Biodiversity in Bhutan: a Preliminary Synthesis

Biodiversity in Bhutan: A preliminary synthesis

Andrew N. Gillison

Center for Biodiversity Management P.O. Box 120, Yungaburra Queensland 4884, Australia

Email: [email protected]; [email protected] www.cbmglobe.org

12 September 2012

Part I

Introduction and background

1. Executive summary 1.1 Report structure This four-part report first reviews the status of biodiversity in Bhutan and its institutional linkages. As part of the input to a developing Dynamic Information Framework (DrukDIF) for Bhutan, the report then describes how rapid natural resource appraisal including land cover/land quality/land use and quantitative biodiversity assessments was undertaken in the prospective geogs and how this might be expanded to include protected and other areas. The remaining sections outline achievements in training and capacity building and the results of a biodiversity survey using state-of-the-art methodology along an extensive elevational and land use gradient throughout one of Bhutan’s major watersheds (the Wangchhu). For survey logistic and other, environmental reasons, results are presented in three ‘elevational’ sections (Part II ‘A’ 2600-4600m, Part III ‘B’ 1200- 3600m, Part IV ‘C’ 200-1200m). Tables summarizing data from all three surveys and analytical outcomes are to be provided in a separate report (Part V) to help esablish a systematic framework for further biodiversity assessment and conservation in Bhutan especially with respect to the the developing DrukDIF. Four technical reports previously completed for NSSC, DoA, MoA and supported by funding from DANIDA and the World Bank form much of the basis of the present synthesis report compiled independently by the Center for Biodiversity Management.

1.2 Bhutan as a global biodiversity ‘hot spot’. Bhutan is one of the top ten Global hotspots that include the ‘Himalayan’ hotspot. Although this report confirms high levels of biodiversity, systematic country-wide surveys are needed to fill obvious gaps.

1.3 Biodiversity, shifting cultivation, land degradation and sustainable land management (SLM) World Bank/GEF sponsored studies in other countries identify predictable linkages between biodiversity, soil fertility and land management practices. In Bhutan current land management is strongly crop-centred taking little account of broader interacting elements of the natural resource. It is assumed, for example, that shifting cultivation or tsheri is environmentally degrading. Although not rigidly enforced, Bhutanese law now precludes this practice. Preliminary results from this report and from other tropical and sub-tropical developing countries indicate that while tsheri can be potentially harmful, under appropriate management tsheri type land use can and often does improve levels of biodiversity. Thus removal of tsheri-based land use, may in certain cases contribute to an overall loss of biodiversity and species habitat. Similar concerns expressed by Bhutanese researchers, warrant a controlled study of biodiversity response to this form of land use.

1.4 Biological corridors and protected areas Bhutan has embarked on a visionary approach to establishing a connected network of habitat-based areas that will facilitate the free movement of key biota throughout the country. When finalised, such a network will enhance survival of biota under conditions of climate and land cover change. However, available reports suggest the location of corridor boundaries relies mainly on intuitive appraisal by experienced wildlife biologists. A review of selection criteria indicates that a more detailed science-based

1 approach is needed to locate boundaries based on a systematic national baseline survey that should also consider transboundary biodiversity conservation.

1.5 Transboundary biodiversity conservation initiatives Bhutan forms an integral part of the Eastern Himalayan biological complex in which range distributions of many key biota transcend national boundaries. Because effective, sustainable management of biota requires an understanding of their environmental determinants, management vision that extends beyond national boundaries would have a long term benefit. Within Bhutan, biodiversity management tends to be restricted to a national perspective despite a clear acceptance by Bhutanese practitioners of the potential benefits of transboundary management. At the time of writing, only WWF-Bhutan in concert with ICIMOD in Nepal, appears to be actively pursuing a ‘transboundary’ conservation line. A review of range distributions of key taxa, including the ‘flagship’ mammals, as well as certain sub-alpine and lowland plant assemblages, suggests a broader vision is indicated, supported by clearly defined inter-governmental policy intervention.

1.6 Institutional linkages and the Biodiversity Action Plan for Bhutan The primary institutional link is the Ministry of Agriculture that, together with a Biodiversity management Board (BMB), oversees biodiversity related research via the NCD, the NBC and the sustainable land management project (SLMP) within NSSC. Whereas initial activity in establishing a Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) and an Integrated Biodiversity Information System (BIBIS) was closely associated with NEC, this association now seems seems to have lapsed with NEC focusing increasingly on biosafety issues. Some rationalization of overlapping mandates in biodiversity conservation between NBC and NCD is indicated. Apart from NCD forest inventory, ongoing field botanical collections by NBC and ex-situ gene-banking, only two NGOs (RSPN and WWF-Bhutan) are actively concerned with biodiversity assessment and management beyond forest boundaries.

1.7 Need for systematic baseline information framework Sustainable management of both agro-biodiversity and naturally occurring taxa demands an understanding of the response of biota to varying environmental conditions. The most effective models of plant and animal response (including agricultural productivity) will be those with access to data and information acquired from the widest ranging environments. Unlike any other Asian country, Bhutan has access to vegetational gradients that span an extraordinary altitudinal range (150-5,500m) as well as an extensive hierarchy of drainage, geomorphological and land use systems that provide an unusually robust framework for acquiring key baseline data and information. With the exception of remotely sensed data, and current herbarium records, access to published biodiversity related data is extremely limited. There is a clear need for the systematized acquisition of new baseline data for biodiversity and related land management that can be readily accessed across sectors.

1.8 Methodology and training A standard (VegClass) recording protocol for rapid natural resource appraisal coupled with biophysical gradient-based sampling procedures was used to carry out a biodiversity

2 baseline survey along an elevational gradient (200-4600m) in one of Bhutan’s major watersheds - the Wangchhu. The well-established methodology has been applied successfully in both developed and developing countries and provides a unique set of biophysical data relevant to policy decision-making. The same methodology formed the basis for an intensive training course for 15 trainees from a range of Bhutanese institutions. The course was complemented by in-field training during the biodiversity survey of the Wangchhu watershed.

1.9 Biodiversity findings and related input to the DrukDIF In addition to vegetational atributes, the VegClass recording protocol includes physical environmental elements that are relevant to adaptive management supported by routine soil sampling and analyses at each baseline site. Integrated multidisciplinary surveys in other countries indicate potentially useful linkages between these kinds of data and hydrological models (VIC, DHSVM). While plant species alone provide limited possibilites for coupling with such models, vegetation structure and plant functional types (PFTs) offer useful prospects via their ecophysiological linkages with water use and physical interaction with the movement of water through a landscape. The field surveys were able to identify certain vegetation structural and soil-based elements that have the potential to complement both hydrological and crop modelling parameters. Through multiple, connected geospatial layers, the baseline data acquired from on ground surveys have provided a new and potentially useful platform in DrukDIF that will facilitate dissemination and exchange of science-based data as well as an improved information base for adaptive land management. Preliminary geospatial modelling based on the survey data highlight areas of actual and potential distribution of key species.

1.10 Conclusions While diversity is likely to remain high across Bhutan, improved management procedures combined with systematic country-wide baseline surveys will lead to a greatly improved understanding of key ecosystem drivers and contribute significantly to both national and international awareness of this rich resource. Conservation management will benefit from a more outward looking policy-driven, transboundary approach. Additional capacity building through training and direct involvement with the design and implementation of much needed baseline surveys will generate self- sufficiency. The outcomes from the field surveys have already established a significant biophysical database that, via DrukDIF, will facilitate the construction of a national database. The data and information acquired in this way may be compared directly with data collected using the same standardized protocol in other countries, thus ensuring synergy beyond its national boundaries. The methodology will provide an interface with interactive crop and hydrological models as well as providing important cross- sectoral linkages via the DrukDIF.

3 Contents Page 1. Executive summary 1 2. Introduction and background 8 3. Existing biodiversity and related land use information 9 4. Biological corridors and protected areas 16 5. Biodiversity, shifting cultivation, land degradation and SLM 22 6. Transboundary biodiversity conservation initiatives 24 7. Institutional linkages and the Biodiversity Action Plan for Bhutan 26 8. The need for a systematic baseline information framework 34 9. Training and capacity building 36 10. The physical base of the survey gradsect: geology, geomorphology and soil development along the Wangchhu 41 11. Biodiversity related land use input to the Dynamic Information Framework (DrukDIF) for Bhutan 49 12. The Wangchhu biodiversity baseline assessment methodology 50 13. Towards an integrated survey method for assessing and mapping actual and potential biodiversity patterns in Bhutan 58 14. Acknowledgements 60 15. References 61

Tables

Table 1. Vegetation types of Bhutan and related elevation and rainfall 11 Table 2. Biodiversity baseline survey Sections unertaken for six major Agro-ecological zones 12 Table 3. Key Palearctic (PA) and Indomalayan (IM) ecoregions of Bhutan 14 Table 4. Biodiversity and Protected Areas Bhutan 20 Table 5. Summary of the protected areas of Bhutan and their biodiversity 21 Table 6. Biological corridors of Bhutan and their key attributes 22 Table 7. Institutional links with biodiversity conservation in Bhutan 31

Figures

Fig. 1 Bhutan outline. http://wikitravel.org/upload/en/e/e8/Bt-map.png 10 Fig. 2 Map of global ecological zones as prepared by FRA2000 showing three zones for Bhutan (Tropical rainforest, Tropical Mountain and Subtropical Mountain). 13 Fig. 3 Extract of global ecoregions showing distribution within Bhutan. Overlaps suggest a total of at least eight ecoregions occur within the country (Table 3) 13 Fig. 4 Portion of Land Area Protected by IUCN Category, Bhutan 2003 18 Fig. 5 Land use in the protected areas 19 Fig. 6 Map of protected areas and biological corridors in Bhutan 23

4 Fig. 7 Transboundary area of Kanchenjunga alpine zone (WWF-CEPF) 25 Fig. 8 Protected areas and proposed corridors in the Kangchenjunga landscape 27 Fig. 9 Course participants with instructor (AG) 38 Fig. 10 Initial field training at Zhemgang 38 Fig. 11 Demonstratin of DoF NCD method of biodiversity assessment 39 Fig. 12 Choki Wangmo demonstrates a procedure for collection and preservation of plant specimens 39 Fig. 13 Test areas at RDTC. (1) Plantation of Bucklandia populnea on 80% slope. ( 2) Managed secondary forest of Castanopsis tribuloides. (3) Degraded pasture following forest removal. (4) Permanent agricultual cropping system (Chili) 40 Fig. 14 Geological map of Bhutan 42 Fig. 15a Frontal moraine stages of Jhomolhari glacier at 4150m (red), 4300m purple and 4400m (green). The pro-glacial lake is indicated in light blue with the present glacier front marked with a dotted blue line. 45 Fig. 15b Close up view of geo-located transect monitoring site (WC04) of frontal moraine recorded using VegClass 45 Fig. 16 Jichu Drakey glacier front with its pro-glacial lake and two streams draining the lake. 46 Fig. 17 The frontal moraine of Jichu Drakey glacier with dead-ice bodies exposed bordering the pro-glacial lake (indicated with red arrows) 46 Fig. 18 Section of map from Grujic et al. (2002) 47 Fig. 19 The lowest section of Wangchhu in Bongo geog and the apex of its alluvial fan complex on the Indian border. 49 Fig. 20 Outline of the Wangchhu watershed target area 52 Fig. 21 Distribution of 62 transect locations along the Wangchhu watershed relative to topographical relief 54 Fig. 22 Location of the 62 transects. Area under dotted line includes subset from Section B (13 transects) combined with Section C (18 transects) used in a preliminary numerical analysis in this report 55 Fig. 23 Example from a section of a VegClass recording page summarizing taxa, PFTs and 4+4 genus-species code for database referencing 56 Fig. 24. Mapping potential habitats for a relatively restricted species the Bhutanese Blue Poppy based on records from rapid field survey on the Wangchhu watershed 59 Fig. 25. Mapping potential habitats for a relatively wide-ranging tree species the Larch based on records from rapid field survey on the Wangchhu watershed 60 Annexes I. The Land Cover Classification System For Bhutan (MoA 2009) 65 II. The Land Cover Classification System For Bhutan (MoA 1993-94) 67 III. List of data variables recorded for each 40x5m VegClass transect 71

Acronyms

ALOS Advanced Land Observation Satellite B2C2 Bhutan Biodiversity Conservation Complex BAP Biodiversity Action Plan BHUSOD National Soil Databank of Bhutan BIBIS Bhutan Biodiversity Integrated Information System BMB Biodiversity Management Board CEPF Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund CGN Centre for Genetic Resources, the Netherlands CI Conservation International CNR College of Natural Resources, Royal University of Bhutan, Lobesa DANIDA Danish International Development Assistance DHSVM Distributed Hydrology Soil Vegetation Model DrukDIF Bhutan Dynamic Information Framework EBA Endemic Bird Area (BirdLife International) EC European Commission (European Union) FAO Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome FNCA Forestry and Nature Conservation Act of 1995 FRA2000 Forest Resource Assessment 2000 (FAO) GEF Global Environment Facility GIS Geographic Information System GNHC Gross National Happiness Commission ICDP Integrated Conservation Development Programme ICDU Integrated Conservation and Development Unit ICIMOD International Center for Integrated Mountain Development ITMS National Institute of Traditional Medicine Services IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature, Gland, Switzerland KL Kangchenjunga Landscape MoA Ministry of Agriculture MPFD Master Plan for Forestry Development 1991 NAP National Action Plan on Land Degradation NAPA National Adaptation Plan of Action NBC National Biodiversity Centre NCD Nature Conservation Division (Dept. Forests, MoA) NEC National Environment Commission NGO Non-Government Organization NLCS National Land Commission Secretariat NSSC National Soil Service Center PAD Project Appraisal Document (World Bank) PAMU Protected Area Management Unit PES Payment for Environmental Services PFE Plant Functional Element PFT Plant Functional Type PPD Policy Planning Division

6 RGoB Royal Government of Bhutan RNR Renewable Natural Resources (MoA oversight) (cont.) RSPN Royal Society for Protection of Nature SACEP South Asia Cooperative Environment Programme SLM Sustainable Land Management SLMP Sustainable Land Management Project SNV Netherlands Development Organization SPOT SPOT satellite imagery (Spot Image Corporation SICORP) TOR Terms of Reference UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNEP United nations Environment Programme URL Unique Record Locator USGS United States Geological Survey (US Department of the Interior) USGS-NPS United States Geological Survey, National Parks Service UW University of Washington, Seattle, USA VIC Variable Infiltration Capacity Model WB The World Bank WUR Wageningen University Research Centre, the Netherlands WWF Worldwide Fund for Nature

Bhutanese Terms Term Meaning Chathrim Act, rules and regulations, codes of conduct Chhu River or rivulet Chimi Representative at the National Assembly Dasho Administrative Head of a district or Dzongkhag Dzongdag Head of a district Dzongkhag District Dzongkhag Yargye Tshogchung District Development Committee Dungkhag Sub-district Dungpa Head of a sub-district Geog (chiog) Block, which is usually made up of few to several villages Geog Yargye Tshogchung Block Development Committee Gup Head of a block Mangmi Elected representative of a geog Tseri Slash and burn cultivation Tshogpa Representative of a village, or a cluster of villages

7 2. Introduction and background

2.1 General terms of the project The Sustainable Land Management Project (SLMP) is proactively addressing the issue of land and natural resource management to minimize and reverse land degradation. A key goal includes the strengthening of institutional and community capacity to anticipate and manage land degradation in Bhutan via 4 major program components:  Pilot projects to demonstrate effective application of land degradation prevention approaches in three geogs;  Mainstreaming and replication of practices for protection against land degradation;  Policy support and guidance for mainstreaming land degradation prevention practices; and  National level support for coordination of implementation of land degradation prevention practices. During the first two years of operation, the SLMP has acquired remote sensing data (SPOT and ALOS) on land cover/land use of varying quality. Questions remain, however, about the quality of existing baselines of land cover/land use derived from previous assessments at a national level. Although hydrology and climate (meteorology) data are essential for the SLMP, the existing data, both at National and SLMP sites, are not adequately and securely aggregated with acceptable data and metadata protocols and are hence not easily accessible to the SLMP project practitioners and stakeholders. Data on vegetative (and fauna) biodiversity, which need to be coupled with land cover assessments for predictive scenarios in the context of SLMP goals, are partially available but not easily accessible. In order to optimize the outputs and outcomes of the SLMP, it is important to:

 Establish reliable and robust baselines for the biodiversity, land cover, land use, and hydrology components relevant to SLMP goals and objectives, and  Assemble the relevant component datasets in a Dynamic Information Framework (DrukDIF) to: - Provide a secure repository of this valuable, georeferenced data for Bhutan - Facilitate updating and augmenting of the datasets as appropriate, and - Support the development and operation of distributed, landscape/hydrological models that are sensitive to climate and land cover and land use changes from field to watershed to water basin scales. The aim is to have a robust and dynamic information framework (DrukDIF) with time series data sets in state of the art models that can be utilized by staff in National Agencies to analyze the resource base and develop predictive scenarios and appropriate interventions, with climatic and ecosystem changes in mind. Support is therefore needed to assist the SLMP stakeholders to develop the baselines, and GIS-based monitoring system coupled to simulation models for the future use.

2.2 Goal and objectives

To develop a Dynamic Information Framework (DrukDIF) that would serve the following purposes:

8  Provide quantitative and geospatial baselines for land cover (vegetation structure, plant-based biodiversity and functional types), land use, land quality (soils, topography), and hydrology (stream flow network, flows) for the project geogs (districts).  Link the above DrukDIF data layers via a functional distributed hydrology model to predict the impacts of climate, land cover, and land use changes on biodiversity, land, and water.  Build local capacity to develop, calibrate, and use DrukDIF to achieve project goals and to then adapt and scale it up to national scale.

2.3 Hosting agency

At the time of writing, the National Land Commission Secretariat (NLCS) has accepted to host the DrukDIF as conveyed to the GNHC Secretary vide its letter no. NLCS/GISCORD/14/2010-11/175 dated 18th August 2010.

3. Existing biodiversity and related land use information

3.1 Rationale ”In Bhutan the Buddhist religion plays a central role in peoples’ lives and culture, and nature – which in this sense is essentially biodiversity – is so central to Buddhism. The basic principles are to give back to nature what has been taken away and to respect all forms of life.” MoA (2002)

3.2 Physiography and land cover

Bhutan is a small landlocked country in the Eastern Himalayas (Fig.1 ) with an area of 38,394 km2 and a population of 672,425 averaging just over 19 people per km2. Bhutan’s usable land resource is limited owing to difficult and high mountain terrain, vast areas of snow and barren rocks, and large forests - which currently cover some 72.5 percent of the country. This forest area, which includes other vegetation types, is mandated to remain above 60 percent of the national territory in perpetuity. Arable land makes up 7.8 % of Bhutan’s territory, most of it located in the central valleys and southern foothills where agriculture must compete increasingly with other Fig. 2 Bhutan outline. http://wikitravel.org/upload/en/e/e8/Bt-map.png development activities of a 9 population which is growing at 2.5 percent per year. (World Bank 2005). On average, each household has about 3.48 acres of arable land but more than 60% of the total households have less than 3 acres. Therefore the majority of the farmers are subsistence farmers with small land holdings, cultivating mainly for their own consumption. Most of these arable lands are located on steep slopes (up to 70%) and are cultivated without any soil conservation measures in place. As a result, these arable lands are at risk from various types of land degradation, threatening the livelihoods of almost 69% of the total population who depend on agriculture (NSSC, 20081).

The country rises sharply from the Indo-Gangetic plains in the south, east and west at an altitude of about 150m to more than 7,500m in the Himalayas that form a natural northern border with China (Fig. 1). Physiographically the kingdom forms a key component of the extraordinarily biodiverse Eastern Himalayas that includes an eastern section of the Hindu Kush range and the subalpine landscapes of Mt Kangchenjunga. Possibly due to the highly variable topography and geomorphology opinions differ as to classifications of both physiography and land cover as well as vegetation (Grierson and Long (1983, 1994; MoA, 2002; NCD 2004 ) Table 1. This rather simplistic classification has been superseded by a more comprehensive format (MoA 1993-4, 2009) outlined in Annexes I, II in which extended units illustrate the complex nature of vegetation within the country. Nonetheless a tradeoff is required between classification for biodiversity asessment purposes and for general land cover mapping. For land management purposes a classification of agro-ecological sections developed by NCD (2004), (Table 2) also reflects an increasing trend towards more sensitive approach to classifying land cover and general physiography than previous efforts (cf. Grierson and Long 1994). While classification criteria are limited to basic physical environmental elements (elevation, rainfall), they provide a logical framework of key environmental gradients that can be used to assist design and implementation of country-wide baseline surveys. In addition they are consistent with the gradient- based nature of finer scale environmental attributes used in crop modelling (light water, nutrients) that are relevant to the developing DrukDIF.

Various ecologically based classifications have been applied to Bhutan as part of an overall global classification. The FRA2000 (FAO 1999) applied a generic set of global environmental criteria to map the world’s forests and related vegetation and as applied to Bhutan by FAO2 reveals a maximum of three zones for Bhutan (Fig. 2). Arguably useful for global geographic purposes this zonation has little utility in practice. A more detailed, mainly geomorphological, provisional classification of physiographic sections with broad vegetation descriptions has been compiled by Norbu et al. (2003a) in Bhutan

Table 1. Vegetation types of Bhutan and related elevation and rainfall*

Vegetation type Elevation (m.a.s.l.) Annual rainfall (mm) Sub-tropical Forest 200 – 1,000 (- 1,200) 2,500 – 5,000 Warm Broadleaf Forest 1,000 – 2,000 (- 2,300) 2,300 – 4,000 Chir Pine Forest 900 – 1,800 (- 2,000) 1,000 – 1,300 Cool Broadleaf Forest 2,000 – 2,900 2,500 – 5,000

1 http://www.moa.gov.bt/nssc/main/highlight_detail.php?id=27 2 http://www.fao.org/forestry/19971/en/btn/

10 Vegetation type Elevation (m.a.s.l.) Annual rainfall (mm) Evergreen/ Oak Forest 1,800 – 2,000 (- 2,600) 2,000 – 3,000 Blue Pine Forest 2,100 – 3,000 (- 3,100) 700 – 1,200 Spruce Forest (2,500 -) 2,700 – 3,100 (- 3,200) 500 – 1,000 Hemlock Forest 2,800 – 3,100 (- 3,300) 1,300 – 2,000 Fir Forest 2,800 – 3,300 (- 3,800) 1,300 or more Juniper/ Rhododendron Scrub 3,700 – 4,200 <650? Dry Alpine Scrub 4,000 – 4,600 <650? * Source: Flora of Bhutan Vols I,II,III; Grierson and Long (1994); NCD (2004)

Table 2. Biodiversity baseline survey Sections unertaken for six major Agro- ecological zones*

Survey Agro- Mean Temperature deg C. Mean Section ecological elevation (m) Annual zone above sea level Monthly Monthly Mean Rainfall Max. mean annual (mm) A Alpine 3600-4600 12.0 -0.9 5.5 <650 (Al) B Cool 2600-3600 22.3 0.1 59.9 650-850 Temperate (CT) Warm 1800-2600 26.3 0.1 12.5 650-850 Temperate (WT) Dry 1200-1800 28.7.3 3.0 17.2 850-1200 Sub-tropical (DST) C Humid 600-1200 33.0 4.6 19.5 1200-2500 Sub-tropical (HST) Wet 150-600 34.6 11.6 23.65 2500-5500 Sub-tropical (WST)  Sources: RNR Research Strategy and Plan Document (May 1992); MoA 2002

Figure 2. Map of global ecological zones as prepared by FRA2000 showing three zones for Bhutan (Tropical rainforest, Tropical Mountain and Subtropical Mountain).

A far more useful ecoregional classification is that of Olson et al. (2001) Olson and Dinerstein (2002) who, together with other practitioners worldwide devised a more detailed approximation of ecoregional pattern that accounted for known distribution patterns of plant and animal diversity as well as related land use. Within the current WWF classification of 825 global ecoregional units, eight can be applied to Bhutan (Fig 3, Table 3).

