britain by which Mal­ ly clear to Fitzgerald that financial ta would join the coalition. The Grand assistance was. the sine qua non for Master was ready to offer Britain full the Order to join the coalition. This use of the facilities at Malta for re­ point was never properly appreciated pairs to the fleet, munitions, provis­ by the british government and by its ions and so on. The fleet could draw representatives in the Mediterranean on Malta's pool of 15,000 seamen and and it was this fhateventually led to send its sick and wounded to, Malta the breakdown of negotiations. bet­ for free treatment in the Order's hos­ ween the Order and Britain. pital. The Order's fleet and the mal­ De Maisonneuve's own account of tese privateers would protect and contacts with Britain in 1793 des­ convoy british merchantmen trading cribe terms very similar to those he with the Levanf 'and, finally, De Ro­ had offered to Fitzgerald being sent han would, at short notice, provide to Admiral Hood: "The Grand Mas­ a force of 500 knights and up to 2000 ter offered Admiral Hood command­ troops for' service at Toulon, in the ing the british fleet in the Mediter­ Vendee or elsewhere. ranean the use of his harbours, his In return the Grand Master wanted stores and his arsenals. He proposed adequate protection for the Order and to send 600 knights on the ships of its property and interests in Europe. the Religion to help in the defence of De Maisonneuve beIievea that It Toulon and finally, he allowed the might also be necessary to give the Admiral to raise in the island the sea­ Order a subsidy or to assist it in rais­ men needed to bring his crews up to ing a loan in Genoa because the con­ complement, which, given the dis­ fiscation of so many of its estates tance involved, would have been a had thrown its finances into severe lenghty and costly operation had the

J. Ryan, op.cit., p.216, 8 HYPHEN british government been obliged to Rohan "most readily and in the hand­ send out english seamen. But only the somest manner granted." Why Hood last of these proposals was accepted applied to Malta for seamen is not by Admiral Hooq, he sent a ship of clear. Perhaps the suggestion came 74 guns to Malta and took on a large from Fitzgerald acting on de Maison­ (sic) number of seamen for the eng­ neuve's proposals or possibly from the lish fleet." 1 Chevalier De Gain De Linan who left Hood's own version of this develop­ TouIon early in December 1793 to re­ ment in his report to the Admiralty cruit french emigre noblemen to help is quite different. He was committed in the defence of the city. William Eng­ to supporting Sir Gilbert Elliot at land's account of the matter was that Toulon which was being besieged by the Grand Master had received "des­ republican forces, and he was having patches from Lord Hood offering this manpower problems: Island His Majesty's protection", The background to this development is "His Majesty's fleet under my com­ still rather obscure - possibly the mand being so reduced in killed discovery of the text of Hood's letter and wounded I was under the ne­ to De Rohan will solve the problem. cessity to make application to the H.M.S. Captain sailed into Grand Grand Master of Malta for the loan Harbour at dawn on 19th November of 1000 [seamen] to serve in His 1793. By the next day Captain Sam­ Majesty's fleet, engaging not to uel Reeve was busy recruiting men carry them out of the Mediterran­ with the Grand Master's approval. ean and to return them [to Malta] "All possible diligence is taken to with what pay may be due to them raise these people," wrote England to when their services were no longer Grenville. In fact, De Rohan limited wanted and also to give them a Reeve to recruiting volunteers only, month's pay in advance after they there was no question of the Order had embarked. I sent Captain stripping its vessels to oblige Admiral Reeve of the Captain upon this Hood. duty who took with him two large Precisely why De Rohan accepted french frigates [the Aurora and the Hood's request - and he did so im­ Juno] which we captured to put a mediately - is not clear. The expla­ few men aBoard of sufficient to nation offered by one authority; that navigate them; and I directed Cap­ De Rohan welcomed the opportunity tain Reeve to authorise the consul to reduce unemployment in Malta is to draw bills for the amount of the not convincing. 2 It seems unlikely month's advance with endorse­ that the Grand Master broke the Or­ ments which I hope their lordships der's statutes on neutrality simply to will be pleased to direct the Navy provide emplpoyment for a few hun­ . Board to pay." dred sailors - for it seems that Hood only received some 440 Maltese sail­ According to Hood, therefore, the ors. The only explanation of De Ro­ affair was a simple request for per­ han's behaviour, that can be based on mission to recruit seamen which De documentary evidence, is that the

I. [de Maisonlleuve] , op.cit., pp.33/34 2. CavaJiero. op.cit., p.208 BRITAN AND MALTA 1782-1798 9

Grand Master wanted to impress the tember 1794 De Rohan had wHlingly british government with his goodwill agreed to the Regent's request and he in order to pave the way for an agree­ explained that "were it not for the ment with Britain by which british enormous losses which we have suf­ gold would solve his financial diffi­ fered and which have forced us to culties. borrow large sums of money to def­ Given the Order's critical financial ray the unavoidable expenses of go­ position, it would have been the vernment and of the Order; I would height of stupidity on De Rohan's make it my duty to give even more part to allow Britain to exploit his re­ effective support to the efforts that sources without attempting to exact all the powers allied to France [i.e. a suitable reward. Thus, while to to the royalists] are making to bring show goodwill he allowed Hood and about the restoration of the [french] later Elliot at Corsica, to recruit a monarchy and of the throne of your limited number of men in Malta and august house". Armed with this let­ to buy small quantities of munitions, ler, De Corn was able to persuade the he refused to release any of his own british government to take his offer troops or sailors. And he made clear seriously. by the end of 1794 that the resources Meanwhile, during the summer of of the Order were available to Britain 1794, Elliot and. Hood were alarmed - at a reasonable price. by reports of french designs on Mal­ Some time in 1794, two knights of ta. Early in October they engaged the the Order contacted british ministers services of a knight of the Order, the in London. The Bailiff De La Tour De Chevalier De Sade, paid him a guinea St. Quentin, a grand cross of the Or­ a day and despatched him to Malta der and a former general of its gal­ as a British agent. His mission was leys, offered to persuade the Grand to report on the situation in Malta, Master to put four thousand Maltese presumably on the extent of french at the disposal of Britain for use on influence there ,and if possible to the fleet in Corsica - which had frustrate french intrigue. Elliot and declared George HI King and was be­ Hood also gave him a letter for the ing administered by Sir Gilbert Elliot Grand Master in which they warned as viceroy. St. Quentin explained that him about the republic's plans. re­ De Rohan could easily spare this quested assistance from the Order's number· he had a reserve of twenty­ fleet and asked permission for De Sa­ five thousand men. A more concrete de to raise men and buy munitions offer came from the Chevalier De in Malta. Corn who undertook to raise a regi­ Hood evidently thought very high­ ment of foot in Malta for service in ly of De Sade and believed that his Corsica. The government acted on mission would not be a difficult one: both offers. Elliot was instructed to "I have already expressed myself so apply for seamen from Malta and De very fully respecting the Chevalier Corn's proposal was submitted to De Sade," he told EDiot, "that it is George III for his approval in prin­ unnecessary for me to say another ciple. word about him. I am perfectly per­ De Corn had ,asked De Rohan's per­ suaded the present Grand Master is mission to raise a regiment in Malta fully disposed to us and very confi­ through the Regent of France. In Sep- dent he will not hesitate . to aid our 10 HYPHEN wishes, as far as he is able." nie Majesty's Ministers of State On 15th October 1794, shortly after have as yet let me know of His De Sade arrived in Malta, De Rohan Majesty's satisfaction with me. sent a most cordial· and frank letter I mention this matter, Sirs, be­ to Hood and Elliot. He was very grate­ cause in these times, when my Or­ ful for the information about the der is unjustly despoiled of her machinations of the committee of property in France, I must place my public safety, indeed he was touched principle hope and . trust oiithe by Hood and Elliot's concern for generous support of your august Malta. He assured them that appro­ sovereign to obtain at some time priate measures had been taken by and place, through his powerful the Order to ensUre both the safety of mediation, either the return of the Malta and that republican propaganda property or its equivalent. Mean­ made no headway in Malta. In fact, while I hope to gain his favour to­ the various diplomats accredited to wards my Order; the feelings 'Of Malta had provided him with the in­ concern, goodwill and friendship formation some two months before. which my Order and I have the Dc Sade had explained the purpose right to expect; through an the of his mission and would be· able to measures I can take and all the fa­ report on the warmth with which the dIities in my power. These can be Grand Master had received him. De of the greatest value to England. Rohan was most interested in Hood Believe me, Sirs, I would be most and Elliot's proposals for the estab­ grateful for any assistance from lishment of closer links between Mal­ you in this matter." ta and Corsica. "The rest of De Sa­ de's stay on this Island", wrote De This was plain speech for a letter Rohan with a change of emphasis, couched in careful diplomatic lang­ "will prove to you, more than I can uage. The question was, what would express in words, how much import­ De Rohan suggest as the equivalent ance I attach to the valuable links of the Order's lost possessions. Elliot that you are trying to forge between had the answer in a report from De the governments of Britain and that Sade by the end of November and he of my Order." The Grand Master con­ passed the information to London. cluded his letter with these words: According to De Sade, the Order was prepared "tD take a direct part in the . "I have left to the Chevalier De war" and to offer Britain "all that Sade the task of explaining to you Malta possesses; viz. one ship of the and discussing with you some mat­ line, 2 frigates, 4 galleys, 12 galIiots ters worthy of your attention and and j,500 troops" in return for "a of your sense of justice. However, subsidy of £100,000 as the price of I have kept for myself the task of their cooperation". If the offer was informing you frankly that, after rejected the Order would not "furnish having duly accepted the request of any naval or military assistance". His Excellency Lord Hood, which De Rohan was being very reason­ was to furnish him with sailors; a able indeed; at 1,200,000 scudi in request· which I acceded to with the maltese currency, the suggested sub­ best will immaginable; I am rather sidyamounted only twice the an­ surprised that none of His Britan- nual value of its former income from BRITAIN AND MALTA 1787-1798 11

France and the Order had lost much government to reject De Rohan's re­ else in the rest of Europe.1 Malta was quest for a subsidy reached London being offered to Britain at a bargain early in January 1795. It seems that price. However, De Rohan wanted an the government in fact decided to 'all or nothing' agreement. accept Elliot's advice as regards not Cynically, Elliot, turned the offer gIving the Order a subsidy. This is out of hand. The request for a sub­ the only explanation that can be of­ sidy, he considered in a letter to Lon­ fered for the decision to send De don imposed "conditions which I Corn to Malta to raise a regiment. have no right to treat for and which The troops would be raised if, and I would probably not think advisable o,:lly if, "the viceroy [i.e. Elliot] shall [to consider] if I had". He was, there­ clearly ascertain that the measure has fore, recalling De Sade to Corsica. It the entire concurrence and will re­ was clear, Elliot explained, that the ceive the effectual cooperation and Grand Master had no intention of support of the Grand Master". The coming to terms with the republic. De object of sending De Corn to Malta, Rohan had said as much to Elliot and accompanied by a british officer to he had refused to recognise the re­ ensure that the regiment was pUblic­ public in a public manifesto in Octo­ ly "embodied, clothed and armed in ber 1794. De Sade had also informed the Island of Malta'!, was to force De Elliot that there was no danger of Rohan to abandon all pretence at french influence gaining any ground neutrality. In effect, the Grand Mast­ on the island. EIliot, presumably, con­ er was being asked to declare war on sidered that it was unnecessary to France., He was not given the oppor­ subsidise the Order to keep the french tunity of avoiding the issue by per­ out of Malta if De Rohan had adopted mitting the maltese to join the british an anti-french policy anyway. Since forces unofficially and, above all, the Grand Master followed a policy there was no talk of a s,\!bsidy. Well which Britain approved of without a might Doublet write in the summer subsidy, why give him one? of 1795, after the affair was over, that Furthermore, De Sade had only Britain had tried "in her Machiavel­ managed to buy two hundred and lian way to force us to compromise thirty barrels of powder and Elliot our neutrality". 3 assumed, quite incorrectly, that no De Corn, though naturally very more was available in Malta. 2 No anxious to raise and command his doubt De Rohan was reluctant to re­ own regiment, was doubtless dismay­ lease any of the Order's considerable ed by the strict terms imposed by the supplies until the british government british government. Indeed, he re­ showed it was willing, at least in fused to accept some of the con­ principle, to give him a subsidy. ditions. Another knight of Mal­ Elliot's report advising the british ta in London, the Chevalier De

1. Cf. Vassallo, G.A., Sterna di Malta, ('Malta, 1854), p.727. 2. The powder did not meet british war office standards, but it had to be accepted beCause Elliot was so short of munitions. In 1798 Napoleon took 1,500,000 Ibs. of powder to Egypt from iiVlalta and he left a sufficient supply for the french garrison on the Island. See Zammit, T., Malta, (Malta, 1(29), p.289. 3, Cf., Doublet, P., ap.cit., p.465 H. Quoted in Cavaliero, ap.cit., p.20S. 12 HYPHEN

