Languages in a Globalising World - Edited by Jacques Maurais and Michael A

Cambridge University Press 0521821738 - Languages in a Globalising World - Edited by Jacques Maurais and Michael A. Morris Index More information

Index

Abdal language 159 economic strength of 236, 238 Afghanistan 238 future of 16, 258 Africa in Algeria 15 African languages 28, 206, 209, 212–213, in France 252 214–215, 216, 329 in north Africa 70, 78, 210 colonialism in 211–213 number of native speakers 234, 302 definition of divisions of Africa 203 political strength of 239, 241 future of French language in 8 spread of 70, 208, 251–253 future of Hausa and Swahili languages 16 standardisation of 256, 257–258 language teaching in 32, 33 Aramaic language 26, 75 also see sub-Saharan Africa Argentina 4, 69 Afrikaans 209 indigenous languages in 120 Albania 85, 308 in Mercosur 116, 119–120 Algeria 15 monolingualism in Spanish 119, 120 Alliance Fran¸caise29 teaching of foreign languages in 120, 310 Alliance IsraéliteUniverselle 29 Armenia 266, 269, 270, 271, 308 Alsatian language 50 Asia Amharic language 205, 210 language trends in 4, 21, 304, 305–306 Americas see also Central Asia, East Asia, the Middle language teaching in the 32 East, South Asia, and Southeast Asia language trends in the 4 Australasia Amerindian languages 50, 55 language trends in 4, 7 Amhara language 214 membership in 4 Andorra 306, 308 also see South Pacific Anglo-Saxon language 70 Australia 5, 55, 69, 199, 218, 221, 223, 301 Angola 313–314 language policy 223 Anguilla 310 see also Australasia Antigua 310 Austria 241, 308 apartheid 13, 14 Automatic translation, see translation Arab countries Azerbaijan 14, 266, 269, 270, 308 language policies of 251, 256–257 mother tongues in 256, 258 Babylonian Empire 75 reliance on foreign language web sites Bahamas 310 252–253 Baltic states 277–281 Arabic language 24 language policies of 277–281 Arabic alphabet and the computer 253–254 Bambara language 212, 213 and new information technologies 20, 21, Baoule language 54 76, 250–251 Barbados 310 and the ‘engco’ model 16 Basque language 3, 19, 112 as a language of wider communication 7 Belarus 270, 275–276 challenges to 8 language policy in 275, 276, 308 coding of Arabic characters 254–255 Belorussia 266, 268, 269

334

Index 335

Belorussian language 275–276 Cartier, Jacques 71 Belgium 49, 59, 64, 212, 241, 306, 308 Catalan language 3, 21, 112 post-colonial relations 208 Cayman Islands 310 Bengali language 16, 75 census surveys 64, 65 number of native speakers 234 Central African Republic 18, 212 Belize 310 Central Asia 5 Benin 18, 208 and China 179 Berber language 78 and English language 179, 325 Berlin conference of 1885 308 and South Korea 179, 181–182 Bermuda 310 changing role of Russian 162, 170–172, Bete language 54 179, 182 Bhojpuri langauge 67 implementation of language policies 168, Bihari language 67 172, 182 Bislama (pidgin) 222, 224 language policies 4, 6, 165, 166, 180 Bolivia 310 map 158 Bollywood 75 minority languages of 163, 165, 170, 181, Bombay 75 182 Bornuan expansion 205 multilingualism in 157, 159, 161, 162 Brazil 4, 113 proposed Latin alphabets 173–174, 177 and spread of the Portuguese language 9, role of Iran in 177 313–314 role of Turkey in 14, 177, 178–179 immigration and language in 123, 124–125 Russian population 170, 182 indigenous languages 123–124 Soviet language policy 161, 165, 166 in Mercosur 116, 117, 123–125 see also Kazakhstan, Kirghizstan, language policy of 123, 124, 313 Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan teaching of foreign languages in 25, Central Europe, see Eastern Europe 124–125, 310 Chad 208 Breton language 50 Chaghatay language 164 Britain, see Great Britain Channel Islands 308 British Council 29, 298 chaos theory 17 British Council report on English 15, 298, 299, Chichewa language 211 304 Chile 238, 310 see also David Graddol China, People’s Republic of 66 British Virgin Islands 310 and study of Japanese language 199 Brunei 218, 307 Classical Chinese 188, 189, 193 Bulgaria 85, 308 language policy 4, 183, 188, 190, 303–304, foreign language study in 95–96 307 inﬂuence of French language in 86, 88 Chinese language 24, 67, 188, 193, 194, 224 Bulgarian language 27 and technology 18, 20, 21, 76, 195, 197, 201 Burkina Faso 212 and the ‘engco’ model 16 Burundi 210, 211 and the spread of English 201, 224 economic strength of 235, 238 Calvet, Louis-Jean 112–113 future of 16, 28, 31, 225 Cambodia 224, 307 in scientiﬁc literature 60 Cameroon 212, 215 number of native speakers 234 Canada 5, 68, 69, 301 political strength of 241 and languages in cities 77–78 potential candidacy as a language of wider and new information technologies 19, 76, 77 communication 7, 201 English-speaking Canada 151, 154 study strength of 246 English-speaking Canada and Quebec cities compared 151 and languages 77 language policy of 62, 65, 68, 146 Colombia 77, 310 study of Spanish in 23 Commonwealth of Independent States 260, Cantonese language 18, 66, 67 265–272 Cape Verde 313 national languages in the 265

