Challenges and Opportunities for Biodiversity Conservation in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest

Home , Atlantic Forest, Conservation in Brazil, Serra do Mar

MARCELO TABARELLI,∗ LUIZ PAULO PINTO,† JOSEM.C.SIL´ VA,‡ MARCIA´ HIROTA,§ AND LUCIO´ BEDE†ˆ ∗Departamento de Botânica, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife 50670-901, Pernambuco, Brasil, email [email protected] †Conserva¸cão Internacional—Brasil, Avenida Getúlio Vargas 1300, Belo Horizonte 30112-021, Minas Gerais, Brasil ‡Conserva¸cão Internacional—Brasil, Avenida Nazaré 541/310, Belém 66035-170, Pará, Brasil §Funda¸cão SOS Mata Atlântica, Rua Manoel da Nóbrega 456, São Paulo 04001-001, São Paulo, Brasil

Abstract: With endangered status and more than 8,000 endemic species, the Atlantic Forest is one of the world’s 25 biodiversity hotspots. Less than 100,000 km2 (about 7%) of the forest remains. In some areas of endemism, all that is left are immense archipelagos of tiny and widely separated forest fragments. In addition to habitat loss, other threats contributing to forest degradation include the harvesting of firewood, illegal logging, hunting, plant collecting, and invasion by alien species—all despite the legislation that exists for the forest’s protection. More than 530 plants and animals occurring in the forest are now officially threatened, some at the biome level, some throughout Brazil, and some globally. Many species have not been recorded in any protected areas, indicating the need to rationalize and expand the parks system. Although conservation initiatives have increased in number and scale during the last two decades, they are still insufficient to guarantee the conservation of Atlantic Forest biodiversity. To avoid further deforestation and massive species loss in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest, the challenge is to integrate the diverse regulations, public policies, new opportunities, and incentive mechanisms for forest protection and restoration and the various independent projects and programs carried out by governments and nongovernmental organizations into a single and comprehensive strategy for establishing networks of sustainable landscapes throughout the region.

Retos y Oportunidades para la Conservación de Biodiversidad en el Bosque Atlántico Brasileno˜ Resumen: En peligro y con mas´ de 8,000 especies endémicas, el Bosque Atlantico´ es uno de los 25 sitios de importancia para la conservacion´ de biodiversidad en el mundo. Actualmente quedan menos de 100,000 km2 (cerca de 7%) de bosque. En algunas areas´ de endemismo, lo unico´ que queda son inmensos archipiélagos de fragmentos de bosque pequenos˜ y muy aislados. Adicionalmente a la pérdida de habitat,´ otras amenazas que contribuyen a la degradacion´ del bosque incluyen – a pesar de la legislacion´ existente para la proteccion´ del bosque – la recoleccion´ de lena,˜ la tala ilegal, la cacer´ıa, la recoleccion´ de plantas y la invasion´ de especies exoticas.´ Mas´ de 530 especies de plantas y animales ah´ıpresentes estan´ amenazadas oficialmente, algunas a nivel de bioma, algunas en Brasil y algunas globalmente. Muchas especies no han sido registradas en ningun´ area´ protegida, lo que indica la necesidad de racionalizar y expandir el sistema de parques. Aunque las iniciativas de conservacion´ han aumentado en numero´ y escala durante las dos ultimas´ décadas, aun son insuficientes para garantizar la conservacion´ de la biodiversidad del Bosque Atlantico´ Brasileno.˜ El reto, para evitar mayor deforestaciońypérdida masiva de especies en el Bosque Atlantico´ Brasileno,˜ es integrar a las diversas regulaciones, pol´ıticas publicas,´ nuevas oportunidades y mecanismos para incentivar la proteccion´ y restauracion´ del bosque y los diversos proyectos y programas independientes llevados a cabo por los gobiernos yorganizaciones no gubernamentales en una estrategia amplia y unica´ para el establecimiento de redes de paisajes sustentables en toda la region.´

Paper submitted November 19, 2004; revised manuscript accepted January 14, 2005.