Thuisy, approached Lord Grenville in also in the political sense, to ensure ari attempt to salvage something for that its subjects continue to adhere to the Order. On 27th February 1795, a a faith which assures it both of their Monsieur Saladin called at the for­ love and their obedience." . eign office and dellvered De Thuisy's The only material advantage for the proposals for a formal treaty between Order which ,De Thuisy hinted at Great Britain and the Order of St. was in the 9th article of his dratt. Bri­ John. The terms in this draft treaty tain and the Order, he suggested appear to be an attempt to meet Bri­ should come to some agreement over tain's needs and at the same time to Corsica. He did not elaborate, except secure the semblance of some advan­ to . state that the agreement would tages for the Order. benfit Corsica as part of the british empire, the Order, and the nobility and people of Corsica. This could They make pathetic reading. mean anything; but it is interesting to note that the Order had been inte­ Britain could have all she wanted; rested in acquiring Corsica since the base facilities in Malta for her fleet, sixteenth century.1 If De Thuisy hop­ permission to recruit seamen and to ed to win Corsica for the Order, it raise (if she wished) two regiments was a very long shot. of maltese for service in Corsica and . No other references to the negotia­ the Order would' bind itself not to tions between De Thuisy and Gren­ make a separate peace with France ville have been traced. What is cer­ [Le. De Rohan would join the coali­ tain, . is that De· Rohan would have tion]. In return, Britain would under­ rejected any proposal that did not take to defend Malta in the event of offer the Order money. Without mo­ its being attacked, and she would ney there, in a few years, be no Order promise not to sign any treaty which to protect. To accede to the british did not guarantee the Order's inde­ government's demands, to declare pendence in Malta. De iThuisy said war on France, would not solve the nothing about a subsidy and, worse Order's problem - there was there­ still, nothing about the restitution of for no point in accepting them. De the Order's property or its equivalent Corn's mission to Malta was doomed should there be any peace negotiat­ before he set foot on the Island. ions with France. The other provi­ Ironically, shortly before De Rohan sions were trivial: one clause provid­ knew that the british government ed for the return of all runaway was expecting him to· abondon his slaves seeking sanctuary on board na­ neutrality and that it had refused to val vessels, another for the appoint­ grant him subsidy, the Grand Master ment of maltese petty officers and aHowed the Chevalier De Sade to chaplains to vessels manned by mal­ leave Malta for Corsica with a hund­ tese seamen. De Thuisy explained the red and forty maltese military artifi­ necessity for chaplains thus: "The cers and engineers. These recruits Order of Malta has the greatest inte­ reached Corsica by the 25th May rest, not only in the religious, but 1795, after De Corn had left for Mal-

1. CL Bosio, G., Dell'Istoria delta Sacra Religione et Illllstrissima Jlljlitia di San Giovanni ... (Naples, 1684), Vol. 3, p.399. BRlTMN At'1DMALTA 1787t-1798 13 ta and after Elliot had written to the liam England presented them to De Grand Master to inform him in detail Rohan. Their reception by the Grand about the purpose of De Corn's visit. Master was, doubtless, polite but Elliot was most impressed with the cold. De Corn was told that he had men; "they prove a most valuable exceeded his instructions and his aut­ acqUisition. The artificers are extre­ bority to raise a regiment on behalf mely good and they are all obedient, of the Regent was revoked. Stewart laborious men, likely to be good sol­ - who seems to have lacked tact - diers in any service they may be at­ insisted on explaining to De Rohan tached to. The gunners are formed in­ that the regiment was to be raised to a company on the model of the publicly in Malta, even when it was french company of artillery ... ". The obvious that the mission bad failed. Grand Master's refusal to allow De "The Grand Master immediately rep­ Corn to raise a regiment was on the lied that be must peremptori:ly refuse way to Malta as Elliot wrote this let­ him assent to the project altogeter". ter. The day after Stewart received a letter from De Rohan addressed to De Rohan did not find it too diffi­ Elliot, which he was asked to read. cult to disassociate himself from De The Grand Master was blunt: "I have Corn. He had never committed him­ informed them [Le. De Corn and self to agreeing to allow Britain to Stewart] that it is impossible for us raise a regiment in Malta. It was true, to permit in any way the recruitment the Grand Master informed Elliot on with which he [Stewart] and De Corn 11 th May 1795, that he had accepted are commissioned.!' Stewart called on the request of the Regent of France De Rohan before leaving Malta. The for a regiment to be raised in Malta. Grand Master, he informed Elliot, This he explained was perfectly in "observed on my asking what com­ order, being merely a mark of respect mands he had for your excellency for the Royal House of France. In any [ElIiot], that he had not any, adding case, the Regiment, he had under­ that he hoped I had found his letter stood at the time, was only intended to your excellency, which I had re­ to be the prince's 60dyguard. He was ceived the day before, sufficiently most annoyed with De Corn for not explicit" . consulting him, as he would have ex­ plained to the knight that the Order De Corn and Stewart left Malta could not do anything against the immediately and returned to Corsica. laws on neutrality. Therefore, con­ Britain had lost her first chance to cluded De Rohan: "All maltese who acquire control of Malta. are not employed by the Order are free to embal'k on any ships that In Britain there was a belated offer them better terms than they are awareness of the importance of Mal­ able to find in their own country - ta. When the future of the Island was this does not at all infringe our neut­ a burning political issue in 1803, Co­ rality - but the raising of a regiment lonel Mark Wood, a member of par­ is a very different matter". liament and formerly chief engineer in Bengal for the East India Compa­ When De Corn and Captain Stew­ ny, published his letters to Pitt and art arrived in Malta, the consul WH- Dundas about Malta. His first letter 14 HYPHEN was written in the autumn of 1796.1 the southern extremity of Italy, By this time De Rohan, his hand with which po~sessing both advantages, Britain played out, had tried to reach appears to me in conjunction with a modus vivendi with the republic Gibraltar, to be eminently calculat­ and in July 1796 he appointed a ed for commanding the Mediter­ minister plenipotentiary to France.2 ranean; and, the acquisition of The Order's negotiations with Paul I which, as it forms a small indepen­ of Russia were about to start and to dent establishment of its own, un­ give the knights a bright but forlorn connected with the cOIltillental hope that russian gold would save the powers, there is reason to believe, Order.3 Northern ltaly was falling to would not prove a matter of much Napolean. Britain had evacuated Cor­ difficulty. sica and her fleet ~aS about to with­ You must immediately perceive draw from the Mediterranean for that the place to which I allude is want of maintenance and a secure the island of Malta. There have base. been periods, I confess, at which a Wood urged Pitt and Dundas to negotiation for the possession of understand the importance of secur­ this island might have been con­ ing a tenable port in the Mediterran­ ducted with much greater probabi­ ean; "So long ... as Great Britain is lity of success than at present. At desirous of supporting her naval pre­ the time when our power in the eminance ... and of curbing the ambi­ Mediterranean was triumphant, and tion and aggrandisement of France, when the apprehension of French it is absolutely necessary for her at principles and fraternization carried any price, to secure some port in the with it greater horror and destina­ Mediterranean where her fleets may tion than it does at present, every­ retire and refit, in times of danger; thing was then at our devotion. and from whence our enemies can be Notwithstanding, however, that one molested." Corsica and Minorca were opportunity has been lost, it is not no good to Britain, being too close to improbable that, during the course France and too expensive to maintain of the present war, another may - even if they could be held. The occur. Undoubtedly our power and ideal base for Britain in the Mediter­ consequence in the Mediterranean ranean was Malta: have lately suffered a very severe blow; yet, possibly, the powers of "Could another Gibraltar be found Italy may still see their danger, higher up the Mediterranean which, and, in place of that despondency exclusive of the strength of situa­ and inaction which must render tion, possessed a good harbour, the them an easy prey to the enemy, be acquiSition of such a place to this at last roused to those exertions, country would be invaluable. which, when supported by the na­ There is small rock situated at val power of Britain, can alone se-

1. Wood, M., The Importance at Malta considered, in the years 1786 and 1798 '" (London, 1803). In 1779 Wood was commissioned by the Secret Committee of the East India Company to investigate the route to India via the Suez isthmus. Ibid. 2. Ca\'al'ero, op.cit., p.207. 3. Generally see ibid., Ch.XVI and Veil a , A.P., Malta and the Czars, (}IaJta, 1973). BRITAIN AND MALTA 1787-1798 15

cure their existence as independent France, Italy, and Africa must be states. subject to our control, and, whilst The Grand Master and Knights at war with this country, be kept of Malta must doubtless see their under necessary subjection; from own ruin involved in that of the Africa and Sicily we could have Christian world, and, from a sense ample supplies for our fleets and, of danger, may be induced to unite by the Dardanelles, from the Eux­ with Britain and Ireland, which in ine and Caspian Seas, inexhaustible return, can guarantee and secure supplies of various naval stores, to the knights, not merely their which, if not secured to ourselves, ancient priveleges, but more sub­ must inevitably find their way to stantial advantages. the arsenals of France." 2 Half a million, or even a million sterling, would be well employed in In Wood's opinion unless Britain securing to this country so valuable dominated the Mediterranean - and a port. In respect to the most advi­ control over Malta would go far to­ sable mode of negotiating such an wards achieving this - the french agreement, it would be presumpt­ would seize the opportunity to extend ion in me to say one word.1 their hold over southern Europe. Whether Sir WilIiam Hamilton or Then it would be relatively easy for Sir John Jervis might be service­ them to occupy Egypt and thus to able in forwarding so desirable an control a new shorter route to India: acquisition, or who else may De best calculated for accomplishing "When I say that Egypt is conti­ so very important an object, His guous to France, I wish only to exp­ Majesty's ministers have the best ress that its principal port, Alexan­ means of judging. My only wish is dria, is within a few days saB of to call the importance of this place Toulon and of Marseilles. The to your attention, lest, amidst the French republic having Spain and hurry of other great and pressing Italy at her devotion, (which must concerns, this circumstance might undoubtedly be the case should we escape your notice. be expelled from the Mediterran· Were Providence to give us the ean) will be capable not only of power to place an impregnable fort­ undertaking but of carrying into ef­ ress and harbour on any spot in the fect, projects, which, during the Mediterranean, most suitable to monarchy, she durst not have the views of our country, it would thought of, much less acted upon. hardly be possible to select one Having possession of Egypt, which preferable to Malta. It would unites the Mediterranean and the give us completely the command of Red Sea, the communication with the Levant; not one ship from India is expeditious and certain. In thence could sail to or from any place of a traverse of five or six port in Europe, unless by our per­ months round the Cape of Good mission, or under convoy of a su­ Hope, with the casualties of such a perior fleet; the coasts of Spain, voyage, the passage from Suez to

1. Our itallcs. 2. Wood, op.cit., pp.6/7, 14 November 1796. 16 HYPHEN

any part of the coast of Mala­ well aware of the importance of Mal­ bar may be performed in less ta - indeed he had been for four than one month, and the coast years - it was not as easy to reach of Coromandel nearly in the an agreement with the Order as Wood S9.me time. Where then, gentlemen, seemed to think. This was of course will be the security of India, when, far from true; as has been seen, it for every man we can send, the was Britain that refused to give the French will have the means of Order a subsidy. Besides, Dundas con­ pouring in thousands? tinued, Malta was too far to the East I know it may be argued, that to be of much practical value. In there is some difficulty of finding other words the government had fail­ transports in the Red Sea, and that ed to appreciate the real value of an English fleet in the Straits of Malta during their attempts to find a Babel Mandel will be a certain re­ base nearer Toulon.2 In this sense, as medy for the apprehended evil. far as the government was concern­ Whoever reasons in this manner, ed, Malta was not, in 1795, worth let me beg of him to reflect how £100,000 many superior fleets we must thus In April 1798, as french prepara­ be obliged to keep to be guarded tions in Toulon neared maturity, at every point; and w..hether or not Wood wrote to Dundas urging him to the enormous expense of so many take immediate steps to seal the Red fleets, and establishments would Sea. It was too late, he pointed out, not, in the course of a little time, to acquire Malta or to save Egypt; the prove fatal to our country. government should act to preserve It is better to foresee and prevent British India. evils, than, by slumbering in a false security, suffer ourselves to be "The possession of Malta, is not surprised. The possession of Malta, at present within our reach, other­ whilst it would give us the comp­ wise, in place of one million. at lete command of the Mediterran­ which, two years ago, I said it ean, and of the Levant, and prove would be a cheap purchase to Great the most effectual curb that could Britain, at the price of ten mil­ be devised to the ambitious pro­ lions:! it would be a wise econo­ jects 'of the new republic; would, at my, as the expense of the great the same time, be the most likely additional force necessary for the means of protecting our eastern protection of India, supposing it empire ... "1 could be saved (exclusive of other important political considerations), Wood therefore considered that would soon exceed that sum. Britain would be well advised to in­ We are not therefore to consider vest between one half and one million how we can prevent France from pounds on coming to some arrange­ possessing herself of Egypt, for that, ment with the Order. I apprehend, we have not the means Dundas replied that though he was of doing; but we are to determine

1. Wood, op.cit., p.9. 2. Ibid., p. 11, \Vood to DUI1C];lS, 25 April 179S. 3. Our italics. BRITAIN AND MALTA 1787-1798 17

by what means we can best prevent ean depended on the. availability of a her from availing herself of the secure base for the fleet. The only great resources and advantages base which could have met Britain's which the' possession of that count­ needs in the 1790's was Malta; and in ry must affort her for quickly ex­ 1795 the british government had pelling us from India.1 thrown away a golden opportunity to acquire it. Of course Wood exaggerated tlie danger to India. Nonetheless he was Roger Vella Bonavita B.A. (Hons.) lvI.A. correct on one vital point: a success­ is senior lecturer, lIistory Department, UnL ful British policy in the Mediterran- versi t y oj .11 alta.