Figure 3. Extract of global ecoregions showing distribution within Bhutan. Overlaps suggest a total of at least eight ecoregions occur within the country (Table 3) 12

Table 3. Key Palearctic (PA) and Indomalayan (IM) ecoregions of Bhutan*

Major habitat Ecoregion Code Key features type Palearctic Northeastern PA0514 Subalpine coniferous forests of pine, Temperate Himalayan hemlock, spruce and fir. Many rare coniferous subalpine mammals (red pandas, takins, musk deer ) forests conifer forests and restricted-range birds, find refuge in these dense forests

Palearctic Eastern PA1003 The plant richness is estimated at more montane Himalayan than 7,000 species, or about 3 times the grasslands and alpine shrub richness for other alpine meadows in the shrublands and meadows Himalayas.

Tropical and Himalayan IM0115 Forest types include a wide range of subtropical subtropical evergreen and deciduous forests from dry moist broadleaf broadleaf to moist tropical semi-evergreen forests, forests forests and northern tropical wet evergreen forests

Tropical and Himalayan IM0301 The largest in the Indo-Pacific region subtropical subtropical pine occupying most of the 3,000-km length of coniferous forests this mountain range. Not species rich, but a forests distinct facet of the region's biodiversity

Temperate Eastern IM0401 Globally outstanding for both species broadleaf and Himalayan richness and levels of endemism. mixed forests broadleaf Crossroads of the Indo-Malayan, Indo- forests Chinese, Sino-Himalayan, and East Asiatic floras. A biodiversity hotspot for rhododendrons and oaks

Temperate Eastern IM0501 Represents the transition from the forested coniferous Himalayan ecoregions of the Himalayas to treeless forests subalpine alpine meadows and boulder-strewn alpine conifer forests screes.

Tropical and Terai-Duar and IM0701 This ecoregion contains the highest subtropical grasslands densities of tigers, rhinos, and ungulates in grasslands Asia. As well as the world's tallest (rare) savannas and grasslands. Indicators of mesic or wet shrublands conditions and nutrient-rich soils. Most now converted to agricultural use.

Tropical and Brahmaputra IM0105 Included in southern lowlands of Bhutan. subtropical Valley semi- Despite the long history of habitat loss the 13 moist broadleaf evergreen ecoregion still harbors an impressive forests forests biological diversity in the small fragments of habitat that lie scattered throughout e.g. viable populations of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) and the world's largest population of the greater one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis). * Modified extracts from Olson and Dinerstein. (2002). See also: http://www.worldwildlife.org/science/ecoregions/item1847.html

3.3 Biodiversity status Bhutan ranks in the top ten percent of the world’s countries with the greatest species diversity (species richness per unit area) and ranks in the top ten global ‘hotspots’ (Myers et al. 2000; Rastogi and Chettri 2001). It has the highest percentage of land under protected areas and the greatest proportion of forest cover compared to any Asian country. There is a broadening consensus among many ecologists that Bhutan represents the last best chance for the conservation of biodiversity in the Eastern Himalayas, a region of critical importance to global biodiversity. Bhutan has another distinction among developing countries in that it has allocated 26.3 percent of its geographical area to national parks and wildlife sanctuaries, even while it is using loans to augment its financial resources for development. The extremely rich flora of Bhutan consists of several elements: Southeast Asian-Malesian elements are common in the tropical and sub tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen forests. Most of the temperate and sub-alpine flora consists of Himalayan-Chinese elements, including plants of the West Himalayas, East Himalayas and pan-Himalayan species. A small portion of flora in drier parts of Duars and the tropical zoneis Deccan in distribution. The northwest portion of Bhutan consists of typical Tibetan species while some plant species in the alpine zone have Euro-Siberian and Arctic-alpine affinity (cf. Grierson and Long 1983; FAO 1999).

In Bhutan high regional biodiversity is due in part to the evolutionary history of the Himalayas that formed as a result of the upward movement of the Deccan Plateau into the Eurasian continent during the early Tertiary period. This has left a rich legacy of floristic and faunal elements from both Indian and Malesian sources (Rodgers and Panwar, 1988). The eastern Himalayas contain elements of the Indo-Malayan, Indo-Chinese, Sino- Malayan and East Asiatic floras as well as several Gondwanan relicts (Rawat and Wikramanayake, 2001). Apart from the overlapping ecoregions of Olson et al. (2001), this complexity is mirrored in a variety of biogeographic classifications that tend to overlap in Bhutan, notably the Himalayan highlands and Burma monsoon forest Provinces of Udvardy (1975), the biounits of MacKinnon (1997) and BirdLife International’s EBA, Eastern Himalayas (Statersfield et al., 1998).

While estimates vary according to source, general consensus is that at species level in Bhutan there are more than 5,500 species of vascular plants, more than 770 species of avifauna of palearctic and oriental origin and more than 165 species of mammals, with many species being endemic to Bhutan (NCD 2004; Nyedrup 2008). (FRA2000 lists 7000 plant species and 200 mammals). Information on biodiversity of birds and plants is based on an extensive plant inventory conducted in the 1970’s (Grierson and Long, 1983). However, there are no available baseline data that can be used to determine status and 14 trend. According to Reid (1996) the number of described plant and vertebrates may be as little as three percent of the actual number - although this seems unlikely. Bhutan has more than 300 species in the alpine zone that are used in Chinese and Tibetan traditional medicine are used for medicinal purposes in forming nearly 200 different traditional medicines. The National Institute of Traditional Medicine Services (ITMS) has developed standardized preparations of many of these medicines, making them available through traditional medicine clinics across the country. Various herbal products are also marketed and exported (MoA 2002). More than 168 horticulture species from Bhutan have been introduced into Europe (MPFD,1991). The following account draws largely from a comprehensive review of Bhutan’s Biological Conservation Complex (B2C2) by NCD (2004). Among the fauna are several globally threatened species such as the Bengal tiger Panthera tigris tigris, snow leopard Uncia uncia, clouded leopard Neofelis nebulosa, red panda Ailurus fulgens, Bhutan takin Budorcas taxicolor whitei, golden langur Trachypithecus geei, capped langur Trachypithecus pileatus, Asian elephant Elephas maximus, Himalayan musk deer Moschus chrysogaster leucogaster, Himalayan serow Capricornis sumatraensis thar, black- necked crane Grus nigrocollis, rufous-necked hornbill Aceros nipalensis, and white-bellied heron Ardea insignis. Stable political leadership, nature-reverent religious ethics, rugged terrain, low population pressure, cautious modernization and environmentally sound development policies have delivered the country into the 21st century with much of its biodiversity and natural environment intact. Nonetheless more recent demographic changess, developments in road and hydropower infrastructure preface an urgent need for a more thorough baseline study of the country’s biodiversity.

Land use surveys completed by MoA in 1995 revealed 72.5 % of the country was under forest cover. The Manas-Bhutan-Namdapha Complex, the area stretching from the Manas Tiger Reserve in Assam (India) through the subtropical and temperate forests of Bhutan to Namdapha Tiger Reserve in Arunachal Pradesh (India), is a Level I Tiger Conservation Unit and has been rated as a priority tiger conservation landscape. Based on a series of tiger status surveys conducted from 1996 to 1998, the NCD has conservatively put the country’s tiger population in contiguous distribution between 115 and 150. Amazingly, tigers have been detected recently above 4,000 m.a.s.l. – a fact with profound implications for conservation as tigers have long disappeared elsewhere in the inner Himalayas. A recent biodiversity survey conducted by WWF in the Royal Manas National Park revealed that out of 17 mammal species listed as totally protected in the Forest and Nature Conservation Act 1995 (FNCA), 10 have been confirmed present. Despite continuous threats to species and their habitats, RMNP still has intact population of mammals and habitats (WWF- Bhutan 2009).

Bhutan’s avifauna diversity is of high global significance. It is a part of the Sino- Himalayan mountain forests, Indo-Burmese forests, Indo-Gangetic grasslands, South Asian arid habitats and Tibetan plateau wetlands – all categorized as globally important bird regions (Bird Life International 2004). Bhutan is important for summer and winter migrant birds from the south and north, respectively (e.g., Bhutan is a major wintering area for the black-necked crane Grus nigricollis). Avian biodiversity is highest in the tropical and subtropical zones where about 700 species of bird are found below 2,000 m, about 500 species between 2,000 and 4,000 m and only 94 above 4,000 m. Ten restricted range species have so far been recorded. These are Blyth’s tragopan Tragopan blythii, chestnut- breasted partridge Arborophila mandellii, dark-rumped swift Apus acuticauda, ward’s 15 trogon Harpactes wardi, rufous-throated wren babbler Spelaeornis caudatus, hoary- throated barwing Actinodura nipalensis, brown-throated fulvetta Alcippe ludlowi, white- naped yuhina Yuhina bakeri, yellow-vented warbler Phylloscopus cantator, and broad- billed warbler Tickellia hodgsoni. In addition, a total of 14 species recorded in the country have been identified as globally threatened. These are white-bellied heron Ardea insignis, Pallas’s fish eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus, chestnut-breasted partridge Arborophila mandellii, Blyth’s tragopan Tragopan blythii, wood snipe Gallinago nemoricola, dark- rumped swift Apus acuticauda, rufous-necked hornbill Aceros nipalensis, grey-crowned prinia Prinia cinereocapilla, beautiful nuthatch Sitta formosa, black-necked crane Grus nigricollis, greater spotted eagle Aquila clanga, Baer’s pochard Aythya baeri, imperial eagle Aquila heliaca, and Hodgson’s bushcat Saxicola insignis.

Herpetofauna have been poorly studied although the country is considered rich in reptiles and amphibians, particularly in the tropical and sub-tropical areas (MacKinnon 1991). MacKinnon et. al. (1997) provide a preliminary list of 15 reptiles and three amphibians in Royal Manas National Park. In 1999, 23 species of reptiles and amphibians were recorded in the same park during herpetological survey training. The recorded list includes threatened species such as the gharial Gavialis gangeticus, Indian python Python molurus molurus and the yellow monitor lizard Varanus flavescens. Systematic documentation of invertebrates is virtually absent. Bhutan’s diverse agro-ecosystems have provided sanctuary for at least four different species of honeybees, namely, Apis cerena, Apis dorsata, Apis laboriosa and Apis florea. These wild bees are the most efficient pollinators of agricultural and horticultural crops. Without their pollination services, both yield and quality of the mountain crops may be compromised. There is a belief that these bees are also important ecological indicator and can be used as tools to monitor the health of the ecosystem (MoA 2002). A high level of richness in butterfly species (van der Poel and Wangchuk 2007) may indicate generally high invertebrate richness by association. Perhaps the best overall tabular summary of Bhutan’s biodiversity, its protected area network and threatened species has been compiled by the World Resources Institure, made available through EarthTrends (Table 4).

4. Biological corridors and protected areas

A dramatic reduction in biodiversity habitat worldwide has focused attention on ways of optimizing conservation methodology. While reserve selection procedures and algorithms are now well developed, by far the greatest impediment is the lack of suitable habitat networks and baseline data. This is frequently aggravated by widely separated and disjunct remnant habitat patches where movement of biota is heavily constrained, often resulting in the irrevocable breakdown of sustainable populations of plant and animal species. Against this backdrop the RGoB has taken a visionary approach to ensure that a suitable network of environmental (‘biological’) corridors will facilitate the free movement of biota for the forseeable future. Such a move is expecially critical given likely climate change scenarios. The Forest and Nature Conservation Act of 1995 and other relevant legislation provide legal support to these protected areas. The objective of these areas is in-situ conservation of flora and fauna, including the wild relatives of domesticated species. Nine protected areas representing alpine to dry deciduous ecosystems are well dispersed in 15 of the 20

16 dzongkhags (districts) of Bhutan over about 1.12 million ha of forest land. The individual areas of the nine protected areas vary from about 26,000 ha to 435,000 ha (Tables 5,6).

The protected area management provides for zoning (core, administrative, buffer and multiple use) of the parks to respect the rights and needs of local communities for timber and fuelwood. The conservation areas have special regulations to ensure protection of local species important from the point of view of conservation. As indicated in Fig. 4, compared with Asia (excluding the Middle East), Bhutan compares more than favourably with its protection status. This is facilitated in large part by the nature of the rugged and largely forested terrain and the well entrenched RGoB policies that stem from a profound and enduring ethical commitment to protect wildlife and its supporting environment.

While the core of Bhutan's conservation strategy is a system of national parks and protected areas that form 26 per cent of its land (cf. NEC 1994), an additional nine per cent is designated as 'biological corridors' or 'wildlife highways' that link protected areas to allow free movement of animals. The combination of the protected areas and biological corridors form a Bhutan Biological Conservation Complex (B2C2) or a landscape conservation unit, encompassing all types of ecosystems that are existent in Bhutan (Sherpa et al. 2004). Studies show that the biological corridors are being used by different wildlife, particularly by large mammals such as Tigers, Leopard and Takin to move freely within their natural range (Wangchuk 2007). Bhutan’s B2C2 complex is well described in the excellent brochure “Bhutan Biological Conservation Complex: Living in harmony with nature’ (NCD 2004). In addition Wangchuk (2007) provides a detailed outline of both protected areas (Table 5) and related biodiversity (‘biological’) corridors (Table 6, Fig.6). Figure 5 presents the picture of the combined land use in the network of the nine protected areas listed in Table 5. Although all protected areas are rich in biodiversity and have more than 70 percent forest cover, the presence of farming and shifting cultivation in each of them raises some concerns about their sustainability (FAO 1999).

According to Wangchuk (2007) there is a traditional dependence on a number of these protected areas. However, an increasing movement of people away from these areas to towns and cities has reduced the manpower available for normal subsistence. To compensate for such circumstances the RGoB has developed participatory Integrated Conservation Development Programmes (ICDPs) where direct material assistance is

17 provided such as cash compensation program for livestock depredation which has reduced human-wildlife conflicts.

This resulted in virtually no retaliatory killings of wild animals particularly tigers and snow leopards by local communities. Likewise, the park management has introduced distribution of corrugated galvanized sheets to the protected area residents that reduced tree harvesting. According to MoA (2002) this program has covered more than seven hundred households and saved thousands of trees. The park management under ICDP distributed improved stoves to the residents that reduced firewood consumption by about 30 per cent. The implementation of ICDP has effectively reduced the threats to the protected areas and biological corridors.

There is little doubt that the B2C2 programme is a success in the making. However, the absence of systematically acquired biodiversity baseline data introduces questions about the science underlying the selection of protected areas and associated corridor networks. A review of all available literature and discussions with NCD and NBC personnel, suggests reserve locations are determined primarily through a combination of limited scientific survey and intuition based on personal experience. Under such circumstances it would appear there is much to be gained by a formalized systematic approach to acquiring baseline data. As Padma (2007) points out, despite the obvious advances in establishing B2C2 “..much of Bhutan's biological wealth remains unexplored by scientists. There is no baseline data to help scientists document and monitor changes in vegetation, wildlife and forests”.

* Source: EarthTrends (2003) http://earthtrends.wri.org

Table 4. Biodiversity sity and Protected Areas Bhutan *

* Source: Earthscan (2003) http://earthtrends.wri.org

Table 5. Summary of the protected areas of Bhutan and their biodiversity†

Plant Mammal Bird General Protected Number of Area species species species ecosystem Area Households (km2) number number number representation Royal Manas 4500 65 424 650 1,000 Subtropical National Park

Jigme Singye 5000 50 391 950 1,400 Temperate and Wangchuck upland National Park broadleaf

Jigme Dorji 1434 28 317 1,000 4,200 Temperate, National Park sub-alpine amd alpine Thrumshingla 622 69 350 1626 768 Temperate and National Park sub-alpine

Bomdeling 440 26 294 136 1,300 Temperate Wildlife Sanctuary

Sakteng 203 18 389 616 650 Temperate and Wildlife sub-alpine Sanctuary

Phibsoo NA NA 496* NA 278 Subtropical Wildlife Sanctuary

Khaling NA NA 458* NA 273 Subtropical Wildlife Sanctuary

Toorsa Strict NA NA 404* NA 644 Temperate, Nature sub-alpine and Reserve alpine † Wangchuk (2007); * Predicted value; NA = data not available

Table 6. Biological corridors of Bhutan and their key attributes

Biological Important Length (km) Area (km2 ) Zones corridor wildlife Toorsa to Jigme 30 147 Conifer and Takin, blue Dorji alpine sheep, musk deer, red panda, snow leopard Jigme Dorji to 56 275 Conifer and Musk deer, red Black broadleaf panda maountain Black 55 601 Conifer and Takin, blue Mountains to broadleaf sheep, musk Jigme Dorji deer, red panda North Corridor 76 663 Conifer and Takin, musk alpine deer. Red panda, snow leopard, tiger Thrumsing La to 16 142 Conifer and Red panda, tiger North Corridor broadleaf Kulong Chhu to 54 119 Conifer and Musk deer, tiger North Corridor broadleaf Thrumsing La to 17 79 Conifer and Musk deer, red Kulong Chhu broadleaf panda, tiger Black 40 385 Conifer and Tiger Mountains to broadleaf Thrumsing La Phibsoo to 51 376 Broadleaf Tiger, gaur, Royal Manas elephant Kahling to 32 160 Conifer and Tiger, gaur Sakteng broadleaf Royal Manas to 49 212 Broadleaf Tiger, gaur, Khaling elephant, rhino Sources: Wangchuk (2007), Sherpa et al. (2004)

Figure 6. Map of protected areas and biological corridors in Bhutan (ICIMOD 2006; Wangchuk 2007)

5. Biodiversity, shifting cultivation, land degradation and SLM

World Bank/GEF sponsored studies in other countries have identified close linkages between biodiversity, soil fertility and land management practices (Fernandes et al., 2006). Anecdotal accounts and access to limited internal RGoB reports suggest no such studies have been implemented as yet in Bhutan although land degradation typology has been described by Norbu et al. (2003). In the proposed National Action Programme (NAP) on Land Degradation for Bhutan3 it is argued that the NAP should be part of “living” and dynamic process that feeds into an investment plan designed to achieve the objectives of sustainable land management and poverty alleviation and that it should provide the central policy framework to assist in mainstreaming into development

3 http://www.moa.gov.bt/nssc/main/highlight_detail.php?id=27

22 processes. The NAP is a catalyst that also provides the platform that ties together SLM projects and actions. In this respect the NAP will have the capacity to serve as an overarching project to explore dynamic linkages between biodiversity and a range of land management practices. Among the different land management practices that can lead to land degradation, shifting cultivation or tsheri that is often perceived as a destructive practice leading to accelerated environmental degradation. This belief is reflected in previous policy documents of the government (Forest Policy of 1974) that assume this practice has led to the destruction of forests, soil erosion and loss of soil fertility as well as contributing to degradation of watershed conditions and the overall natural environment. A strong negative association linked to local religious traditions includes the belief that shifting cultivation is a "sinful act" since it leads to the death of many insects during burning. However, recent studies (see below) present somewhat contradictory conclusions.

The finely balanced farm environment found in most parts of Bhutan is characterized by very limited land for permanent cultivation, a scarcity of skilled farm labour for adopting mechanical conservation measures and a shortage of capital to acquire external inputs or labour. Shifting cultivation has been adopted to circumvent all of these constraints. The practice is more ecologically resilient than existing permanent cultivation practices. It has produced relatively less environmental impact where farmers have strictly followed the traditional norms developed through generations of indigenous experience. Unfortunately, owing to recent socio-economic changes, such as demographic pressures, incentives for cash cropping, changes in the traditional systems of shared communal labour and many others, the traditional norms for shifting cultivation are falling out of use. As a result, adverse environmental impacts are emerging (Upadhyay 1995).

Since 1984, the government has encouraged the farmers to convert tsheri land into kamshing (rain-fed cropland). In response to the government's encouragement, several farmers have applied for conversion of their registered tsheri land into kamshing. To avoid uncontrolled land use changes, the government issued a policy paper outlining a process for this conversion. Although this paper provided guidelines for the evaluation of tsheri land for alternative uses, the guidelines are not always compatible with local conditions (Upadhyay 1995). In other countries suitable alternatives to shifting cultivation involving agroforestry (combining tree crops with food crops) have shown that economically viable agroforestry systems can lead to enhanced productivity and biodiversity (Gillison 2000). However, success of this model depends on market access for tree crops, a feature generally lacking in landlocked Bhutan.

Studies in other tropical and sub-tropical developing countries indicate that while tsheri is potentially harmful, appropriate management can and often does improve levels of biodiversity. Countries such as Papua New Guinea with similar mountainous terrain have established highly successful coffee plantations with tree shade crops and minimal impact on biodiversity. A detailed study of the impact of coffee production on biodiversity in upland Sumatra (Indonesia) showed that biodiversity impact can be greatly minimized through the use of ancillary shade crops (Gillison et al. 2004). Such a cropping system may be suited to the agriculturally restrictive, vertiginous landscapes of Bhutan. With

23 some exceptions it is a widely accepted ecological paradigm that intermediate levels of disturbance lead to increased biodiversity (the ‘Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis’) (Sheil and Burslem 2003). This is most frequently the case in tropical and sub-tropical countries. It can be argued therefore that the complete absence of tseri-based land use, may in certain cases contribute to an overall loss of biodiversity and species habitat. For Bhutan, Nyamgel et al. (2008) pose the question “..how significant were historical anthropogenic disturbances to the development and maintenance of contemporary biological diversity in Bhutan? Or to put it another way, could biological diversity be compatible with and possibly even depend on shifting cultivation?”. These and similar concerns expressed in the science literature warrant a controlled study of biodiversity response to this form of land use.

6. Transboundary biodiversity conservation initiatives

Bhutan is an integral part of the Eastern Himalayan biological complex. Range distributions of many key biota within Bhutan transcend national boundaries. Because effective, sustainable management of biota requires an understanding of their environmental determinants, management vision that extends beyond national boundaries is likely to be of long term benefit. Despite a general awareness by the RGoB and Bhutanese practitioners (Sherpa and Norbu 1999; Gyamtsho 1998; Sherpa et al. 2004; NCD 2004) of the potential benefits of transboundary management, biodiversity management is driven primarily from a national rather than international perspective. Within the Eastern Himalayas, the Hindu Kush mountain range and the Kangchenjunga landscape (Fig. 7) include significant areas of Bhutan. This has attracted wide interest in establishing transboundary conservation policies (World Bank 2000; WWF and ICIMOD 2001; Basnet 2003; Sharma and Chettri 2005; Gillison et al. 2009). Chettri et al. (2007) describe a multi-level and multi-stakeholder transboundary process initiated in 2002 by the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) with the overall objective of restoring fragmented and deteriorating forest resources through development of conservation corridors and adaptation of conservation measures, moving from a species to a landscape approach. In collaboration with governmental and non- governmental organizations, academics, and communities, ICIMOD has been addressing the conservation issue by promoting participatory reforestation and transboundary collaboration, and linking conservation with sustainable use of resources by local communities. Thus in 2002, ICIMOD joined with the governments of its 3 Hindu Kush– Himalayan member countries—Nepal, Bhutan, and India—and with other partners (WWF-CEPF) to initiate a project to develop forested transboundary corridors.

The Kangchenjunga Landscape (KL) project advocates a) ecosystem management linking countries across borders and protected areas by developing conservation corridors; and b) addressing transboundary issues through cooperation and coordination of policies and institutions to mutually harness the environmental services defined in the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, and their trade-off values. The primary focus is the re- establishment of natural conservation corridors through participatory forest management and enhancing the livelihoods of the people inhabiting the corridors (Chettri et al. 2007). Many of the 14 existing protected areas already established, extend beyond the political boundaries of single nations. Validation of land use patterns along the corridors using remote sensing and global information system tools revealed that the forested corridors naturally connected most of the protected areas in the past. Increasing, unplanned, and uncontrolled human activities have disrupted these connections. Intact 50 years ago: by 2005, 24% of the corridor areas were cultivated lands, 7% were barren, and 2% had become settlements.

By 2006 comprehensive baseline information on biodiversity and corridor development and management plans for each of the identified corridors had been collected using participatory tools involving local communities and conservation practitioners working in the area.

By 2007: based on the outputs from consultations, baseline information, and management documents, ICIMOD developed a regional strategy on management of corridors and the landscape, and a regional cooperation framework. During the feasibility assessment 6 potential conservation corridors linking 9 protected areas were identified (Figure 8). The corridor development plans—resulting from a village-level participatory process—were consolidated into comprehensive national corridor development plans for each of the participating countries including Bhutan.