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The Atlantic Forest Câmara 2003). Ten percent of its remaining cover was lost just between 1989 and 2000, despite considerable The Atlantic Forest is the second largest rainforest of the investments in surveillance and protection (A. Amarante, American continent, once stretching almost continuously unpublished data). Covering enormous areas, remaining along the Brazilian coast and extending inland in the south forest has been reduced to immense archipelagos of small and into eastern Paraguay and northeastern Argentina. In to tiny, widely separated forest fragments (Gascon et al. the past, it covered more than 1.5 million km2—92% of 2000). Forests in the northeast were already largely dev- it in Brazil (Funda¸cão SOS Mata Atlântica & INPE 2001; astated (cattle ranching and timber shipped to Europe) Galindo-Leal & Câmara 2003). It is one of the world’s in the sixteenth century (Coimbra-Filho & Câmara 1996). 25 biodiversity hotspots. Even though it has been largely Dean (1996) identified the proximal causes of habitat loss: destroyed, it is still home to more than 8000 endemic overexploitation of forest resources by human popula- species of vascular plants, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and tions (timber, fruits, firewood, poaching) and the expro- mammals (Myers et al. 2000). priation of land for human activities (pasture, agriculture, Extremely heterogeneous in composition, the Atlantic and silviculture). Brazilian government subsidies have fu- Forest extends from 4◦ to 32◦S and covers a wide range eled agricultural expansion, stimulating high-yield agricul- of climatic belts and vegetation formations, from trop- ture (sugar, coffee, and soybean; Galindo-Leal et al. 2003; ical to subtropical. Elevation ranges from sea level to Young 2003). Forest clearance has been especially severe 2900 m, with abrupt changes in soil type and depth in the last three decades; 11,650 km2 of forest have been and average air temperature (Mantovani 2003). Longitu- lost in the last 15 years (2.84 km2 per day; Funda¸cão SOS dinal variation is also marked. Forests further inland are Mata Atlântica & INPE 2001; Hirota 2003). increasingly seasonal, with average annual rainfall drop- Deforestation rates defy the legislation that exists to ping from 4000 mm to 1000 mm in some areas of the protect the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. The Forest Code of Serra do Mar (Oliveira-Filho & Fontes 2000; Mantovani 1965 requires that 20% of the area of any rural property in 2003). Along with the tropical rainforest, the Atlantic For- the region be managed as a legal forest reserve (reserva est encompasses mixed Araucaria pine forests and dis- legal) and that gallery forest (the width determined by tinct Lauraceae-dominated forest in the south and decidu- the width of the river) and forest on steep slopes (for ous and semideciduous forests inland. A number of asso- example) be areas of permanent protection (areas de ciated formations include mangroves, restingas (coastal proteçao˜ permanente) and preserved as such (Schaffer forest and scrub on sandy soils), high-elevation grassland &Prochnow 2002). Federal Decree 750 of 1993 delim- (campo rupestre), and brejos (humid forests resulting ited the Brazilian Atlantic Forest and its associated ecosys- from orographic rainfall in otherwise semidesert scrub tems and determined that any logging, forest cutting, or in the northeast of Brazil; Câmara 2003). disturbance requires prior permission by the appropriate The history of the Atlantic Forest has been marked by government agencies (reviewed by Câmara 2003). periods of connection with other South American forests Many threats persist despite this legal protection; for (e.g., Amazon and Andean forests) that resulted in biotic example, there is a permanent lobby to expand agricul- interchange, followed by periods of isolation that led to tural lands (by changing the legislation governing the le- geographic speciation (Silva et al. 2004). Consequently, gal forest reserve), residential areas, and land settlements. the forest’s biota is composed of both old (pre-Pliocene) From 1985 to 1998, for example, the National Institute for and young (Pleistocene) species (Silva & Casteleti 2003), Colonization and Agrarian Reform (INCRA) converted 50 and a number of areas of endemism (defined by both old large rural properties into land settlements, resulting in and young species) have been identified (Silva et al. 2004). the clearance of at least 150 km2 of forest—10% of the re- Although the extent and the current location of these ar- maining forest in southern Bahia (Rocha 2002). Despite eas are still controversial, at least five can be recognized recent improvements in staff capacity, the Brazilian In- based on the distribution of terrestrial vertebrates and stitute for the Environment (IBAMA) and state agencies plants: Brejos Nordestinos, Pernambuco, Central Bahia, are still generally unable to penalize offenders with any Coastal Bahia, and Serra do Mar, all in Brazil (Silva & alacrity, and only a negligible portion of fines are ever Casteleti 2003; Silva et al. 2004). paid (Laurance 1999). In addition to the relentless loss of habitat, the remaining forests continue to be degraded through the harvesting of firewood, illegal logging, collection of plants and Habitat Loss plant products, and invasion by alien species (Galetti & Fernandez 1998; Tabarelli et al. 2004). Poaching contin- More than 93% of the original forest is already gone (My- ues to deplete wildlife even within protected areas in ers et al. 2000), and <100,000 km2 of vegetation re- the regions that contain the last few large forest rem- mains. Some areas of endemism, such as Pernambuco, nants, such as the cacao-growing region of southern Bahia now have <5% of their original forest (Galindo-Leal & and the coastal mountain ranges (Serra do Mar) in Rio de