1. Wood. op.cit., }l.13. Wood to Dundas. 25 April 1798. II-futur! Kemm tal'iseb fil-futur? II-futur tiegnek. U-futur tal-familja tiegnek. Jista' jkun hemm prospetti anjar gTlalik u gnall-familja tiegTlek. Itda jinTltieg li tkun imnejji e sewwa. TI'iossok 1'iafna ii:jed fii:-Zgur jekk tiftan Savings Account mal-M id-Med Bank. 1~IIfIIR Mid-Med Bank Limited UfflUju Prlnl:ipall: 233 Triq ir-Repubblika, TIECiHEK MAL­ -." Valletta. 38 Fergna f'Malta u GTlawdex. Mid-Med Bank M COURTLY LOVE A short note on the Tales of the Franklin and the Wife of Bath Louis J. Scerri

E'arly in the. twelfth century there the troubadours just across the appeared in the lyric poetry of the Pyreenees. The other school of troubadours of the south of France thought sees the troubadours an ,essentiaIJy novel and revolution­ and their poetry simply as the ary conception of love. Though love spontaneous outgrowth of the set­ and lust are as old as the first man, tled, fortunate environment of south­ courtly love or fin amour, was the ern France in the eleventh and product of a medieval conciousness. twe lfthcenturies. Tm early medieval times, the re­ The earliest poet of the new tradi­ lationship between man and woman tion is William IX, Duke of Aquitaine was quite clearly cut. The church of­ (1071 - 1127). His granddaughter, ficially condoned the viewpoint that Eleanor (1122-1204), Queen of France woman was to be completely sub­ (1137-1152) and later of England ject to man, as man himself was to (1152-1204) became the foremost pat­ be completely subject to God. St. Paul roness of the troubadours, and is had hinted at-a similar idea; Thomas r::redited with the introduction of the Aquinas actually stated it. Marriage courtly ideas into Nothern France. itself was looked upon as something Her daughter, Marie of Champagne to be tolerated in order to propagate was to take her place as the chief ad­ the species. Indeed even passion and vocate of the troubadours and courtly pleasure within marriage were con­ love. sidered sinful. To be honest, one The chief twelfth century propagat­ should not, however, single out the or of courtly ideas in Northen France Church as the sole perpetrator of this was Chretien de Troyes, one of Mariels point of view: throughout the feudal protegees. He introduced the courtly period, the cultural ,and social mileau code into the stories of King Arthur of the age were in total agreement and the twelve Knights of the Round with the natural inclinations of the Table, thereby giving them a particu­ dominant, and frequently brutal. lar character that was to persist up male. to our own days. The sudden appearance of fin­ However, the chief source of infor­ amour is therefore somewhat mys­ mation regarding fin amour is De Arte terious. One school of thought sees Honeste AmandCwritten by Andreas its origin in the lyric poetry of Mos­ CapeIlanus (Andrew the Chaplain). lem Spain, which must have had a His is a commprehensive treatise re­ considerable effect on the poetry of garding love in all its aspects. He in- 20 HYPHEN sists that love must be found outside theme for the royal pageants. marriage, since medieval marriages It was primarily as a poet of love were only matters of convenience. that Chaucer obtained contemporan­ True Love should be mutual, secret, eous fame. Eustache Deschamps, a noble and ennobling. In public the French poet, praises him as 'an earthly lover must treat his lady as a complete God of Love in Albion' in 1386. John stranger and communicate with her Gower calls him the 'poet of Venus', only furtively. When he sees her while Thomas Usk eulogizes him as his heart should beat heavily and 'Love's own true servant'. and he should turn pale, even Chaucer's apprenticeship as a poet though this could endanger this of Love had started with his tran­ secret love. This intensity of his love slation of the Romance of the Rose. should make him eat and sleep very Even in The Book of the Dudless, little. It is clear that such lovE' could his work only makes complete sense not exist within marriage: "Every­ if viewed in a courtly atmosphere. In body knows that love has no place the Parlement of Foules, the merits of between husband and wife." courtly love are argued by the 'royal One should not however consider tersel' as he puts forward his candi­ medieval aristocracy as more morally dature for the 'formel egle'. degenerate than ,any other section of It was to be TroyCus and Criseyde society before or since. Indeed the that was to earn for Chaucer his great sounder judgement seems that expres­ contemporary repute. Again it is only sed by Professor Morris Bishop: "On if we keep in mind the conventions the whole, it seems that courtly love of courtly love that the poem can be was mostly a game, an intellectual di­ fully understood. The sudden falling version with litHE' .effect on moral be­ in love On Troylus' part, his wasting haviour." away because of this secret, his need From Aquitaine, the effect of the to confide In someOne who will help troubadours passed over to Italy him to obtain Criseyde are all typical where it was to have a deep influence of the courtly convention. on the poetry of Francis of Assisi who But Chaucer, especially in his more saw himself as the 'troubadour of mature works, shows himself as too God', and from where it was to exert consummate an artist to follow any a deep formative influence on the formal convention slavishly. Indeed poetry of the Sicilian court: il dolce one is bound to feel that Chaucer is sW nuovo. Indeed even the relation­ never completely satisfied with the ship between Dante and Beatrice is courtly code and the solutions that it essentially courtesy and it is actually put forward. Beatrice who 'beatifies' Dante by The main reason for Chaucer's leading him through Purgatory and in­ growing dissatisfaction with courtly to Heaven. In Dante's case, his earth­ love is that it is supremely impracti­ ly lovE' for Beatrice was to lead him cal as a viable means of establishing to the divine source of love Himself. married bliss. Indeed there is a fight­ Similarly the relationship between hearted tone in the pompous tercel's Petrarch and Donna Laura is entirely declamtion of his love in courtly courtly in its concept and its realiz­ terms. The same thing occurs in the ation. With Petrarch the tradition was Nun's Priest's' Tale where Pertelote to return to Renaissance France as a the hen upbraid Chaunticleer the cock COURTLY LOVE 21 for failing to come up to courtly ex­ love between them continues to exist pectations (NPT 142-154). Again the even after marriage. fact that courtly love is taken' so ser­ iously by birds should make the read­ Within their marriage, Dorlgen Is er take it lightheartedly. prepared to forego the feminine Evan for Troylus, 'a faultless follow­ domination which is pa~t and par­ er of the courtly code, the adventure cel of courtly love. She is pre­ ends sourly. The very last view we get pared to treat Ai"Veragus as 'hir of Troylus is one of him laughing at housebonde and hir lord'. On his part the woe of those who lamented his Arveragus insists that he will never death, as he looks down at earth from claim 'maistrie' over her against her the heavens. From there he condemns will, which means that he will con­ the work of those authors (ironically tinue to treat Dorigen as his lover. In enough Chaucer himself is one of this respect, their marriage goes them) who write about 'blynde lust' against the accepted medieval norm. and he proceeds to repudiate earthly Love continues to exist within their love in favour of the celestial variety. marriage which had been unthinkable It must be also kept in mind that hitherto. This had provided the ration­ by the time that Chaucer came to ale for courtly love. write his works in the latter half of the fourteenth century, courtly love It is into this ideal marriage that and its literature had been in existence Aurelius, the young squire, intrudes, for more than two centuries and it had and insists upon loving Dorigen in the already an old-fashioned aura about it. typical courtly manner. The main Indeed the Franklin's very choice of question will be whether the happy courtly love to set his plot in motion, marriage will be able to withstand this together with the equally old-fashion­ external threat. ed Breton Lai as the immediate 'auc­ Aurelius is the typical courtly lover­ toritee' for his tale, mark him out as aspirant: provincial and old-fashioned in his turn. 'Yong, strong, right vertuous and riche and wys THE FRANKLlN'S TALE wel beloved and holden in gret prys' In the Franklin's Tale, the courting (FT,26 1-2) of Dorigen by Arveragus proceeds on strict courtly love terms. Just like He proceeds in typical courtly man­ any other knight, Arveragus first does ner to adore Dorigen from afar 'two his service and performs 'many a lab­ yeer and moore', even though he dares our, many a great emprise'. I10rigen not declare 1)is love. This parallels the herself is coon the faireste under son­ behaviour of Troylus, Dante and Pet­ ne', and she finally takes pity on him rarch, and like them Aurelius proceeds and consents to marry him from a to compose: position of superior strength. Once they are married, however, their re­ 'many layes, lationship does not proceed in the songes, compleintes, manner we expect, since in their case roundels, vireleys.' (FT, 276-7) 22 HYPHEN

Even when he plucks up enough swer as to who behaved most nobly; courage to declare his intentions, instead he directs the question at the Dorigen informs him that she is devot- reader, in the typical manner of the . ed to her husband and tells him off, demande d'amour convention. but in a moment of levity she performs like the courtly lady by promising to THE WIFE OF BATH'S TALE return his love and love him 'best of any man; if only ne coula remove the In the Wife of Bath's Tale, the story black rocks of the Breton coast that takes place in the courtly atmosphere weighed so heavily on her mind. Dori­ of Arthur's kingdom. The crime of the gen fondly believes this to be an im­ young, inexperienced aspir>ant-Knight possible task. Of course her intention is particularly heinious. :The rape of imposed a difficult task in order to the young virgin sYmbolizes the bru­ test the sincerity and steadfastness as tal male sexual domination over well as to improve the general worth­ woman. In this respect" rape becomes iness of their lovers. a far more abominable crime than Aurelius treats Dorigen's wish as murder, and as such the knight is con­ the typical courtly imposition, and he demned to death. The queen however proceeds to despair when he realizes asks the king to be granted the power the impossibility of makIng the black of life or death over the condemned rocks ·disappear. And just as Troylus knight. By consenting to this demand, had found his Pandarus, so does Aur­ the king acknowledges the queen's elius open his heart to his brother sovereignty and the Knight finds him­ and to no one else. Just like Pandarus, self dependent on a lady's grace, and Aurelius' brother will show me prac­ this must represent, as far as the tical way to obtain the lady, though Wife of Bath is conc'erned, the true this time through magic. positiiln of man. The rest of the story need hardly The knight is granted a chance to bother us at the moment, except per­ earn a reprieve but he has to seek out baps to note that Dorigen, on being the ,answer to the question of which confronted with the realization of her is that thing that woman desires above wish, is confounded, and tries to find everything else. This is of course re­ a way out of her predicament, which miniscent of the traditional 'em­ is itself not a very courtly manner of prise'. Ironically enough, woman's behaving. primary desire becomes the main The Franklin, in the final part of concern .of the same knight the story, is more concerned with who had not listened' to the 'gentiIlesse'. It is true that this quality young girl's entreaties. Without know­ is inextricably tied up" with courtly ing it, the young knight is performing love, since the main intention behind just like a typical courtly lover. He the long, trying 'apprenticeship' of the now has to listen to all women to get lover was directed at increasing the the right 'answer. general worth of the ,candidate. Arver­ In the end the answer is provided agus, Aureliusand the clerk all vie by a ghastly old woman, so ugly that with one another as they try to outdo 'a fouler wight ther may no man the other's magnanImous behaviour. devyse' - tHe very antithesis of the As in the Parlement Of Foules, Chau­ young girl. Even in this case, however, cer once again 'avoids giving us an an- the young knight has to accept the old COURTLY LOVE 23 hag's superiority. and he acknowledg­ between man and woman. es this by promising to do the first "The wife of Bath is, naturally en­ 'thyng' that she might ask him to do ough, attracted to the concept that before she gives him the answer. underlines courtly love, mainly that He returns to Arthur's queen with woman is superior to man who should the answer that satisfies all the satisfy her every 'whim. The Wife 9f women who provided the 'jury' Bath's Tale does not really go much beyond ths simplistic acceptance of 'Wommen desiren to have sover­ courtly love's basic notion. Indeed her ayntee, own life had been 'a bourgeois inter­ As wel over hir housbonde as hir pretation of the artistocratic courtly love, convention. In her tale, courtly love And for to been in maistrie hym is accepted at face-value. above.' (WBT, 1039-41) The Franklin and his tale provide a completely different situation. The It is then that the old hag jumps up Franklin is a far more mature person­ to demand her share of the bargain, ality with his own aspirations of 'gen­ namely, that the young knight should tillesse'. His use of. the courtly love marry and love her. It is this last con­ background is more mature and com­ dition that sounds particularly pre­ plex posterous. The point behind the hag's Despite his disclaimer, the .Franklin insistence is that tlie bachelor-knight is really a man of some culture, unlike is to be tested whether he is ready to the Wife of Bath 'whose main source submit actually to woman. It is not of education had been her momentous enough to pay "lip-service to woman's fifth marriage. The Franklin handles superiority. Like Jankin before him, hlis source far inore maturely. He. the young knight finally bows his head transcends the idea of love that under­ to woman - and it is then that com­ lies courtly love and the Franklin com­ plete domestic bliss follows. es out with a solution that appears so naive today but must have heen so It is evident that it is beyond the revolutionary in the fourteenth cen­ scope of the present paper to deal ex­ tury, namely, that love can exist with­ haustively with all the aspects of in marriage. It is this perhaps that courtly love that demonstrate them­ makes the Franklin's Tale so mature selves in these two tales. Indeed, both and pleasing to the modern reader. tales revolve around the ooncept of And this. may be the real reason why 'gentillesse'. Neither- is it possible to we feel more at our ease with him examine minutely the linguistic struc­ than with the aggressive Wife of Bath. ture of these two of the most artisti­ He speaks to us in our own language, cally mature of the Canterbury Tales. and uses terms and ideas that sound It is however interesting to note how so c,)ntemporary to the modern ear. in both tales, Chaucer" uses courliy love to provide two different answers to the age-old question of just what Lonis ]. Sc~rri M.A. teaches English at form of relationship there should be t.ie ['pper Secondary School, Valetta. HYDROPONICS Plants without Soil