While RGoB remains a partner in the KL project, similar collaborative commitments are in place with the related Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund which is a joint initiative of Conservation International (CI), l’Agence Française de Développement, the Global Environment Facility (GEF), the Government of Japan, the MacArthur Foundation and the World Bank4.

4 http://www.panda.org/what_we_do/where_we_work/eastern_himalaya/cepf/

Figure 8. Protected areas and proposed corridors in the Kangchenjunga landscape: KCA: Kangchenjunga Conservation Area, Nepal; KBR: Kangchenjunga Biosphere Reserve; BRS: Barsey Rhododendron Sanctuary; FWS: Fambong Lho Wildlife Sanctuary; SRS: Singba Rhododendron Sanctuary; MWS: Mainam Wildlife Sanctuary; KAS: Kyongnosla Alpine Sanctuary, Sikkim, India; SNP: Singhalila National Park; SWS: Senchel Wildlife Sanctuary; MaWS: Mahananda Wildlife Sanctuary; NVNP: Neora Valley National Park, Darjeeling, India; and TSR: Toorsa Strict Nature Reserve, Jigme Dorzi National Park, Bhutan. (Chettri et al. 2007).

7. Institutional linkages and the Biodiversity Action Plan for Bhutan

7.1 Organizational overview and background Within the overall context of biodiversity management in Bhutan and within the RGoB, policy, legislation and policy directives primarily are the responsibility of National Environment Commission (NEC), the Biodiversity Management Board (BMB), and the Policy and Planning Division (PPD) of the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA). The NEC is the national focal point for environment policies and the RGoB’s instrument for undertaking the responsibilities outlined in the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), which in turn constitutes the framework for international effort in biological diversity. The MoA, better known as the Renewable Natural Resource (RNR) sector, encompasses agriculture, animal husbandry and forestry, is charged with long-term planning and development of policies and proposals for legislation within its areas of

26 responsibility. The BMB (see below) is charged with advising, reviewing or reforming national policies, projects and actions taken regarding the nation’s biological resources. It also oversees implementation of the BAP, has executive authority over the National Biodiversity Centre, and helps develop the national policy framework to foster the conservation and sustainable use of biological resources and maintenance of Bhutan’s biodiversity Overall institutional linkages with government and non-governmental agencies with an active interest in biodiversity conservation and management are listed in Table 7.

In 1996 the RGoB undertook the development of a Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP I) for Bhutan. BAP I was completed and submitted to RGoB for approval in June 1997, and subsequently implemented. The BAP is intended to be a living document, to be revised as needs dictate. By 2001 following considerable progress, the RGoB undertook the first revision with a view to developing BAP II. The BAP document is continuing to be updated by the NBC with the approval and recommendation of the Biodiversity Management Board (BMB). The NBC has the mandate to facilitate and coordinate all the biodiversity related activities in the country (see below). The BMB has recommended that the NBC establish a BAP Task Force – basically the one which prepared BAP II to review progress under the BAP and consider and recommend relevant actions where necessary.

An integrated national biodiversity programme - the National Biodiversity Centre (NBC) was formally established as a non-departmental agency under the MoA in late 1998. The NBC has a mission to oversee and ensure the implementation of the Biodiversity Action Plan and to promote the effective conservation, sustainable utilization and ensure equitable sharing of benefits arising from the conservation and the sustainable utilization of the nation’s rich biological resources. The NBC is vested with the following institutional mandates:

 Co-ordinate Bhutan’s biodiversity related activities and serve as a national focal institute;  Facilitate national decision-making on biodiversity concerns, cutting across sectors, divisions and institutions;  Guarantee a national balance between conservation and sustainable utilization of biological resources in general, and between in situ and ex situ conservation in particular;  Assure a participatory approach to building national consensus on biodiversity around complex issues and resolving conflicting situations;  Facilitate sub-regional, regional and international cooperation; and  Assure continuity of biodiversity related activities over time.

These broad-based directives are cnsistent with the long-term development goals of the RGoB. This means that the ecological, economical, social, cultural and aesthetic values of biodiversity are recognized in the nation’s planning and policies and in the prioritization and the deployment of financial and other resources.

27 The National Biodiversity Management Board (BMB) was formalized in August 2000, with 13 members representing a cross-sectoral body comprising of important stakeholders involved with biodiversity management. As indicated above, the board has executive authority over the NBC to advise on, review or reform any national policies, projects and actions taken regarding the nation’s biological resources. The mandates of the BMB are to:

 Oversee the implementation of the Biodiversity Action Plan;  Develop a national policy framework that fosters the sustainable use of biological resources and the maintenance of biodiversity;  Strengthen capacity for sustainable conservation and utilization of biodiversity;  Create conditions and incentives for effective biodiversity conservation; and  Catalyze conservation actions through international co-operation and national planning.

Within the MoA Department of Forests, the NCD was formed to undertake the following:

 Management Planning and Integrated Conservation and Development Programme (ICDP) Section,  the Inventory and Data Management Section, and  Species Conservation, Research and Monitoring Section.

Within NCD, Unit 3 (Biodiversity Inventory Unit) is charged with the following resposibilities:  Conduct biological field surveys as required by the workplan and in consultation with the parks;  Conduct socio-economics field surveys in consultation with the ICDU, PAMU and parks;  Conduct boundary surveys and demarcation in consultation with the parks and local communities;  Initiate and establish Herbaria in the relevant park areas of all existing flora in the country; and  Initiate a database of plants corresponding to it’s ethno-botanical, phenological and other characteristics.

In many respects, although forest inventory and (animal) conservation management is clearly identified within NCD, there are significant conceptual and operational overlaps with those of the NBC and, at higher level, the NEC.

7.2 Bhutan Integrated Biodiversity Information System (BIBIS) The proposed Bhutan Integrated Biodiversity Information System (BIBIS) (MoA 2002) is based on the recommendation in the original BAP for the development of a scientific knowledge base for biodiversity in the country. BAP I emphasized that the presence of

28 basic knowledge on the country’s biodiversity is a prerequisite for the effective conservation and sustainable use of the nation’s biodiversity. The BIBIS project consists of a number of key elements:  It will assist in documenting and creating inventories of all the biological resources in Bhutan into one integrated web-based system.  The inventory and information link will play a key role as the scientific knowledge base for implementing bioprospecting in Bhutan.  It is expected the BIBIS will be a well-known and highly accessible source of biodiversity information for use to biodiversity stakeholders in Bhutan and beyond.  It should become a reference point for dissemination of biodiversity information for use by policy makers and planners for the conservation, management and the sustainable utilization of the biological resources in the nation.  The establishment of BIBIS would further contribute to activities such as bio diversity gap analysis, ecotourism, education and bioprospecting that have the potential of generating additional revenue for the country.  Depending on the success of the BIBIS project in addressing all biodiversity areas, it could continue be developed in the 10th Five Year Plan to complete any remaining areas of biodiversity information to be included in the system.  Thereafter, BIBIS would continue to act as centre of biodiversity information, initiating new related activities and providing of expertise, guidance and support for biodiversity information management.

BIBIS has not, as yet, become operational. Apart from NCD forest inventory, ongoing field botanical collections by NBC and ex-situ gene-banking, only two NGOs (RSPN and WWF-Bhutan) appear to be actively concerned with countrywide biodiversity assessment and management. Discussions with MoA, NCD and NGO personnel indicate continuing interest in pursuing a BIBIS type program, but the operational basis for this is not clear. In this respect the proposed organizational structure of DrukDIF may provide a suitable alternative platform as it has many conceptual features in common with BIBIS, (although within a wider operational construct) and offers a logical framework for designing and implementing BIBIS or similar integrated natural resource information system.

7.3 The Biodiversity Act of Bhutan The Biodversity Act of Bhutan (MoA 2003) is consistent with the provisions of the Convention on Biological Diversity on the sovereignty of the States over their genetic resources and the need to promote the conservation and sustainable use of these resources as well as the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from its utilization. Whereas the Act deals mainly with controls over biochemical and genetic resources, their sustainable management and equitable sharing it makes no provision for a national inventory of such resources although it promotes technology transfer and capacity building at local and national levels.

29 Table 7. Institutional links with biodiversity conservation in Bhutan

Institution Activity Contact / URL 1. National A high-level autonomous Sonam Yangley, Director Environment agency of the Royal Email: [email protected] Commisson Government of Bhutan and (NEC) is mandated to look after all National Environment Commission, Royal issues related to Government of Bhutan environment in Bhutan. PO Box 466, Thimphu, Bhutan, Tel: +975-2- Limited direct connection 323384, 324323, 326386, 326993 with biodiversity Fax: +975-2-323385 conservation. Mainly biosafety issues.

2. Ministry of Departments of Forest, Dr Pema Gyamtsho, Minister Agriculture Agriculture, Livestock and Email: [email protected]; Council for RNR Research. [email protected] Within Dept Forests, NCD Tel: +975-2-322129 / 322482 (O) activities include forest +975-2-2325617 (R) inventory and faunal management (Elephant, Chenchu Norbu, Director Tiger, feral pig). Email: [email protected] Tel: +975-2-322805 (O); +975-2-2332028 ( R) Mobile: +975-17602546

3. National A framework for organising Dr Tashi Yangzome Dorji, Program Director. Biodiversity Bhutan's biodiversity Email: [email protected]; [email protected] Centre (NBC) related activities; Tel: (+975) 2 351416 mechanism for national Mobile: #: 17619329 [ Ministry of decision making on P.O. Box 875, Serbithang, Thimphu Agriculture ] biodiversity concerns cutting across sectors, divisions and institutions; guarantee a better national balance between conservation and utilisation of biological resources in general, and between in-situ and ex-situ conservation in particular facilitate sub- regional, regional and international cooperation; mechanism to assure continuity of biodiversity related activities over time.

30 Institution Activity Contact / URL

4. Nature Activities mainly centred Dr Sonam Wangyel Wang (Wildlife biologist) Conservation around forest inventory and Chief Forestry Officer Division, Dept sustainable management of Email: [email protected] Forests (MoA) indigenous (Tiger, Tel: 00975-2-335807 Elephant) and control of Mobile: 00975-17111009 feral (pig) fauna. Strong GIS component. Close conceptual ties with NBC and NSSC/SLMP.

5. National The aim is to co-ordinate National Soil Services Centre Soil Services soil/land management Ministry of Agriculture Centre research activities of the Simtokha, Thimpbu, Bhutan (NSSC) RNR sector. Two projects Phone: 975-235-1037 / 235-1174, Fax: 975-235- in NSSC viz. WB/GEF 1038 Project (Sustainable Land P.O Box: 907 Management Project) and Email: [email protected] UNDP/GEF Project http://www.moa.gov.bt/nssc/main/aboutus.php (Building capacity and mainstreaming sustainable SLMP: Karma Dema Dorji, Deputy Chief Soil land management in Fertility and Plant Nutrition officer. Bhutan). Includes the Email: [email protected] Sustainable Land Tel: +975-2-351037/ 351174(O), 326452(R) Management Project http://www.moa.gov.bt/nssc/projects/slmp.php (SLMP). Project Appraisal Document (PAD), Vol.1

Also includes World Bank program

6. Royal Mainly concerned with Royal Society for Protection of Nature Society for sustainable management of Post Box 325 Protection of wetland avifauna especially Drimen Lam Nature outside protected areas Thimphu : Bhutan (RSPN) systems of Bhutan email: [email protected] Tel: +975 2 322056 / 326130 Fax: +975 2 323189

7. Worldwide No personnel directly WWF Bhutan Program Office Fund for involved in biodiversity P.O. Box 210 Nature - activity. Usually contract Kawajangsa Bhutan out to other experts. Internal Thimphu, Bhutan

31 Institution Activity Contact / URL GIS lab. (Kinley Gyeltshen) Chief Program Officer: GIS contact Kinley Gyeltshen \email: [email protected] Mobile: +975-17607532 www.wwfbhutan.org.bt 8. Worldwide Connections with WWF- www.wwfnepal.org Fund for Bhutan with respect to Nature, Nepal transboundary biodiversity (WWF-Nepal) conservation 9. Includes Bhutan as part of Main activity in Nepal but increasingly linked International the Eastern Himalaya with Bhutan, especially WWF. Center for transboundary conservation Integrated initiative http://www.panda.org/ Mountain Development (ICIMOD) 10. Global Sustainable Livelihood Tsamang Gongphel Tshogpa Environmental through Alternative Energy (BHU/OP3/Y2/07/15) Facility Small Use, Watershed Grants Management and Animal Program Husbandry to conserve (GEF/ SGP) biodiversity within the park, rehabilitate the water catchment reduce fuelwood by using biogas. [other..]

Objective to promote Support is channelled through 1) National 11. Danish balanced development on a Environment Commission Secretariat 2) International social, economic and Ministry of Agriculture, 3) Ministry of Trade and Development environmental sustainable Industries and 4) Ministry of Works and Human Agency basis. Direct assistance to Settlements (DANIDA) SLMP activity in DrukDIF

12. United Some efforts have been Activity with respect to BIBIS appears to have nations initiated, with NEC due to lapsed. Initiative here may be re-focused with Environment sign an agreement to set up DrukDIF and GIS development within NCD and Program the Bhutan Integrated SLMP/NSSC (UNEP) Biodiversity Information System (BIBIS) to gather, interpret and document biodiversity information from both protected and other areas

32 Institution Activity Contact / URL 13. The project will study the Madhav Karki International state-of-the-art and policy http://www.idrc.ca/en/ev-83009-201_928303-1- Development issues in all participating IDRC_ADM_INFO.html Research countries, viz., Bhutan, Centre China, and Nepal and (IDRC) recommend appropriate institutional mechanisms and technology packages for sustainable development of the Himalaya.

14. SNV commenced SNV Bhutan Netherlands operations in Bhutan in P.O. Box 815 Development 1988. The strategic position Langjophaka, Thimphu, Bhutan Organization and choices for work are email: [email protected] (SNV) based upon the goals and Tel: +975 2 322900/322732 strategies of the Royal Fax: +975 2 322649 Government of Bhutan, as expressed in its Five Year Plans. With respect to www.snvworld.org/en/countries/bhutan biodiversity, main activities are connected with non- timber forest products.

15. Centre for Institutional support for Centre for Genetic Resources, The Netherlands Genetic NBC. Training of NBC (CGN) . P.O. Box 16 Resources, the staff at WUR, Netherlands. 6700 AA Wageningen, the Netherlands Netherlands The project will only email: [email protected] (CGN) address agrobiodiversity, www.cgn.wur.nl and in particular the management of plant and animal genetic resources. (2000-2005)

16. Connection with http://portal.conservation.org Conservation transboundary biodiversity (Butterflies of Bhutan, with RSPN) International conservation in eastern (CI) Himalayas (mainly Nepal, India, Bhutan) (See CEPF)

17. Critical Transboundary biodiversity Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund Ecosystem conservation in Eastern Conservation International Partnership Himalayas. Minimal direct 2011 Crystal Drive, Suite 500 Fund (CEPF) activity in Bhutan Arlington, VA 22202, USA

33 Institution Activity Contact / URL http://www.cepf.net

18. South Asia South Asia Biodiversity http://www.sacep.org/html/sabd.htm Cooperative Clearing House Mechanism Environment Programme (SACEP)

19. Bhutan Assist government in www.gefweb.org/Outreach/outreach- Trust Fund establishing a national PUblications/Project_factsheet/Bhutan-trus--bd- For system of protected areas wb-eng.pdf Environmental and strengthening their Conservation Management; Test the (World Bank/ feasibility of a trust fund as GEF) a sustainable financing mechanism for protected areas

8. The need for a systematic baseline information framework

Balanced management of any aspect of the natural resource requires a basic understanding of the elements of that resource and the key drivers of ecosystem and agricultural productivity. Whereas the absence of such baseline information can lead ultimately to a breakdown in sustainable productivity, its cost-effective acquisition can greatly enhance productivity and the quality of human livelihood. In the same way, sustainable and adaptive management of both agro-biodiversity and naturally occurring taxa demands an understanding of their response under varying environmental conditions. Most effective models of plant and animal response (including agricultural productivity) will be those with access to data and information acquired from the widest ranging environments. Data sets based on truncated range distributions of taxa will inevitably generate misleading outcomes for planning and management. Compared with other countries in Asia, Bhutan is in the enviable position of having access to vegetational gradients that span an extraordinary altitudinal range (150-5,500m) as well as an extensive hierarchy of drainage, geomorphological and land use systems that, together, provide an unusually robust framework for acquiring key baseline data and information. The need for a BIBIS-type information system is well argued by those RGoB agencies responsible for sustainably managing Bhutan’s rich natural resource. The need for BIBIS and related baseline information stems from a current inability to access and use the largely uncoordinated collection of national cross-sectoral data that have been subject to changing institutional needs and funding support.

34 To compensate land holders for land acquistion for protected area reserves or for carbon sequestration or for modifying potentially damaging aspects of land use, many countries and donor agencies are seeking an effective means of payment for ecosystem services (PES). To do so requires a ready means of estimating costs of services that depend on adequate baseline data and information. Such costing is frequently elusive due to inappropriate methodology and the lack of relevant baseline data.

For reasons often arising from lack of expertise or limited institutional facilities, natural resource archives in many developing countries tend to accumulate reports of baseline studies with metadata summaries but without systematized storage and access to the original raw data. In addition, the frequent turnover of institutional personnel and expatriate consultants usually results in data sets that are collected by different persons for different reasons using different methods. Over time, such circumstances render many data files totally worthless. In Bhutan, for example, satellite imagery of forest cover has been interpreted using different algorithms by different agencies resulting in confused forest assessments (FAO 1999, FRA2000). For biodiversity assessment and sustainable management, the challenge is to first determine the scale and purpose of the management requirement, second to identify a uniform and cost-effective means of acquiring and analyzing data and third, to secure sufficient funding to operationalize and ensure ongoing data collection, storage and access. The first two demands are relatively straightforward, the last is not – as can be inferred from the apparent failure to operationalize BIBIS.

The fact that the current system of protected areas and biological corridors has already generated positive benefits is proof enough of the underlying principles of this form of conservation management. Nonetheless serious questions surround the scientific basis for reserve selection in Bhutan. When the global environment is rapidly changing it is mandatory that science-based baseline data are acquired using the most rapid, cost- effective means available. Unless the range distributions of biota and their environmental determinants are effectively documented by organized, systematic data collection, geospatial extrapolative models of species distribution and performance are likely to be highly misleading. And while the claim by Reid (1996) that current data repositories may represent less that three percent of total species numbers in Bhutan is highly speculative, it nonetheless underpins a strong note of caution in developing national conservation strategies based on limited environmental coverage.

With the exception of remotely sensed data, and current herbarium records, in Bhutan access to published biodiversity related data is extremely limited. There is a clear need for the systematized acquisition of new baseline data for biodiversity and related land management that can be readily accessed across sectors. By implementing a user-friendly, readily transferable means of standard survey design and data acquisition, a systematic baseline survey of the biodiversity of Bhutan would generate a more robust information and knowledge base as well as generate new options for reserve selection and management. At each stage it will be imperative that the kinds of biophysical data collected will relevant to biodiversity, to stakeholder interests and to adaptive land management in the broader sense.

35 9. Training and capacity building

9.1 Background and purpose Whereas most biodiversity monitoring and assessment methods tend to rely on logistically demanding and rarely cost:effective survey design, recent research has shown that alternative, low-input, high-return approaches can be implemented with greatly reduced logistic demands. This alternative approach is based on purposive sampling of environmental gradients rather than standard statistical design using random or purely systematic methods. Against this background, the purpose of the training course was to raise the technical capacity of personnel concerned with biodiversity management to:

 Obtain a broader understanding of the relationship between biodiversity and sustainable management.  Gain an introduction into current methods of recording and classifying vegetation that facilitates a choice of assessment options for a specific scale and purpose.  Become familiar with public domain software that enables collation and preliminary analysis of field data.  Gain an improved understanding of basic principles of survey design and inventory using both gradient-based (gradsect) and traditional (random, systematic) approaches.  Obtain a basic knowledge of elements of geographic information systems and simple spatial modelling procedures using open source software.  Achieve a stage of technical proficiency that will enable each trainee to design and implement a biodiversity baseline survey.

9.2 Participants Twelve participants from a range of Government institutions attended the course. Several of these participants subsequently attended various stages of the field survey.

9.3 Location The course was held at the Rural Development Training Centre (RDTC) at Zhemgang in South Central Bhutan. The RDTC was well-suited to course requirements with excellent presentation facilities, accommodation and ready access to a range of vegetation types from agricultural crops, degraded pasture, secondary forest to mature forest plantation.

Fig. 9. Course participants with instructor (AG)

9.4 Course contents and activity schedule

Due to the relatively high academic quality of participants, the course was completed slightly ahead of schedule. Following introduction to theory, initial training in practical application was conducted in a nearby area of regenerating vegetation (Fig. 2). The collation and storage of data using VegClass software was greatly facilitated by the fact that all participants had their own laptops. This in itself led to more efficient course implementaion compared to the normal use of PCs. Fig. 10. Initial field training at Zhemgang

37 9.5 Introduction to other biodiversity inventory approaches in Bhutan

Using transect 3 as a basis for comparison, the trainees were introduced to an inventory approach currently applied by DoF NCD. Norbu Wangdi (NCD) used a field proforma and an actual layout of a plot to demonstrate how the sampling approach was implemented. ( Fig. 11). Although there were a number of parameters common to both the NCD and VegClass methods, some significant Fig. 11 Demo. of DoF NCD method of biodiversity assessment differences were apparent. Whereas NCD applies random sampling to facilitate estimates of numbers of variables (e.g. species) per unit area, the VegClass method uses a non-random, purposive means of establishing and recording sites to locate species and PFTs that is closely linked with gradient-based (gradsect) sampling. Subsequent group discussion indicated there may be ways of integrating elements of both methods to improve biodiversity assessment.

9.6 Botanical collection techniques Wherever possible, biodiversity surveys usually employ the services of a field botanist. On the occasions where a botanist is unavaliable it is adviseable to collect voucher specimens for later identification. Using plant material collected from with the RDTC environs, participants were introduced to several methods of plant collection and preparation by Choki Wangmo (NBC) (Fig. 12). It was explained that for surveys in remote locations wheredrying or normal preservation facilities are unavailable, methods using a methylated spirit preservative can Fig. 12. Choki Wangmo demonstrates a procedure for adequately preserve specimens collection and preservation of plant specimens allowing them to be stored for up to three months.

9.7 Field application and proficiency testing To test the proficiency of participants in the field recording of biophysical data, transects in four local vegetation types, namely a forest plantation (Bucklandia populnea), intensively an managed Castanopsis tribuloides (Oak) forest, a degraded pasture and a commercial garden crop (Chili) (Fig. 13) were selected as a sample of vegetation types that are common along land use intensity gradients in the region. The forest plantation was also selected as being especially representative of a large area of Bhutan where forests occur on very steep slopes (in the present case 80%).Trainees were divided into three groups of 4 each with a team leader responsible for collating the field data recorded by the group. In the field, groups were requested not to exchange data or information. Group separation was monitored by the instructor. Data recording followed the VegClass approach (see www.cbmglobe.org for methodological details and software). On completion of field data, groups then entered the data in the laboratory using the VegClass software. These data were then collated by the instructor for testing the relative group congruence.

Fig. 13. Test areas at RDTC. (1) Plantation of Bucklandia populnea on 80% slope. ( 2) Managed secondary forest of Castanopsis tribuloides. (3) Degraded pasture following forest removal. (4) Permanent agricultual cropping system (Chili).

The data were analysed via the PATN5 multivariate analysis package using a Gower metric association measure and a polythetic agglomerative clustering method. Congruence between trainee groups was examined through the analysis of four separate sets of data: (a) Species composition only (b) PFT6 composition only (c ) species + PFT composition (d) species-weighted PFE7 composition (e) vegetation structure and (e) combined species and PFT richness (not composition) and vegetation structure.

The results from analyses (a),(b),(c) and (d) showed a significant divergence between groups that mainly reflected differences in botanical expertise. However, the analysis of data set of combined variables (e) revealed a close correspondence between all groups.