336 Index

Commonwealth of Independent States (cont.) influence of Russian language in 86–89, 90, language policies in the 265, 267–272, 97 306–308, 309 monolingualism in 86 Russian-speaking population in the 268 multilingualism in 85 Comoros 208 East Germany 87 Congo-Brazzaville 14, 208 ecological theorists, see linguistic theory Congo-Kinshasa 211, 212, 215, 294 economic integration, see regional economic Cook Islands 218 integration Corsican language 3 economic power Costa Rica 310 and languages 72–73 Couvert, C. 291–292 Ecuador 77, 310 Croatian language 52 Egypt 18 Crystal, David 27, 301 Egyptian hieroglyphics 18 Cuba 310 El Salvador 310 and the United States 66 endangered languages, see linguistic diversity cuneiform writing 18 ‘engco’ model 16, 236, 304 cyberspace, see virtual space England 68–70 Czech Republic 85 colonial empire 206 see also Czechoslovakia post-colonial relations 207 foreign language study in 94–95 English language 69 Czech language 21, 27 and globalisation 24, 104, 322, 326 Czechoslovakia 308 and linguistic theories 47, 50 foreign language study in 94–95 and new information technologies 20, 21, influence of German language in 86 22, 43, 76, 243, 302 See also Czech and Slovak Republics and regional economic integration 3 and standard language 38 Daimler-Chrysler 237 and the ‘engco’ model 16 Dalmatian language 52 as a dominant language 61, 330 Danish language 21, 101, 235, 237, 238, 240, as a language of wider communication 7, 74 242 concentric circles of speakers of 7–8, 220, decolonisation 206 301, 302, 322 Denmark 308 creole version of 303 developing countries cultural strength of 243–245 and new information technologies 17–20 during World War II 78 Djibouti 18, 208 economic strength of 235, 236, 237, 238 dominant languages 60, 61, 77 future of 16, 26, 27, 28, 29, 48–49, 79, 298 resentment against 73 in Australasia and the South Pacific 7 Dominica 310 in Central and Eastern Europe 5, 14 Dominican Republic 18, 310 in Central Asia 6 Dutch language 20, 21, 101, 235, 237, 238 in China 303–304 cultural strength of 243 in East Asia 6, 70, 75, 304 political strength of 240, 242 in England 70 study strength of 246 in Europe 306–309 in the European Union 5, 101, 103, East Asia 104–105, 242 language policies 4, 6, 305–306, 307 in the former USSR region 306–309 Eastern Europe 5, 13 in francophone countries 14–16 foreign language study in 85, 88, 90, 96 in India 302 impact of Soviet Union on 86 in international organisations 41 influence of English language in 87, 88, 89, in Latin America 306, 309, 315 96, 97 in Mercosur 6, 9 influence of French language in 8, 87, 88, in north Africa 78, 252–253 89, 90, 96, 97 in North America 25, 68 influence of German language in 87, 88, 89, in scientific literature 60, 62, 244–245 90, 96, 97 in South Asia 5