Carmel. Galea

In the early 1930s an American Pro­ method was named 'nutrient-film fessor, Dr. Wiffiam Gericke, of the technique' (NFT) because it differed University of California attempted to from the method used in the U.S.A. transform laboratory-style soilless cul­ in one small, but vital, detail. The tivation into practical terms. Taking planfs are grown in a recirculating advantage of the sunny Californian film of nutrient solution; hence the climate, he set out-of-door growing name nutrient-film. Although research units. He had considerable success is stilI going on, already several gro­ and he proceeded to name the new wers are using NIT ona commercial garden science hydroponics. With the basis. publication of the results of these A simple NFlT system may be set tests, the use of hydroponics spread quite easily by any home gardener on across most parts of the world. the following lines. An NIT system is Hydroponics is gener-ally defined as not difficult to set up at home. I have the science of growing plants without set up one myself and it has now been using soil feeding them instead on going for over a year with consider­ solutions of water and mineral salts, able success and great personal satis­ rather than relying upon the tradition­ faotion. However, one must be prepar­ al methods. However; hydroponics has ed for some ups and downs, particu­ been employed in numerous ways and larly during the first trial period but in different forms. An immense this should not dishearten the begin­ amount of scientific research has been ner. The ground !'lhould be smoothed undertaken to develop really simple down to a slope of 1 in 25. It is of ut­ and practical ways of growing plants most importance that the ground without soil. should be as smooth as .possible to eli­ A particular form of hydroponics is minate all local depressions. that of r'~clirculating water-culture, Narrow water-tight gullies are laid first used in the USA by research on the ground. These gullies are made workers. This method of growing of black polythene. It is desirable to plants in containers, through wfiich have the polhthene as thick as pos­ nutrient solution is recirculated, gave sible because otherwise tension would excellent plant growth, but has, ne­ be created 'and this makes an even dis­ vertheless, merely remained a re­ tribution of the solution impossible. search tool. Polythene of 100 gauge is ideal for Work on this method was taken up the gullies. However, if this is not seriously in 1965 t5y researchers in available the 500 guage is also suit­ Great Britain and in 1973 the first ac­ able. Plants are placed in the gullies count of the results was published in and the edges of the polythene are the May issue of The Grower. The clipped together with clothes pegs. HYDROPONICS 25

The plants may be placed in any dual salts has not been found neces­ rootng media. fIowever, it is advisable sary. All that is needed is a measure­ to use 3f' bituminised-paper pots fil­ ment of the electrical conductivity by led with peat and sand. These pots are a conductivity meter. When the con­ inexpensive and are easily obtained ductivity reading falls below a given from most garden shops. When these value of 20, a topping-up solution is pots are stood in a gully the roots added to the catcnment tank. It is quickly emerge from the pots and the suggested that the conductivity factor main root system develops as a con­ of the solution should be maintained tinuous mat in the stream of solution between 20 and 30. flowing down the gully. Plastic pots Occasional checks on the pH should should not be used, as in these the al1l0 be made. As the nutrients are re­ roots tend to remain within the pot moved by the plants the pH will rise. and growth suffers. When the pH rises above 7.0, phos­ A catchment tank is placed at the phoric acid should be 'added to the lower end of the ground. This is filled catchment tank. The pH of the s.olu­ with the nutrient solution which is tion should be maintained between pumped through a plastic pipe to the 6.0 and 7.0 top of the ground. A small pump can A suitable nutrient mix should con­ be used efficiently for this purpose. tain Calcium Nitrate, P.otassium Nit­ The solution is discharged from this rate, Magnesium Sulphate, Potassium flow-pipe into the gullies through Sulphate, Chelated Iron, Manganous small holes 4 mm in diameter, drilled Sulphate, Boric Acid, Copper Sul­ in the pipe. The solution flows down phate, Ammonium Molybdate and the gullies, by gravity, as a film less Zinc Sulphate. On a day with high than Imm deep. After passing through solar radiation integral the water up­ the gullies the solution is discharged take by the plants is large. The s'alt back into the catchment tank. concentration in the solution is there­ It is important not to anow a depth by increased and a hardening of the of liquid to build up in the gullies, growth may take place. iJt is, there­ hence the necessity to smooth' the fore, desirable to have a mains water slope to minimise the effect of local­ top-up by a float-valve in the catch­ ised depressions. If only a film of liq­ ment tank. This top-up can also be uid flows down the gullies a thick made manually everyday, sometimes root mat develops above the film of even twice 'a day. flowing liquid. This ensures that all Research work on various aspects the roots remain moist while the upper of NFT cropping is still going .on. How­ surface of the root mat is exposed toO ever, the most important results have the air. Thus, nO matter how long the been published and many commercial gully is, there is no shortage of the systems have already been set up. oxygen supply to the roots even at the Commercial growers have realised the end of the row. potential of NFT and the advantages It has been established that there is it possesses over conventional sys­ a much greater tolerance in nutrient tems. These advantages include (i) the supply when liquid flows past the elimination .of the conventional drying roots. Because of this tolerance the cycle between waterings and the rapid nutrient supply can be easily moni­ checking that all plants are receiving tored. In fact, analysis of the indivi- enough water, (ii) rapid 'planting' (Hi) 26 HYPHEN the precise control of nutrient and a the need to heat the air inside a glass­ large saving in fertilisers, (iv) the eli­ house. mination of soil sterilisation - soil­ In addtion one should mention the borne disease is, of course, complete­ overriding benefit of increased yields, lyeliminated, (v) the maintenance of compared with conventional cropping. \ optimal root temper,atures by warming Examples of the success of NIT crop­ the nutrient solution - eliminating ping are provided by the 10 orops a

Preparation of tJhe gully HYlDROPONI()S 27

Tomato plants in nutrient film gullies

year of good quality lettuce that are a single November sowing in England. being obtained in the open in Queens­ land, the seven crops a year of cordon cucumbers yielding 400 tons/acre in Carmel Galea R.Sc., M.Sc., teaches California and 130 tons/acre of to­ Afathematvcs at the Upper SeconoiarJ matoes that have been obtained from School, Valetta. ·i~·~·~·~·~·~·~·~·~·~·~·~·~~·~·~·~·~·~·-·-·~·~·~·~·~~~~! ! ,i i THE UNIIED STATES i ! i INFORMAl'lON SERV:ICE i! !i ! i ! Reference Collection includes: i ! i ; Books and Periodicals on !

+ i i'GOVERNMENT HISTORY i• ECONOMICS EDUCATION i !, i i DRAMA THEATRE i i INTERNATIONAL DANCE • i AFFAIRS SCIENCE i• i i i i i USIS also offers films to interested organisations. i i i i USIS Information Centre reference collection and reading ·• i i i room are open to the public at i i .i i Regency House ; i ! i Fourth Floor , i i i .. Republic Street, Valletta i i• Telephone 621240 !i i • i Centre hours are Monday through Friday 9.30 am to 1.30 pm i !• • .~.~.~.~~~.~.-.~.~.~.~.~.~.~+~.~.~+~.~.~.~.~.~.~.~.~.~.~. IL-'MU2A MALTIJA' BMA LA TEST TA' REFERENZA GMALL-ISTI=fARRIC TAL-POE2IJA MAL TIJA