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Janeiro, São Paulo, and Paraná (Chiarello 1999; Cullen Jr. of the critically endangered Alagoas Foliage-Gleaner (Phi- et al. 2000; M. Galetti, personal communication). lydor novaesi) and a number of other threatened birds The majority of the species officially threatened with (Barnett et al. 2003), are of global importance. extinction in Brazil are inhabitants of the Atlantic Forest Reversing current levels of habitat loss and fragmen- (Tabarelli et al. 2003). Currently, more than 530 plants, tation will require improved law enforcement and inno- birds, mammals, reptiles, and amphibians of the Atlantic vative incentive mechanisms, including those aimed at Forest are threatened—some at the biome level, some alleviating poverty and promoting social development. at the country level, and the endemic species at the This is essential because more than 100 million people global level. It is reasonable to speculate that as global live in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest (Funda¸cão SOS Mata warming occurs and habitats change, this already alarm- Atlântica & INPE 2001; Hirota 2003), and most forest frag- ing number of threatened species will increase because ments are privately owned (Rambaldi & Oliveira 2003). the widespread fragmentation of the Atlantic Forest lim- One promising instrument is fiscal compensation, based its species migration and colonization necessary for the on area under official protection, given by states to mu- long-term persistence of their populations. nicipalities (ecological ICMS). Since the state of Paraná adopted a program of this sort, the number of protected areas in the state increased by 165% (Alger & Lima 2003). Conservation Status This initiative is expected to enhance the interest of decision makers in creating new protected areas and in im- The Brazilian Atlantic Forest is probably one of the South plementing and improving the management and admin- American regions with the highest number of strictly pro- istration of existing protected areas (Alger & Lima 2003). tected areas (parks, reserves, ecological stations, and pri- Further public policies, incentive mechanisms, and eco- vate reserves)—more than 600 new areas were created nomic opportunities (including the Kyoto Protocol) for during the last 40 years (Fonseca et al. 1997; Galindo- the protection and restoration of the Atlantic Forest have Leal & Câmara 2003). Large numbers alone are insuffi- been developed recently (Alger & Lima 2003). cient, however. The system is far from adequate: (1) protected areas cover <2% of the entire biome; (2) strictly protected areas (World Conservation Union’s [IUCN] cat- Major Conservation Initiatives egories I and II) protect only 24% of the remnants; (3) most are too small (about 75% of protected areas are <100 The massive wave of industrialization, economic develop- km2)toguarantee long-term species persistence (Silva & ment, and environmental degradation that began in Brazil Tabarelli 2000); and (4) among the 104 threatened verte- in the 1950s has, since the mid-1970s, resulted in a surge brate species, 57 have not been recorded in any protected in concern and actions dealing with now grave environ- area (Paglia et al. 2004). mental issues, particularly in terms of effective mecha- The fragility of the Atlantic Forest protected area sys- nisms for protecting biodiversity. Initiatives are emerg- tem is not restricted to its extent and distribution. The ing from public policies and from an escalating involve- lack of trained staff and adequate financing in government of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) ( Jacobi ment environmental agencies severely limits protected 2003). A brief review of the major conservation programs, area management (Fonseca et al. 1997), and there is projects, and investments in the Atlantic Forest is in Criti- conflict with indigenous and local communities over a cal Ecosystem Partnership Fund (2001). Here we mention number of protected areas, both within and around park afew. boundaries (Arruda 1997; Rocha 1997; Galetti 2001). In- The National Biodiversity Program is a biome-level digenous peoples have claims that overlap a large number conservation-planning initiative, launched in 1996 by the of protected areas in Brazil, notably in two key parks in Brazilian Ministry of the Environment and supported by the Atlantic Forest (Monte Pascoal National Park and Ilha the World Bank and the Global Environment Facility. An do Cardoso State Park; Galetti 2001). important component of this strategy is the Project for the Much of what is left to preserve in the Atlantic Forest is Conservation and Sustainable Use of Brazilian Biological on private land (Rambaldi & Oliveira 2003), and the estab- Diversity (PROBIO), for which the Ministry of the Envi- lishment of a large and well-designated network of private ronment has partnered with numerous organizations— reserves is now recognized as indispensable in the protec- universities, research centers, and NGOs—to establish tion of the region’s biodiversity. The Reservas Particulares priority areas for conservation in the Brazilian Atlantic do Patrimônio Natural (RPPN) is an official protected area Forest. For the Atlantic Forest and southern grasslands, category that private landowners can create voluntarily the project involved more than 200 scientists, who and in perpetuity. There are now 443 RPPNs in the At- mapped 182 priority areas for biodiversity conservation lantic Forest, totaling almost 1000 km2 (Vieira & Mesquita and outlined essential measures required for the protec- 2004). Several, such as the RPPN Frei Caneca in Pernam- tion of its unique biota (Conservation International do buco, which protects one of the two known populations Brasil et al. 2000). The results of this project consolidated