9.8 Conclusions and follow-up training Positive feedback from participants combined with the above numerical analysis and my own observation, indicate that all participants achieved an acceptable level of proficiency. The cross-sectoral and cross-institutional representation of the participants was commensurate with the aim to communicate the technology to as wide an audience of practitioners as possible. Experience in other countries indicates that, for training to be effective, the intensive nature of the course requires follow-on, practical application in order to consolidate theory and limited practice. For this reason, several participants were included in subsequent surveys of the Wangchhu watershed.

5 Belbin L (2008) http://www.patn.com.au. (Accessed December 10, 2008). 6 Plant Functional Type: see www.cbmglobe.org for details 7 Plant Functional Element (PFEs used to construct PFTs – see above website)

10. The physical base of the survey gradsect: geology, geomorphology and soil development along the Wangchhu

10.1 The Upper Wangchhu (Section A) [ H. van Noord and T. Dorji ]

10.1.1 Geology Surprisingly little is known about the geology of the Upper Wangchhu watershed. Apart from the pioneering work by Augusto Gansser, as presented in his classic work ‘The Geology of the Bhutan Himalayas’ (1983), and earlier work by Ganesan et al. (1974) (quoted by Bhargava, 1995) on the Tethyan (young sedimentary) rocks of the Lingshi area, as discussed in Bhargava’s, ‘The Bhutan Himalaya, A Geological Account’ (1995), very few studies have been published about this spectacular landscape.

Grujic (2002) published the most recent simplified geological map of Bhutan with a new stratigraphic and tectonic description, (see Fig.14), on which the survey gradsect has been indicated with a blue dotted line. At lower elevation it commences from Drukyel Dzong through the Greater Himalayan Sequence of the Fig. 14. Geological map of Bhutan Thimphu Formation, with high-grade metamorphic rocks, mainly gneisses including the Taktsang granites. In the middle of the survey section it is dominated by intrusive leucogranites and towards the higher altitudes the survey transect crosses the Chekha Formation with phyllites and phyllitic quartzites. Pure Tethyan sediments of the Lingshi Klippen Formation (LK), including shales and slates, are found on the higher slope segments to the east of Paro Chhu and in the alluvial, fluvioglacial and glacial deposits of the valley bottom.

As in most parts of Bhutan the general orientation of the strata is North to North-East, and measured for transect point 2 as 310/18, meaning trending to the NW with a dip of 18 degrees. Rock types of importance for the survey are granites, gneisses, phyllites, quartzites and phyllitic quartzites. Besides the consolidated rock types the transects run through an important series of unconsolidated materials consisting of alluvial and debris flow deposits in the lower section and a mixture of alluvial, debris, fluvio-glacial and glacial deposits in the upper section.

In the Himalayas, with increasing elevation, one often finds older rocks overlain with younger rocks, with the older Precambrian basal gneisses and granites overlain with younger Cambrian phyllites and quartzites and youngest, surface sedimentary Tethyan rock all intruded by young leucogranites. Bhargava (1995) gives a more detailed account of multiple formations as Shodug, Barishong, Lingshi and Chekha, but here preference is given to the generalized map as presented by Grujic (2002). Of interest is the description of the Jhangothang Fault by Bhargava (l.c.) that forms a direct contact between Barishong and Thimphu Formations. This fault line in the landscape is reflected by a distinct morphological difference between the western and eastern valley slopes of the Upper Paro Chhu Valley, resulting in obvious asymmetrical valley development.

10.1.2 Geomorphology The landscape along the survey gradsect is the combined result of the characteristics of the geological substratum and its orientation, the physical processes of weathering, erosion and deposition and the interaction with vegetation and human interference. As the gradsect follows essentially an elevational gradient from 2600m to about 4500m it represents a gradsect across a range of surface processes determined by climate, altitude and aspect. Within the dominating geomorphological features and related processes, the overall gradsect can be partitioned into three main subsections8:

2600-2900m Broad alluvial valley (WC22-20) A relatively wide valley bottom with enough space for considerable infill with alluvial deposits of the main river, the Paro Chhu, combined with alluvial fan and debris fan deposits of the many tributaries from side valleys. The relatively gentle sloping land of the alluvial terraces and fans is partially cultivated, especially downstream from Gunitshawa.

2900-3700m Narrow V-shaped alluvial valley (WC19-14) In this middle section the Paro Chhu is trapped in a narrow gorge-like valley floor with no opportunity to meander or deposit material. The river is actively incising and has a steep elevational gradient. The steep valley floor is filled in with rock-fall debris and colluvium combined with alluvial deposits wherever the Paro Chhu has sufficient space to form deposits. While tributaries are able to form steep alluvial and debris fans with steep gradients, these are of limited volume in restricted space and the main river is actively eroding. The valley floor is almost completely covered by natural primary forest.

3700-4500m Wide U-shaped glacial valley (WC13-1) The upper section is characterized by a relatively wide valley floor with steep valley slopes, often developed in hard rock. The eroding action of the main valley glacier (originating from Jichu Drakey) has oversteepened9 the slopes and deepened the valley floor. Post-glacially the valley floor has been infilled with fluvio-glacial and fluvial

8 See Table 2 for transect listing 9 ‘Oversteepening’ is the result of glacial erosion resulting in very steep valley slopes with a U-shaped profile beyond the normal influence of erosional and denudational slope processes

42 deposits, although glacial deposits gain importance with increasing elevation as witnessed by conspicuous moraine deposits along the valley slopes and closer to the glacier front by frontal moraine relicts across the valley floor. It must be be noted that this glacial valley system is largely asymmetrical with the south-eastern valley slope predominantly developed in hard rock with very steep slopes by glacial action. The much gentler north- western valley slope on the other hand is largely covered by glacial and colluvial deposits originating from the glacial valley systems to the north. The glacial valley development is geologically very young with the retreat of the main Jichu Drakey glacier occurring only during the last 10,000 years. In the upper section above 4000m the retreat of the main glacier has occurred over the last few hundred years (between Jhomolhari BC and Jangothang village) with accelerated retreat of the glacier front over the last decades, as witnessed by pro-glacial lakes in front of the Jichu Drakey and Jhomolhari glaciers. The wide glacial valley is occupied by permanent settlements and the steep valley slopes are used as grazing ground for yaks.

10.1.3 Disappearing glaciers Global warming is severely impacting the Himalayan glaciers with recent studies forecasting that by 2035 most of the glaciers will have disappeared (Anthal et al. 2006). Others (Alford et al. 2009) dispute this opinion, but do not contest that the Himalayan glaciers are on the retreat. Our visits to the glacier fronts of both Jichu Drakey glacier, the main source of Paro Chhu, and Jhomolhari glacier seem to confirm the retreat. Both glaciers have developed a series of distinct lateral and frontal moraines along the valley slopes and valley floor downstream of their present glacier front. These stages could be interpreted as related to a last advance stage described worldwide as the “Little Ice Age” climaxing around 1850AD. The Jhomolhari glacier has formed three clear morainic stages indicated in red, purple and green on the satellite image depicted in Figs. 15a. A closer view (Fig. 15b) indicates the structure of the frontal moraine. The red stage is at about 4150m, the purple at 4300m and the green at 4400. A recently formed pro-glacial lake appears to be growing relatively quickly as the size has clearly increased when compared to the satellite image of about 3 years ago (present shape indicated in solid light blue). The present glacier front is indicated by a dotted blue line and it is alarming to note that less than 1.5km of valley glacier remains of the Jhomolhari glacier tongue.

A similar trend can be observed for the Jichu Drakey glacier where a pro-glacial lake of about 200m wide and 350m in length has formed. The lake is drained by three different outlets reducing a risk for outburst of the pro-glacial lake. However, during the survey, close to transect WC05 at about 4250m, it was observed that the moraine contains ice cores. Signs of dead-ice morphology are present, witnessing collapse processes as the dead-ice bodies melt and destabilize the covering morainic material. Presence of dead-ice bodies in a frontal and lateral moraine can lead to failure of the moraine. These should be monitored as they may exacerbate the risk posed by the pro-glacial lake of Jichu Drakey glacier, see Figures 16 and 17. The ecological significance of these unsettling trends strongly indicates a need for a systematic approach to monitoring change in both biological as well as physical properties. To that end the team established spatially- referenced transects (WC04, WC05) on moraine fronts and ridges (Fig. 15b) (see Section 12 methodology and discussion).

Fig. 15a Frontal moraine stages of Jhomolhari glacier at 4150m (red), 4300m purple and 4400m (green). The pro-glacial lake is indicated in light blue with the present glacier front marked with a dotted blue line.

Fig. 15b Close up view of geo-located transect monitoring site (WC04) of frontal moraine recorded using VegClass

Fig. 16 Jichu Drakey glacier front with its pro-glacial lake and two streams draining the lake.

Fig. 17 The frontal moraine of Jichu Drakey glacier with dead-ice bodies exposed bordering the pro-glacial lake (indicated with red arrows)

45 10.2 Middle and lower Wangchhu Sections B and C) (H. Van Noord)

10.2.1 Geology Grujic et al. (2002) published the most recent simplified geological map of Bhutan with a new stratigraphic and tectonic description, (Fig. 18), on which the survey gradsects of Sections B and C have been indicated with a red dashed line. In essence, the survey cuts across four main geological units:

Fig. 18 Section of map from Grujic et al. (2002)

1. The MCT zone, also known as Jaishidanda, and earlier named Paro Formation. This is a complex of lower grade metamorphic rock types as quartzites, schists and marbles. 2. The Greater Himalayan Sequence, dominated by higher-grade metamorphic rock types as (garnetiferous) muscovite gneiss, also known as Thimphu Formation. 3. Lesser Himalayan Sequence, to the south of the Main Central Thrust (MCT, is the single largest structure within the Indian plate), consisting of tectonically disturbed unfossiliferous sedimentary and metasedimentary rocks like shale, sandstone, conglomerate, slate, phyllite, schist, quartzite, limestone, dolomite etc. 4. Quaternary deposits, build up by the large alluvial fan complexes of the Bhutanese rivers into the plains, formerly known as duars.

The four main geological zones are separated from each other by thrusts zones. Between the quartenary and the Lesser Himalayan Sequence one finds the Main Boundary Thrust and the MCT zone marks the transition from the Lesser Himalayan Sequence to the Greater Himalayan Sequence. The area between Paro and Haa forms part of the “Paro Window”, an opening in the Greater Himalayan Sequence through which one can see the low-grade metamorphic materials of the Paro Formation, part of the Lesser Himalayan Sequence. Important consequence of the MCT and MBT zones is that they have resulted in lesser geotechnical strength of the rocks in these zones, reflected in a very high incidence of slope instability, e.g. the large and active mass movement of Jumja along the Phuntsholing-Gedu highway.

10.2.2 Geomorphology The landscapes along the middle and lower Wangchhu transects (Fig.19) are distinctly different from the Upper Wangchhu section, covered in Section A. The glacial and fluvio- glacial influences, which are so evident above 3700m in Section A, are absent at lower altitudes. The following main landscape units can be distinguished:

A Haa Valley (WC24-31; WC46-50) Although glacial and peri-glacial processes have left their traces at the higher sections of Chele-La and in the Upper Haa valley, the overall landscape appears to be a broad fluvial valley, incised by the Haa Chu, with considerable infill with alluvial and debris flow deposits from a range of tribituaries. These relatively gentle fan and alluvial deposits are the key agricultural areas in the Haa valley. Towards the south the valley bottom narrows and Haa incises more and bends to the East towards the confluence with Wangchhu.

B Wangchhu Valley ( WC31-32; WC51-54, WC62) Downstream of the confluence of Paro Chhu and Thim Chhu at Chuzhom, the Wangchhu is incised in a deep alluvial valley. The steep valley slopes offer very little opportunity for human settlement and only a few larger settlements have developed in these positions where the valley slopes are somewhat more gentle, such as near Chapcha (WC51) and Tshimasham. These gentler slope sections have mostly been caused by large mass movement complexes. The often older slope instability has resulted in deep-seated landslides, which have been used occupied by human settlement and agriculture. These gentle slope segments also the logical sections for the road to descend to river level, as in the section between Tshimasham and Chhukha Lower Colony.

C Lower Wangchhu Gorge (WC55-61) The Wangchhu is forming an impressive fluvial incision downstream of Tala dam site, with very steep valley slopes and hardly any opportunity for human habitation on the lower slopes. This gorge-like incision continues in fact all the way down to lower Bongo geog, where the gorge opens up and the Wangchhu finally is released into the Indian plains, the former Bhutanese Duars, a complex of large alluvial fans with gentle slopes towards the Bramaputra (Fig. 19). In a very interesting section in Lower Bongo geog, Wangchhu suddenly changes its course from a general north-south trend to a WNW-ESE course. In a very steep gorge the Wangchhu is able to form clear meanders, a feature that is almost absent in its upstream stretches. The sudden change in flow direction coincides exactly with the location of the MCT and the transition from relatively resistant and hard

47 gneisses to the north of Wangchhu, and the MCT, to relatively weak and instable meta- sediments and sediments south of Wangchhu. Along the MCT, which essentially is a weakness zone, as the rocks in this transition thrust zone have been impacted tremendously by the enormous forces of the movement and shear of the tectonic units, the Wangchhu is able to make space and form meanders in the geotechnically weaker rocks, as compared to the Thimphu gneisses it was caught in for most of its North-South journey from Chuzom.

Fig. 19 The lowest section of Wangchhu in Bongo geog and the apex of its alluvial fan complex on the Indian border. Note the striking change in course from a N-S trending course to a WNW- ESE course and the change in river morphology from a predominant linear channel to a strikingly meandering flow path. The MCT is indicated with a red dotted line.

48 11. Biodiversity related land use input to the Dynamic Information Framework (DrukDIF) for Bhutan

The low-cost, high-return methodology described below and applied to the baseline survey of the Wangchhu watershed includes biophysical environmental elements that are relevant to adaptive management Annex III. These data are normally supported by routine soil sampling and analyses at each baseline site. However, the associated pubic domain software (VegClass) can be used to generate data that are highly relevant to wider aspects of natural resource appraisal apart from biodiversity. They can be used directly to evaluate and monitor landscape change or else form a basis for selecting minimal sets of readily observable indicators of biodiversity and related habitat condition. When sampled along land use intensity gradients the methodology lends itself to quantifying levels of ecosystem health and land degradation. A World Bank/GEF baseline study in Mozambique revealed highly significant statistical linkages between biodiversity (species and PFT richness, vegetation structure), soil fertility (and by association agricultural productivity) and remotely sensed imagery along a 500km gradsect of the lower Zambezi basin (Gillison 2006). Estimates of vegetation structure that include mean canopy height, basal area (m2 ha-1) of all woody plants and projective foliage cover can be used to estimate levels of above ground carbon (Gillison 2002).

Integrated multidisciplinary surveys in other countries indicate potentially useful linkages between these kinds of data and hydrological models (VIC, DHSVM). While plant species alone provide very limitied possibilites for coupling with such models, vegetation structure and plant functional types (PFTs) are potentially much more useful as they reflect quantifiable ecophysiological linkages with water use and physical interaction with the movement of water through a landscape. For such purposes the functional elements used to construct PFTs are likely to be more accurate and more sensitive than crude, remotely determined measures of leaf area index, stomatal diffuson or plant rooting depth. During the survey we examined how such plant and soil-based elements might be interfaced with both hydrological and crop modelling parameters. Through multiple, connected geospatial layers, the baseline data acquired from on ground surveys will provide a new and potentially useful platform in DrukDIF that will facilitate dissemination and exchange of science-based data as well as an improved information base for adaptive land management. The data aquired will have relevance across many sectors such as planning and policy development, agriculture, forests, energy and water.

The following sections outline the methodology that was applied across the watershed and the logistic framework that was adapted to circumstances determined by varying physical environment and levels of institutional support.

49 12. The Wangchhu biodiversity baseline assessment methodology

Terrestrial surveys of land cover are centred on broadscale methods of vegetation classification that are frequently idiosyncratic and focus on vascular plant species and greatly simplified vegetation structure. Increasing evidence for global warming and human- related impact on plant and animal survival has created a demand for a harmonized approach to vegetation survey that includes plant-based (functional) attributes and more detailed elements of structure that together reflect adaptation to environmental change.

Methods of data and information acquisition about the living natural resource must be tailored to management purpose and scale both in the present and predictable future. In addition the data acquired must be amenable to standard, repeatable analytical procedures, with outcomes readily interpretable to policy planners and decision makers. The present system of participatory survey design and data collection is based on experience in 15 developing countries. Firsthand, background information was acquired from a field reconnaissance of Bhutan by car along an elevational gradient from 150 to 4,6000m a.s.l. covering a wide range of landscapes, vegetation types and farming systems.

Designing and implementing biodiversity baseline studies can be extremely costly and time- demanding if applied using standard statistical approaches to survey design and purely species-based inventory. Where the intent is to improve chances of locating taxa, rapid appraisal methods using low-cost, high-return, gradient-directed transects or gradsects are usually far more cost-effective (Gillison and Brewer 1985; Wessels et al. 1998; USGS-NPS 2003). Gradsects are now widely used in surveys in both developed and developing countries where there is a need for rapid appraisal of the distribution of existing biota. They are the preferred option for the National Vegetation Classification of the mainland USA as implemented by the Parks Service and The Nature Conservancy and the methodology is being applied across many research and academic institutions. When coupled with a standard recording protocol (VegClass) for species, plant functional types (PFTs) (Gillison and Carpenter 1997; Gillison 2002), vegetation structure and key site physical variables, gradsects provide a potentially useful means of rapidly establishing a knowledge baseline for planning and management. The user-friendly VegClass system is fully described elsewhere10 and has been used successfully in 12 developing countries to help train personnel with limited field experience and for whom English is not a first language. Unlike the majority of surveys that employ non-standard approaches, data acquired from more than 1800 sites worldwide using the standard rapid survey VegClass protocol provide a ready means of data comparison and evaluation within and between regions.

Biodiversity baseline data are but one element of the resource management matrix and are too often considered as a stand-alone source of data and information. The reasons for this lie in the nature of the data that are often highly qualitative or else are restricted to species lists that when used in the absence of other biophysical data, can be relatively meaningless for sustainable management. To counter this problem, the VegClass system includes rapid, quantitative measurements of plant features, including morphological elements that reflect

10 www.cbmglobe.org

50 photosynthetic activity and other aspects of plant adaptation to environment (Plant Functional Types or PFTs) as well as vegetation structure, plant species and key site physical variables. In this respect the methodology differs from standard inventory procedures that focus more on species and broader aspects of vegetation physiognomy and structure. A review of literature of survey methods in cool temperate environments such as the upland Wangchhu, indicates that lichens as well as bryophyte can carry useful information about biodiversity (see also Mattick, 1953; Söchting, 1999). Surveys in the Siberian Arctic using VegClass (P. Krestov, pers. comm.) suggest that the recording of lichens might be useful in the present study. To that end we included cover-abundance estimates of fruticose, crustose and foliose lichens that are broadly representative classes of lichens as a whole.

To be considered as a useful resource component, biodiversity should play an integral part in contributing to management goals in a way that facilitates decision-making and trade-offs with respect to profitable land use and the prevention and rehabilitation of degraded lands. Case studies using the standardized VegClass approach combined with gradsects in baseline surveys in Africa, Brazil, Indonesia and Thailand show that when combined with soil, faunal and remotely sensed data, the emerging statistical linkages provide science-based, readily observable field indicators for biodiversity and agricultural productivity. All plant-based data collected using this system are quantitative - thereby facilitating numerical analysis and reducing dependence on subjective interpretation. The user-friendly, open-source (public domain) software includes a means of internal data analysis and provides a ready means of exporting data according to industry-standard, spread-sheet or database programs. The spatially referenced data acquired using this methodology also lend themselves to spatial analysis such as predictive (GIS) modeling and mapping of species, functional types or biodiversity patterns.

Successful and ongoing development of the Dynamic Fig. 20 Outline of the Wangchhu Information Framework watershed target area (DrukDIF) for Bhutan will require access to high quality data and information that are demonstrably geared to cross-

51 sectoral and other stakeholder interests and which adequately represents Bhutan’s biophysical and socio-economic landscape. To establish reliable and robust baselines for the biodiversity, land cover, land use, and hydrology components relevant to SLMP goals and objectives for Bhutan will not be a trival task. The operational complexity requires a suitable location as a pilot study to first, determine the logistic dimensions and related costs of a potential countrywide project including the necessary degree of participatory and sectoral involvement, second, to apply and refine methodologies so that they meet stakeholder expectations, and third to ensure that the data and information acquired can be adequately stored, accessed and analyzed and the outcomes meaningfully communicated to the country’s decision makers, to the public and to the science community. Such a challenge requires a suitable starting point. Discussions with key personnel from different sectors (SLMP, NCD and NBC) enabled the team to reach a consensus that the Wangchhu watershed whould be the logical focus for a pilot baseline survey.

The Wangchhu is currently the best documented watershed in Bhutan with access to some of the widest ranging biophysical environmental gradients and farming systems in the country. It includes land use intensity gradients that range from pristine vegetation to degraded lands. For logistic reasons the watershed was surveyed in three sections using gradsects arranged primarily along an elevational gradient: ‘A’ (3600-4600m), ‘B’ (1200-3600m) and ‘C’ (150-1200m) (Table 2) but taking into account hierarchically nested gradients of land use, land cover, geomorphology, drainage and soils. An outline of Wangchhu watershed (Fig. 20) (Map courtesy J. Richey & H. Greenberg UW, Seattle) in Western Bhutan covers a sampling elevation range of approximately 150 - 5,000 m a.s.l.

Gradsect design of all 62 transects (Figs. 22,23) was assisted through an analysis of all available institutional data (maps, reports, survey files, remotely sensed imagery) and on ground information from landholders and farmers. Information already available from UW Seattle via Professor Richey and his team has already been instrumental in providing key information together with GIS maps from NSSC (Deki Wangmo). Personnel from the training workshop and from different institutions (NCD, NBC, NSSC) formed the core of a hutan team for all three areas accompanied by AG. The Wangchhu Watershed Management Project (MoA and EC 2002) integrated physiographic criteria in its mapping of the project area’s land resources. The four dzongkhags of Thimphu, Paro, Haa and Chhukha (ca 6800 km2, 15% of Bhutan) were mapped as 29 land systems and one land region. Each land system consists of a landscape type with a limited range of variation in bedrock and surface landform, climate and hydrology, soils, and natural vegetation. This environmental combination determines the range of agricultural and other livelihood options. Where one of the main environmental components changes significantly, it affects the others, and results in a different landscape, and this is mapped as a different land system. Similar land systems are grouped as land regions. The land systems mapping enabled identification of areas within the Wangchhu project area that are particularly vulnerable to specific types of environmental degradation, including landslides and soil acidification” (Norbu et al. 2003). Coupled with the sections outlined in Table 2, these mapped areas provided an important entry point for designing a gradsect-based, baseline survey of the full elevational range of the vegetative cover and land use types of the watershed.

52 A

Figure 21. Distribution of 62 transect locations along the Wangchhu watershed relative to topographical relief, National boundary (bright yellow line) and key road systems (dull yellow line) (GoogleEarth 2010) (see Figure 17 for transect labels). Circle ‘A’ Upper section,‘B’ middle and ‘C’ lower sections. 54

Figure 22. Location of the 62 transects. Area under dotted line includes subset from Section B (13 transects) combined with Section C (18 transects) used in a preliminary numerical analysis in this report.

A uniform sampling methodology using well-established rapid survey design was applied to each of the three sections (A, B, C) of the Wangchhu watershed. In the present study, information from a variety of institutional and online sources (maps, remote sensing) and literature indicated that a thermal gradient was most likely to account for species performance and distribution, followed by soil moisture (cf. Wangdo and Ohsawa, 2006). A total of 62 sample sites were therefore located using gradsects derived according to a hierarchy of nested environmental gradients (thermal (elevation), drainage, terrain (slope, aspect), lithology, land cover and land use). Despite careful attention to these criteria, final locations were necessarily influenced by the extreme physical characteristics of the mountainous terrain. At each site we positioned a 200 m2 (40 x 5m) transect according to the standard VegClass recording procedure (Gillison, 2002), where we recorded site physical details, vegetation structure, presence of all indigenous and introduced vascular plant species and plant functional types (PFTs) (Fig. 22, Annex III).