Index 337

in Southeast Asia 200, 305–306 jurisprudence about language issues 23, in southern Africa 14 106–107 in Sub-Saharan Africa 4, 6, 213, 214, 216 languages used in the 100–101 in West Africa 15–17 language policy 3, 5–6, 39, 106–108, 328 influence on French by 51, 61 linguistic services of the 109 influence by French on 70 limits of institutional multilingualism in the measuring the spread of 9 101–102 number of native speakers 234, 235, 298, Lingua 100, 108 302 linguistic influence of the 100 political strength of 239, 240, 241, 242 membership in the 4 publications by Germany in 32 minority languages in the 107 spread in higher education 32 spread of English in the 22 spread of 1, 2, 9, 30, 324 translation and interpretation costs 30 spread affecting other languages 111–112, use of Spanish in the 102 324 see also EU member countries (i.e., Britain, spread in Japan 200 France, Germany, Italy, etc.) study in Germany of 32 Ewélanguage´ 212 study in Latin America of 25, 119 study strength of 246, 247 Falkland Islands 310 teaching in Africa of 32 Fanagalo language 206 use by Chaucer of 74 Faeroe Islands 308 see also World English Ferguson, Niall 71 English–speaking countries 72 Fiji 218, 223 and computer users 75 Finland 108, 308 foreign language learning in 25 Finnish language 19, 20, 21, 101, 235, 237, Equatorial Guinea 18 240 Esperanto 30, 31, 37, 38, 43–45, 222–223 Flanders 212 Estonia 14, 277, 278, 279–281, 308 Flemish language 209 Ethiopia 208, 210 forecasting, see language forecasting Ethnologue 300, 323 France 69 Eurocrats and new information technologies 19, 20 and Spanish language decrees 18 and colonialism 49, 206 European languages and post-colonial relations 207, 294 and new information technologies 19, 21 Arabic-speaking populations in 8, 252 Europe colonial legacy of 211 future of French language in 8 in Africa 294, 295 great powers of 4 in Europe 4 influence of German language in 8 in North America 60, 105, 294, 296, 308 language teaching in 31 language policy of 32, 294, 296–308 language trends in 4, 22, 40, 308, 327 Francophone countries (Francophonie) 8, 9, 55 see also Eastern Europe and new information technologies 18 European Central Bank 105 in Africa 14–16, 294 European integration, see European Union language policy of 113, 291, 293, 294 European Union (EU) free-market theorists, see linguistic theory and great powers of Europe 4 Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) 133 and languages 22–23, 41, 59 French Guiana 310 and linguistic diversity 23, 54, 113, 327, 329 French language 67, 69 and Spanish language decrees 18 and Africa French 215 community law and language laws 105 and impact of English 51, 61, 324 influence of the English language in the and linguistic theories 47, 50 101, 102, 104, 108–109 and new information technologies 20, 21, influence of the French language in the 101, 22, 76, 243 102, 104, 108 and the ‘engco’ model 16 influence of the German language in the 7, as a language of wider communication 7, 8, 101, 104, 108 73, 112