Oliver Friggieri

Ghad li l-istharrig tal-letteratura menti socjali, politici, ecc. li, ghad li ghadda u jinsab ghaddej, illum wisq jaghtu sehemhom biex jissawwar H­ aktar u ahjar minn qabel, minn mogh­ kwadru generali, jibqghu dejjem !il dijiet diversi li jfittxu li janalizzaw u barra, bIa hila li jinserixxu ruhhom fiI­ jissintetizzaw, jikxfu I-partikulari biex kwadru partikulari: I-apprezzament jaslu ghaIl-universali u vici-versa, it­ tal-kelma miktuba fi!-kundizzjonijiet hsieb fundamentali aktarx kien u ta' zmien uta' spazju li, madankollu, ghadu li tinstab linja ta'zvilupp Jew hi xi haga differenti (ghaliex tmur Iil kontinwita li torbot fIimkien xejriet hinn) mill-kundizzjonament ta' dawn u attitudnijiet - formali u kontenu­ iz-zewg forom aprioristici. Dan ma tistici - kif ukoll zminiiiet differenti jfissirx li I-approach Ietterarju minn li, fl-ahhar mill-ahhar, m'humiex ghajr aspett socjoIogiku jew politiku m'hux kwazi ta' l-istess xejriet u attitudnijiet komponenti siewi wiehed jasaI ghall­ kuntrastanti imzewqa li jsawru I-feno­ konkluzjonijiet ahharijiet tieghu li, menu letteratura. fil-limiti ta' dan id-diskors, ma jistghux Id-diffikultajiet li aktarx isih rtlhu ma jkunux Ietterarji, jigifieri orjentati quddiemhom 'l-istudent jew l-istudjuz skond il-metodi differenti kif I-meta­ ta:l-grajja Ietterarja jistghu jkunu 1- fora verbali hi traduzzjoni ta' hsieb, punt tat-tluq ghall-kontribut li jista' mentalita, persunalita u I-bqija. jaghti (fil-kaz ta' studjuz) u ghat-tis­ Il-Muia Maltija, f'dan is-sens, ghad­ wir ta' reazzjoni pozittiva (fiI-kaz ta' ha kemm mHI-gost (sa certu punt in­ student) u jistghu jkunu wkoll it-blata dispensabbli fl-istoriku taI-letteratura) samma li kemm il-wiehed u kemm 1- ta' l-antikwarju li jigbor il-bcejjec im­ iehor jegherqu minhabba fiha. Nghidu xerrda, mitIuqa bi traskuragni fit-triq ahna, I-kaz ta' Ietteratura zghira bhaI­ twila taz-zmien, u kemm mill gost es­ ma hi 'l-Ietteratura Maltija, wiehed ak­ tetiku ta' min jaghraf 1i jehtiegIu jagh­ tarx ikoIlu t-tentazzjoni jaghmilha ta' zeI I-ahjar. Tant Ii hemm uhud mill­ l-antikwarju devot li jfittex Ii jigbor ahjar poeziji u ohrajn Ii zgur li m'hu­ kull fettuqa li tista' tfettah, izzewwaq miex. ·Fuq naha, meIa, hemm il-waq­ u tiddiversifika I-oggett ta' l-indagni tiet u I-protagonisti ta' l-ahjar produz­ tieghu. Hekk, fost hwejjeg ohra, jista' zjoni, il-fjoritura 1i I-istudent jehtieglu ikun kemm perikuluz (ghaliex jaghti jiddetermina minn fejn, minhabba valur lil hwejjeg li huma, fiI-kuntest liema motivi, u minn min inbdiet, biex letterarju, bIa valur) u kemm extra­ imbaghad tkompIiet u waslet ghad-de­ Ietterarju (ghaliex ma jmissx iI-qalba kadenza li sikwiet tikkaratterizza kull ta' l-ezami estetiku) it-tiftix ta' ele- fjoritura (e.g. il-passagg miU-poeziji 1- 30 HYPHEN kbar ta' DUn Karm sad-dekadentiimu ser ukoll reazzjoni kontra, cahda u tematiku. formaU, tad-Dunkarmjani). sforz biex jinstab dak li hu divers), Fuq in-naha l-ohra hemm id-dekaden­ jew ahjar il-kronologija ideali. Minn tizmu bhala fenomenu fih innifsu, vast poeta ghal iehor jistghu jinstabu kemm daqskemm kurjui, u ghammiel inci­ il-punti tal-kuntatt, jew ahjar il-fat­ dentalment, ghaliex f'dan il-kai parti­ turi li jressqu individwalita ma' ohra, kulari (kif jigri, wara kollox, f'certi identita ma' ohra, u kemm iI-punti perijodi ta' kul! moviment artistiku) tad-divergenza, jew ahjar in-nukleju waSSail ghal fjoritura gdida, mibnija persunali, kreattiv u originali ta' kuIl fuq deluijoni, sfiducja, reazzjonizmu, lehen li jista' jixraqlu jissejjah poeta, sforz biex jinstabu fethiet ohrajn (i.e. jigifieri xi hadd li sab mod gdid (ak­ il-moviment poetiku cerebrali tas-snin tar milli kontenut :gdid) kif ifisser ruhu sittin). metaforikament bil-kelma. H-moghdija mill-ewwel poeiija po­ Madankollu, meta wiehed qieghed polari sa l-ewwel sforzi biex jimitab iqis Il-Muia Maltija (u kull antologija punt ta' kuntatt ma' xi forma ta' poei­ ohra li tfittex li tkun forma ta' storja ija letterarja, u mbaghad it-tilhiq de­ Ietterarja skond it-testi stess) bhala t­ cii tal-livelI kreattiv bis-sahha ta' DUn test tar-riferenza tieghu,aktarx jin­ Karm u t-tkomplija tieghu minn ro­ tiuqat izjed milI-konformita tal-grupp. mantici ohrajn, inqas marbutin mal­ miIl-kontemporanejita formaIi u tema­ formaliimu neo-klassiku (H, madan­ tika, milli mid-diversita li tista' tohrog kollu, m'hux f'qaghda antitetika ghal ahjar jekk wiehed jistudja I-poeti fi~­ dak li hu sostanzjalment romantiku), dawI ta' kotba shah taghhom. Iida kulI u mbaghad il-hrug 'il barra bil-qawwa storja ta' kull hidma umana hi magh­ kollha minn dawn il-limiti "dojoq" li mula minn dak li hu individwali u kienu ilhom li ghaddew mill-Ewropa, minn dak li hu kolIettiv. Minhabba 1- jew li ghallinqas kienu dabu biex hadu ewwel kwalita tohrog ii-ierriegha li suriet godda, kif hassu u kif ghamlu 1- tnissel iviluppi godda, u miIl-kwalita poeti celebrali tas-snin sittin u kif l-ohra tohrog l-istoricita tal-grupp, 1- qeghdin jissuktaw jaghmlu l-ilhna ta' elementi komuni li jidentifikaw mhux dawn is-snin (b'hafna modulazzjoni­ liIl-awtur bhala lehen uniku u irripe­ jiet, modifikazzjonijiet u kompromessi tibbli iida bhala komponenti jew sottili): aktarx din tista' tkun il-medda membru ta' epoka, jew· moviment. li fiha l-istudent jehtieglu jinkwadra F'dan id-dawl l-ewwel tentativi popo­ I-istudju tieghu biex jasal ghal dak H lari u uhud mill-kitbiet ta' G.A. Vas­ indikajt fil-bidu: l-anaHii u s-sinteii, sallo ghandhom id-distintivita ta' pop­ l-istharrig ta' motivi partikulari u t­ lu daqskemm ghandhom il-konformita taghqid taghhom f'organiimu wieh­ ta' grupp, ikkundizzjonat. ftit jew ed li, imbaghad, ihaddan ghadd ta' H­ wisq, mill-istess hwejjeg: H-qaghda hna poetiCi, forom poetici u I-bqija, H­ mwieghra tal-lingwa, u maghha I-qagh­ kolI mifruxin fuq ghadd ta' snin. da ta' l-edukazzjoni, is-semplicita u 1- Minbarra l-kronologija H tohrog eghluq esperjenzjaIi (rifle ss kemm fiI­ mill-Muia MaZtija bhala gabra ta' motivi miktuba u kemm fit-teknika poeiiji ta' awturi Ii huma· mqeghdin tal-versi). Min-naha l-ohra, minhabba wara xulxin skond id-data ta' twelid­ f'hekk G.A. VassaHo ma setax (skond horn, il-qarrej intelIigenti jfittex u jsib il-veritajiet fl,mdamentali tar-romanti­ linearita ohra. H-kontinwita (li tfisser ciimu bhala moviment li ma kienx es­ ckomplija, ivilupp u adattament, u tfis- klussivament letterarju, iida haddan IL-MUZA MALTIJA 31

H-mod kollu kemm hu tal-kostumi, tika, u klassikeggjanti minhabba l-am­ tat-twemmin, tal-hsieb li jitbiddel bizzjonl li keUha li jaghtu d-dinjita' f'azzjoni, u I-bqija) uma riedx jinqata' letterarja Taljana lill-ghodda poetika minn dawn ix-xejriet tal-poezija popo­ I-.gdida), il-motivi tkompIew biex seh­ lari, jew demokratika. Izda jekk Vas­ nu kisbiet ohra u tkompIa I-process sallo ghandu jitqies bhala poeta, lineari 1i nbeda. Telghet aktar fil-wic(; ghiandu jghaddi mill-g'harbiel li ir-rabta bejn l-istorja naz2

titqies bhala l-minjatura tal-grajja let­ ta' Anton Buttigieg li wassal !ill-urn­ terarja taghna kollha. It-tliet fatijiet anita, l-"oggett" li iista' jitqies li har­ poetici tieghu (kitba bit-Taljan, kitba ab minnu, ghall-istat ideali ta' l-anni­ bit-Taljan u bil-Malti, kitba bil.. oMalti) malita waqt li biddel lill-annimali u m'humiex ghajr is-sisien li fuqhom ml.-hxejjex fi bnedmin annimalizzati jista' ytqieghed il-gudizzju kalm ta' (kontradizzjoni fiha nnifisha iZda li min jixtieq jiehu dehra panoramika tidher logika hafna fi stharrig itwal tal-fenomenu letterarju fMalta. Min­ tal-metodu metaforiku tieghu), biex habba li Dun Karm kellu. bhar-rom­ holoq univers superjuri fejn kollox hu antiCi, sens ta' storja, ma cahadx l-is­ ekwilibrat u sielem ghaliex kollox hu torja,iZda anqas ma seta' iibqa' jhares mibni fuq is-sensitivita, forma ta' vot Iura. Min-naha l-ohra. kien l-istess ta' sfiducia ohra fis-setgha razzjonali. twemmin romantiku tieghu li wasslu It-tnikkir tal-forom u tal-mottivi ro­ biex ihaddan il-principju romantiku mantici, wara li nbena dan il-kwadru tan-nazzjonalizmu li ma setaX jithad­ kollu, seta' jwassal (jew wassal) ghad­ dan jekk mhux bis-sahha ta' l-gharfien dekadentizmu li jinstab sikwit fil-waqt tal-lingwa tal-poplu. Ma' dan it-twem­ tas-saturazzjoni ta' kull moviment min fundamentali. bla dubju, jidhlu kreattiv H, imbaghad, jitbiddel f'moda, tant idealitajiet romantici ohra, iZda isir kodici, jisfa' skematizzat u hadd fid-dawl tar-rabta storika hafifa li minn dawk li jhaddnuh ma jintebhu. qieghed infittex li nidentifika fuq fuq, F'Malta gara li ntebhu b'dan il-poeti dan jista' jkun il-punt centrali. II-var­ moderni li hargu fis-snin sittin bU­ jazzjonijiet li ghadda minnhom ir-ro­ ghajta ta' poezija gdida. Il-polemika manticizmu Malti, dejjem fi process in­ hi aktarx il-prologu u l-epilogu ta' kull teressanti ta' tahlil miU-irbit formali mument letterarju, iZda I-arti tidhol u mill-ebusija ta' skema kontenutis­ meta jidholl-ekwilibriju, iddub il-kon­ tiku. sehh his-sahha ta' l-investigaz­ troversja u l-kisba ideali gdida tibda zjonijiet imnikkta. imlissna "taht l-il­ tissarraf f'hidma kreattiva. F'dan id­ sien", ta' Ruzar Briffa (u minhabba dawl il-poeziji ta' Mario Azzopardi, f'hekk il-formalizmu lessikali u strut­ Victor Fenech, Daniel Massa, Joe Frig­ turali beda jintefa' fil-genb biex jinsta­ gieri, Philip Sciberras, Doreen Mical­ bu modi ohra kif titfisser il-kriZi "tat­ lef u ohrajn hi l-glieda kontra l-emoz­ tifel" li jitkeIlem fil-poeta u biex jidher zjoni u I-idealitajiet li thaddan, kon­ li qieghed jinhass il-misteru ta' l-ezis­ tra I-precettistika n tliggem bizzeijed tenza, imgarrab aktar milli misthar­ I-istintivita artistika, kontra I-eghluq reg). Sehh ukoll bis-sahha tar-rib el­ lessikali tal-Malti poetiku, u hi favur ljoni ta' l-ewweI Karmenu Vassallo H, it-tiftix ta' ghalqa metaforika gdida, hu u jghaqqad il-fiIosofija mas-sen­ favur ix-xbiha cerebrali u mhux emo­ timent, il-kuncett mal-metafora, beda tiva, il-liberta tal-kelma u l-qaghda riesaq ukoll Iejn tahlil formali differ­ taghha f'poezija, favur I-espressjoni enti li, ghad li ma wasslux ghal-Uber­ miktuba ta' esperjenzi differenti li jik­ tajiet ta' xi Brlffa Jew xi Buttigieg, karatterizzaw Zmien differenti fH­ bhalma ma wasaIx ghalihom romanti· hajja ta' komunitll. ku iehor Gorg Zammit, xorta wahda Fi hdan dan il-kwadru aRtarx hemm fatmu mill-ezattezza arkitettonika ta' l .. izviIupp f,undamentali li II-Muza Mal­ Dun Karm u l-minuri dunkarmjani. It­ tija, kif ghaqqadha Guz~ Aquilina, tahlil sehh u l-varjazzjonijiet kotru tfittex Ii tipprezenta bis-sahha ta' ftit wkolI bis-sahha tar-religjon tan-natura pop.ziji ta' kull awtur. Ghad li l-poeti IL-MUZA MALTIJA 33 huma bosta, kif huma f'kullletteratura habba li Hum il-kritika moderna, or­ (u relattivament huma wisq aktar jentata skond stharrigiet lingwistici, f'letteratura akbar), huma ftit it-pro­ ma tasalx dejjem tiddistingwi bejn if­ tagonisti, bhalma huma ftit il-mumenti forma u l-kontenut, wiehed jerga' Iura partikulari H jikkaratterizzaw punt ta' lejn dak li xtaqt nuri fil-bidu, i.e. Ii fiI­ tluq lejn xefaq gdid u mbaghad punt kwadru ta' l-istorja jrid jinstab l-indi­ ta' saturazzjoni biex jerga jinstab mod vidwu, fil-vii:joni universali jrid jin­ gdid kif l-istess esperjenzi u esperjenzi stab il-partikulari, jigifieri fl-antologija godda jistghu jitfissru poetikament. li tillivella wiehed ma jistax ma jfit­ Min dan jidher H, fil-fehma tieghi. il­ tixx H ji:omm bilanc bejn il-Iehen kor­ letteratura titbiddel essenzjalment (in­ ali u l-lehen singular!. kella tistagna u ssir tahrig fl-imitaz­ zjoni retorika) fil-mod kif tghid xi OLl'er Friggierj B.A" M.A., - 'lecturer' haga, aktar milli fil-haga li tghid. Min- lal-Malti fl-Universitii ta' Malta.