Figure 23. Example from a section of a VegClass recording page summarizing taxa, PFTs and 4+4 genus-species code for database referencing

A rule set and grammar (Gillison & Carpenter, 1997) incorporated in the VegClass software were used to construct PFTs from a generic 36 plant functional elements (PFEs) ( based on

56 the plant functional attributes of Gillison (1981)). We used VegClass to generate a plant functional complexity (PFC) vas a complement to PFT richness. PFC is not a measure of functional diversity in the usual ecological sense ( cf. Magurran 2004) but is potentially useful when comparing transects where PFT richness may be identical but where PFT composition varies (Gillison, 2002).

Faunal observations (birds, mammals, butterflies) were observed on an opportunistic basis only due to logistic constraints and prevailing weather conditions. Records of avifauna were made in the general area of each transect where possible (R. Prabhan). Landuse history was documented where possible from interviews with local farmers.

Within each transect, soils were described according a a standard NSSC proforma that included soil texture, color, diagnostic horizons and aggregates. An auger was used to establish soil depth at multiple locations along the transect. A composite 1 kg soil sample was taken of the topoil and bulk density was sampled using standard 100cc rings. The extremely rocky surface of several sites made sampling difficult and in one case (WC05) sampling was abandoned for this reason. Standard laboratory procedures were applied to determine soil physico-chemical properties. The soil data acquired in both field and laboratory were entered in a standard NSSC soil database format consistent with the developing soil database for Bhutan.

Preliminary linear and non-linear regression analysis was used to explore statistical relationships between the variables recorded by VegClass and the full range of soil properties. Only correlates with P < 0.05 were considered for potential indicator value. Under conditions where single attribute correlations may carry very limited information, improvements in predictive value can be explored through multidimensional scaling (MDS) of defined composite attribute sets. In our case we used MDS via the PATN multivariate software package (Belbin, 2008) with a Bray-Curtis similarity measure and a semi-strong hybrid scaling (SSH) procedure (Belbin, 2008).

In many ecological studies, two or three-dimensional ordinations are commonly run to visualize the distribution sites on significant environmental gradients. In many such cases the first axis tends to account for more environmental variability than the others. For this reason, and because single axis rather than multiple axis solutions are better suited to correlative analyses, we extracted single axis values for each set of plant, soil and remotely sensed variables. Each set of axis scores for plant, soil and remote sensing was then regressed against the other in turn. We also applied SSH to a sub-set of six plant-based variables (species and PFT richness, species:PFT richness ratio, mean canopy height, basal area, litter depth) known from similar studies in other countries to correlate well with soil properties and faunal species richness (Gillison 2000, Gillison et al. 2003). Where significant correlates occur, it is then possible to compare the relative contribution of each variable to each axis in turn and thus identify those carrying best indicator value.

13. Towards an integrated survey method for assessing and mapping actual and potential biodiversity patterns in Bhutan

13.1 The need Traditional approaches to assessing and monitoring key elements of the natural resource are frequently subject to severe logistic constraints due to a statistical need for randomized sampling. Such an approach does not consider the fact that the distribution and performance of biota is essentially non-random, being driven by a hierarchy of environmental determinants such as light, water and nutrients and human interventions. A cost-effective survey methodology is therefore required that takes advantage of the known nature of this non-random distribution and does so in a way that improves environmental representativeness of species distribution.

Terrestrial surveys of land cover are centred on broadscale methods of vegetation classification that are frequently idiosyncratic and focus on vascular plant species and greatly simplified vegetation structure. Increasing evidence for global warming and human-related impact on plant and animal survival has created a demand for a harmonized approach to vegetation survey that includes plant-based (functional) attributes and more detailed elements of structure that together reflect adaptation to environmental change.

13.2 Integrated biodiversity assessment and monitoring The VegClass system has been applied in over 2000 sites worldwide. Results to date indicate that when species and PFTs are combined, their indicator value for biodiversity purposes is usually much higher than if they are used independently. The enhanced sensitivity to environmental variability provided by PFTs also confers a significant advantage both in assessing and monitoring environmental impact on biological elements of land cover. When soil properties and other site physical attributes are included in the data recording protocol, the combination of biophysical properties has been shown to provide a statistical basis for forecasting environmental impact on agricultural productivity using specific VegClass plant variables as well as remotely sensed attributes of and cover. Whereas this type of integrated approach may have been logistically limiting a decade ago, advances in modern technology now facilitate access to high resolution, spatially referenced databases that include climate and other key environmental data. These advances now provide a cost-effective means for integrated biodiversity survey (IBS). For computer-based, dynamic information frameworks of the kind under consideration for Bhutan this represents a paradigm shift in the way we do business in integrating resource-based data with, for example, modeling impacts of climate change scenarios on biodiversity and related physical resource elements such as water and soils.

13.3 IBS and spatial modeling for sustainable biodiversity management User-friendly GIS platforms and simplified spatial modeling procedures now make possible mapping-on-demand of actual and potential species distribution. Results from a recently completed survey of a key watershed (the Wangchhu) in Bhutan illustrate how this may be achieved. Based on the geolocated survey records of the Bhutanese national

58 flower the Blue Poppy (Mecanopsis grandis), a species of relatively restricted spatial distribution, a similarity map of ‘best’ habitat locations is indicated in Fig. 24. Fig. 25 on the other hand illustrates a similar example for a more widely distributed species. Such outcomes are readily testable and apart from highlighting known habitats, commonly indicate areas where a species of interest has not yet been recorded. Where IBS is management-feasible, a low-input, high-return approach of this kind has evident implications for biodiversity management including National Parks and biological corridors and for establishing a comprehensive database and modeling construct nationwide. As has been shown in Bhutan and elsewhere, the methodology can be applied in any country and is readily transferable.

______

Figure 24. Mapping potential habitats for a relatively restricted species the Bhutanese Blue Poppy based on records from rapid field survey on the Wangchhu watershed

Figure 25. Mapping potential habitats for a relatively wide-ranging tree species the Larch based on records from rapid field survey on the Wangchhu watershed

14. Acknowledgements

The detailed preparation for this survey undertaken by the Program Director Ms Karma Dema Dorji and staff of NSSC /SLMP is gratefully acknowledged. The Program Director of NBC, Dr Tashi Yangzome Dorji, and Dr Pema Wangda (RNR-RC, CoRRB) also kindly supported the survey with botanical and ecological personnel respectively. Prof. J. Richey, H. Greenberg and M. Sonessa from the University of Washington also kindly provided climate data for the numerical analyses. Funding support for this project was supplied by The World Bank, GEF, and DANIDA.

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64 ANNEX I

Ministry of Agriculture THE LAND COVER CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM FOR BHUTAN (Adopted during the data users consultation workshop, 2009)

CLASS SUB-CLASS CATEGORY SYMBO DESCRIPTION L FOREST CONIFEROUS FIR FCf Fir forest generally above 3000m; can include some (FC) juniper and taxus

MIXED FCm Mixed coniferous forest generally between 2500- CONIFER 3500m, can include juniper, hemlock, spruce, larch, taxus and a mix of broadleaf and coniferous species, where conifers dominate BLUE PINE FCb Blue pine forest generally between 1500-3000m, occasionally mixed with spruce, hemlock, juniper, maple, oak and birch. CHIR PINE FCc Chir pine forest generally between 700-2000m, occasionally with broadleaf species eg. oak. BROADLEAF (FB) HARDWOOD FB Hardwoods comprising over 80% by crown density. S HARDWOOD FBc Hardwoods mixed with 20-40% of conifers by S WITH crown density CONIFERS PLANTATION CONIFEROUS FPc Plantations of >50% coniferous species (FP)

BROADLEAF FPb Plantations of >50% broadleaf species SHRUB SH Any woody species less than 5 m in height including bushes. MEADOW PASTURE GP Areas of predominantly grassy vegetation or native meadow AGRICULTURE CHHUZHING AC Irrigated or rainfed paddy cultivated land (terraced) KAMZHING AK Land used for cultivating maize, potato and crops other than irrigated paddy MIXED AM Different types of land use often very small to map AGRICULTURE as individual land use class LAND HORTICULTURE APPLES HA Apple orchards CITRUS HC Citrus orchards

65 ARECANUT HAa Arecanut plantation CARDAMO HCf Cardamom under forest M HCo Cardamom in open land OTHERS HO Other fruit trees SETTLEMENT URBAN SU All municipal areas RURAL SR Villages and other small areas of concentrated settlement, often associated with small areas of agricultural land in between INDUSTRIAL SI Areas existing and designated for industrial purposes IMPERVIOUS SIS Airport, Helipad SURFACE PERPETUAL OS Areas permanently under snow cover SNOW/ GLACIERS ROCK ROCK RR Areas of rock outcrop and rocky barren lands, OUTCROP sometimes associated with sparse tree/scrub AREAS cover SCREE RS Deposits of sharp, angular gravels and small stone generally formed above tree line due to physical weathering (freeze and thaw) of rocks WATER LAKE WL Permanent natural collection of water such as BODY glacier lake RESERVOIR WRe Artificial storage of water such as dam RIVER WR Perennial flow of water including river bed MARSHY MA Poorly drained or waterlogged areas of AREAS permanent or semi permanent swamp or marsh DEGRADED LANDSLIDE DL Mass movement of soil and debris mainly due AREA to gravitational force GULLY DG Removable of soil by water from channels larger than rills more than 2 m wide and 1 m depth RAVINE DR Advanced stage of gully erosion with many secondary landslides more than 10 m wide

ANNEX II

LAND USE PLANNING PROJECT, BHUTAN Ministry of Agriculture THE LAND COVER CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM FOR BHUTAN (Used in the nationwide mapping of land cover at 1:50,000 during 1993/94)

CLASS SUB-CLASS CATEGORY SUB-CATEGORY SYMBOL CROWN*1 DESCRIPTION DENSITY

FOREST CONIFEROUS FIR FCf 1,2,3 Fir forest generally above 3000m; can include some juniper and (FC) taxus

MIXED CONIFER FCm Mixed coniferous forest generally between 2500-3500m, can include juniper, hemlock, spruce, larch, taxus and a mix of broadleaf and coniferous species, where conifers dominate

BLUE PINE FCb Blue pine forest generally between 1500-3000m, occasionally mixed with spruce, hemlock, juniper, maple, oak and birch.

CHIR PINE FCc Chir pine forest generally between 700-2000m, occasionally with broadleaf species eg. oak.

BROADLEAF (FB) HARDWOODS FB Hardwoods comprising over 80% by crown density. 1,2,3 HARDWOODS FBc Hardwoods mixed with 20-40% of conifers by crown density WITH CONIFERS

PLANTATION CONIFEROUS FPc 1,2,3 Plantations of >50% coniferous species (FP)

BROADLEAF FPb Plantations of >50% broadleaf species

SCRUB FOREST FS NA Areas of scrubland and scrub forest dominated by woody (FS) species

67 PASTURE NATURAL PASTURES PN Areas of predominantly grassy vegetation or native meadow (PN) NA

IMPROVED PASTURES PI Managed areas of improved pasture (PI)

AGRICULTURE WETLAND IRRIGATED MOUNTAIN AWim NA Irrigated, bench terraced, cultivated land (chhuzhing) - rice CULTIVATION (AWi) SLOPE based cropping system : may include some small pasture and (AW) orchard areas : on mountain slope sites

VALLEY AWiv As above but in a valley bottom site BOTTOM

FRINGE AWif As above but situated on the foot slopes running down to the Indian plains in the southern border area

RAINFED MOUNTAIN AWrm NA Rain fed, bench terraced, cultivated land (chhuzhing) - rice (AWr) SLOPE based cropping system : may include some small pasture and orchard areas : on a mountain slope site

VALLEY AWrv As above but in a valley bottom site BOTTOM

FRINGE AWrf As above but situated on the foot slopes running down to the Indian plains in the southern border area

DRYLAND TERRACED MOUNTAIN ADtm NA Rain fed, terraced(*2), cultivated land (kamzhing) - maize and CULTIVATION (ADt) SLOPE potato based cropping system : may include some small pasture (AD) and orchard areas : on a mountain slope site

VALLEY ADtv As above but in a valley bottom site BOTTOM

FRINGE ADtf As above but situated on the foot slopes running down to the Indian plains in the southern border area

UNTERRACED MOUNTAIN ADum NA Rain fed, un terraced (*2), cultivated land (kamzhing) – maize (ADu) SLOPE and potato based cropping system : may include some small orchard areas : on a mountain slope site

VALLEY ADuv As above but in a valley bottom site BOTTOM

68 FRINGE ADuf As above but situated on the foot slopes running down to the Indian plains in the southern border area

TSERI MOUNTAIN ATm NA Areas which are not used permanently and which are left fallow (AT) SLOPE for a number of years between periods of cultivation : often used for grazing during fallow periods : on a mountain slope site

VALLEY ATv As above but in a valley bottom site BOTTOM

FRINGE ATf As above but situated on the foot slopes running down to the Indian plains in the southern border area

MIXED CULTIVATED MOUNTAIN AMm NA Areas where irrigated or rain fed cultivated land and tseri LAND (AM) SLOPE combine in a complex mix : often associated with settlement and small orchard/kitchen garden/pasture areas : on a mountain slope site

VALLEY AMv As above but in a valley bottom site BOTTOM

FRINGE AMf As above but situated on the foot slopes running down to the Indian plains in the southern border area

HORTICULTURE ORCHARDS APPLES HOa NA Apple orchards (HO)

CITRUS HOc Citrus orchards

STONEFRUITS HOs Stone fruit orchards

LITCHI HOl Litchi orchards

OTHERS HOo Other orchard crops

PLANTATIONS CARDAMOM HPc NA Cardamom plantations (HP) ARECA HPa Areca plantations

GINGER HPg Ginger plantations

OTHERS HPo Other plantation crops (bar timber)

69 SETTLEMENT SE NA Towns, villages and other small areas of concentrated settlement, often associated with small areas of agricultural land and gardens

OTHERS PERPETUAL SNOW/ OS NA These areas occupy the northern part of Bhutan upwards of GLACIERS about 4800m

ROCK OUTCROP AREAS OR Areas of rock outcrop and rocky barren lands, sometimes associated with sparse tree/scrub cover

WATER SPREADS OW Wide rivers and lakes

MARSHY AREAS OM Poorly drained or waterlogged areas of permanent or nearly permanent swamp or marsh

LANDSLIPS AND OPEN OL Areas in which there is clear evidence of erosion, natural or ERODED AREAS man-made, including landslips and scree slopes PLEASE NOTE:- NA = Not applicable *1 The crown density (cd) classification at 1:50,000 is expressed as a percentage of the forest area covered by the tree crowns: Map Legend: -1 10-40% Crown density - sparse -2 40-80% crown density - moderately dense -3 > 80% crown density - dense

For example: the crown density legend for a hardwood with 25% conifer forest and a cd of 70% will appear on the map as follows : FBc-2

(Note that 'forest' with a crown density of < 10% is defined as 'degraded' in the Forestry Services Division and, within this classification system, falls under the sub-class scrub forest - FS).

70 ANNEX III

List of data variables recorded for each 40x5m VegClass transect

Site feature Descriptor Data type Location reference Location Alpha-numeric Date (dd-mm-year) Alpha-numeric Plot number (unique) Alpha-numeric Country Text Observer/s Observer/s by name Text Physical Latitude deg.min.sec. or decimal deg. (GPS) Alpha-numeric Longitude deg.min.sec. or decimal deg. (GPS) Alpha-numeric Elevation (m.a.s.l.) (aneroid or GPS) Numeric Aspect (compass. deg.) (perpendicular to plot) Numeric Slope percent (perpendicular to plot) Numeric Soil depth (cm) Numeric Soil type (US Soil taxonomy) Text Parent rock type Text Litter depth (cm) Numeric Terrain position Text Site history General description and land-use / landscape Text context Vegetation structure Vegetation type Text Mean canopy height (m) Numeric Canopy cover percent (total) Numeric Canopy cover percent (woody) Numeric# Canopy cover percent (non-woody) Numeric# Cover-abundance (Domin) - bryophytes Numeric Cover-abundance woody plants < 2 m tall Numeric Cover-abund. of lichens (crustose, fruticose) Numeric Basal area (mean of 3) (m2ha-1); (Proposed) Numeric Furcation index (mean and cv % of 20) Numeric Profile sketch of 40x5m plot (scannable) Digital Plant taxa Family Text* Genus Text* Species Text* Botanical authority Text* If exotic (binary, presence-absence) # Numeric Plant Functional Type Plant functional elements (36) combined Text according to published rule set. Quadrat listing Unique taxa and PFTs per quadrat Numeric (for each of 8 (5x5m) or more quadrats) # Photograph Hard copy and digital image # JPEG

* Where identified, usually with voucher specimens, used directly in numerical analysis

Biodiversity in Bhutan: A preliminary synthesis

Andrew N. Gillison

Center for Biodiversity Management P.O. Box 120, Yungaburra Queensland 4884, Australia

Email: [email protected]; [email protected] www.cbmglobe.org

12 September 2012

Part II

Biodiversity Baseline Survey of the Wangchhu Watershed

Section”A” Alpine zone

2.600 to 4.600m elevn.

1. Executive summary

1. Because of its size, the watershed was divided initially into three operational sections: “A” High elevation (3,000-5,000m), “B” (1,500-3,000m) and “C” 150 – 1,500m). Here we report the results of survey “A” covering 2,600 to 4,500m. 2. The survey was coordinated jointly through NSSC by a land management and a soil survey specialist and a consulting biodiversity specialist (CBM). Technical assistance was provided by two field botanists (NBC, RSPN) and a plant ecologist (RNR-RC, CoRRB). Field support was arranged through a local trekking company. 3. Aside from data acquisition, the survey was designed to consolidate in-field training for trainees from the previous training workshop – in the present case the soil specialist, plant ecologist and two new trainees (field botanists). 4. Survey design and general methodology are described in Part I (3). Due to the complex logistic nature of the survey, avifauna (presence only) data were recorded only in each general site location. 5. Geomorphological observations of the current status of glacial dynamics, provided valuable additional information about the underlying physical structure of the survey area and tend to confirm increased rates of glacial melting observed elsewhere in the Eastern Himalaya. Geo-located VegClass transects established on the moraines provide sensitive reference points for monitoring future changes. 6. Preliminary statistical analyses confirm the primary influence of climate (temperature, precipitation, seasonality) on plant biodiversity and to a lesser degree soil properties. Due to their novel application in vegetation survey, lichens are given added treatment given their predictive value for other soil and vegetation attributes 7. As this is the first of a three-part survey, the analyses here provide only a limited basis for establishing biodiversity indicators. The predictive nature of these indicators will be assessed within the context of the complete data set from the entire Wangchhu gradsect in a separate submission. For this reason only very tentative conclusions can be drawn from this initial survey. 8. The biophysical data (land cover, land use, vegetation, soils, geomorphology) recorded from this survey are, nonetheless, a significant contribution to the biodiversity and land use component of the developing DrukDIF.

73 Acronyms and Bhutanese terms: (see Part I)

Contents Page 1. Executive summary 2 2. Introduction 5 3. Team structure 5 4. Methodology 6 5. Results 6 6. Fauna 18 7. Soils 22 8. Plant – soil relationships 24 9. Discussion 25 10. Conclusions 27 11. References 28

List of tables

Table 1. Team membership and area of expertise 5 Table 2. Transect locations and site physical properties 6 Table 3. Temperature and annual precipitation 7 Table 4. Vegetation typology and land use 8 Table 5. Summary of species, PFTs and PFC 8 Table 6. Vegetation structural features 9 Table 7. Cover-abundance scores of lichens 10 Table 8. List of birds observed during survey ‘A’ upper Wangchhu watershed 19 Table 9a. Soil properties 23 Table 9b. Soil properties (cont.) 23

List of Figures

Fig. 1. The “A” team. Alpine survey of the upper Wangchhu L->R Page from back: Dorji Gyaltshen, Tshering Dorji, Tandin Wangdi, Rebecca Pradhan, Andrew Gillison, Hans van Noord. At Jhomolhari base camp (4,300m elevn.) 6 Fig. 2. a. Landform at Jhomolhari base camp; b. Frontal moraine, Jichu Drakey (WC04); c. Data collection on near-vertical slopes (WC03); d. Birch (Betula utilis) forest on 70% slope on shallow (40cm) soils (WC02); e. Juniper (Juniperus pseudosabina) and Salix daltonia remnant forest (WC09); f. Disturbed mixed conifer-broadleaf (Abies, Betula, Juniperus) and Rhododendron and Rubus understorey on 90% slope (WC13). 11

Fig. 3. a. Mature stand of Larch (Larix griffithiana) and Fir (Abies densa) (WC16); b. Regenerating Birch (Betula utilis) forest with Acer, Larixand dense herb layer (WC14); c. Mixed conifer/broadleaf

74 forest with understorey of dying bamboo (Thamnocalamus spathiflorus) (WC15); d. Cultivated Buckwheat field (WC21); e. Foliose lichen on Acer pectinatum; f. Crustose lichens; g. Fruticose lichen on Larix griffithiana. 12 Fig. 4. a. High elevation (4600m) megaherb Rheum nobile (Polygonaceae) (Photo HvN); b. Megaherbs Senecio amplexicaulis (Asteraceae) and Heracleum nepalensis (Apiaceae). c. Mixed PFTs and leaf types (Alliaceae, Asteraceae, Poaceae, Ranunculaceae, Rosaceae, Scrophulariaceae); d. Nanophyllous Cotoneaster sp. (Rosaceae). e. Nanophyllous succulent (Sedum sp.) 13 Fig. 5. a. Birch (B. utilis) subject to cascading rocks (WC02). b. Hillside ‘scalds’ possibly due to overgrazing and unstable substrate 4300m. c. Multiple successional patterns, Salix, Juniperus, Betula on unstable slopes 4000m. d. Oldgrowth conifer-broadleaf forest Parochhu gorge 3500m. e. Cool, moist mixed conifer-broadleaf forest with dense internal cover of ferns, bryophytes and lichens (WC16) 3400m. f. Dense groundlayer of Urticaceae (Pilea, Elatostema) and Asteraceae (WC16). 14 Fig. 6. Plant species diversity regressed against PFT diversity 15 Fig. 7. Fruticose lichens and mean canopy height 16 Fig. 8. Fruticose lichens and plant litter 16 Fig. 9. Foliose lichens and bryophyte cover-abundance 17 Fig. 10. Foliose lichens and plant species diversity 17 Fig. 11. Foliose lichens and PFT diversity 18 Fig. 12. Common Fauna: a. Yaks (Bos grunniens) >3500m; b. Blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) 4300m; c. Himalayan Marmot (Marmota himalayana) 4300m; d. Grey Langur (Presbytis entellus) 3200m; e. Azure Sapphire (Heliophorus androcles) 3000m; f. Common Copper (Lycaena phlaeas) 3000m; g. Blue Pansy (Precis orithrya) 2600m. 21 Fig. 13. Soil pH and frequency of PFTs with greenstem photosynthesis (green exernal bark cortex (ct)) across transects 24 Fig. 14. Vegetation and soil relationships expressed via ordination 25

Annexes

I Vascular plant species listed according to transect 29 II List of Plant Functional types (PFTs) recorded per transect 30 III Overview of soil characteristics of the 22 sampled transects 31

2. Introduction

This the first of three connected survey reports that, when combined, will complete a framework for further resource assessment of the Wangchhu watershed as part of the developing DrukDIF. For operational reasons, because of its size, the watershed was divided into three sections: “A” High elevation (3,000-5,000m), “B” Medium elevation (1,500-3,000m) and “C” Low elevation (150 – 1,500m). Here we report the results of survey “A” that covered an elevational range of 2,600 to 4,900m. Experience in similar surveys in other countries shows that predictive models derived from observations and statistical analyses of the relationship between plants and animals and their physical environment depend largely on the environmental context. (Gillison and Liswanti, 2004) As sampling of the distribution range of species improves, so too does the predictive basis for modelling species performance along key environmental gradients. Outcomes from this report are therefore most likely to be further modified by the analysis of data yet to be acquired from the survey of additional environments in sections “B” and “C”. For this reason, the report includes only a tentative account of the outcomes of the statistical analyses of the present survey. A complete account of statistical and exploratory data analysis will be provided as a separate report for the three survey sections. This study follows logically from earlier development in the DrukDIF11 in which the intended survey of Section “A” of the Wangchhu watershed is described within a broader operational and environmental context.