338 Index

French language (cont.) as a language of wider communication 7, 8, as a minority language 61 112 cultural strength of 243 cultural strength of 243–245 economic strength of 236, 237, 238 economic strength of 235, 236, 237, 238 in Australasia and the South Pacific future of 16, 231, 246–248 224 impact of English on 324 in Central and Eastern Europe 13, 297 influence on French language by 70 in England 70 in Central and Eastern Europe 14, 105, 236, in English Canada 26 238, 246 in the European Union 3, 5, 101, 103–105, in Latin America 115, 119 242 in Luxembourg 39 future of 16, 28, 29, 49, 65–66, 247, 292, in scientific literature 60, 244–245 294, 296–297 in the European Union 5, 101, 105, 235 historical evolution in France 23 international standing of 233 influence of German language on 70 number of native speakers 234, 235 in the francophone countries 8 political strength of 239, 240, 241–242 in French-speaking Africa 14–16, 54, study in the United States 23, 24 212–213, 294, 295–296, 297 study strength of 246, 247 in integration of the Americas 26 Germany 241, 308 in Latin America 115, 119 colonial empire 206, 212 in Luxembourg 39 in Europe 4 in New Brunswick 27 language teaching in 32 in north Africa 78, 252–253 publications in English by 66 in North America 24, 25–26 unification of 5, 13 in Nunavut 68 Gibraltar 306, 308 in Quebec 3, 64 global communication 1–2 in scientific literature 60, 244 globalisation in sub-Saharan Africa 4, 6, 214, 216 and languages of wider communication 7, 8, in Vietnam 294 13, 330 number of native speakers 234, 235, 291, and languages 1–2, 9, 22 292–294, 302 and language competition 5, 9, 13, 330 political strength of 239, 240, 241, 242 and the spread of American culture 320–321 study in Germany of 32, 238 and the spread of English 24, 39, 104, 322 study in Latin America of 26 definition of 21, 319 study in the United States of 23, 24 global language hierarchy, see language study strength of 246, 247 hierarchy French Polynesia 218 Goethe Institute 29 Fulani language 205, 213 Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Oblast 170 Graddol, David Gabon 18 predictions of 27, 302 Galician language 112 report on future of English 16, 27, 48–49, Gan language 67 55, 304–305 Gaul 70 see also British Council report geographical regions Great Britain 301, 308 and languages 3 in Europe 4, 103 geography study of foreign languages in 237, 238 and languages 5 study of Russian in 14 Georgia 266, 269, 270, 308, 325 Greece 308 German Chambers of Commerce 237 Greek language 21, 24, 70, 101, 235, 237, 240, German language 67 242 among Turkish migrants 236 and Mycenian Greek 18 and German colonisation 210 Grenada 310 and new information technologies 20, 21, Groener case 23 22, 76, 243 Guadeloupe 218 and the ‘engco’ model 16 Guaraní language 26, 123, 132

Index 339

Guatemala 310 Inukitut language 68 Guinea 208, 212 Iran, see Central Asia Guinea-Bissau 313 Ireland 301, 308 Gujarati langauge 75 Irish language 23 Guyana 311 Isle of Man 308 Italy 238, 241, 308 Haiti 18 colonial empire 206 Hakka language 18, 67 Italian language 20, 21, 22, 24, 32, 67 Hausa language 16 and new information technologies 76, 243 Hebrew language 21, 24 as a language of wider communication 112 Hezhou language 160 cultural strength of 243 Hindi language 5, 67, 75 economic strength of 236, 237, 238 and the ‘engco’ model 16 in Latin America 115, 119 economic strength of 236 number of native speakers of 235 number of native speakers 234 political strength of 239, 240, 241, 242 potential candidacy as a language of wider study strength of 246 communication 7, 67 Ivory Coast 18, 54, 215, 221 Hiri Motu (pidgin) 222 Hokkian language 18 Jamaica 311 Holland 40, 212, 237, 308 Japan Hollywood 75 language policy 4, 6, 188, 190, 201, 307 Honduras 310 spread of English in 200 Hong Kong 194, 197, 307 Japan Exchange and Teaching Programme 199 Hungary 85 Japan Foundation 29, 199 and foreign language study 89–93 Japanese language 24, 194, 224 and influence of German language 86, 91, and new information technologies 19, 20, 238 21, 22, 76, 196, 197–199, 243 and monolingualism 86, 90, 308 and the ‘engco’ model 16 Hungarian language 21 and the spread of the English language 201 Huntington, Samuel 27, 28 cultural strength of 243 economic strength of 235, 236 Iceland 19 in scientific literature 60 Icelandic language 21 number of native speakers 234 Ikinyarwanda-Kirundi language 214 spread of 190, 201, 224 illiteracy 32–33 study strength of 246 India 5, 301 Jordan, David K. 17 future of local languages in 28 future of regional (state) languages 16 Kabyélanguage 212 language policy of 28, 31, 67, 303–304 Kadazandusan language 222 technological challenges to Indian Karakalpak language 164, 169–170, 174, 181 languages 20 Karakalpakistan 169 Indo-European languages Kazakh language 164, 166, 170 and new information technologies 19 Kazakh Language Association 172 Indonesia 218, 221, 225, 307 Kazakhstan 14, 157, 176, 238, 266, 269, 270, Indonesian language, see Malay language 271, 308 information technologies, see technology English in 306 integration, see regional economic integration Kenya 211 interdependence, see globalisation Kinyarwanda language 15, 210 international organisations Kirghiz language 166, 170, 183, 268 and languages of wider communication 7, Kirghizstan 14, 157, 176, 266, 268, 269, 270, 41, 328 271, 308 interlingualism 2, 38 English in 306 International Center for Research on Language Kirundi language 210 Planning 298 Kiswahili language 210, 211, 212, 214 international standing of languages 8 also see Swahili language