~.~.-.~.~.~.~.~.~.~.~.~.~.~.~.~+~.~.~.~.~.~+~.~.~.~.~.~.~. i i' i i i TYPEWRITERS i i i i IMPERIAL - ROYAL - ADLER i i i i • Dawn I-Ismijiet huma magflrufin mad-dinja kollha gflall-prodotti i• I ta' kwalita u rezistenza mill-aqwa, bi prezzijiet mill-aktar attrajenti. i i Agflzel il-Mudell adattat gflalik mill-portable gflall-uzu fid-dar kif i i ukoll varjeta ta' mudelli akbar gflall-uzu fl-ufficini. i i i i Staqsu wkoll gflal dettalji dwar I-electronic calculators ta' i i I-istess isem. • i i • IMPERIAL - ROYAL - ADLER i • •• i Irrikorru gfland I-Agenti kif ukoll i • INDEX LIMITED TWINLOCK INTERNATIONAL i •i 31, Triq Federiku, Valletta. 132, Triq I-Arcisqof, ,• i Tel. 625846. 607094. Valletta. • i 240, Triq ir-Repubblika, (qrib il-Knisja tal-Griegi). i i Valletta. Tel. 22060. i i 8

.~.~.~.~+~.~.~.-.~.~.~.~.~.~.~+~.-.-.~.-.-.~.~.-.-.-.-.-+~• ! SOME FALLACIES AND' MISCONCEPTIONS IN THE MALTESE ISLANDS

Guido Lanfranco

Few of us normally stop to ponder truths and they should be utilized only over what we hear or say. We there­ to reflect the past or present beliefs. fore may pass or receive information without questioning its veracity. In HISTORICAL AND GEOLOGICAL fact, the more spectacular, prepos­ MISCONCEPTIONS terous or unusual the information the more it is repeated in order to draw A widespread belief is that Migra l­ admiration or attention, so psycholo­ Ferha is so called because the Maltese gically essential for acceptance in the rejoiced (ferhu) when Count Roger community. We do not expect the the Norman landed there. However majority to question everything as this the place is highly unsuitable for any is equivalent to living in an unnatural seaborne landing. Feiha means 'small, community. However, with students or the young of', while migra or me­ of a certain standard of education and gira means a watercourse. Migra l­ a background of reading, investigating Ferha is therefore a smaller water­ and inquiring, consistency is expected course branching off a bigger one. in conversation and actions (as well a, The Ggantija temples in Gozo are in methods of dealing with everyday believed to be named after the giants things). Statements must have la sup­ who built them. Only they, it is said, porting explanation and should not be could move such large stones. To sup­ more unquestioned repetitions. port this 'theory' big bones were pro­ Folklore consists of fact and fan­ duced which were assumed to have be­ tacy, especially when it is handed longed to these giants. It was l'ater down from ancient times, when super­ established that the bones belong to stition and the supernatural, mystery elephants and hippos similar to those and miracles were more in fashion. discovered in various other fissures Old beliefs die hard and we can still besides that of Ghar Dalam. These hear a lot of things which are not bones are on me way to becoming fos­ scientifically correct. We should res­ sils, and therefore are to be termed pect folklore, even if it includes inex­ psuedo-fossils. ,exactitudes because it reflects, and It is also a misconception to believe helps us understand better, the back­ that such animals roamed our islands ground of our forefathers. However it for they did not really live here. The is essential to understand that folk­ bones have only been found in alluvial lore and tradition are not gospel deposits, carried by watercourses, FALLACTES AND MISCONCEPTIONS 35 and deposited in fissures and caves this is of interest, but definitely not with collapsed roofs. Most of the bones fact. show clear signs of having been rolled It is also still often incorrectly stat­ over a river bottom. The valleys and ed that there is a dormant volcano in other sites where they are found are Gozo. The tapering hill at Marsalforn of such a size as could only have been is not a volcano. Such conical hills are formed when more water was passing due to normal erosion of limestone over the land and from further away country, where sedimentary rocks than any of our valleys now extend. wear out easily, but resist at the too This must have occurred when our is­ where the upper coralline limestone is lands were ,an extension of the South­ harder. The name of a street (Volcano ern European peninsula, from where Street) there, refers to Mount Etna these animal remains must have been which is sometimes visible in favour­ carried down to us. Nowhere have able weather conditions psuedo-fossils of the same species of 'Malta Rock' which is often polished animals of the Quartenery period been and turned into bookends, ashtrays, found to indicate that they had actual­ and paperweights, is neither rare nor ly lived on our land. peculiar to Malta. It is simply Chalcit.e All other fossils in our rocks be­ (crystals of limestone) found everv­ long to marine creatures, and this led where in the world in similar rocky our forefathers to think that these re­ formations. Marble in the true tech­ mains were left high and dry, nical word does not exist in Malta. We when the deluge retreated. The real only have hardstone from th~ coral­ explanation is much simpler: our is­ line limestones, which is quite com­ lands originally formed part of the sea pact and can take a polish, but its Qua­ bottom on whiCh were deposited the lities are not those of .real marble. hard remains of sea-animals to be It is sometimes said that much of eventually disturbed by major catac­ the local soil was imported. All our lysms and partly to emerge from the soil has been formed locally by the water. the simple but long process of erosion. Ils'ien San Pawl are only fossilized Sometimes a south wind brings along sharks' teeth commonly found in our some silicaceous sands from the Afri­ rocks. The name records the supersti­ can deserts, but the impresison that tion that the Apostle miraculously left there had been importation of soil on the mark of his tongue in the very a large scale arose because, in the earth. Supernatural beliefs still linger time of the Knights, ships carried soil among old individuals regarding the as ballast which could be landed here Maqluba formation at Qrendi. Geologi­ and utilized with the rest. cally it is merely a rougly circular de­ pression, formed by the subsidence of PLANTS RELATED TO HISTORY the roof of an underground cave due to' water erosion. The popular explan­ Malta Fungus is neither a fungus, ation is that the site marks the nor peculiar to Malta. It is a plant place where a small village was des­ which is not green because it troyed as punishment for its sins. lacks chlorophyll. It therefore cannot Some even add that Filfla is the rock produce its Own food by photosyn­ displaced from [N[.aqluba by devils, and thesis, and has to live as ·a parasite. dumped into the sea. As folklore goes It is reddish and elongated, and super- 36 HYiPHEN fically resembles a fungus. It is also ous snake in Maltese, .should be refer­ called 'General's Root', and this name red to as Lifgha Velenu.za. is preferable to any other, since it is The Filfla Lizard does not have more sUited,and does not involve er­ two tails. The lizard is perfect­ ror in nomenclature. Although believ­ ly normal. Someone in the past may ed to grow only in Gozo, (Dwej­ have come across a double-tailed liz­ ra), it can be found in many other ard from FilHa, but this is not some­ Mediterranean regions. thing astonished and such an occur­ Another plant which is connected ence is Jlot restricted to Filfla. Oc­ with the Knights is 'Tribulus' (also casionally, lizards may have produced known as 'Small Caltrops', 'Land Cal­ two tails. This happens when their old trops', 'Maltese Cross' or Salib i-Art) tail is incompletely attached and a new a plant which spreads out its thin one starts growing. This happens all stems low over the ground in summer. over the world. I have never seen a It has small yellow flowers, and pro­ FHfla lizard with two tails but I have duces spiny fruits. You may hear that seen several on Malta and Gozo. at st. Angelo there grows a plant The Skink (Xcdimet l-Art) is often that looks like a Maltese Cross. This believed to be covered with an oily or is the plant they refer to, and the fatty layer making it slippery. This is spiny frui~, a' 'ten:-pointed s,tructure, absolutely not true. It is shiny because admittedly does look like the eight­ its body is covered with very smooth pointed cross, The plant however compact scales, making it one of the does not grow only at St. Angelo, but cleanest 'animals of the countryside. It all over the Mediterranean Region, does not do any harm and it feeds as well as other countries in Europe, on insects but it is unfortunately per­ Asia and Africa. secuted by ignorant individuals. The Gecko (Wizgha) is likewise unjustly REPTILES persecuted beoause it is said to spread skin diseases or the plague, because Vipers do not exist in our islands. its skin is warty or rough. It is also There ,is no need to resort to super­ a clean reptile and feeds on insects natural explanations to account for especially during the night. It defini­ their absence for there are many tely carries no pestilence. countries that do not have vipers. The viper that bit St. Paul could have INSECTS been the odd one imported with cargo. I have personally come across several There is a tendency to call any­ such foreign species; it is quite easy thing small 'an insect, but technically, Tor ecologists to determine whether insects bave a particular body struc­ a species is an 'alien or a natural in­ ture. For example, spiders and scor­ died, out 'or has never been here at pions are not insects, as their body habitant, or whether a species bas structure is different. Tt is also be­ died out or has never been here at ail. lieved that small insects are still 'Viper' is not the English word for young and that they will develop fur­ our Lifgha, which is oalled the Leo­ ther. However, all insects mature by pard Snake. In Arabic, Lifgha merely the time they develop wings, and means snake and not necessarily viper, therefore, small insects with wings, which is always poisonous. A poison- are merely a small species. F ALLAOIES AND MISCONCEPTIONS 37

The grasshopper or locust is said to adults survive in 'moist corners and possesses a "Sikkina'" (knife), but these will lay the first batches of eggs this is also incorrect. When a gras­ after the rains shopper is caught, some pull off its Many people inaccurately believe long toothed hind-legs. These may that a poisonous snake produces its feel spiky and prickly, but they are poison in its tongue and that its (flick­ not a means of attack or defence by ing) tongue movements, which spIt the locust. The hindlegs are toothed out the poison may also be passed on the hind margin to grip the ground with its tongue on to the skin. In a and avoid slipping before jumping in a poisonous snake, the poison is sec­ the air for flight. reted within poison glands at the base References to cockcroach (wirdten) of teeth. These are callea poison fangs have also developed language con­ which act as a hypodermic needle. fusion. Many incorrect1y use the There are many who believe that a term' Kokroc as the Maltese word for jellyfish (brama) can bite. However the small species of Cockcroach (Ger­ the jellyfish has no anatomical struc­ man cockcroach) and use the word ture to enable it to bite. In ad­ Wirdiena to the large reddish Ameri­ dition it is not usually jellyfish can cockcroach. Wirdien with the that are involved in such encounters, appropriate adjective, is Maltese for but sea anemones (artikli). Jellyfish all species of cockcroaches, while and sea anemones produce an irritat­ cockcroachis the English term. ing fluid in microscopic sting cells ana You may have also heard that if you these stings, accompanied by the fluid touch white butterflies, you will have released to immobilize their victim are danruff ("faIza"). This condition of caused ·by contact. In human beings the scalp has absolutely nothing to they may leave a tender area for some do with butterflies. Our forefathers time. Sea anemones are more easily may have noticed that the white 'dust' met with than jellyfish. on your finger is similar to the small Making incorrect use of numerous whi.te dandruff flakes and hastily con­ books in English, many Maltese now­ cluded that the butterfly can cause it. adavs create confusion by understand­ Under the microscope one can see that ing . half truths about organisms they the butterfly 'dust' is made up of the come across. Some believe that the scales which cover its wings, and Lampuka (Coryphene) is the young of provide its pattern of coloration. the dolphin. The latter is a mammal but the former is a fish, cold blooded, OTHER ANIMAL FALLACIES and breathes underwater by means of gills. This confusion has arisen be­ It is often said that the mouse and cause it superficially resembels the the frog have no skeletons. Both these dolphin. Some Americans even omit animals are vertebrates with a bony the word fish and call it dolphin. We endoskeleton, and their only adap­ must use the word dolphin only for tation which makes them look differ­ the proper mammal, and not for any ent is. that they can filatten out their fiish. Some also think that the aolphin bo.dy more easily than others. Some or the whale are fishes, but these are also believe that frogs originate in mammals which suckle their Jl()ung, water ignoring the fact they lay eggs. breathe with lungs, and are warm When the water evaporates, some blooded. You may also have been told 38 HYlPHEN that the ferret (ballottra) which is "tem with fleshy branches, mostly dOten used to hunt rabbits, kills or globular or columnar. Cacti have are­ stupefies its prey by blOwing an un­ oles, or groups of spines arranged pleasant odour on it. 1fhis is untrue. spirally around it which replace the The odour emanates from scent leaves. Succulent plants of other fa­ glands as can be found in various milies may also be fleshy, but more other mammals, and are not used to usually in the leaves than in the attack on its victim. Although I have stems. Any spines they may have need often been told that the hedgehog ap­ not be in the form of areoles. Some proaches goats, sheep, cows to suck aJso believe that cacti do not need their milk during the night, this is nOt water. They do need water but they necessarily so. 1fhe hedgehog only can resist lack of it because they can seeks out the insects that congregate use that water accumulated previous­ near these animals and does not ac­ Iv. Others believe that the flattened tually prefer or intend to take their oval segments of the Prickly Pear milk. (Bajtar tax-xewk) are its leaves. Thesp are really flattened stems. 1fhe leaves PLANT LORE are actually the spines. Cloves (msiemer tal-qrofof) are nei­ It is a widespread but erroneous be­ ther nails nor are they related to car­ lief that pomegranates (rummien) ri­ nations (ql'onfof). Cloves are the dried pen by lightning Hashes. Even when blossoms of flowers from a tree that there was no lightning at all pomeg­ grows in the Moluccas, and they hap­ ranates still ripened normally. 1fhe pen to look like a nail. The word cloves ripening process of pomegranates rare­ comes from the French clou. meaning ly coincides with the begnning of the nail. rainy season when lightning is more 1fhere are numerous other little likely. items I would have liked to include. It is often said that the sunflower However I would like to refer to one (girasol or fjura tax-xemx) is so cal­ last thing. It is a widespread belief led because ,it turns round to face the that the plants which are not culti­ sun. This is grossly incorrect. 1fhe sun­ vated are evil plants (haxix ha.zin). flower head, always faces the same There is nothing more unfair or incor­ way. Hour by hour observations verify rect than this statement. All the other this. It is called sunflower (girasof) facts mentioned may be the result of or in technical terms Helianthus, be­ a simple misunderstanding or merely cause it looks like the sun, with a an improbable solution to a problem. 'disc' region and a 'ray' region. However, to refer arbitrarily to wild Most of us wiII have heard, and may plants as evil is a gross mistake. If still believe, that all succulent plants one accepts the fact that wild plants with a fleshy body are cactus plants. growing in a cultivable field are a nui­ 1fhis is also incorrect. A collection of sance as they compete with the crop, cacti, on inspection, may turn out to the fact still remains that all other contain mostly succulent plants which weeds not in a field or cultivable area do have the same properties as cacti. or garden, are not doing any harm. They may resemble them in many They are, on the contrary, directly ways, but they are not cacti. The cac­ contributing to purify the air from tus plant is characterized by a fleshy carbon dioxide and replacing it with F A:LLAOIES AND MISCONCEPTIONS 39 oxygen which all of us need, especial­ manufacturing new proteins which ly today, when air pollution is such a could be introduced into food cycles. universal problem. All the wild flow­ The latter is mainly a biological pro­ ers are potential sources of food. They blem, but nowadays' we are striving to also decorate the countryside with understand our environment in order their very beautiful flowers, many of to protect it, and thus safeguard our­ which are as beautiful as those in selves. Awareness of wild plants is our gardens. In addition all these wild growing in many countries; let us hope plants conserve the soil from exces­ that we can join the rest in conserv­ sive erosion by wind and rain. Many ing our natural heritage. of them, especally those which main­ tain root nodules containing nitrogen­ fixing bacteria, are also contributing GlIido Lanfranco teaches Biology at the to the protoplasm in living things, by Uf}per Secondary School, Valetta. INViTO ALLA LETTURA DEL 'SAUL'

