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Danqing Wang Rights and Citizenship in Chinese Educational Discourse, 1895-1937, with Contemporary Reflections by Danqing Wang A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Theoretical, Cultural and International Studies in Education Department of Educational Policy Studies University of Alberta © Danqing Wang, 2014 Abstract Intellectual awakening from Confucian traditionalism to modern nationalism, along with social movements from subjecthood to citizenship, emerged in the late Qing dynasty and flourished in early Republican China. Accordingly, the practice of using education to nurture a modern citizenry came into existence. This study is an attempt to understand intellectual influences on the rise and development of citizenship education in China at the turn of the twentieth century through a historical inquiry into the works of leading intellectuals on rights and citizenship, as well as textual analysis of curricula and textbooks in relation to civic education. The evolution of the rights discourse and citizenship education in the late Qing dynasty and early Republican China reflects the ambitions and efforts on the part of intellectuals to create a modern China. This study shows that Chinese intellectuals and educators had gained as much sophisticated understanding of rights and civic education as their Western counterparts by the late 1930s. Tensions between nationalists and liberals over the ultimate goal of rights advocacy, whether to strengthen China among nations or to enhance individual liberty, dominated the rights discussion and affected the content of civic curriculum and textbooks. In contrast to the rights discourse in the late Qing dynasty that tended to associate subjects of rights with state/collectives, rights advocacy in the early Republic began to place greater emphasis on individual rights. In consequence, civic education was led by the military-civilian ideal aimed at strengthening the nation-state, followed by a period of policy adjustments echoing the prevailing appeals to individual rights. Nevertheless, there was too little social and political stability in the early twentieth century for Chinese intellectuals and educators to pursue republican ideals and to carry out civic education in accordance with the spirit of democracy. ii Inspired by the civic education practices in the early Republican era, a rights-based citizenship education framework is proposed as a conclusion of this study to connect past experiences with contemporary practices in teaching civics. iii Acknowledgments I own a debt of gratitude to Dr. Ryan Dunch and Dr. Dip Kapoor for their guidance and expertise. Special thanks are also due to Dr. David Smith, who sat for my candidacy examination. His remark “you are a beautiful person with a beautiful spirit” got me through many frustrating challenges. No thanks can be enough for my family whose love has been the source of my strength throughout this journey. This dissertation is dedicated to: Zhang Yilan (張義蘭), my mother, Wang Xinhe (王心和), my father, and Cai Zheng (蔡崢), my husband. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 1 Purpose of the Study .................................................................................................................... 1 Significance of the Study ............................................................................................................. 2 Key Assumptions ......................................................................................................................... 3 Scope and Limitations of the Study ............................................................................................. 6 Delimitation of the Study ............................................................................................................. 7 Organization of the Study ............................................................................................................ 7 CHAPTER 2 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ........................................................................ 9 Purpose of the Study and Research Questions ............................................................................. 9 Historical Research .................................................................................................................... 10 Methods ...................................................................................................................................... 12 Data Collection ................................................................................................................................... 12 Data Analysis and Interpretation ........................................................................................................ 14 Trustworthiness .................................................................................................................................. 17 CHAPTER 3 RIGHTS AND CITIZENSHIP: THE WEST AND CHINA ........................... 20 Conceptualizations of Rights and Citizenship in the West ........................................................ 20 Traditional Chinese Perceptions of Society and Government ................................................... 28 CHAPTER 4 CHINESE CONCEPTUALIZATION OF RIGHTS AND CITIZENSHIP: 1860S-1930S ................................................................................................................................... 33 Burgeoning Awareness of Rights and Citizenship: 1860-1900 ................................................. 35 Rights .................................................................................................................................................. 36 Citizenship .......................................................................................................................................... 42 Rights and Citizenship Theorization: 1900-1911 ....................................................................... 48 Kang Youwei on the Ideal of Great Unity .......................................................................................... 48 Yan Fu on Evolution and Progress ..................................................................................................... 52 Liu Shipei on Human Desires and Ethical Responsibilities ............................................................... 56 Liang Qichao on the New People ....................................................................................................... 59 Rights and Citizenship Theorization: 1912 to 1930s ................................................................. 64 The Content of Rights ......................................................................................................................... 64 Women’s and Workers’ Rights .......................................................................................................... 68 Individual Rights and People’s Rights ............................................................................................... 69 Discussion .................................................................................................................................. 84 CHAPTER 5 CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION (1895-1937): AIMS, CURRICULA, AND TEXTBOOKS ............................................................................................................................... 86 The First Modern School System: 1895-1911 ........................................................................... 88 Ethics ................................................................................................................................................ 102 Chinese Language Arts ..................................................................................................................... 109 History and Geography ..................................................................................................................... 111 Republican Education: 1912-1925 ........................................................................................... 113 Ethics/Civics ..................................................................................................................................... 130 Chinese Language Arts ..................................................................................................................... 142 History and Geography ..................................................................................................................... 148 Revival of Nationalism: 1925-1937 ......................................................................................... 155 v Civics ................................................................................................................................................ 162 Chinese Language Arts ..................................................................................................................... 167 History and Geography ..................................................................................................................... 168 Discussion ................................................................................................................................ 172 CHAPTER 6 CONLUSION: BRIDGING PAST TO FUTURE ............................................ 176 Implications for Citizenship Education in Contemporary China ............................................. 179
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