340 Index

Kituba language 212 immigrant languages of 115 Korean language 21, 22 indigenous languages of 113, 115 and new information technologies 195, 197 language teaching in 32, 33 language policy 190 linguistic challenges of 113–115 Kriol (pidgin) 222 study of English in 25 Kyahta language 160 study of French in 26 Latvia 277, 278, 279, 280, 308 Lakhdar-Ghazal, Professor 253 English in 306 language academies 68 League of Nations 41 language change Lebanon 18, 77 models of 77–78, 323–324 Letzburgish language 39 languages lesser languages, see linguistic diversity definition of 66, 68 Liechtenstein 241, 308 fate of 79 linear B syllabary 18 language competition 1–2 Lingala language 206, 212 and globalisation 9 lingua franca 70 and linguistic diversity 9, 73–74, 326 linguistic diversity 1, 2, 33, 40 and languages of wider communication 7 and endangered languages 54, 111, 300, and technology 5 329–330 language contraction 28, 324 and Esperanto 43 measurement of 9, 78, 79, 299 and languages of wider communication 7–8 language data banks 305, 306, 328, 331 and linguists 55 language decline, see language contraction and regional economic integration 3 language expansion 28, 69, 324 and NAFTA 6, 147 measurement of 9, 78, 79 and linguistic theories 47, 49, 54, 56 language forecasting 2, 9, 26, 47, 64, 323–324 and technology 77 through dynamic models 79, 298, 305–309 English language threat to 49, 326 through the extrapolation of trends 74 future of 26–29, 42, 45 language hierarchy 1, 13, 44 in Australasia and the South Pacific 7, language maintenance 221–222 measure of 9 in the European Union 23, 327 language policy 77 in sub-saharan Africa 7, 329 language spread 29, 71, 299 also see language competition; minority see also English language languages language shift, see language contraction; linguistic ecology, see linguistic theories language expansion; language linguistic human rights 44, 47, 54, 111, 112 maintenance linguistic pluralism 38–40, 44 language teaching 31–33 linguistic relativity 52 languages of wider communication 1–2, 3, 16 linguistic standardisation 37, 54 and linguistic theories 47 linguistic theories definition of 7, 231 and chaos theory 17 future of 26–29, 30, 298 ecological theorists on 2, 47, 52, 111 impact of 73 free-market theorists on 2, 47, 68 impact of globalisation on 13 see also territoriality and languages impact of spread of English on 112 Lithuania 277, 278, 279, 280, 308 in Australasia and the South Pacific 217, London 77 221–222 Los Angeles 66, 75, 77 in Eastern Europe 85 Lusophone countries 9 users of 66, 298, 300–301 Luxembourg 39, 241, 308 language vitality 305 English in 306 Laos 307 see also Letzburgish language Latin language 24, 26, 70, 78, 85 Latin America Maastricht Treaty 100, 105 and linguistic globalisation 111–115 Macao 307, 313 and the English language 113–114, 115, 306 McIntyre v. Canada 54

