Some Aspects of the Development of the Architectural Profession in Between 1800 and 1830 l

JACK QUINAN*

T he distinction between house- The earliest architectural school in Bos- wrights and gentlemen amateurs in ton has been attributed by several scholars 1 American architecture of the to at a date close to 1805.2 eighteenth century standsin sharpcontrast Unfortunately, the school has never been to the architectural profession as it de- adequately documented. Benjamin had veloped during the nineteenth century. In a submitted the following proposal for an little more than fii years “polite” ar- architectural school to the Windsor [Ver- chitecture ceased to be the occasional mont] Gazette of 5 January 1802. which preoccupationof a few educatedgentlemen seemsto have led Talbot Hamlin and Roger and emerged as a true profession, that is, Hale Newton to conclude that Benjamin one in which its practitioners could support subsequently established a school in Bos- themselves by designing buildings. The ton: change was momentous, and we may well ask how it came about. The topic is broad, To Young Carpenters. Joiners and All of course, and this paper shag be confmed Others concerned in the Art of building: to events in Boston with the hope that -The subscriberintends to opena School of Architectureat hishouse in Windsor, the similar studiesof other American cities will 20th of February next-at which will be soon follow. taughtThe Five Ordersof Architecture,the In a period of intense activity between Proportionsof Doors, Windows and Chim- 1800 and 1830 a number of architectural neypieces,the Constructionof Stairs, with schools, professional organizations, ar- their ramp and twist Rails, the method of farmitg timbers, lengthand backing of Hip chitectural libraries, and other related rafters,the tracingof groinsto AngleBrac- phenomena, materialized and provided the kets, circular soffitsin circularwalls; Plans, groundwork for the new profession in Bos- Elevationsand Sectionsof Houses,with all ton. Architectural schoolsoccupied a place their ornaments. The Art of drawing Plans and Elevations, activi- of special significance among these or any otherfgute perspectivelywill also be ties, as they made it possiblefor young men taught if required by to keep abreast of both the stylistic changes ASHER BENJAMIN and the techno!ogical developments that December 28, RUtI3 were occurring so rapidly during the early nineteenth century. In time, schools Since Benjamin moved to Boston shortly tended to supercedethe venerable appren- after submitting the proposal, it is unlikely ticeship system and gradually elevated ar- chitectural instruction to a theoretical level in someinstances. The establishmentof the * Jack Quinan is an Assistant Professorof Art first American architectural degree pro- History at the State University of New York at Buffalo. His doctotal dissertationwas on Asher gram at the Institute of Benjamin(Brown University, 1973).Mr. Quinan Technology in 1865represents the cuhnina- hascontributed previously to OLDTJME NEW tion of this scholastic activity. ENGLAND.

32 Some Aspects of the Development 33 that the school ever materialized in Just as the Associated Housewright So- Windsor, but the possibility that he sub- ciety provided a locus for the growing pro- sequently established a school in Boston fessionalism, a large part of the intellectual should remain open.4 At any rate, a form of and visual stimulation continued to come architectural instruction was available in through architectural pattern books. Dur- Boston in 1802 at a school advertised as ing the eighteenth century it had been cus- follows: tomary for housewrightsto employ one or OsgoodCarleton ’sschool is opendays and two English pattern books for the decora- evenings,in the upperchamber of Mr. Hag- tive detailing of chimneypieces, frontis- gar’s brick building, near the draw bridge, pieces, and other interior surfaces, while for teaching Navigation . . . Surveying, Gauging, Measuring, Architecture, book- their general knowledge of carpentry was keeping, etc.5 acquired during apprenticeship. By the early nineteenth century, however, the art With all due respect to Mr. Carleton, who of building had become increasingly com- would apparently teach anything in order plex and specialized, and its literature was to attract some pupils, this was an inaus- proliferating beyond the means of an ordi- picious beginning - nothing, certainly, to nary housewright. In 1810Ithiel Town, and threaten the integrity of the apprenticeship (architects), Nathaniel system. Indeed, nearly two full decades passed before other, more developed ar- Critchet, and Samuel Waldron (house- chitectural schoolsbegan to appear in Bos- wrights), and John Gill (a stucco worker) ton. There were stirrings from other quar- founded the Boston Architectural Library ters in this fust decade, however, that also as a means of making more books available contributed to the emergence of the ar- to the local housewrights. The catalogue chitectural profession. of this library, published in 1809, includes In 1804 a group of Boston housewrights some fifty-five items, most of which are gathered at the Green Dragon Tavern to eighteenth century English pattern books.9 found the Associated Housewright Society Works such as Charles Middleton’s Plans, of Boston. At the outset they sought to Elevations, and Sections of the House of regulate certain aspectsof their trade, such Correction for the County of Middlesex as wagesand costsofjobs, and to provide a (London, 1788); Rev. James Dallaway’s measure of security, through the collection Observationson EnglishArchitecture, Mil- of annual dues, for the families and appren- itary, Ecclesiastical and Civil (London, tices of members who might be incapaci- 1806);Joshua Kirby ’s The Description and tated. Despite these very practical inten- Use of a New Instrument Called an Ar- tions, the Associated Housewright Society chitectonic Sector by Which Any Part of became the nucleus of the emerging ar- Architecture May Be Drawn with Facility chitectural professionin the courseof a few and Exactness (London, 1761), as well as decades. Most Boston housewrights also two works by Sir John Soane and several belonged to the MassachusettsCharitable histories of English towns and counties, Mechanics Association, an organization reflect the growing range of material avail- founded in 1795 for the benefit of all able to Boston housewrights at this time. mechanics and manufacturers, but the fi- Two of the earliest architectural pattern nancial burden of two such memberships books published in America, Owen Bid- was too great for many housewrights, and dle’s The Young Carpenter’s Assistant this contributed to the dissolution of the (Philadelphia, 1805), and Asher Benjamins’ Society in the 1830s.’ American Builder’s Companion (Boston, 34 Old-Time 1:

1806), were included in the catalogueof the ried activities began to coalesce under the Boston Architectural Library. These had catalytic influence of a few strong per- come into being out of a growing dissatis- sonalities. Charles Bulfmch, Boston’s faction among American builders with En- gentleman amateurpar excellence, left the glish books for American usage.rOThe de- city in 1817 to become architect of the sire to changethe situation is characteristic Capitol in Washington. of this period and, in fact, reflects a major Leadership of the architectural interests in change in the attitude toward the architec- Boston then fell to , a tural profession in this decade. This ex- young man who had been trained as a tended even to the way in which would-be housewright and had served as an engineer architects identified themselves. in the . “Captain” Parris, as he The title “Architect” does not appear in was usually called, ran a thriving office on the Boston Directories before 1806. Court Street which was the focus of most of Charles Bulfmch, the designer of most of the major architectural activity in Boston the major buildings in Boston up to that during the 1820s and early 1830s.13This time, was identified as “Superintendent of was the first professional architectural of- Police.“*1 Asher Benjamin, the one other fice in the city, and a generation of Boston person in Boston who might be.identified as architects were trained there. The follow- an architect at that time, Eontinued to list ing advertisements from the Columbiun himself as “housewright” in those same Centinel of 1818 attest to the stature that Directories until the arrival of Peter Panis had gained only three years after he Banner, about 1805. The English-born and settled in the city. They also provide con- English-trained Banner proceeded to ad- siderable insight into the nature of architec- vertise himself as “Architect and Builder” tural schools and practice at that time. in the Columbiun Centinel of April 9, 1806, ARCHITECTURE and in the Boston Directory of 1809. Asher JOHN MILLIGAN, Architect and Civil Benjamin then identified himself as “Ar- Engineer, intendsto open a School for Ar- chitect and Carpenter” in the 1806 edition chitectural Drawing, next room to Captain of The American Builder’s Companion and Paniss’ Oftice, over 93 Court Streetas soon as sufficient number offer, (which will be changed his title from “Housewright” in limited to IS). Hours from 7 to 9 oclock.’ the Boston Directory of 1809 to “Ar- every evening except Sundays. Terms one chitect” in the 1810Directory in apparent dollar per week. Referenceto Mssrs. Alex- responseto Banner’s claims. A significant ander Panis and Ashur Benjamin, Ar- changeof attitude is unmistakable in this as chitects, Boston. Plans made with accuracy and despatch,of neither Banner nor Benjamin could con- every description, in the line of his profes- ceivably be identified as gentlemen sion. amateurs. Following their lead, as many as Apply at the above mentionedroom, or at twelve “Architects” appeared in the Bos- his house in Elliot Street, comer of Nassau Street.I4 ton Directories during the next three de- cades.12 They were, without exception, Milligan submitted a secondadvertisement men trained originally as housewrights,but for his academy a few months later: they, like Banner and Benjamin, wished to separate themselves from the realm of ARCHITECTURB JOHN MILLIGAN, Architect and Civil mere carpentry. Engineer,respectfully informs those intend- Toward the close of the seconddecade of ing to build, and corporations for public the nineteenth century many of these va- works, that he makes Plans, Sections, and Some Aspects of the Development 35