3. Team structure

The multidisciplinary expertise of the six-member survey team ( Table 1., Fig. 1) greatly facilitated an integrated aproach to survey. While each team member contributed specific expertise in the recording of field data, the survey was designed and coordinated jointly by NSSC and CBM.

Table 1. Team membership and area of expertise

No. Name Institution Task/Expertise 1 Tshering Dorji NSSC Soil specialist 2 Dorji Gyaltshen RNR-RC, CoRRB Plant ecologist 3 Tandin Wangdi NBC Botanist 4 Rebecca Pradhan RSPN Botanist/ ornithologist 5 Hans van Noord NSSC Geomorphologist 6 Andrew N. Gillison CBM Biodiversity specialist

11 Gillison, A.N. (2009) . Developing a Functional Landscape-Scale Land Cover, Biodiversity, Hydrology Modeling Framework (DrukDIF) for the SLMP areas of Bhutan. Phase I: Rapid Natural Resource Assessment Along Land Cover and Land Use Gradients. June 5 2009.

Figure 1. The “A” team. Alpine survey of the upper Wangchhu L->R from back: Dorji Gyaltshen, Tshering Dorji, Tandin Wangdi, Rebecca Pradhan, Andrew Gillison, Hans van Noord. At Jhomolhari base camp (4,300m elevn.)

4. Methodology (see Part I)

5. Results

5.1 The survey gradsect: The team sampled 22 transects that, apart from accommodating a primary elevational (thermal) gradient, included a range of natural vegetation cover and a land use intensity gradients ranging from forest exploitation and sedentary agriculture to alpine grazing systems (Tables 2,3,4). The steepness of the terrain combined with changing weather patterns limited access to higher elevations, particularly in forested locations in steep gorges with near vertical slopes and rocky terrain. Nonetheless, several transects were sampled along slopes > 70%. Plant species and PFT diversity together with vegetation structural features are listed in Tables 5,6. An example of how all recorded vascular plant species are tabulated is given in Annex I and PFTs in Annex II. A cross-section of habitat types and lichens is displayed in Figs. 2,3.

Table 2. Transect locations and site physical properties

Elevn Slope Aspect Transect Location Lat. S Long. E (m) % Deg. WC01 Jangotang River (Parochhu) 27.78277 89.34315 4105 2 215 WC02 Jangatang (Parochhu) Near Jhomolhari Base camp 27.78162 89.33900 4141 75 50 WC03 Jangathang river, near Jhomolhari base camp 27.78205 89.34169 4121 84 155 WC04 Jichu Drake, frontal moraine 27.79916 89.35176 4248 45 200 WC05 Jitcha Drake (soil-less) morainal ridge. 27.80207 89.35950 4350 20 185

77 Elevn Slope Aspect Transect Location Lat. S Long. E (m) % Deg. WC06 Hillside above Jitchu Drake lake. Yak herder hut 27.80232 89.35453 4401 35 280 WC07 Below WC5, Yak herder's hut, nr J. Drake. glacier lake 27.80144 89.35369 4389 30 245 WC08 About 500m NE of Jhomolhari base camp 27.78460 89.34583 4039 5 200 WC09 Near Jangothang river, Jhomolhari base camp 27.78405 89.34341 4134 40 150 WC10 Jhomolhari base camp near Jangothang river 27.78183 89.34199 4084 0 0 WC11 Near Jangothang river, Jhomolhari base camp 27.78079 89.34220 4084 4 125 WC12 Jamphu village 27.74684 89.29714 3865 30 120 WC13 Between Jamphu and Soi Thangtangka campsite 27.73254 89.29136 3825 90 150 WC14 Below Soe Thangthangka campsite 27.70538 89.28930 3647 20 160 WC15 Near junction to Soe Soe Yaksa 27.69880 89.29124 3500 75 290 WC16 Ca. 3km downstream from Soe Yaksa bridge 27.68598 89.27512 3405 10 310 WC17 Below Shingkarab (500m S) 27.64218 89.25940 3100 45 100 WC18 3km S from Shinkarab towards Shana 27.63088 89.25492 2992 22 120 WC19 Ca. 2km North of Shana 27.61720 89.25948 2939 17 75 WC20 500m E of Gunitsawa Army camp 27.59274 89.29328 2811 25 200 WC21 Chubisa 27.58545 89.29440 2732 5 270 WC22 Ca. 2km NW of Meni Zampa 27.54749 89.31267 2603 5 160

Table 3. Temperature and annual precipitation*

Transect Min temp Max temp Precip. °C °C mm yr-1 WC01 -18.3 12.4 343 WC02 -18.3 12.4 343 WC03 -18.3 12.4 343 WC04 -18.3 12.4 343 WC05 -18.3 12.4 340 WC06 -18.3 12.4 340 WC07 -18.3 12.4 343 WC08 -18.3 12.4 343 WC09 -18.3 12.4 343 WC10 -18.3 12.4 343 WC11 -18.3 12.4 343 WC12 -17.5 13.0 375 WC13 -17.5 13.0 375 WC14 -17.3 13.0 387 WC15 -17.3 13.0 387 WC16 -15.6 14.2 453 WC17 -12.7 16.2 599 WC18 -12.7 16.2 599 WC19 -12.7 16.2 599 WC20 -11.7 16.8 663 WC21 -11.7 16.8 663 WC22 -14.4 14.7 541 * Derived from climate surface supplied by H. Greenberg UW

78 Table 4. Vegetation typology and land use

Transect Vegetation type and land use WC01 Low Salix shrubland WC02 Betula utilis forest - almost krummholz form. Dense herbaceous ground layer WC03 Mixed woody and herbaceous vegetation on old moraine face. WC04 Mixed woody but mostly herb cover. Rhododendron, Asteraceae, Cotoneaster WC05 Mixed herbaceous species with some Rhododendron, Myricaria, Ephedra WC06 Mixed shrubland and alpine meadow WC07 Alpine meadow, mostly herbaceous WC08 Alpine meadow dominated by Senecio amplexicaulis and Allium micrantha WC09 Remnant Juniper, Salix forest WC10 Herbaceous meadow dominated by Rumex nepalensis WC11 Alpine meadow, heavily grazed, dominance of cryptophytes WC12 Mixed conifer-broadleaf forest (Juniperus-Betula). Dense woody understorey WC13 Mixed Abies-Juniperus-Betula-Salix forest WC14 Regenerating Betula forest with Juniperus, Larix, Acer and dense herb ground layer WC15 Mixed conifer broadleaf forest; Abies, Betula, Acer WC16 Conifer-broadleaf tall forest; Larix, Betula, Acer WC17 Mixed broadleaf-conifer forest, Quercus, Abies, Betula WC18 Mixed broadleaf, conifer forest; Quercus, Tsuga, Picea, Acer,dense herb ground layer WC19 Mixed conifer-broadleaf forest, Spruce, blue pine, Oak, Maple, with dense understorey WC20 Conifer-broadleaf forest with dense regen Oak understorey WC21 Buckwheat crop being harvested for fodder WC22 Regenerating Pinus wallichiana on abandoned land

Table 5. Summary of species, PFTs and PFC

Transect Species PFTs Spp:PFT PFC WC01 70 55 1.27 342 WC02 55 47 1.17 284 WC03 63 45 1.40 292 WC04 48 38 1.26 218 WC05 23 21 1.10 172 WC06 64 38 1.68 208 WC07 34 25 1.36 96 WC08 48 35 1.37 220 WC09 62 44 1.41 236 WC10 54 42 1.29 218 WC11 32 27 1.19 150 WC12 52 42 1.24 258 WC13 60 45 1.33 246 WC14 50 43 1.16 246 WC15 35 33 1.06 216 WC16 38 38 1.00 216 WC17 28 28 1.00 186 WC18 55 46 1.20 248 WC19 39 35 1.11 232 WC20 38 33 1.15 190 WC21 15 11 1.36 88 WC22 54 44 1.23 230

Table 6. Vegetation structural features *

Transect Ht CCTot CCWdy CCNwdy Bryo WPlts Litt BA MFI FICV WC01 2.00 98 95 3 9 5 Lit 3.00 100.00 0.00 WC02 5.00 90 80 10 3 7 0.20 24.00 87.70 16.93 WC03 0.70 75 30 45 6 7 5.00 1.00 100.00 0.00 WC04 0.40 40 10 30 4 5 0.01 0.10 100.00 0.00 WC05 0.20 10 1 9 1 4 0.20 0.01 100.00 0.00 WC06 0.40 98 50 48 7 6 0.01 1.00 100.00 0.00 WC07 0.10 98 5 93 1 7 0.50 0.01 100.00 0.00 WC08 0.50 98 2 96 3 6 0.10 0.01 100.00 0.00 WC09 6.00 85 60 25 2 9 0.00 37.33 85.50 27.90 WC10 0.80 98 2 96 3 7 5.00 1.00 100.00 0.00 WC11 0.05 95 1 94 1 3 1.00 0.01 100.00 0.00 WC12 12.00 99 70 29 6 7 0.10 12.00 64.40 48.13 WC13 8.00 90 60 30 6 8 1.50 20.67 49.30 90.27 WC14 10.50 95 90 5 5 8 2.00 35.33 44.25 73.71 WC15 35.00 95 90 5 4 8 2.00 26.00 46.90 101.68 WC16 35.00 90 88 2 5 8 7.00 62.67 6.50 195.08 WC17 17.00 99 95 4 8 9 6.00 24.33 68.25 51.49 WC18 45.00 98 90 8 5 9 15.00 36.67 44.00 96.75 WC19 16.00 95 90 5 6 8 12.00 50.67 79.50 51.37 WC20 17.00 95 90 5 9 6 15.00 17.33 15.00 244.23 WC21 0.90 98 0 98 0 1 7.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 WC22 2.00 95 60 35 5 1 0.20 1.00 73.25 59.44 * Ht = Mean canopy height (m); Cctot= Total canopy projective foliage cover percent; Ccwdy = projective foliage cover percent of woody plants; CCNwdy, PFC of non-woody plants; Bryo = cover-abundance of bryophytes; Wplts = cover-abundance of woody plants <2m tall; Litt = plant litter depth (cm); BA = basal area of all woody plants (m2ha-1); MFI = mean furcation index; FICV = coefficient of variation percent of FI. (See also Part I Annex II for complete listing of site variables)

c Table 7. Cover-abundance scores of lichens

Transect No. Fruticose Crustose Foliose WC01 0 3 2 WC02 4 1 4 WC03 1 6 5 WC04 4 2 1 WC05 4 4 0 WC06 1 1 3 WC07 1 6 2 WC08 0 7 4 WC09 1 2 3 WC10 0 5 4 WC11 0 0 0 WC12 2 2 6 WC13 6 5 6 WC14 7 5 6 WC15 6 4 6 WC16 5 4 6 WC17 8 4 7 WC18 9 3 7 WC19 8 5 6 WC20 3 2 6 WC21 0 0 0 WC22 0 4 1

81 a b

c d

e f

Figure 2. a. Landform at Jhomolhari base camp; b. Frontal moraine, Jichu Drakey (WC04); c. Data collection on near-vertical slopes (WC03); d. Birch (Betula utilis) forest on 70% slope on shallow (40cm) soils (WC02); e. Juniper (Juniperus pseudosabina) and Salix daltonia remnant forest (WC09); f. Disturbed mixed conifer-broadleaf (Abies, Betula, Juniperus) and Rhododendron and Rubus understorey on 90% slope (WC13).

82 a b

c d

e f g

Figure 3. a. Mature stand of Larch (Larix griffithiana) and Fir (Abies densa) (WC16); b. Regenerating Birch (Betula utilis) forest with Acer, Larix and dense herb layer (WC14); c. Mixed conifer/broadleaf forest with understorey of dying bamboo (Thamnocalamus spathiflorus) (WC15); d. Cultivated Buckwheat field (WC21); e. Foliose lichen on Acer pectinatum; f. Crustose lichens on rock face; g. Fruticose lichen on Larix griffithiana.

83 b

a c

d e

Figure 4. a. Variation in leaf types. High elevation (4600m) megaherb Rheum nobile (Polygonaceae) (Photo HvN); b. Megaherbs Senecio amplexicaulis (Asteraceae) and Heracleum nepalensis (Apiaceae). c. Mixed PFTs and leaf types (Alliaceae, Asteraceae, Poaceae, Ranunculaceae, Rosaceae, Scrophulariaceae); d. Nanophyllous Cotoneaster sp. (Rosaceae). e. Nanophyllous succulent (Sedum sp.)

84 a b

c d

Figure 5. a. Birch (B. utilis) subject to cascading rocks (WC02). b. Hillside ‘scalds’ possibly due to overgrazing and unstable substrate 4300m. c. Multiple successional patterns, Salix, Juniperus, Betula on unstable slopes 4000m. d. Oldgrowth conifer-broadleaf forest Paro Chhu gorge 3500m. e. Cool, moist mixed conifer-broadleaf forest with dense internal cover of ferns, bryophytes and lichens (WC16) 3400m. f. Dense groundlayer of Urticaceae (Pilea, Elatostema) and Asteraceae (WC16).

85 5.2 Plant species and plant functional type diversity Of 1045 vascular plant species recorded during this section of the survey, approximately 577 have been identified so far as unique species. It is anticipated this figure is likely to decrease by a further 5 percent as further indentification proceeds (NBC, RSPN). The team recorded 357 unique (species-independent) PFTs. Although mean annual precipitation is relatively low (<500m), at elevations between approximately 4100 – 5000m, low temperatures combined with frequent mist provide conditions consistent with the occurrence of a wide range of leaf size classes ranging from picophyll (<2mm2) to macrophyll (36,400 mm2) (the latter belonging to so-called ‘megaherbs’) Fig. 4.

Patterns of species and PFT richness and composition are closely related to successional stages of vegetation that, in turn, is influenced by a combination of land use pressure and the stability of the substrate. Even in apparently well established Birch forests, cascading rock debris is frequently intercepted by trees ( Fig. 5. a). At the broader scale successional patterns are readily visible (Fig. 5.b,c). In the better protected ravines of the larger waterways, climax or oldgrowth forest has a better chance of development (Fig. 5 d) and understorey structure is manifestly richer in bryophytes and lichens (Fig. 5 e). Under these cool, moist environments herbaceous ground cover proliferates (Fig. 5 f).

When species richness (diversity) is regressed against PFT richness the highly significant outcome (P< 0.0001, RSq(adj.) 0.845) (Fig. 6) allows readily prediction of species richness from more readily determined PFT richness. For future assessment and monitoring purposes this may be of benefit where expertise is not at hand to identify species. The highly linear response also suggests a high level of observer consistency.

Figure 6. Plant species diversity regressed against PFT diversity

86 5.3 Lichens as potential biodiversity indicators As the use of lichens as biodiversity indicators is relatively novel with respect to the VegClass system, the results of the present survey are reported here as a matter of interest. With additional data from surveys of the remaining sections of the Wangchhu watershed predictive values may change. When results from different team members were compared, observer consistency was deemed adequate in estimating cover- abundance values of the three major classes of lichens (fruticose, crustose and foliose, Fig 3. e,f,g). Of the three classes of lichens, fruticose and foliose lichens provided the most promising indicators (Figs 7 -11).

Figure 7. Fruticose lichens and mean canopy height

Figure 8. Fruticose lichens and plant litter 87

Figure 9. Foliose lichens and bryophyte cover-abundance

Figure 10. Foliose lichens and plant species diversity

Figure 11. Foliose lichens and PFT diversity

From the above figures, fruticose lichens were sigificantly correlated with species:PFT ratio (P< 0.004), mean canopy height (P< 0.0001), basal area (P< 0.0001) and plant litter depth (P< 0.0001). foliose lichens showed a positive linear response to projective crown cover percent of woody plants (P< 0.0001) and a negative linear response to projective crown cover percent of non-woody plants (P< 0.018). Curvilinear (quadratic) response of foliose lichens was exhibited with bryophytes (P< 0.0001), species richness (P< 0.002), PFT richness (P< 0.007). Lichens were only weakly correlated with soil properties. Fruticose and foliose lichens were correlated most closely with soil pHH20 (P< 0.011 and P< 0.001 respectively).

6. Fauna

As no systematic survey of fauna was undertaken, the observations contained in this section are essentially opportunistic, recorded as time and weather conditions permitted. In the opionion of RSPN ornithologist R. Pradhan who has wide experience in the alpine area, the species listed in Table 8 represent a reasonable cross-section of the alpine avifauna.

By far the dominant faunal influence on the alpine ecosystem is that of the grazing animal. As with plants, the distribution of herbivorous species corresponds closely with

89 thermal gradients – as reflected in elevation. Below 3500m domestic livestock dominate the valley floors and footslopes while above 3500m domesticated Yaks (Bos grunniens) are the main driving influence, associated to a lesser degree with Blue Sheep (Pseudois nayaur) and domestic pack animals – mainly mules. Other mammals included the Himalayan Marmot (Marmota himalayana) that was observed occupying frontal moraine screes (4300m) and at lower elevations Grey Langur (Presbytis entellus) 2800m (Fig. 12).

We observed considerable butterfly activity, especially between 2600 and 3400m, possibly as a result of unseasonally mild weather conditions. Among the most common occurrences were the Azure Sapphire (Heliophorus androcles), Common Copper (Lycaena phlaeas) and Blue Pansy (Precis orithrya). (Fig. 12).

Table 8. List of birds observed during survey ‘A’ upper Wangchhu watershed* (R. Pradhan) Zhangothang Soe Yaksha Shinkarap Gunichawa Sl. English Name Scientific Name Confluence no. 4093-4800m 3578-4093m 3147- 3578m 2730-3578m

1. Snow Partridge Lerwa lerwa 2 with chicks

Dark breasted Carpodacus 2. 2 Rosefinch nipalensis 3. Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos 1 Chough Yellow Pyrrhocorax 4. 100 Approx, 10 billed graculus Grey- backed Lanius 5. 6 with 5 juv. 4 with 4 juv. 3 with 2 juv. 8 with 6 juv. Shrike tephronotus Oriental Turtle Streptopelia 6. 6 2 8 12 Dove orientalis Ibidorhyncha 7. Ibisbill 3 3 struthersii Blue Whistling Myophonus 8. 1 1 1 5 Thrush caeruleus Phylloscopus 9. Smoky Warbler 1 2 fuligiventer Phylloscopus 10. Dusky Warbler 2 3 with 1 juv fuscatus Asian House 11. Delichon dasypus 16 7 Martin 12. White Wagtail Motacilla alba 3 Fire-tailed Aethopyga 13. 1 Sunbird ignicauda Slaty-backed Ficedula 14. 1 Female Flycatcher hodgsonii Eurasian 15. Cuculus canorus 1 Cuckoo

90 Zhangothang Soe Yaksha Shinkarap Gunichawa Sl. English Name Scientific Name Confluence no. 4093-4800m 3578-4093m 3147- 3578m 2730-3578m Black-faced 16. Laughing Gurrulax affinis 3 thrush White- winged Mycerobas 17. 4 Grosbeak carnipes Red-headed Pyrrhula 18. 4 Bullfinch erythrocephala Heterophasia 19. Rufous Sibia 2 10 3 capistrata Grey-creasted 20. Parus dichrous 5 Tit Spotted Nucifraga 21. 1 nutcracker caryocatactes Rufous bellied Dendrocopos 22. 1 woodpecker hyperythrus Hypsipetes 23. Black Bulbul 7 with 3 juv. 3 leucocephalus Chestnut-tailed 24. Minla strigula 3 Minla Fire-tailed Myzornis 25. 1 Myzornis pyrrhoura White- collared Tardus 26. 1 1 Blackbird albocinctus Grey-Winged 27. Turdus boulboul 1M+1F Blackbird Green- backed Parus 28. 2 3 Tit monticolus Yellow-billed Urocissa 29. 1 Blue Magpie flavirostris Stripe throated 30. Yuhina gularis 10 Yuhina 31. Russet sparrow Passer rutilans 2 11 Rufous- vented Yuhina 32. 9 Yuhina occipitalis White- throated Garrulax 33. 20 Laughingthrush albogularis Spotted Garrulax 34. 2 Laughingthrush ocellatus Lemon-rumped Phylloscopus 35 1 Warbler chloronotus * Observations in general surroundings of transects.

c d

e f g

Figure 12. Common Fauna: a. Yaks (Bos grunniens) >3500m; b. Blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) 4300m; c. Himalayan Marmot (Marmota himalayana) 4300m; d. Grey Langur (Presbytis entellus) 3200m; e. Azure Sapphire (Heliophorus androcles) 3000m; f. Common Copper (Lycaena phlaeas) 3000m; g. Blue Pansy (Precis orithrya) 2600m.

7. Soils

[ H van Noord, T. Dorji ]

The soils sampled clearly reflect the influence of a highly dynamic slope environment. First, soil depth rarely exceeds 40cm. Only below 3000m a.s.l. deeper profiles were described with depths up to 85cm. Second, it has to be noted that the soils were sampled using a standard soil auger, thus limiting the possibility to sample and describe deeper profiles due to the high stoniness of the soils. The nature of the profiles suggests it is unlikely that the use of soil pits would have improved soil description significantly. The shallow soil profile development is confirmed by the abundance of A-C profiles, indicating young soils with recurrent truncation of the top soil by active slope processes (erosion, mass movement). Relatively few profiles have a B horizon development and even then not very pronounced. The organic soil profile as described by the litter (L) and fermentation layer (F) is mostly absent in the alpine soils, found only for Salix and Betula forest transects WC1 and WC2. At lower elevations the L and F layer increase markedly up to 7cm (Annex V)

Soil analytical data are listed in Tables 9a, 9b. Textures are predominantly coarse ranging from gravelly sand to sandy clay loam at extremes. The top soil is consistently humic loam and , changes to sandy loam only for the lowest three transects . Because of the high content of humic acids the top soils are very dark (10YR 2/2) and characterized by abundant roots. pH values (pH H20) range from 3.85 to 7.70. The higher values above 7 for WC4, 10 and 11 are striking and may be related to carbonatic rock fragments in either the glacial deposits (WC4) or alluvial deposits originating from the Jichu Drakey glacier area, where carbonates from the Chekha and Lingshi Klippen Formations could be present. The high pH values are combined with a very high base saturation level. The low pH values of 3.8 for WC15 and WC17 could be related to the leucogranite that forms the substratum for these soils and which tends to develop in more acidic profiles. The low pH values are also combined with very low base saturation levels. CEC values on average range between 25 to 45, with some exemptions with very low CEC values (WC1, WC4, WC11 and WC16). WC1 and 4 are on very coarse glacial deposits, WC11 is on a very young alluvial deposit and WC16 is a young debris fan with coarse sandy soils.

Most of the unconsolidated material in which the soils have developed is not in-situ and has been deposited by fluvial and fluvio-glacial processes, has been brought there by glacial action. Alternatively it may be a product of the combined effect of slope processes such as erosion and mass movement resulting in colluviation. The lithological composition is therefore varied with particles, stones and boulders of different rocks types present, but dominated by granites, gneisses, phyllitic quartzites and quartzites.