Index 341

Madagascar 18, 70, 210 users of 66, 300 Magahi language 67 also see linguistic diversity Maithili language 67 modernisation major languages, see languages of wider in sub-saharan Africa 6 communication of Arabic-speaking countries 8 Malagasy language 205, 214 as a challenge for Arabic 8 Malawi 211 Moldova (formerly Moldavia) 266, 269, 270, Malaysia 218, 222, 223, 307 271, 306, 308 Malay language 16, 19, 21, 31, 67, 197, 222, Mongolia 238, 307 224, 225 Mongolian language 67, 183 economic strength of 236 Monaco 308 number of speakers of 234 monolingualism 40, 78 Mali 212 Montserrat 311, 313 Malinke language 54 Morocco 18 Malta 308 Mossi resistance 205 Mandarin language 67, 196 Mozambique 313 Maori language 223 multilingualism, see linguistic pluralism Martinique 310 Mutsch case 23 Mercosur (Common Market of the South) Myanmar (Burma) 307 and NAFTA compared 117, 129, 136 Mycenian Greek 18 and European Union compared 129, 136 and regional linguistic dynamics 116–118, Namibia 238 128 nation-state border areas and languages 131–132 and language 68–69 English language learning and inﬂuence in native American languages, see American 133–136 languages language policy 3, 5–6, 25, 118–119, Near East, see Middle East 128–131, 136–137 Netherlands, the (see Holland) membership in 4 Netherland Antilles 310 private initiative promoting Spanish and New Brunswick 27 Portuguese 131 New Caledonia 218, 224 promotion of Spanish and Portuguese in 4, New Zealand 218, 223, 301 9, 118, 129–130, 133–136 New York City 66, 77 see also Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Nicaragua 310 Uruguay Niger 18 Meroitic writing 18 Nigeria 213 Mexico 5 and French language 15, 208 and indigenous languages 150–151, 152 Norse language 70 and status of Spanish 3, 148 north Africa 78, 203 and the United States 66, 148, 149 North American Free Trade Area (NAFTA) English language in 151–152, 155, 310 and Mercosur compared 117 language policy of 146, 147, 148 central role of United States in 147, 154 Miami 66 comparison with the European Union 145 Middle East English language and 144, 146, 147, 154 Arabic-speaking populations in 8, 70 French language and 151, 154 military domination language policy 3, 6, 146 and languages 69–71 language issues in 23, 144, 145, 146 Min language 67 linguistic diversity in 147, 155 minority languages membership in 4 and new information technologies 19 problems of 143, 144 demands of 73 Spanish language and 144, 146, 150 in France 23 successes of 143 protection of 54, 61, 62 see also Canada, Mexico and the United in the Americas 64 States revitalisation of 112 North America 76