Louis D. Baluci

------

Il Saul e' una delle tragedie alfier­ allucinazioni, le inquietudini, la dis­ iane che, secondo i critici, meglio ri­ perata ira che viene provocata in Iui vel a l'Alfieri come poeta. 11 Saul, dice daHa coscienza, che sta perdendo i1 il Momigliano, e la piu densa espres­ dominio di sea causa della collera in­ sione del mondo eroico ed inquieto sensata da cui e' vinto. Cosi' la cbe ribolliva nell'anima dell'Alfieri. vera fonte dell a tragedia rimane sem­ Qualche aUro critico pensando pre questa agitazione dell'anima di alIa natura complessa deIl'Alfieri Saul a causa. dello spirito malvagio dal sostiene che il Saul rappresenter­ quale deriva la lotta oscura dei senti­ ebbe "una specie di somma della menti oche porta con se nel cuore del v a r i a, g ran d e e nobilissima re i1 sospetto, 1'nvidia, rodio, la perse­ anima dell'autore. Saul e' infatti, fer­ cuzione, la follia, la sete di sangue, i1 oce, geloso, superbo deHa propria delitto, le passioni sempre piu violenti. regalita, ma non gIi manca il decoro eroico. E' sconvolto e travolto dalla "I figli miei, invidia e dal sospetto, ma nei momenti Ch'amo pur tanto, le piu di lucidita dimostra una grande volte al1'ira magnanimita e una grande umariita Muovommi il cor, se mi ac­ che esige rispetto. carezzan .... Fero, In questa tragedia il conffitto non ilmpaziente, torbido, adirato e' tanto la lotta fra il potente che tri­ Sempre, a me stesso incresco onfa e la vittima che soccombe eroic­ ognora, e altrui, amente, ma una lotta in cui 1'oppres­ Bramo in pace far guerra, in sore e la vittima, il tiranno e l'eroe guerra pace: combattono dentro una sola anima, Entro ogni nappo ascosO quindi una dura lotta interna e non un tosco 10 bevo, conflitto esterno. Un po' di conflitto Scorgo un nemico in ogni esiste tra il re e David, tra il re e arnico ...... " Achimilech, pure tra Saul e Dio: A prima vista Saul puo' sembrare "AI Signor io? ... Che parlo? come un tirami'o, invece e un vecchio Ferro ha gIi orecchi alIa mia legato ai ricordi di un passato glor­ voce Iddio: ioso, legato, cioe' ad un sogno di do­ Muto e il mio labbro minio, di gran presligio, di valorose Qv'e mia gloria?" imprese belliche, sogno che non puo' rinnovarsi mai piu a causa della at­ Percib la lotta piu poeticamente tuale condizione flsica del vecchio re significativa e' quella di Saul con se e del suo dissidio con Dio. stesso, dalIa quale ne risultano le "Vedi, se e fatta INVITO ALLA LETrURA DEL SAUL 41

Vedova omai di suo splendor Abner e geloso, caluniatore, fiero la casa del proprio valore, quasi uno spirito Di Saul; vedi, se omai Dio che spinge fataImente gIi altri tre ver­ sta meco." so il precipizio. L'Alfieri comunque, Questo incubo continuo e la pre­ ha voluto farne "un ministro guer­ occcupazione per i propri figli spin­ riero, piu amico che servo a SauI, qUin­ geranno il reai frequenti scatti di fol­ di non vile, benche esecutore talora lia accompagnati dal desiderio di dei suoi crudeli comandi". Da cio per morte liberatrice, poiche' il concetto tanto, la sua devozione ed affetto per alfieriano della morte e l'ultima vit­ il re, la sua alleanza nella Iotta contro toria, la liberazione dai sentimenti sacerdoti dai quali vede insid­ meschini e dal peso della vita. iata la corona di Saul, quindi odia e Il re Saul e' veramente un person­ lotta contro David. Tutti questi suoi aggio complesso. EgIi non e una statua atteggiamenti di ministro, freddo, im­ irrigidita oppure un eroe fatto tutto passibile, odioso, sono indipendenti da di un pezzo con una volonta consape­ questa sincerita alla quale serve la sua vole. Saul e piuttosto una figura cir­ missione, ecco· perche' appare vile e condata da molti fallimenti, creata con crudele, e a volte si riscontra in Iui la mirabile intenzione psicologica, in gioia di colpire i nemici di Saul. Per­ continua lotta con se stesso e con tutto tanto volentieri 10 -~diamo eseguire cio' che 10 circonda come dice 10 stes­ con freddezza la folle sentenza del re: so Alfieri. Secondo Francesco Flora, l'uccisione di Achimelech. Ma' verso "egli e incapace di far armonia con la fineegli compie un atto di estrema l'universo, di riconoscersi in Dio." pieta, egli e ancora accanto al suo re Saul non si adatto' mai alle esigenze ed ascolta le sue ultime parole gener­ dell a propria vita. Tuttavla it carattere ose che Saul morente gli affida la sal­ di Saul dominera' su tutti gli altri per­ vezza dell a propria figlia. sonaggi. Infatti anche quando egli non e in scena, si sente la sua presenza Micol e Gionata sono ambedue car­ mediante il dialogo stesso. Tutti gli atteri dolci. Gionata e anCOl"a piu mite. altri personaggl 'l:!unque fanno da cor­ Secondo l'Alfieri, egIi ha del sopran­ ona attorno a questa grande figura, naturale forse ancor piu che David, David e un uomo pio e guerriero, ed in questa tragedia ne ha piu bisogno pieno di fiducia in Dio. L'imperturba­ per poter mirare di buon occhio i1 gio­ bile sacerdote Achimelech e piena­ vanotto David, il quale profettizzato menteconscio della propria missione, re dai profeti, se non era l'aiuto di Per bocca di Iui che noi sentiamo la di Dio, dovea parere a Gionata piut­ voce tremenda di Dio durante il suo tostu un rivale nemico. che un frateIlo. solenne discorso di sacerdote, nel suo Gionata e tutto rassegnazione difronte pieno furore e finale condanna del re, alla volonta divina, fino a rinunciare in cui vediamo le piu forti e impres­ al trono per David che crede tanto piu sionanti parole di tutta la tragedia. degno. Micol e una tenera e soave sposa e figIia obbediente. Essa e una "Trema, Saul: gia in alto, sposa appassionata, ma non cade mai In negra nube, sovr"ali di in esagerati sentimentalismi. "0 fuoco Padre, Ascolto io forse i miei privati Veggio librarsi il fero angel affetti. Quand'io 10 sposoa te richieg­ di morte ... " go?" Comunque, nessun carattere e 42 HYPHEN cosi sviluppato da poter spostare la malinconia e daI dolore dell a separaz­ llostra attenzione dalla figura del re ione. Quello di Micol poi, e un altro Saul. Questo assoluto isolamento sti­ dramma. Essa non vive che per il suo listico imnrette nel 1ettore un senU­ David, e mai piu sequisita sensibilita mento di amara sofitudine nella quale femminile ne abbiamo scoperto nel si sentiva chiuso Sau!. "Di me sol­ quore di donna, come creatura soave tanto, Misero me, di me solo io non c delicata, dominata soltanto dal con­ tremo." tinuo pensiero dello sposo. In questa tragedia sono frequenti Sfondo per questo mondo turbato, le note di tenerezza e di affetto famil­ ondeggiato tra Ira tremenda e tener­ iare. "Ab! s'io Padre non fossi, come ezze vel ate di malinconia, son i morti il son, purtroppo di cari figli ... ". Saul, di Gelboe, le tende degli eserciti, l'a-Iba poi, mostra un amore particolare per e il tram onto cosparsi di faccie incen­ la propria figlia Micol, e prima della diate. catastrofe finale e il re che aa' it suo L'atmosfera di guerra, rispecchia la ultimo commando ad Abner, un com­ guerra che consuma il cuore del vec­ mando di re e ne110 stesso tempo di chio re, poiche' quando l'animo del re padre affettuoso, per salvare la figla. e turbato dalIo spirito malvagio e dalle "Abner, salvala, va." Saul credendosi piu tristi disperazioni, la natura si perseguitato da Samuele e da Achime­ veste di luci malinconiche: "Spavento lech invoca pieta' per i figli. "I figli M'e' la tromba di guerra; alto spavento del mio falllr sono innocenti", anche E' la tromba a Sau!." L'alba e il tra­ quando sono rlmproverati dallo stesso monto rispecchiano la speranza. Presto Abner, Saul ne soffre e diventa minac­ pero' la morte di Saul, perche' il sol CIOSO, "Chi, chi gIi oltraggia? Abner, nascente porta con se la speranza nel tu forse'? quest! sono sangue mio, non cuore, quella speranza di vittoria, ma 10 sai? Taci ... rimembra ... ?" Micol ~ non porta bensi' la' certezza. Gionata sapevano ricambiare questo Lo stile del Saul e nudo, di nota amore e li vedIamo sempre vlcino al eroica costante, come richiede ra {ra­ padre e preoccupaU delle sue condiz­ gedia alfieriana direttamente orfentata ioni, "E che, lasceremo noi, l'amato verso la catastrofe finale, costruita di genitor nostro." Padre, dice Micol, pochi personaggi. Comunque e uno "Hai la figlia tua diletta al fianco." stile che ritrae assai bene sentimenti Gionata chiede a David la sua inter­ vari; amore e dolore, angoscia e ten­ cessione "Presso Dio per SauI". erezza, sogni grandiosi e disperata Quando Saul vuole allontanare la volonta di morte. Qualche volta, pur­ figlia dal pericolo del nemico che troppo, l'Alfieri esagera questa tra­ avanza, Micol dice al padre, "No, gedia con delle concentrazioni verbali Padre, a te dintorno Mi avvinghiero': e ne risultano cose come cinque bat­ contro a donzella il ferro non vibrera' tute di dialogo in un solo endecasil­ i! nemico." MicoI non pens a a se stes­ labe. Questo e forse l'unica COsa che vi sa, ma vuole rimanere accanto al padre e di po co felice in Ctllesta tragedia che per essergli di sollievo della vita dimostra assai chiaramente l'umanita amara, dopo la stessa richiesta di della poesia alfieriana. David. "Ah!, resta Al suo Pianto, al "Tuttavia la severita di Saul, la ric­ dolor, al furor suo, Tu sola il plachi." chezza degli elementi che la costituis­ David e Micol poi, personificano un co no, la citazione e la lotta degli affet­ sentimento di tenerezza sorretto dalla ti nel cuore di Saul, il fascino e la INVITO ALLA LETTURA DEL SAUL 43 poezia che ne derivano dal mondo azioni dalla Bibbia, ma una delle creaz­ bib'ico, l'armonia e la variet! del verso, ioni piu potenti e perfette del secolo la perfetta fusione delle parti, la pas­ diciottesimo" . sione religionsa e politic a che agita l' animo dell' Alfieri, la grande potenza della sua arte, fanno di questa tragedia I,ouis D. Ba.luci M,A. - professore di non soltanto la piu alta e originale di I ialiano pre.eriore, tutte le tragedie che hanno avuto ispir- Vale!ta.