93 Table 9a. Soil properties

Transect pHKCL pHDelta Pbray C% N% K-Av Ca_Exch Mg-Exch K-Exch WC01 5.23 0.80 2.47 2.40 1.2576.66 4.62 0.57 0.28 WC02 4.60 0.56 4.28 14.000.59 182.94 20.86 2.70 0.84 WC03 4.65 0.70 2.48 5.80 0.2842.79 6.12 0.29 0.29 WC04 7.15 0.32 1.22 1.40 0.0535.59 6.08 0.05 0.12 WC05 * * * * * * * * * WC06 5.38 0.00 0.62 6.00 0.3694.57 7.25 0.90 0.49 WC07 5.23 0.00 1.43 10.400.57 441.34 8.34 1.61 1.78 WC08 5.17 0.00 5.99 6.60 0.43116.69 7.12 0.96 0.55 WC09 6.03 0.00 6.25 14.000.54 160.72 47.34 2.22 0.77 WC10 6.73 0.50 39.46 6.70 0.45230.98 36.15 1.59 1.03 WC11 7.18 0.62 3.43 0.80 0.0329.87 4.58 0.18 0.12 WC12 4.91 0.68 4.58 13.600.52 242.74 20.32 2.63 1.18 WC13 4.56 0.83 0.87 12.500.40 109.86 12.51 2.28 0.51 WC14 4.08 0.64 81.86 4.00 0.2344.28 1.98 0.22 0.16 WC15 2.95 0.94 11.6114.00 0.57 210.36 2.15 0.90 0.67 WC16 3.82 0.92 12.44 2.30 0.0946.15 0.94 0.13 0.15 WC17 2.86 0.99 67.6614.00 0.56 192.09 0.90 1.09 0.65 WC18 4.47 1.05 4.94 2.50 0.1667.43 4.55 0.22 0.22 WC19 3.84 0.71 1.03 9.50 0.3644.84 0.39 0.34 0.19 WC20 3.94 0.94 10.27 7.60 0.41140.08 5.63 1.08 0.64 WC21 4.87 0.92 70.30 2.70 0.14100.42 6.85 0.90 0.58 WC22 4.36 1.15 3.08 3.70 0.0841.48 2.65 0.52 0.27 * Site not sampled due to extreme stoniness

Table 9b. Soil properties

Transect Na-Exch TEB CEC-Am BS-AmO Sand% Silt% Clay% BulkDensity WC01 0.03 5.50 8.73 63.02 40.00 56.30 3.70 0.68 WC02 0.09 24.49 49.01 49.94 55.90 34.1010.00 0.31 WC03 0.04 6.74 15.22 44.25 77.80 16.50 5.70 1.05 WC04 0.03 6.28 2.87 218.59 82.00 14.10 3.90 * WC05 * * * * * * * * WC06 0.06 8.70 25.27 34.46 56.40 36.10 7.50 0.80 WC07 0.12 11.85 31.35 37.78 62.10 30.00 7.90 0.66 WC08 0.06 8.69 20.96 41.42 78.60 16.70 4.70 0.92 WC09 0.12 50.45 47.38 106.49 80.70 13.60 5.70 0.49 WC10 0.22 38.99 26.13 149.21 56.20 35.30 8.50 0.72 WC11 0.03 4.91 0.11 446.22 74.90 22.90 2.20 1.29 WC12 0.14 24.27 45.37 53.48 39.30 46.2014.50 0.66 WC13 0.05 15.35 40.51 37.92 80.30 13.30 6.40 0.33 WC14 0.02 2.38 14.05 16.99 71.30 22.70 6.00 1.08 WC15 0.09 3.81 51.23 7.43 62.70 31.10 6.20 0.40 WC16 0.06 1.28 9.51 13.38 84.40 11.40 4.20 1.14 WC17 0.08 2.72 46.31 5.87 78.90 16.70 4.40 0.58

94 Transect Na-Exch TEB CEC-Am BS-AmO Sand% Silt% Clay% BulkDensity WC18 0.03 5.02 13.55 37.08 75.90 20.80 3.30 0.69 WC19 0.03 0.95 43.62 2.18 41.70 41.6016.70 0.41 WC20 0.05 7.40 35.55 20.80 62.70 28.10 9.20 0.58 WC21 0.07 8.40 15.11 55.60 59.20 26.1014.70 1.14 WC22 0.03 3.47 14.57 23.84 52.30 29.3018.40 1.13 * Site not sampled due to extreme stoninenss

8. Plant – soil relationships

Plant species, PFT richness and vegetation structure were only weakly correlated with soil properties and then mainly with soil pH. Individual Plant functional elements (PFEs) on the other hand show a much stronger relationship with soil properties with about half of the PFEs being signficantly correlated with a subset of soil elements, mainly pH (Fig. 13), P, N, CEC, Base saturation, organic carbon and total N. While the significance of these relationships is being further explored, it is with the expectation that these correlations are likely to change with the addition of survey results from Sections B and C.

A linear regression of single-axis ordination scores of six key vegetation variables against single- axis ordination scores of all soil variables was statistically significant (Fig. 14). Vegetation structure contributed most to the soil ordination scores (Mean canopy height P< 0.0001; Basal area P< 0.0001; Litter depth P< 0,0001; Bryophyte cover-abundance P< 0.0001. Soil properties were poorly correlated with vegetation ordination scores, the main correlate being soil pHH20 P< 0.0001. With the exception of bryophyte cover-abundance and litter depth (P< 0.006 and P< 0,035 respectively), soil bulk density was not significantly correlated with any plant-based variable either singly or with ordination scores.

12 Rsq adj. 0.43 P < 0.002

Trees with (ct) green-stem photosynthesis -2 2345678 pH.KCL Figure 13. Soil pH and frequency of PFTs with greenstem photosynthesis (green external bark cortex (ct)) across transects

Figure 14. Vegetation and soil relationships expressed via ordination

9. Discussion

The highly dynamic nature of the alpine land forms combined with recent colluvial and fluvial processes almost certainly influences soil properties and resulting complex mosaics of vegetation types that are further modified by intensive land use especially grazing. Under these conditions but with the likely exceptions of heavily grazed meadow flats, soil bulk density has little apparent influence on plant performance. This runs counter to experience in tropical lowland ecosystems where soil-plant relationships tend to be much more stable and where bulk density is a significant determinant of both plant and animal biodiversity. The dynamic landscapes of the upper Wangchhu watershed especially the elevational ranges, may be responsible in part for the weak correlations detected between soils and plant-based attributes. Soil pH and to a lesser extent cation exchange capacity (CEC) are among the few soil properties correlated with certain vegetation structural elements and to a much lesser degree plant species and PFT diversity. While individual PFEs exhibit stronger correlates with soil properties (e.g. Fig. 6) there are, as yet, no evident explanations for these relationships. While it is tempting to speculate about causality, caution is indicated until further data come to hand through surveys ‘B’ and ‘C’ along the Wangchhu.

Initial field observations suggested slope and aspect might play a key role in determining plant diversity and vegetation structure. Apart from near-vertical (largely unsampled) slopes, this is not supported by numerical analysis that suggests such influence is secondary to primary thermal and secondary soil moisture gradients. Available annual rainfall data (‘precipitation’, Table 3) indicate the survey area lies within a low rainfall belt subject to periodic dessication. While this is

96 reflected in the plant functional adaptation to extremes of drought and thermal stress (above- ground succuence and below-ground storage organs of numerous cryptophytes), a more accurate representation of available moisture should include mist interception measurements. A consideration of elements of vegetation cover is clearly relevant to hydrological modeling as currently applied to the developing DrukDIF. While PFTs, PFEs and vegetation structure should, in principle, play a relevant part in the distribution of water within and across landscapes, it is not yet clear how these elements can be built in to process modeling of water transport in the upper Wangchhu watershed. A more enlightened framework may become evident with additional surveys further down the watershed. Tree rooting depth is one component of the DrukDIF hydrological modeling that was not measured in this section of the survey. From the few opportunities available to the team, it would seem rooting depth is closely correlated with measureable soil depth that, in turn, may be influenced by soil creep and colluvial and fluvial processes especially on unstable slopes.

A notable ecological feature of the vegetation was the observed extreme range of leaf size classes where large-leaved (macrophyll) ‘megaherbs’ occurred in close proximity to exceedingy small (picophyll) leaves. The disparity in leaf sizes clearly reflects differential plant adaptation to environmental extremes via varying combinations of plant functional elements. While there is no simple ecophysiological explanation for this phenomenon other than a response to locally varying conditions of atmospheric and soil moisture, the occurrence of macrophyllous leaves on so-called ‘megaherbs’ (Fig. 4) is consistent with similar areas elsewhere in the world that are subject to extremes of temperature and moisture availability (cf. Petasites in the Greater Caucasus, Archangelica ‘forests’ in Kamchatka, Fennoscandian ‘Rheum’, Stilbocarpa in the sub- antarctic convergence and Gunnera in the South American Andes).

Overall plant diversity recorded on this section of the Wangchhu watershed appears to be consistent with other observations in the Eastern Himalaya and the ‘Kanchenjunga Landscape’ (WWF and ICIMOD, 2001; Olson et al. 2001) although published accounts of plot-based records are rare. Highest alpha (within-plot) species diversity is most closely associated with conditions that appear to maximise niche-space, typically in scree slopes and meadow pastures. Under these conditions PFTs are also most diverse ranging from perennial cryptophytic (below-ground or geophytic) perennating organs to short- lived, therophytic annuals.

The application of lichen-based descriptors in a survey of this kind is relatively novel. Due to their inherently complex and often cryptic life form, the inclusion of lichens in most vegetation surveys tends to be avoided by mainstream ecologists. It is a different matter in the arctic where lichens are a relatively important vegetation component as well as a significant source of mammalian food. Because of some similarities in thermal extremes with high latitudes, and following the advice of a Russian colleague12 who had already trialled VegClass in the Siberian arctic, lichens were included in the present survey. The results speak for themselves (Figs. 7-11), with lichens clearly performing equally if not better than most standard VegClass descriptors as biodiversity indicators. The degree of success may be related to wide-ranging lichen cover-abundance that tends

12 Dr Pavel Krestov, Institute of Biology and Soil Science, Vladivostok

97 to peak in closed canopy conifer-broadleaf forests in protected gorges between 2800- 3800m (Table 7) under conditions of high ambient moisture.

10. Conclusions

While the results of the statistical analyses suggest a number of immediate conclusions, experience in surveys along elevational gradients in other countries strongly suggests such conclusions be witheld until additional data have been analysed from surveys “B’ and “C”. Nonetheless, a number of findings can be made highlighted as a result of the present survey.

First, as a practical test of a methodological framework, the survey methodology clearly satisfied the norms of cost-efficient survey design and implementation. Trainees quickly adapted to the rapid field recording technique and were able to record observations with a high level of repeatability, especially with respect to recording PFTs. This is reflected in Fig. 6 that shows a close correspondence between species and PFT diversity.

Second, the integration of both soil and vegetation components is a first for a survey in Bhutan. Such integration provides not only a common platform for identifying predictive relationships between biodiversity and soil nutrient availability (and thus potential agricultural productivity) but in so doing, provides a science-based approach to decision- making for adpative management. The plant-soil-landuse nexus also suggests a more meaningful input to hydrological and other process-based resource modeling than if survey data were restricted to soil or plant or landuse alone.

Third, the spatially-referenced, numerical data acquired from this survey are readily transferable to the developing DrukDIF as well as other spatial analytical platforms. The generic, industry-standard format of the VegClass data also facilitates comparison with data similarly collected in other countries. While the soil data are consistent with the developing national soil database for Bhutan, the plant-based data also offer a potentially useful complement to the developing National Forest Inventory that plans to include elements of biodiversity.

Finally, the current urgency surrounding the climate change debate and the related phenomenon of disappearing glaciers raises the question of establishing an effective knowledge baseline for first assessing and then monitoring change in dynamic alpine environments that, by their very nature, are highly vulnerable to climate change. Most monitoring procedures to date (e.g. for the Thorthormi glacier) focus on physical rather that biophysical reference points. By establishing a series of spatially-referenced transects on the Jichu Drakey glacier frontal moraine the team has documented fine-scale plant- based elements of biodiversity that are known to be highly sensitive to environmental change. Combined with the well documented site physical aspects, such reference points may be potentially useful for monitoring environmental change in this immediate area and possibly for similar locations elsewhere in Bhutan and the adjoining Kanchenjunga landscape.

11. References

Gillison, A.N. and Liswanti, N. (2004) Assessing biodiversity at landscape level: the importance of environmental context. In T.P Tomich, M. van Noordwijk and D.E. Thomas, D.E. (Eds.), Environmental Services and Land Use Change: Bridging the Gap between Policy and Research in Southeast Asia. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Enviroment, 104: 75-86. Olson, D.M., Dinerstein, E.D. Wikramanayake, N.D. et al. (2001) Terrestrial Ecoregions of the World: A New Map of Life on Earth. BioScience, 51: 933-938. WWF and ICIMOD (2001) Ecoregion-based conservation in the Eastern Himalaya: Identifying important areas for biodiversity conservation. Wikramanayake, E.D., Carpenter, C., Strand, H. and McKnight, M. (eds). World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and Center for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Kathmandu, Nepal Program.

99 ANNEX I

Vascular plant species listed according to transect* (Sample page – remainder (25 pages) available on request)

W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C Family, Genus species 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 Aceraceae Acer campbellii 0 0 00000000000 000001000 Aceraceae Acer caudatum 0 0 00000000000 011000000 Aceraceae Acer pectinata 0 0 00000000000 000100000 Alliaceae Allium micrantha 0 0 10000000000 000000000 Anacardiaceae Rhus 0 0 00000000000 000000001 chinensis Apiaceae Acronema sp09 0 0 00000000000 000010000 Apiaceae Acronema 0 1 00000000000 011000000 tenerum Apiaceae Angelica 0 0 00000000000 100000000 sikkimensis Apiaceae Angelica sp06 0 0 00000000001 000000000 Apiaceae Bupleurum sp10 0 0 00000000000 100000000 Apiaceae Cortia depressa 0 0 10001000100 000000000 Apiaceae Heracleum 0 1 11000000000 000000000 nepalense Apiaceae Heracleum aff. 0 0 00000010000 000000000 nepalensis? Apiaceae Heracleum sp31 0 0 00000001000 000000000 Apiaceae Heracleum 0 0 00000000000 101000000 woodii Apiaceae Parnassia sp34 0 0 00000000001 000000000 Apiaceae Pleurospermum 0 0 00000000100 000000000 sp09 Apiaceae Selinum sp08 1 0 00000000000 000000000 Apocynaceae Cynanchum 0 0 00000000000 000000001 sp38 * Presence/absence data only

100

ANNEX II

List of Plant Functional types (PFTs) recorded per transect* (Sample page only – remainder of list available on request)

PFT WC WC WC WC WC WC WC WC WC WC WC WC WC WC WC WC WC WC WC WC WC WC 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 pi-la-do-de-ch 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 na-la-do-de-ro-hc-ad 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 mi-co-do-de-ro-cr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 na-pe-do-de-hc-ad 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 na-la-do-de-hc-ad 1 3 1 0 0 2 1 4 5 1 0 6 2 2 0 1 1 0 2 3 3 2 mi-la-do-de-hc-ad 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 1 0 3 3 7 2 1 0 3 0 2 1 1 mi-ve-do-ct-ph 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 na-pe-do-ch 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 mi-co-do-de-ro-pv-cr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 mi-la-do-de-ch 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 2 3 3 2 2 1 1 0 0 mi-la-do-de-ct-ph 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 1 1 0 0 mi-la-do-fi-hc-ad-ep 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 na-la-do-de-ch-ad 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 pi-pe-do-ch 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 na-la-do-de-cr 0 1 0 1 0 2 0 0 6 1 1 0 0 1 1 2 1 2 1 0 0 1 mi-la-do-ch 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 na-la-do-ch 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 me-la-do-de-cr-ad 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 no-la-do-de-ch 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 no-ve-do-de-hc-ad 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 mi-la-do-de-ch-li 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 le-co-do-ph 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 pi-la-do-de-fi-hc-ad-ep 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 mi-la-do-de-hc-ad-ep 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 no-pe-do-ct-ph 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 *Species-weighted occurrences (i.e. number of species possessing a specific PFT)

101

ANNEX III

Overview of soil characteristics of the 22 sampled transects*

1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Altitude 4055 4095 4070 4240 4340 4330 4070 4115 4050 4050 3860 3790 3615 3540 3430 3100 3050 2990 2835 2805 2665 Litter/F/H 2 L 1L - - - - - 1 L - - - 1 L 1 L 1 L 5 L 5 L 4 L 3 L 3 L - - [cm] 1F 2 F 1F 3F 2 F Soil depth 30 40 30 15 40 30 30 25 20 40 25 25 20 20 20 20 30 85 10 60 55 [cm] Texture LFS HL LS GLS HL HL HSL LS HL HL HL HL HL HL HL HL HL HL HSL SL SL FS LFS SL GS Z/SC SCL SL SL SL LS/F SCL SL SL SL S SL SL SCL SCL SCL L S Profile Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ap Ah C AB AB AC AB/ AB/ AB AC AB C AB AC AC AC AC AC AC B/C C AB AB Horizons BC BC

* LFS=loamy fine sand, HL = humic loam, LS = loamy sand, SL = sandy loam, G= gravelly, Z = silt, SCL = sandy clay loam

102

Biodiversity in Bhutan: A preliminary synthesis

Andrew N. Gillison

Center for Biodiversity Management P.O. Box 120, Yungaburra Queensland 4884, Australia

Email: [email protected]; [email protected] www.cbmglobe.org

12 September 2012

Part III

Biodiversity Baseline Survey of the Wangchhu Watershed

Section ”B” Mid-elevation Zone

1359 to 4025m elevn.

103 1. Executive summary

9. This report deals with the second of a three-part survey of the Wang Chhu watershed. As such it is presented as an interim rather than a final report that will be delivered when the three parts are completed and the data analysed in their entirety. 10. Because of its size, the watershed was divided into three operational sections: “A” High elevation (3,000-5,000m), “B” (1,500-3,000m) and “C” 150 – 1,500m). Here we report the results of survey “B”. 11. Team structure consisted of two plant ecologists (RNR-RC, CoRRB), a soil surveyor and technical assistant (NSSC/SLMP) with a botanical technical assistant (NBC). Fieldwork was coordinated by a consulting biodiversity specialist (CBM) with prior assistance from a land management specialist from NSSC. 12. Apart from data acquisition, the survey was designed to consolidate in-field training for trainees and in the survey included a new trainee. 13. Survey design and data collection methods are described in Part I. The team sampled 22 transects within an elevational range of 1359-4025m elevation. The team took advantage of road access through the survey area to sample additional alpine sites to complement those described in Part II. 14. A significant intermediate section of the gradsect had to be abandoned due to heavy rain and is included in the final survey of section ‘C”. 15. A key focus of survey ‘B” included sampling a land use intensity gradient across a slash and burn (Tseri) fallow series at Pakchikha in the Bongo Geog. Results were consistent with findings in other countries that show biological diversity peaks at intermediate levels of disturbance. 16. While it is premature to attach much reliance to statistical analyses without the inclusion of data from the final sector of the watershed, the finding of certain highly significant correlates between biotic and abiotic variables in survey “B” suggests these are worth reporting. To the extent that certain results are also consistent with those of survey “A”, some examples of potentially useful correlates are included in the report. An example of a new biodiversity indicator using estimates of lichen cover-abundance estimates (a ‘Lichen Index’) is also presented. 17. In keeping with the aims of the developing DrukDIF, the biophysical data (land cover, land use, vegetation, soils, geomorphology) recorded from this survey are being established on the web portal currently under construction by UW under the guidance of Professor J. Richey.

1 Acronyms and Bhutanese terms: (see Part I)

Contents Page 1. Executive summary 1 2. Introduction 4 3. Location and biophysical background to the survey area 4 4. Team structure 5 5. Methodology 7 6. Results 7 7. Plant – soil relationships 18 8. Plant biodiversity, soil properties under slash and burn (Tseri) mnagement 22 9. Discussion 22 10. Conclusions 24 11. References 24

List of tables

Table 1. Team membership and area of expertise 6 Table 2. Transect locations and site physical properties 7 Table 3. Temperature and annual precipitation 8 Table 4. Vegetation typology and land use 9 Table 5. Summary of species, PFTs and PFC 13 Table 6. Vegetation structural features 14 Table 7. Cover-abundance scores of lichens 15 Table 8a. Soil properties 19 Table 8b. Soil properties (cont.) 20

Annexes

I Listing of Plant Functional Types (PFTs) and vascular plant taxa - sample page 25

List of Figures

Fig. 1 Area B surveyed. 4 Fig. 2 Intensive rice farming and adjacent forest plantations, Haa area. 5 Fig. 3 Typical slash and burn (Tseri) mosaic, Bongo Geog. 5 Fig. 4 The “B” team. Survey of the mid-elevation Wang Chhu L->R : Kinga, Choki Wangmo, Andrew Gillison, Penjor Kinley, Cheten Thinley, Dorji Gyaltshen. 6 Fig. 5 Locations sampled in survey B (circles). Some intermediate areas are to be sampled in survey C. 7 Fig. 6a a) Transect WC23, fir stand. Rhododendron, Rosa, Iris understorey; b) Transect WC24, Larch with Juniper shrubs and Iris ground layer; c) Transect WC25, alpine Rhododendron, Salix

2 shrubland; d) Transect WC26, alpine Rhododendron heath; e) Transect WC27, alpine meadow with numerous cryptophytes; f) Transect WC28, sub-alpine, conifer-broadleaf forest with Rosa and Piptanthus understorey. 10 Fig. 6b a) Transect WC29, Conifer-broadleaf forest with Spruce and Oak. Regen Oak understorey; b) Transect WC30, Secondary conifer-broadleaf forest, regenerating Populus, Pinus, Picea and Quercus; c) Transect WC31, Apple orchard with dense herbaceous ground layer; d) Transect WC32, secondary succession with dominant Alsinandra, dense Acanthaceae and invasive weed ground layer; e) Transect WC33, Disturbed Oak-Laurel forest, heavily cut over; f) Transect WC34, Fagaceous forest with dense shrub understorey, grazed by deer and domestic animals. 11 Fig. 6c a) Transect WC35, Seral Castanopsis forest with shrub understorey, cutover, grazed by deer and domestic stock; b) Transect WC36, Alnus nepalensis plantation approx 20 yr old, with some inter-planted Cryptomeria japonica, dense invasive Strobilanthes understorey; c) Transect WC37, 9-10 year slash and burn fallow, remnant tree cover; d) Transect WC38, Six year slash and burn fallow, some remnant trees; e) Transect WC39, 3-4 year slash and burn fallow dominated by Artemisia vulgaris, some remnant trees; f) Transect WC40, 2-year slash and burn fallow dominated by Artemisia vulgaris and Chromolaena odorata. 12 Fig. 6d a) Transect WC41, 8 month fallow, previously corn and rice; b) Transect WC42, Newly planted (2 month) Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) after slash and burn; c) Transect WC 43 Grain Amaranth (Amaranthus cf. caudatus) 6 month planting in slash and burn sequence; d) Transect WC44, 3 month padi rice, sedentary agriculture (pre-harvest). 13 Fig. 7 Correlation between plant species richness and PFT richness 16 Fig. 8 Lichen cover-abundance and plant litter depth 17 Fig. 9 Cover-abundance of bryophytes relative to all lichen groups as a predictor of bryophyte cover-abundance. 17 Fig. 10 Ratio of total lichen cover-abundance to total plant species richness as a predictor of richness of deciduous plant species. 18 Fig. 11 Sand % and richness of cryptophytic plants 20 Fig. 12 Silt % and richness of cryptophytic plants 20 Fig. 13 Ratio of total lichen cover-abundance to PFE richness and sand % 21 Fig. 14 Ratio of total lichen cover-abundance to PFE richness and silt % 21 Fig. 15 Plant species richness within a sequence of seral forest, forest plantation and slash and burn fallow periods (yr = year since opening, m = months since opening). 22 Fig. 16 Rooting depth of Pinus wallichiana, near Haa 22

2. Introduction

This the second of three survey reports that, when combined, will provide an initial reference baseline of key data and a framework for further resource assessment of the Wang Chhu watershed as part of the developing DrukDIF. For operational reasons, because of its size, the watershed was divided into three sections: “A” High elevation (3,000-5,000m), “B” Medium elevation (1,500-3,000m) and “C” Low elevation (150 – 1,500m). This report deals with the results of survey “B”. The rationale and background to the methodology is outlined in the report on survey “A” 13. Because additional data are to be acquired from a final, low elevation survey (“C”), a detailed statistical analysis based solely on data from surveys “A” and “B’ is inappropriate in this report. Instead, broadly indicative results only are presented. A complete account of statistical and exploratory data analysis will be provided for the entire watershed when data from the three connected surveys are available.

This study follows logically from earlier development in the DrukDIF14 and is consistent with the aims and targeted deliverables outlined in a following extract from a more detailed TOR (Annex I) in which the intended survey of Section “B” of the Wang Chhu watershed is described within a broader operational and environmental context. This is consistent with the general aims and is included in an introduction to the general biophysical background of the study area together with a report on soil properties. As with the alpine survey, additional data on soil properties are included.