342 Index

North American integration, see North post Cold War period American Free Trade Area and technological challenges 5 North Korea (Democratic People’s Republic of prediction, see language forecasting Korea) 188, 191, 201, 307 Programme for Mexican Communities Living Northern Ireland 308 in Foreign Countries (PMCLFC) 149 Norway 308 psychosocial factors Norwegian language 20, 21, 243 and languages 73–74 Nunavut 68 Puerto Rico Nyamwesi language 211 and NAFTA 4, 23 and status of English 153, 155 Oceania languages 50 and status of Spanish 3, 153, 155 Oromiya language 210 and the United States 66, 146, 153–154 language policy of 146 Pacific region 52 Punjabi language 75 Panama 310 Papua New Guinea 215, 218, 221, 222 Quebec Paraguay 116, 125–127 anglophones in 54 bilingualism in 125–127 foreign language study in 25 foreign language teaching in 127, 310 and North American integration 151, 154, incursions of Portuguese in 127 155 Pasar Malay (pidgin) 222 Quechua language 25 Persian language 164 Philippines, the 219, 221, 301, 307 refugees 68–69 Phillipson, Robert 27, 29, 54, 56 regional economic integration pidgins 222–223 and languages 3, 13, 21–26 Piedmont Language Academy 68 Romania 85, 308 Pisin (pidgin) 222 and multilingualism 86 pluralism or plurlingualism, see linguistic and the Soviet Union 87 pluralism influence of French language in 8, 86, 88 Poland 18, 85, 308 Romanian language 21 foreign language study in 93–94, 108 Russia 238 influence of German language in 86 language policy of 165, 265, 308 Polish language 21, 27, 60 status of Russian in Portugal 308 see also Soviet Union colonial empire 206, 211 Russian Federation post-colonial relations 208 Russian language within the 261–265, 269 Portuguese language 24 national languages within the 262, 263 and new information technologies 20, 21, 22 Russian language and the ‘engco’ model 16 and new information technologies 21, 22, and Portunhol 315–316 286–287 as a language of wider communication 9, and the ‘engco’ model 16 112, 114, 118–119, 313 as a language of wider communication 8, economic strength of 236, 237, 238 112 importance of Brazil for 313–314 diaspora of Russian speakers 283–284 in European Union 101, 235 economic strength of 236, 238 in integration of the Americas 26 future of 16, 27, 279–281, 287–288 in sub-Saharan Africa 4, 6, 214, 216 impact of English on 324 number of native speakers 234, 235 in Belarus 275–276 political strength of 239, 240, 241, 242 in Central and Eastern Europe 5, 14, 86–89, Portuguese-Spanish interaction 314, 315, 112 316 in Central Asia 6, 14, 161, 165, 170–172 promotion by Mercosur of 4, 6, 9, 21, 25, in East Asia 285 313, 314–315 in scientific literature 60 study strength of 246 in the Baltic states 277–281

Index 343

in the Commonwealth of Independent States South Pacific 265–272 language trends in 4, 7 in the Russian Federation 261–265 membership in 4 in the Ukraine 272–275 also see Australasia number of native speakers 234 Soviet Union political strength of 241 collapse of 5, 13–14, 294, 306 study in Europe of 14, 32, 285 and Africa 208, 294 study in the United States of 14, 23, 24, and Central Asia 6, 161 285 and Eastern Europe 86–89 study strength of 246 language policy 4, 166–167, 265–267, 282, also see Russia; the Soviet Union 285, 308 Rwanda 15, 208, 210, 211, 294 language policies in the former states of the 8, 265–272, 277–281, 308 St. Christopher 311 national languages in the 265 St. Lucia 19, 311 also see Russia St. Vincent 311 Spain 112, 238, 308 Samoa, American 219 Spanish Armada 71 Samoa, Western 219 Spanish language 69 Sangölanguage 206, 212 and new information technologies 20, 21, Sankara,Thomas 212 22, 243 San Marino 308 and the ‘engco’ model 16 S. Toméand Principe 313 as a language of wider communication 7, Sapir, Edward 50 112, 114, 118–119 Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 47, 50 and European integration 3, 101 Scandinavian countries 40 and Mercosur 116–118 Scotland 308 cultural strength of 243 self-governing regions 68–69 decrees by Spain about 18 Senufo language 54 economic strength of 236, 237, 238 Serbo-Croatian language 27, 91 in Mexico 3 Shanghai Chinese language 18 in North America 25 see also Wu language in Puerto Rico 3, 23 Singapore 197, 219, 220, 301, 307 in South America 309, 313–314 Skutnabb-Kangas, Tove 54, 56 in Spain 112 Slavic languages 27 number of native speakers 234, 235, Slovak Republic 85 302 foreign language study in the 95 political strength of 239, 240, 241, see also Czechoslovakia 242 Slovak language 21 promotion by Mercosur of 4, 6, 9, 25 Slovenian language 21 Spanish-Portuguese interaction 314, 315, Solomon Islands 219, 222 316 Somalia 208, 210 study in Canada of 23 Songhai expansion 205 study in Germany of 32 South Africa, Republic of 14, 203 study in Quebec 25 foreign language implications of end of study in the United States of 23, 24 apartheid 294–295 study strength of 246 Southern Africa 14 sub-Saharan Africa 203 South American integration, see Mercosur English-language sphere 204 South Asia 5 French-language sphere 204 Hindi in 5 language diversity in 204–206 local languages in 5 language trends in 4, 6, 203–204 Southeast Asia 305–306 membership in 4 South Korea (Republic of Korea) Portuguese-language sphere 204 and study of Japanese language 199 Spanish-language sphere 204 language policy 188, 191, 194, 201, 307 Sukuma language 211