i •i ; i i •i i QUALITRON • i •i i Most examination boards are now allowing the use of electronic i i calculators during examinations. It is also a fact that a calculator i i helps you with your computing throughout your selected course. i i However, choosing a calculator has become a rather complicated i i business. i i i i Should it be a programmable? i i Should it have rechargeable batteries - adaptor? i i Should it have this or that function? i i Will it cater for future needs in different courses? i i i i We can help you decide. i i i i• Call and see our vast range of calculators, L.G.D. i • . electronic watches and TV games at: i i i QUALITEX COMPANY LIMITED •i i i i "Gardenia", Nazju Ellul Road, i i Msida. Tel: 513146 i i i i •i i CO!vlPUTER ARITHMETIC

Lawrence Borg

This article is mainly intended as an introduction to binary numbers as an­ other system of representation of numbers and their relation to digital compu­ ters. However, a preliminary discussion of the basic types of computers has been included as a matter of interest There are two basic types of computer currently in use - the analogue and the digital computer. The hybrid computer is a combination of both. In its calculations, the analogue computer represents numbers of quantities by physi­ cal magnitudes of some measurable thing (the analogue) which the computer can handle. The analogue representing the number or quantity may be the length of a rule (as in the slide rule), the voltage across a resistance (as in the electronic analogue compupter), angular position of a pointer (as in the speed­ ometer) or any physical quantity that can be easily measured. The accuracy of such representations and subsequent calculations is of course limited by the accuracy with which we can measure the physical quantities involved. Probably the best known analogue calculator is the slide rule. It is based on the use of logarithms. By adding the logarithms of tWQ numbers, the logarithm of the product of the two numbers is obtained. Distance along the slide rule is direct­ ly proportional to the logarithm of a number, so that multiplication is easily achieved by adding together lengths of the scale. Division is achieved by sub­ tracting lengths. The digital computer, on the other hand, represents its variables in a quan­ tised or digital form. This means that digital calculations are based on the use of actual numbers or digits which are operated on directly. Thus, numbers must be represented by using a discrete state or condition to represent each symbol ( 0-9 for decimal numbers). One of the earliest types of digital calculators is the abacus by which a number can be exactly represented by a combination of of beads on several rods. Now consider an automatic decimal number counter consisting of mechanical gear wheels of the. type found in most car mileage indicators. The ten symbols are represented by ten cogs on the gearwheels and each decade has its own individual gearwheel. Each complete revolution of a gearwheel (count of 10, 102, loa, etc.) causes the next gearwheel, representing the next highest power of ten, to enmesh so producing the effect of a carry. However, such a mechanical system is limited by friction, wear and tear, etc. For high speed counting the same task must be performed electronically. How­ ever, a difficulty arises because an electronic de\'ice with ten distinct states is very rare and when specially made tends to t)e very expensive. The obvious solution for the realization of the electronic digitaJ computer is to use a num­ ber system with fewer symbols. Thus, if we could use a method of counting which involved only two symbols we could utilize the many two-state devices COMPUTER ARITHMETIC 45 which are readily available in the fonn of switches or relays (on/off), transis­ tors (conducting/cut oft), capacitors (charged/discharged), etc., to devise an economical system of numbBr representation. Such a number system is called the binary system.

NUMBER SYSTEMS

The most common numbering system today is the decimal system which utilizes ten digits: 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9. The number of digits used in the system is known as its base or radix. The radix of the decimal system is ten.

Each term in a number system is associated with the radix ra'sed to a power according to its position in the number. Thus for example, the decimal number 2375 can be represented as tollows

1000's lOO's 10's l's

2 3 7 5

In other words, it may be represented in terms of the radix as

2375 = (2 x 103) + (3 x 102) + (7 X 101) + (5 x 100) Looking at it this way it can be seen that there is nothing unique about the decimal system with its ten symbols and place value system of representation, Le. units, tens, hundreds columns. In fact, the only reason for this choice of base seems to be due to the fact that we have ten fingers and ancient man used to count with his fingers. In fact, it was once suggested that the duodecimal system, i.e. the system with a base twelve, should replace the decimal system since at that time twelve was used in such units as feet and inches, shillings and pence, and the dozen. Almost all cash registers used to work using this system which means that they used to effect a carry once every twelve counts. The duodecimal system uses twelve symbols: 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,T,E. The last two symbols are the equivalent of the decimal numbers 10 and 11. Thus, 2 24512 Ill: (2 X 12 )+(4 X 121 )+(5 X 12°) = 34110

2 1E3T1211l (1 X 123 )+(E X 12 )+(3 X 121 )+(T. X 12°)

• III (1728 + 1584 + 36 + 10)ro III 335Bto N.B. when we want to indicate the base or radix of a number we write the num­ ber followed by a suffix:. 46 HYPHEN

THE BINARY SYSTEM

This approach can be extended to any other radix. So it can easily be seen that the simplest system that can be devised is one which uses just two sym­ bols, 0 and 1. This is called the binary system and the digits are often referred to as bits (binary digits). Hence, in the binary scale any number can be repre­ sented by just these two digits. The radix is therefore two so that consecutive digits represent consecutive powers of 2. Hence, reading from right to left, the positions in a binary number have the decimal values 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc. Thus

4 3 110012 : (1 X 2 )+(1 X 2 )+(0 X 22)+(0 X 21 )+(1 X 20) ::: (16 + 8 + 0 + 0 + 1)ro ::: 25ro

::: (64 + 32 + 4 + 1)ro :31 10110

Decimal, duodecimal, octal and binary representations of the same num- bers are shown in the following table, the octal being i>ntroduced because of its extensive use in computer programming.

System Duodecimal Decimal Octal Binary

Radix 12 10 8 2

0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 10 3 3 3 11 4 4 4 100 5 5 5 101 6 6 6 110 7 7 7 111 8 8 10 1000 9 9 11 1001 T 10 13 1010 E 11 12 1011

Obviously the greater the radix the most economical is the system in terms of the number length. However, the binary notation is the most economical in symbols since only two different are used. Hence, the :nost important practical reason for choosing the binary system for the arithmetic of the electronic digi­ tal computer is the ease with which a number can be represented by the state COMPUTER ARITHMETIC 47 of an electronic device which can be switched either on or off. In fact, all elec­ tronic digital computers are really complicated switching networks, each switch capable only of two states, either ON or OFF. It is possible to design these switches so that the computer can perform the most complicated logical and arithmetic operations in a few thousandths of a second. This principle of electronic representation can be demonstrated by means of a system of lamps and their corresponding switches as shown in fig. 1. A lamp switched ON represents the '1' digit and a lamp switched OFF represents the '0' digit. Thus, the state of the lamp shown in fig. 2 represents the number

10012. or 48 HY:PHEN

PARALLEL AND SERIAL MODES

The above case is called a parallel mode of operation in which an n-bit number requires n switches and aH the digits appear simultanously. Ir:. another form of operation called serial mode a single switch and lamp only is employed and activated in sequence. Each sequence, which lasts for a fixed interval. of time. represents either the digit '1' or '0' according whether the switch is ON or OFF. Thus, an n-bit number would appear in sequence, least significant digit first, and would require n digit times for the complete number to appear. Serial systems are much slower than parallel systems but require considerably less circuitry (hardware).

ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS

To represent decimal numbers in binary requires approximately three times as many digits. This makes the binary system unsuitable for convention­ at everyday arLthmetic. However, arithmetic using binary numbers is a far sim­ pler procedure than the corresponding decimal process, due to the very elemen­ tary rules of addition and multiplication. In fact, the complete binary additio;1 and multiplication tables are: 0+0=0 OxO - 0 0+ 1 = 1 Ox 1 - 0 1 + 0 = 1 1 x 0 - 0 1+1=Ocarryl 1 x 1 - 1 Two illustrative examples are now given in which the same operation has been performed in both the decimal and binary system:

Examples. Add 19 to 2~ Multiply 26 by 18 26 11010 18 10010 decimal binary 19 1O01l 208 110100 25 11001 260 110100000

44 101100 468 1l10lO100

REPRESENTATION OF A NUMBER LESS mAN UNITY

In practice we also meet with quantities which are less than one or with a whole number and a fraction (mixed numbers). These quantities can be indi­ cated in any system by placing a dot or point before the fractional part of the number. Th~s point indicates where the power to which the radix is raised be­ comes negative. In the binary system this dot is called the binary point. Thus, COMPUTOR AR~THMETIC 49 1 10.112 = 21+ 2:.. +2-2:.(2-75) . ... " , .' . H .• , to

RADIX CONVERSION

To convert any number in any radix to the decimal system, expand the number in powers of the radix and add the terms. This has already been shown in the various examples. When converting a decimal number into binary, the parts to the left and and right of the decimal point must be dealt with separately. The integral part is successively divided by 2, the remainders (which can be either 0 or 1) for­ ming the required number. The fractional part is multiplied successively by 2, the resulting integral parts giving the required number. For example, to convert 53.42 from decimal to binary the procedure is as follows:

integral part fractioanl part

2) 53 0.42 x 2 0.84

2) 26 r 1 0.84 x 2 1.68

2) 13 r 0 0.68 x 2 1:36

2) 6 r 1 0.36 x 2 0.72

2) 3 r 0 0.72 x 2 1.44

2) 1 r 1 0.44 x 2 0.88

0 r 1

5810 = 1101012'

53; 42 = 110101- 011 correct to three binary numbers. 10 2

BINARY-DECIMAL CODES

Consider the numbers

The latter number is a natural or pure binary number. Though this is ideal for electronic computing ,machines, the operator of such machines still likes to think and communicate in the decimal system. However,. a compromise is reached by coding decimal numbers in binary form in such a way as to be ac­ ceptable to both human and machine element. The most common is the 8421 or natural binary-coded decimal (NBCD). In this code four binary bits are used 50 HYPHEN

to covey the units in the binary number. Another four bits are used to represent the tens and so on. For example, the decimaL number 365 expressed in NBeD is 0011 OllO 0101.

ELECTRONIC DISPLAY

For those interested in electronics, the following is a circuit designed to display in sequence the decimal numbers and their equivalent in NBCD. Light emitting diodes (l.e.d.'s) are used to represent the bits (ON represents 1 and OFF represents 0) and a seven segment l.e.d. display to represent the decimals. The integrated circuits used are popular and easily obtainable types. The cir­ cuit has many other applications such as a timer and a high speed counter/dis­ play. Fig. 3 shows a schematic diagrm of the whole system displaying three de­ cades. Fig. 4 shows the circuitry involved in the first stage (the units section). Of course. the other stages are similar.

brief description' lCI is connected as a pulse generator with a frequency of about one pulse per second to represent the data. IC2 (:!J: & 6) is an NBCD counter which resets to zero after each count of nine. Its output is monitored by the four l.e.d.'s. IC3 (5 & 7) accepts the 4-bit NBCD output of IC2 and decodes this data to drive a seven segment l.e.d. display indicator. mE GAME OF NlM

It was my intention when writing this article about computer arithmetic to avoid as much theory as possible. In fact, I want to end by describing an interesting game which is related to the theory of binary numbers. This is the game of Nim which is a game for two players and is usually played with match­ es. A number of matches are placed in three or more heaps, each heap con­ taining an arbitrary number. With every move a player may take any number of matches from one, and only one, of the heaps, He must remove at least one match but he can also take all the matches in one heap. The winner is the play­ er who removes the last match or the last heap. (In an alternative form of the game the winner is the one who forces his opponent to take the last match.)

Winning strategy

Now, any player who has a knowledge of binary numbers can force a win possibly at his very first or consecutive move because it happens that the win­ ning strategy is closely related to the binary representation of the number' of matches in the heaps. One can be sure of winning even at the very beginning because any arrangement of heaps can be categorised as either a winning or losing position. Also, if the arrangement represents a winning position the next move is certain to create a losing position. Thus if player A (who knows the

52 HYPHEN game) starts or reaches a winning position, his opponent B is bound to leave· a losing one after his move. In his next move A converts the position to a win­ ning one by making the correct move. This cycle repeats itself until A finally' wins. To discover whether a given combination represents a winning position or not, you first express in the binary scale the number of matches in each' heap. For example, suppose there are four heaps containing 7, 5, 4, and 3 match­ es. Expressing these numbers in binary form using three columns we get

7 1 1 1 5 1 0 1 4 1 0 0 3 1 1

3,2,3

The bits in each column are added so that in this case we get the numbers 3, 2, 3 as shown. A winning combination is one in which the sum of the bits in each column is even (0 is considered even). It must be pointed out that the sums of individual columns are considered. There is no carry over from one column to the next as there would be in ordinary addition of binary numbers. ' Note that in our example the combination is a losing one. If it is your turn to play you proceed by either (i) removing 5 from the 7 matches, or (ii) remov- . ing all the matches of the second heap since 2,5,4, 3 and 7, 4, 3 are winning­ combinations.

2 1 0 7 III 5 101 4 1 00 4 100 3 1 1 3 1 1 2,2,2 2,2,2

If you choose the alternative form of the game in which the player who removes the last match is the loser, the above procedure still holds with the only exception that in your final moves you must never leave an even number of heaps containing only one match.

Lawrence J. Borg. B.sc. (Eng.) teaches Mathematics at the Upper Se­ condary School, Valetta.