Conservation Biology Volume 19, No. 3, June 2005 698 Biodiversity Conservation in Brazil’s Atlantic Forest Tabarelli et al. a strategy for conservation action at the landscape level which includes 29 protected areas (1999; 1,691,750 ha); that fosters the creation of biodiversity corridors (Sander- and the Discovery Coast Atlantic Forest Reserves, which son et al. 2003) in three regions: fragments in northeast- includes eight protected areas (1999; 111,930 ha). This ern Brazil (the Pernambuco Corridor) and southern Bahia program seeks to develop mechanisms to support key and Esp´ırito Santo (the Central Corridor), and corridors protected areas and to promote training, awareness, and uniting the montane forests of Rio de Janeiro and São capacity building for the local communities. The second Paulo (the Serra do Mar Corridor) (Conservation Interna- large initiative is promoted by the German Kreditanstalt tional do Brasil et al. 2000; Fonseca et al. 2004). für Wiederaufbau Bank in close partnership with some The Atlantic Forest is also benefiting through a specific state agencies of southeastern and southern Brazil. This subprogram of the Pilot Program to Conserve the Brazilian initiative has involved a major investment in the imple- Rain Forest (PP-G7), an international initiative approved mentation of a number of protected areas in the states of and supported by the Group of Seven (G7) countries in Paraná and São Paulo. Currently,the states of Minas Gerais, 1991 (MMA 2004). Although the poor cousin to the Ama- Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul are also benefiting. zonian components, it has resulted in various bilaterally Initiatives focused on the protection of threatened and financed conservation projects (so-called demonstrative flagship species have a long history in the Atlantic Forest. projects) in a number of states in the south and southeast. At present, among the most visible and successful are the An action plan for the conservation of the Atlantic Forest conservation programs for the four lion tamarins (Leonto- wasfirst drawn up by the SOS Atlantic Forest (Funda¸cão pithecus) and the muriqui monkeys (Brachyteles) (Strier SOS Mata Atlântica), São Paulo, in 1991 (Câmara 1991), 1999; Kleiman & Rylands 2002). Since the early 1980s, but a subsequent plan was produced specifically for the they have matured from focusing on saving an endan- PP-G7 in 1998 and approved by the Brazilian govern- gered species to focusing on broad multidisciplinary con- ment and PP-G7 participants, including the World Bank, servation programs. These programs have yielded impor- in 1999. The result was a decision, in 2000, to step up tant insights and innovations for designing community- investment in this subprogram, initially with the creation level conservation strategies, including technical capac- of an advisory nucleus for environmental planning in the ity building (e.g., Valladares-Padua et al. 2002; Procópio Atlantic Forest (Núcleo Assessor de Planejamento da Mata de Oliveira & Rambaldi 2003). Atlântica [NAPMA]) within the MMA’s Secretariat for Bio- The CEPF was launched in 2002 to safeguard threat- diversity and Forests. A frenetic agenda of meetings, semi- ened biodiversity hotspots in developing countries. It is nars, and workshops resulted in NAPMA producing a pro- supporting projects in the Atlantic Forest that approach posal for the PP-G7 Atlantic Forest subprogram. In this the spatial relationships of land use and public and pri- proposal, the principal stated objectives are (1) conserve vate protected areas, and the dynamics of forest fragments biodiversity in the Atlantic Forest, (2) promote the sus- (CEPF 2001). Within three broad programs (species pro- tainable and fair use of its natural resources, and (3) protection, support for private reserves, and institutional mote measures for its restoration (MMA 2004). strengthening), support has been specifically provided Two major, regional, conservation planning initiatives for (1) innovative economic incentives for conservation; are continuing in the Atlantic Forest. One is the imple- (2) expansion of the protected area system within the bio- mentation of the Central Biodiversity Corridor in Esp´ırito diversity corridors mentioned previously; (3) implemen- Santo and southern Bahia, which is sponsored by the tation of biodiversity corridor conservation strategies; (4) World Bank through the PP-G7 Atlantic Forest subpro- studies to fill gaps in biodiversity knowledge; and (5) pub- gram in collaboration with Ministry of the Environment, lic awareness of biodiversity issues. Particular emphasis state environmental agencies, and NGOs (Fonseca et al. is placed on ensuring that the initiatives supported com- 2004). This corridor embraces 8500 km2 of one of the plement existing strategies and frameworks established world’s most species-rich regions (Thomas et al. 1998; by local, regional, and national governments. Fonseca et al. 2004). The second is the implementation of the Atlantic Forest Biosphere Reserve, created in stages from 1993 to 2001, which extends through 14 Brazilian states and covers 29473484 ha. The essential strategies The Way Forward and objectives are the same—to develop conservation policies and create and manage protected areas on a land- Although the number and scale of conservation initiatives scape scale (Corrêa 1995). have grown considerably during the last few decades, At the site level, we highlight the Brazilian World Natu- they are still insufficient to guarantee the conservation ral Heritage Sites Program, a 10-year initiative supported of the Atlantic Forest’s biodiversity. Effective law enforce- by the U.N. Education Scientific and Cultural Organization ment is needed as a basic foundation of any conservation and a pool of Brazilian institutions. Three of the seven sites strategy. Particularly important is the implementation of in Brazil are in the Atlantic Forest: the Igua¸cu National Park the Forest Code, requiring protection and/or the restora- (1986; 185,262 ha); Atlantic Coast Southeast Reserves, tion of “legal forest reserves” and “areas of permanent