344 Index

Summer Institute of Linguistics 300 Turkic languages 14 Surinam 310 Turkish language 21, 32, 238 Swaan, Abram de xv, 325 Turkmen language 166, 175, 176 Swahili language 16, 206, 210, 213 Turkmenistan 14, 157, 266, 269, 270, see also Kiswahili language 271 Sweden 108, 308 Turks and Caicos Islands 311 Swedish language 14, 20, 21, 101, 235, 237, Tuvalu 219 240, 243 Switzerland 32, 59, 241, 308 Uganda 211 Uighur language 159, 183 Taiwan 190, 194, 197, 307 Ukraine 266, 269, 270, 271, 272–275 Tajikistan 157, 164, 266, 269, 270, 306, language policy in the 273, 275, 308 308 Unesco Tajik language 160, 161, 163, 164, 166 and languages 213 language policy 170, 176 Unicode project 17, 194, 195 Tanganyika 210 United Kingdom, see Great Britain Tanzania 210, 213 United Nations 41 technology language policy 328 and East Asian languages 6 language statistics 299 and endangered languages 55 United States 5, 69 and Francophone countries 18 and Cuban-Americans 153–154 and languages 5, 20–31, 40–43, 75–76 and Mercosur 116, 117 and technologically advanced countries 55 and minority languages 4, 55 and the Arabic language 8 and new information technologies 76 implications for developing countries of and study of Japanese 199 17–20 bilingual education 153 standardisation of 2 border with Mexico 129 territoriality English-only laws 49, 153, 154 and languages 3, 59, 136 in North America 4, 147 and protection of minority languages 62 language policy of 146, 155 and the market 60 language teaching in 24, 31, 32, 50 Thailand 219, 307 Mexican migration to 144, 148, 152 Thai language 21 study of Russian in 14, 24 theories, see linguistic theories study of Spanish in 23, 24, 155 Third World countries, see developing US Information Service 29 countries Urdu language 75 Tibet 183 see also Hindi Tigrinya language 210, 214 Uruguay 117 Togo 212 in Mercosur 121–123 Tok Pisin (pidgin) 16, 215, 222 monolingualism in Spanish 122 Tonga 219 relationship to Portuguese language 121, Toronto 77 122 Tour´e,S´ekou 212 teaching of foreign languages in 122 Translation USSR, see Soviet Union automatic 31, 41 Uzbek language 160, 161, 163, 164, 166 problems of 31 language policy 169–170, 176 and teletranslation 42–43, 44 Uzbekistan 14, 157, 170, 266, 269, 270, Transylvania 85 308 Treaty of Amsterdam 102 Trinidad and Tobago 311 Vanuatu 219, 221, 222, 223, 224 TRON project 195 Vatican City 308 Tshiluba language 212 Venezuela 310 Turkestan 164, 180 Vietnam 18, 188, 194, 219, 224 Turkey 5, 238 language policy of 294, 307 in Central Asia 6, 14, 177, 178–179 Vikings 70

Index 345

virtual space Wu language 18, 66, 67 and geographic space 17–20 and languages 5 Xiang language 18, 67

Wantok languages 216 Yaghnobi language 170–172 Whorf, Benjamin 50 Yoruba power 205 Wolof 53 Yue language 67 World English (or global English) 38–40, 44, Yugoslavia 306, 308 73 and Australasia and the South Paciﬁc 217 Zaire, see the Democratic Congo see also English language Zapatista National Liberation Army 152