Elevations,for town and country housesof he‘ taught the first principles of geometry every description, from the splendidman- and perspectiveand as they progressedhe sion or elegant villa, to the simple cottage; graduallybrought them to comprehendand together with their ornamental accom- understandthe orders of architecture and panyments of porter lodges, gate-ways, their true application and appropriatepur- casines,temples, etc. as also. Plansfor Wet poses . . . He not only had his juniors as and Dry Hocks, Bridges, and Rail- pupils, but many who for a score of years ways; likewise, Designsfor Sepulchraland had beenpractical architects and mechanics other Monuments. N.B. - J.M. can ac- were solicitous of his instruction, and to commodate and attend to a few more some of these he gave private lessons.‘)” scholars,both in his eveningand day class- es, at his Architectural Academy, No. I, Solomon Willard was more vitally in- over the Boylston Market, where the strict- volved in Boston architecture during the est attentionwill be paid to their instruction formative 1820sthan is generally realized. inthe true principlesofthescience. -terms He gained a very broad knowledge of moderate.I5 American architecture through his collab- Despite John Milligan’s thorough pro- oration with Peter Banner, Asher Benja- gram and ambitious visions, there is no min, , Alexander Parris concrete evidence that the Milligan Acad- and , in Boston, and with numerous other architects in New York, emy ever actually existed. John Mihigan’s Providence, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and name appearsonly once in a Boston Direc- Washington. He passed some of his wis- tory, in 1820. He joined neither the As- dom on to others through his school, but he sociated Housewright Society nor the practiced architecture for only a decade Massachusetts Charitable Mechanics As- before retiring to Quincy, Massachusetts, sociation, and his name has never been where he occupied himself with the local associated with any Boston buildings nor granite quarries. Wheildon’s biography in- with any Boston architects. If his academy dicates that Willard was intelligent and functioned at all, it would have been brief- talented, but it also suggeststhat he was too ly. What becameofJohn Milligan remains a restlessto maintain a position of leadership in the architectural community. This was mystery, but his impressively conceived left to Alexander Parris. The recordsof the school proposal might be credited with in- Associated Housewright Society show that spiring two other architectural schools in Parr-is was a member of a committee of the 1820s. three formed in 1822to purchasea majority One of these schools was conducted by of sharesin the Architectural Library (pre- Solomon Willard, the man who collabo- sumably the same Boston Architectural rated with Alexander Pan-is on the fust Library that had been established in Greek Revival buildings in Boston. His 1809).r8The library shareswere purchased biographer, William Wheildon, records and the committee was asked to organize that Willard, as a young man, “provided the library in 1823.19 Three years later, when it was decided that a school for the himself with the most approved works on instruction of apprentices in architectural architecture and perspective drawing; pur- drawing should be established within the chased an encyclopaedia and other Associated Housewright Society, Alexan- standard books, and paid for his tuition at a der Parris was made a member of that drawing academy for at least two terms .“I6 committee as well.*OHe was fmahy elected Wheildon describedthe schoolthat Willard President of the Associated Housewright ran in the early 1820s as follows: Society in 1834 and again in 1836.*’ The Willard received pupils at his studio near decision to move the architectural library St. Pauls’ church and gave lessonsin ar- to the Parris offtce, for convenience, in chitecture and drawing. (a pupil writes - 1837 seems to indicate that his office was 36 Old-Time New England