Conservation Biology Volume 19, No. 3, June 2005 Tabarelli et al. Biodiversity Conservation in Brazil’s Atlantic Forest 699 protection” on all proprieties. This would significantly Coimbra-Filho, A. F., and I. de G. Câmara. 1996. Os limites originais increase the amount of forest habitat under protection do bioma Mata Atlântica na Região Nordeste do Brasil. Funda¸cão and ensure that rural properties comply with social and Brasileira para a Conserva¸cão da Natureza, Rio de Janeiro (in Por- tuguese). environmental goals set forward in the Brazilian Federal Conservation International do Brasil, Funda¸cão SOS Mata Atlântica, Constitution (Alger & Lima 2003). To avoid further defor- Funda¸cão Biodiversitas, Instituto de Pesquisas Ecológicas, Secretaria estation and massive species loss in the Brazilian Atlantic de Meio Ambiente do Estado de São Paulo, Instituto Estadual de Flo- Forest, the challenge is to integrate the diverse regula- restas - MG. 2000. Avalia¸cãoea¸cões prioritárias para a conserva¸cão tions and public policies, new opportunities and incen- da biodiversidade da Mata Atlântica e Campos Sulinos. Secretaria de Biodiversidade e Florestas and Ministério do Meio Ambiente, Bras´ılia tive mechanisms for forest protection and restoration, and (in Portuguese). various independent projects and programs carried out Corrêa, F. 1995. A reserva da biosfera da Mata Atlântica: roteiro para by governments and NGOs into a single and comprehen- o entendimento de seus objetivos e seu sistema de gestão. Série sive strategy for establishing networks of sustainable land- cadernos da reserva da biosfera (2). Conselho Nacional do Meio scapes throughout the region (Galindo-Leal 2003; Ram- Ambiente, Secretaria de Biodiversidade e Florestas, Ministério do Meio Ambiente, Bras´ılia (in Portuguese). baldi & Oliveira 2003). Such networks, which have been Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF). 2001. 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Conservation Biology Volume 19, No. 3, June 2005