very closely allied with the Associated nineteenth century; advances in technol- Housewright Society.22In effect, the Soci- ogy (in Boston one thinks of Willard’s new ety had become a vehicle for his success method of heating buildings and Isaiah Ro- and for the emergence of the architectural gers’ introduction of indoor toilets into the profession, even though it was never in- Tremont House); the use of new materials tended to function in these ways. House- such as tin for roofs, decorative iron, and wrights were better served by the monolithic granite as structural members broader-based Massachusetts Charitable for building facades; such new building Mechanics Association, and in their best types as hotels, railroad stations, interests that Association absorbedthe As- warehouses and factories; and the numer- sociated Housewright Society in 1837.23 ous engineering advances associated with Almost simultaneously, the Boston ar- canals, dry docks, railroads and jetties - chitects, Alexander Panis, Asher Benja- all of these endeavors contributed to the min, Isaiah Rogers and Ammi B. Young, emergence of the architectural profession. joined together with their counterparts, These were the immediate causes, how- Thomas U. Walter, Minard Lefever, Ithiel ever. Hovering over these innovations and Town, A. J. Davis, Wiiiam Strickland and developments were larger events that trace other architects from various eastern back to the Enlightenment itself. In cities, to establish the American Institution America the memories of colonial oppres- of Architects, in .z4 This sion, the Revolutionary War, and the estab- gathering suggeststhat the sequenceof ac- lishment of a democratic government were tivities and events that have been described still fresh in the minds of men. These up- in this paper had close parallels in every heavals, which were scarcely a generation major American city. They did, of course. old, established a desire and a willingness People in the building trades everywhere to effect change, an attitude that was vital were experiencing similar pressures for to the development of the architectural pro- change. The rapid turnover of revival fession. styles that characterized the fiit half of the Some Aspects of the Development 37

NOTES

’ This paper was read at the Annual Meeting of ‘I Typical entries are: “Bufinch, Charles, the Society of Architectural Historians, in Los Sunerintendent of Police; house Bulfinch St.” Angeles, in February, 1977. BostonDirectory, 1803,and “Bulfinch, Charles, 2 Roger Hale Newton, Town and Davis. Ar- Superintendentof Police, house Middlecot St.” chitects(New York: ColumbiaUniversity Press, Boston Directory, 1809. 1942)p. 26; and Talbot Hamlin, Greek Revival I2 These were Alexander Parris, Richard Bond, Architecturein America (New York: Dover Pub- SolomonWillard, Isaiah Rogers, Edward Shaw, lications, Inc., 1964),p. 102. Charles G. Hall, Ammi B. Young, Luther 3 Published in Herbert Wheaton Congdon’s Briggs, Gridley J. F. Bryant, John Milligan, Duke ofcastleton (Montpelier: Vermont Histor- William Spartill, and Charles Roath. ical Society, 1949), pp. 1l- 12. I3 Parris gained the commissionsfor the Sears 4 Asher Benjamin wrote a letter from Boston in Mansion, St. Paul’s Cathedral, the Faneuil Hall August of 1802to in Washing- Market complex, and the First Parish Church in ton. The letter, now in the Gallatin Papersof the Quincy, along with numerous lesser commis- New York Historical Society, seemsto indicate sions. The Tremont House, by Isaiah Rogers, that Benjamin had moved from Windsor, Ver- was one of the few major commissionsthat he mont, to Boston. There was wBoston Directory did not obtain during the 1820s. in 1802, but Benjamin is listed in the Boston I4 ColumbianCentinel, October 3, 1818. Directory of 1803. I5 ColumbianCentinel, January 31, 1818. 5 Columbian Centinel, October 6, 1802. I6 William Wheildon, A Memoir of Solomon 6 The Constitution of the Associated House- Willard (Boston: The Monument Association, wright Society of the Town of Boston (Boston: 1865). Printed by J. T. Buckingham, 1812). I7 Ibid., p, 44. 7 JosephT. Buckingham.Annals of the Massa- Ia Minutes of the Meetings of the Associated chusetts Charitable Mechanics Association Housewright Societv for Januarv 17, 1822. (Boston: Press of Cracker and Brewster, 1853). These are-containedin the Records of the Mas- 8 Columbian Centinel, November 15, 1809. sachusettsCharitable Mechanics Association in 9 The Catalogueof the ArchitecturalLibrary of the collections of the MassachusettsHistorical Boston published with the Constitutionof the Society. Proprietorsof the ArchitecturalLibrary of Bos- I9 Ibid., Minutes for October 16, 1823. ton (Boston: Printed by T. Kennard, 1809). *OIbid., Minutes for February 27, 1826. lo The imported English pattern books, such as 2LIbid., Minutes for October 16, 1834and 1836 William Pain’s The Practical House Carpenter, (no day or month given). 5th ed. (London: I. and J. Taylor, 17941,con- 22Ibid., Minutes for October 13, 1837. tained too much vaulting and elaborate detail, too many hugehouse plans, and were too costly 23Ibid., Minutes for October 27, 1837. for the American builder. 24 Everard M. Upjohn, Richard Upjohn, Ar- chitect and Churchman (New York: DaCapo Press, 1%8), p. 157.