3. Location and biophysical background to the survey area

3.1 Location The survey area in northwest Bhutan occurs within the mid section of the Wang Chhu watershed (Fig.1). The significance of the area for conservation management and the nature of land cover and land use are outlined in an earlier report for Phase I of DrukDIF dealing with a review of biodiversity in Bhutan. As with Part II Section “A”, (the upper alpine section) the underlying topography and land form combined with thermal and precipitation gradients are closely linked with changes in land cover and vegetation types ranging from lower elevation

13 Gillison, A.N. (2009). Biodiversity Baseline Survey of the Wang Chhu Watershed Section ”A” Alpine zone. Including report by van Noord, H. and Dorji, T. The Physical Base of the Survey Gradsect: Geology, geomorphology and soil development along the Upper Wang Chhu. November 11 2009.

14 Gillison, A.N. (2009) . Developing a Functional Landscape-Scale Land Cover, Biodiversity, Hydrology Modeling Framework (DrukDIF) for the SLMP areas of Bhutan. Phase I: Rapid Natural Resource Assessment Along Land Cover and Land Use Gradients. June 5 2009.

4 (1400m) mixed, mainly broadleaf forests and successional vegetation types through tall closed conifer-broadleaf forest at mid-elevation to exposed higher elevation, alpine grasslands and shrublands (4025m). As with Part II Section “A”, (the upper alpine section) the underlying topography and land form combined with thermal and precipitation gradients are closely linked with changes in land cover and vegetation types ranging from lower elevation (1400m) mixed, mainly broadleaf forests and successional vegetation types through tall closed conifer-broadleaf forest at mid- elevation to exposed higher elevation, alpine grasslands and shrublands (4025m). Sedentary agriculture (Fig. 2) and slash and Figure 2. Intensive rice farming and adjacent burn fallow systems (Fig. 3) occupy the forest plantations Haa area greater part of arable land. More detailed accounts of vegetation typology and related ecosystem dynamics are described in the results section of this report. While much of the area, especially the more accessible alpine grassland ecosystems, appears to be ‘pristine’, the prevailing condition is rather more representative of a state of partial equilibrium as a consequence of long periods of human occupation where, apart from climate, animal husbandry and fire remain primary drivers in ecosystem performance. Figure 3. Typical slash and burn (Tseri) mosaic, Bongo Geog.

The area sampled (Figs. 1.,5.) is similar to other regions of the world at similar elevations that have experienced similar evolutionary pressures due to fire and the omnipresent domestic and indigenous grazing animals. Within the overall gradsect, sample sites were also located to represent a cross section of apparent land use intensity from sedentary intensive agricuture (Fig. 2) including a focal subset in slash and burn fallow sequences (Tseri) in the Bongo Geog (Fig. 3).

4. Team structure

The multidisciplinary expertise of the survey team ( Table 1., Fig. 4) facilitated an integrated aproach to survey. While each team member contributed specific expertise in the recording of field data, the survey was designed and coordinated jointly by NSSC and CBM.

Table 1. Team membership and area of expertise

No. Name Institution Task/Expertise 1 Dorji Gyaltshen RNR-RC, CoRRB Plant ecologist 2 Cheten Thinley RNR-RC, CoRRB Plant ecologist 3 Kinley Penjor NSSC/SLMP Soil surveyor 4 Kinga NSC/SLMP Soil technical assistant 5 Choki Wangmo NBC Botanical technician 6 Andrew N. Gillison CBM Biodiversity specialist

Figure 4. The “B” team. Alpine survey of the mid-elevation Wang Chhu L->R : Kinga, Choki Wangmo, Andrew Gillison, Penjor Kinley, Cheten Thinley, Dorji Gyaltshen.

6 5. Methodology (See Part I )

6. Results

6.1 The survey gradsect: The team sampled 22 transects that, apart from accommodating a primary elevational (thermal) gradient, included a range of natural vegetation cover and a land use intensity gradients ranging from forest exploitation and sedentary agriculture to alpine grazing systems (Tables 2,3,4). Non-seasonal, heavy rain prevented sampling of an intermediate elevational range between the Bongo Geog and Haa (see Fig. 5). This area will be completed during the survey of section “C”. The steepness of the terrain combined with changing weather patterns also limited access to forested locations in steep gorges with near vertical slopes and rocky terrain. Figure 5. Locations sampled in survey B (circles). Some Nonetheless, several transects were intermediate areas were sampled in Part IV survey C. sampled along slopes > 70%. Plant species and PFT diversity together with vegetation structural features are listed in Tables 5 and 6. All recorded PFTs and vascular plant species are tabulated in Annex III. Habitat type in each transect is displayed in Figs. 6a,b,c,d.

Table 2. Transect locations and site physical properties

Elevn Slope Aspect Transect Location Lat. S Long. E (m) % Deg. WC23 6km below Chelela pass on Paro side 27.3715 89.3544 3392 30 80 WC24 Chelela towards Haa 27.3755 89.3171 3439 60 322 WC25 Chelela below Telecom tower 27.3825 89.3372 3942 55 80 WC26 Chelela below telecom tower 27.3826 89.3372 4025 78 90 WC27 Chelela below telecom tower 27.3823 89.3372 4024 10 152 WC28 Chelela -2km towards Haa 27.3720 89.3184 3570 35 195 WC29 Below Chelela towards Haa 27.3705 89.3171 3514 45 230 WC30 9 km towards Chelela from Haa 27.3648 89.3085 3127 55 272 WC31 4km from Haa towards Chelela 27.3708 89.2988 2908 25 247 WC32 3km to Situ from just before Chasilaka 26.9541 89.5634 1857 35 145 WC33 6km towwards Situ from Chasilaka 26.9537 89.5653 1805 60 62 WC34 Near Alaykha community school, Gedu area 26.9043 89.5884 1489 79 85 WC35 Near Alaykha School 26.9167 89.5480 1696 35 350 WC36 Near Alaykha School 26.9146 89.5434 1835 20 359 WC37 Bayme Pang, (Pakchikha, Bongo Geog) 26.9283 89.5996 1434 45 113

7 Elevn Slope Aspect Transect Location Lat. S Long. E (m) % Deg. WC38 Zomchuthay (Pachikha, Bongo Geog) 26.9315 89.5882 1359 45 4 WC39 Zawalaktha (Pakichikha - Bongo Geog) 26.9316 89.5988 1437 65 55 WC40 Pakichikha, Bongo Geog 26.9296 89.5994 1459 35 74 WC41 Pakchikha, Bongo Geog 26.9295 89.5998 1439 50 80 WC42 Pakchikha - Bongo Geog 26.9294 89.5997 1440 38 72 WC43 Pakichikha - Bongo Geog 26.9299 89.5997 1450 35 60 WC44 Pakchikha - Bongo geog 26.9319 89.5950 1471 35 60

Table 3. Temperature and annual precipitation*

Transect Avg temp Max temp Precip. °C °C mm yr-1 WC23 -4.8 20.2000 1332 WC24 -9.6 17.6000 849 WC25 -9.6 17.6000 849 WC26 -9.6 17.6000 849 WC27 -9.6 17.6000 849 WC28 -9.6 17.6000 849 WC29 -9.6 17.6000 849 WC30 -10.7 16.8000 772 WC31 -10.7 16.8000 772 WC32 4.0 24.0000 3048 WC33 4.0 24.0000 3048 WC34 5.9 25.4000 3455 WC35 3.6 23.4000 2954 WC36 3.6 23.4000 2954 WC37 5.9 25.4000 3455 WC38 5.9 25.4000 3455 WC39 5.9 25.4000 3455 WC40 5.9 25.4000 3455 WC41 5.9 25.4000 3455 WC42 5.9 25.4000 3455 WC43 5.9 25.4000 3455 WC44 5.9 25.4000 3455 * Derived from climate surface supplied by H. Greenberg UW

Table 4. Vegetation typology and land use*

Transect Vegetation type and land use WC23 Fir stand with dense Rhododendron, Rosa and Iris understory. Dense Sphagnum layer. Very disturbed forest. Logged by NRDCL. WC24 Highly disturbed Larch forest with Juniperus, shrubs and Iris groundlayer WC25 Rhododendron/ Salix shrubland. Exposed slope near ridge. Grazed. WC26 Rhododendron heath. Exposed slope near ridge. Grazed. WC27 Alpine meadow. Heavily grazed. WC28 Conifer-broadleaf forest, with Rosa and Piptanthus dominated understorey Heavily disturbed, logged and grazed, wild boar diggings WC29 Conifer-Broadleaf forest dominated by Spruce and Oak. Heavily disturbed, recently logged, grazed. Near road. Regeneratiing Oak understorey. Large rocks. WC30 Secondary conifer-broadleaf forest. Heavily disturbed, logged, dominated by regenerating Populus, Piinus, Picea and Quercus WC31 Apple orchard with dense herbaceous groundlayer. Actively managed. WC32 Secondary succession with Alsinandra dominant tree. Dense Acanthaceae and invasive weed groundlayer WC33 Disturbed Oak-Laurel forest. Patchy disturbabce, cut over, large rocks. WC34 Fagaceous forest with shrub undrerstorey. Heavily disturbed, cut over, tracks, grazing (deer and domestic). WC35 Castanopsis forest with shrubby understorey. Disturbed, logged, near road, grazed by deer and domestic stock WC36 Alnus nepalensis forest (plantation) with dense Strobilanthes understorey and some planted Cryptomeria japonica WC37 9-10 year fallow. Seral shrubland following slash and burn (S/B). Many woody species including Artemisia and Chromolaena. Remnant tree cover. WC38 Six year fallow stage. Dominated by shrubs (Artemisia, Chromolaena, Pteridium). Some remaining trees. WC39 3-4 year shrub fallow dominated by Artemisia vulgaris. Some remnant trees. WC40 2yr seral shrubland in slash and burn cycle. Artemisia, Chromolaena WC41 Cultivation, mixed crop and non-crop species. 8 month fallow. WC42 Newly emerging buckwheat, Fagopyrum esculentum WC43 Dominantly Amaranthus (caudatus?) WC44 Dominantly padi rice with ground layer of mixed, mainly weedy species. * See Figs. 6a,b,c,d

Figure 6a. a) Transect WC23, fir stand. Rhododendron, Rosa, Iris understorey; b) Transect WC24, Larch with Juniper shrubs and Iris ground layer; c) Transect WC25, alpine Rhododendron, Salix shrubland; d) Transect WC26, alpine Rhododendron heath; e) Transect WC27, alpine meadow with numerous cryptophytes; f) Transect WC28, sub-alpine, conifer-broadleaf forest with Rosa and Piptanthus understorey.

Figure 6b. a) Transect WC29, Conifer-broadleaf forest with Spruce and Oak. Regen Oak understorey; b) Transect WC30, Secondary conifer-broadleaf forest, regenerating Populus, Pinus, Picea and Quercus; c) Transect WC31, Apple orchard with dense herbaceous ground layer; d) Transect WC32, secondary succession with dominant Alsinandra, dense Acanthaceae and invasive weed ground layer; e) Transect WC33, Disturbed Oak-Laurel forest, heavily cut over; f) Transect WC34, Fagaceous forest with dense shrub understorey, grazed by deer and domestic animals.

Figure 6c. a) Transect WC35, Seral Castanopsis forest with shrub understorey, cutover, grazed by deer and domestic stock; b) Transect WC36, Alnus nepalensis plantation approx 20 yr old, with some inter-planted Cryptomeria japonica, dense invasis Strobilanthes understorey; c) Transect WC37, 9-10 year slash and burn fallow, remnant tree cover; d) Transect WC38, Six year slash and burn fallow, some remnant trees; e) Transect WC39, 3-4 year slash and burn fallow dominated by Artemisia vulgaris, some remnant trees; f) Transect WC40, 2-year slash and burn fallow dominated by Artemisia vulgaris and Chromolaena odorata.

Figure 6d. a) Transect WC41, 8 month fallow, previously corn and rice; b) Transect WC42, Newly planted (2 month) Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) after slash and burn; c) Transect WC 43 Grain Amaranth (Amaranthus cf. caudatus) 6 month planting in slash and burn sequence; d) Transect WC44, 3 month padi rice, sedentary agriculture (pre-harvest).

Table 5. Summary of species, PFTs and PFC

Transect Species PFTs Spp:PFT PFC WC23 37 33 1.12 220 WC24 48 38 1.26 276 WC25 36 31 1.16 234 WC26 35 24 1.46 152 WC27 27 15 1.80 60 WC28 39 34 1.15 194 WC29 39 27 1.44 166 WC30 31 24 1.29 144 WC31 58 36 1.61 228 WC32 98 72 1.36 358 WC33 52 41 1.27 222 WC34 76 58 1.31 292 WC35 54 44 1.23 280 WC36 40 30 1.33 198

13 Transect Species PFTs Spp:PFT PFC WC37 81 56 1.45 294 WC38 66 44 1.50 282 WC39 59 44 1.34 232 WC40 65 44 1.48 264 WC41 57 47 1.21 230 WC42 10 10 1.00 82 WC43 38 31 1.23 146 WC44 26 22 1.18 126

Table 6. Vegetation structural features *

CC CC CC Transect Ht Bryo WPlts Litt BA MFI FICV Tot Wdy Nwdy WC23 42.00 75 65 10 8 9 15.000 31.33 34.00 139.89 WC24 15.00 95 80 15 8 7 12.000 22.67 0.00 0.00 WC25 2.50 98 95 3 9 8 15.000 2.33 100.00 0.00 WC26 0.35 98 95 3 9 6 18.000 1.33 100.00 0.00 WC27 0.02 98 0 98 0 7 3.000 0.00 0.00 0.00 WC28 30.00 90 85 5 8 7 8.000 36.00 24.00 116.80 WC29 35.00 80 75 5 7 7 12.000 22.00 39.90 125.66 WC30 4.00 95 92 3 8 5 5.000 12.67 29.50 135.80 WC31 3.50 98 35 63 1 3 2.000 6.00 89.00 17.16 WC32 10.00 98 95 3 8 7 2.000 11.33 61.00 50.36 WC33 40.00 92 75 17 6 8 0.015 34.00 51.00 54.41 WC34 30.00 99 90 9 8 8 8.000 30.00 52.30 49.54 WC35 18.00 95 92 3 8 6 3.000 24.00 55.75 57.11 WC36 19.00 99 98 1 9 5 3.000 24.67 4.50 447.21 WC37 3.00 99 90 9 8 4 5.000 2.67 63.00 73.30 WC38 2.80 99 90 9 9 5 2.500 1.00 99.00 3.11 WC39 2.50 99 95 4 9 5 2.000 1.33 100.00 0.00 WC40 2.00 99 85 14 8 3 2.000 1.00 95.50 21.07 WC41 0.40 85 10 75 1 2 0.010 0.10 93.50 21.47 WC42 0.15 75 0 75 0 0 0.000 0.00 0.00 0.00 WC43 0.60 92 10 82 2 2 0.100 0.10 99.40 2.27 WC44 1.00 90 0 90 0 1 0.000 0.00 0.00 0.00 * Ht = Mean canopy height (m); Cctot= Total canopy projective foliage cover percent; Ccwdy = projective foliage cover percent of woody plants; CCNwdy, PFC of non-woody plants; Bryo = cover-abundance of bryophytes; Wplts = cover-abundance of woody plants <2m tall; Litt = plant litter depth (cm); BA = basal area of all woody plants (m2ha-1); MFI = mean furcation index; FICV = coefficient of variation percent of FI. (See also Annex II for complete listing of site variables)

Table 7. Cover-abundance scores of lichens

Transect Fruticose Crustose Foliose Total WC23 8 2 6 16 WC24 8 2 8 18 WC25 6 4 7 17 WC26 2 2 4 8 WC27 1 6 4 11 WC28 9 4 7 20 WC29 9 3 7 19 WC30 7 1 5 13 WC31 1 4 1 6 WC32 2 1 3 6 WC33 2 2 2 6 WC34 2 2 1 5 WC35 0 2 0 2 WC36 2 2 1 5 WC37 1 3 3 7 WC38 0 2 0 2 WC39 0 2 1 3 WC40 0 0 0 0 WC41 0 0 0 0 WC42 0 0 0 0 WC43 0 0 0 0 WC44 0 0 0 0

6.2 Plant species and plant functional type diversity Of 1072 vascular plant species recorded during the survey, approximately 690 have been identified so far as unique species. It is anticipated this figure is likely to decrease by a further 5 percent as further indentification proceeds (NBC, RSPN). The team recorded 400 unique (species-independent) PFTs. Patterns of species and PFT richness and composition are closely related to successional stages of vegetation that, in turn, are influenced by a combination of land use type and the stability of the substrate. At the broader scale successional patterns are readily visible (Fig. 3). When species richness (diversity) is regressed against PFT richness the highly significant relationship (P< 0.0001, RSq (adj.) 0.937) (Fig. 7) provides a robust basis for predicting species richness from more readily determined PFT richness. For future assessment and monitoring purposes this may be of benefit where botanical expertise is not at hand to identify species. The highly linear response also suggests a high level of observer consistency.

Figure120 7. Plant species diversity regressed against PFT diversity Rsq (Adj.) 0.937, P < 0.0001

100

species richnessPlant

0 0 20406080 Plant Functional Type richness

Figure 7. Correlation between plant species richness and PFT richness

6.3 Lichens as potential biodiversity indicators

As the use of lichens as biodiversity indicators is relatively novel with respect to the VegClass system, as with Part II the results of the present survey are reported here as a matter of interest. With additional data from surveys of the remaining sections of the Wangchhu watershed predictive values may change. When results from different team members were compared, observer consistency was considered adequate in estimating cover-abundance values of the three major classes of macrolichens (fruticose, crustose and foliose). See previous report for further derscription.

Published accounts of lichen surveys in Bhutan and the adjacent Himalaya are relatively rare (but see Söchting, 1999; Negi and Gadgil, 2002). A ‘lichen index’ (ratio of lichen species richness to vascular plant species richness) has been developed for use in surveys at high latitudes and high elevations (cf. Mattick 1953 and P. Krestov15, pers. comm.). In such environments that are usually species-poor in lichens, a species-based index may be feasible, but this is unlikely to be the case for most surveys in species-rich tropical to subtropical environments. For this reason, as an alternative approach, in the present survey, an index based on the ratio of lichen cover-abundance to total vascular plant species richness was tested as a potential predictor of biodiversity. Results show only a weak correlation with plant species and PFTs but high correlation with other plant-based features such as bryophyte cover-abundance, plant litter depth and plant functional elements such as deciduousness (Figs. 8,9,10).

Graphic relationships between lichens and soil properties are presented below.

15 Dr P. Krestov, Institute of Biology and Soil Science, Vladivostok.

25 Rsq (adj.) 0.669, P < 0.0001

Total lichen cover-abundance 0

-5 0 5 10 15 20 Plant litter depth (cm) Figure 8. Lichen cover-abundance and plant litter depth

10 Rsq (adj.) 0.572, P < 0.0001

Cover-abundance bryophytes Cover-abundance 0

0 5 10 15 20 25 Cover-abundance all lichen groups Figure 9. Cover-abundance of bryophytes relative to all lichen groups as a predictor of bryophyte cover-abundance.

50 Rsq (adj.) 0.801, P < 0.0001

Deciduous species richness 0

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6

Ratio of total lichen cover-abundance to total plant species richness

Figure 10. Ratio of toal lichen cover-abundance to total plant species richness as a predictor of richness of deciduous plant species.

7. Plant – soil relationships

Soil analytical data are listed in Table 8a,b below. No single soil property is significantly correlated with vascular plant or PFT richness. On the other hand a number of PFEs are closely correlated with some soil properties (e.g. graminoid plants with exchangeable cations and soil pH) the highest correlation occurring between cryptophytes (plants with below-ground perennating organs) and plants with rosulate leaves where both are strongly positively and negatively correlated with sand% and silt% respectively (Figs. 11,12). Bryophyte cover-abundance and plant litter depth are highly correlated with exchangeable Ca, Mg and K, as well as organic C and N% and also positively and negatively correlated with sand% and silt % respectively. Basal area and cover- abundance of woody plants <2m tall are also closely correlated with exchangeable cations and soil pH.

Lichens also exhibit close correlations with certain soil properties in particular exchangeable cations and soil pH. The ‘lichen index’ of total lichen cover-abundance to total plant species richness is also highly correlated with total exchangeable bases (Fig. 13 ). In addition, a ratio of total lichen cover-abundance to PFE richness (total presence – absence of PFE data in all transects) is highly correlated with several soil properties including exchangeable cations, soil pH and sand% and silt% (Fig. 14).

18 Table 8a. Soil properties

Ca Mg K Na Transect pHH 0 pHKCL pHDelta Pbray C% N% 2 Exch Exch Exch Exch WC23 4.10 3.38 0.52 6.11 10.10 0.51 -1.29 0.42 0.23 0.03 WC24 5.03 4.24 0.79 0.70 5.50 0.41 0.83 1.22 0.30 0.04 WC25 4.75 4.04 0.70 0.21 14.20 0.63 0.31 1.41 0.40 0.06 WC26 4.86 4.24 0.62 0.16 11.70 0.62 2.29 0.96 0.40 0.06 WC27 4.68 4.18 0.52 0.29 9.70 0.53 -0.70 0.60 0.51 0.04 WC28 4.66 4.11 0.55 0.69 7.40 0.37 -0.98 1.28 0.25 0.04 WC29 4.34 3.96 0.38 0.44 7.90 0.44 -1.25 0.45 0.20 0.03 WC30 5.01 4.08 0.93 0.12 3.00 0.16 -1.01 0.55 0.23 0.03 WC31 5.96 4.86 1.10 0.85 2.90 0.21 4.83 1.81 1.05 0.06 WC32 4.45 3.99 0.46 0.07 9.20 0.56 8.55 1.84 0.68 0.05 WC33 5.15 4.55 0.60 0.05 6.70 0.49 0.49 0.46 0.33 0.03 WC34 4.87 4.22 0.65 0.12 5.70 0.41 0.75 1.03 0.57 0.03 WC35 5.42 4.36 1.06 0.17 4.90 0.38 2.74 1.38 0.59 0.04 WC36 4.15 3.95 0.20 0.05 6.10 0.43 -0.07 0.52 0.44 0.03 WC37 4.57 4.02 0.55 0.26 5.50 0.40 -0.85 0.44 0.32 0.03 WC38 5.44 4.66 0.78 0.64 5.20 0.33 6.95 1.13 0.51 0.02 WC39 5.52 4.69 0.83 0.44 7.40 0.52 6.48 2.73 1.22 0.07 WC40 5.51 4.61 0.90 0.05 7.40 0.50 7.12 1.93 0.48 0.04 WC41 5.65 4.60 1.05 0.05 5.40 0.42 5.00 1.50 0.79 0.05 WC42 5.56 4.75 0.81 0.69 5.90 0.38 8.51 2.36 1.35 0.09 WC43 5.53 4.66 0.87 0.06 6.70 0.12 7.85 2.03 0.62 0.05 WC44 5.65 4.77 0.88 0.32 3.60 0.08 5.10 1.71 1.18 0.07

Table 8b. Soil properties

Bulk Transect TEB CEC-Am BS-AmO Sand% Silt% Clay% Density WC23 -0.61 35.04 -1.73 47.90 35.00 17.10 1.50 WC24 2.40 27.16 8.83 48.30 37.30 14.40 1.62 WC25 2.18 47.98 4.55 65.90 23.40 10.70 1.44 WC26 3.71 33.69 11.01 59.40 26.70 13.90 1.65 WC27 0.45 26.96 1.68 76.60 13.40 10.00 1.83 WC28 0.59 24.36 2.41 47.80 34.90 17.30 1.94 WC29 -0.57 31.75 -1.78 45.00 35.70 19.30 1.84 WC30 -0.20 21.16 -0.95 34.20 36.80 29.00 1.90 WC31 7.76 15.19 51.05 35.00 42.10 22.90 2.30 WC32 11.13 27.91 39.86 40.20 35.60 24.20 1.66 WC33 1.31 37.26 3.52 27.90 39.10 33.00 1.69 WC34 2.38 21.96 10.86 46.40 31.20 22.40 1.72 WC35 4.75 23.83 19.93 32.70 41.60 25.70 1.79 WC36 0.93 26.61 3.48 27.00 48.50 24.50 1.86 WC37 -0.06 26.14 -0.25 18.20 54.60 27.20 1.90 WC38 8.62 23.78 36.22 37.20 48.40 14.40 2.09 WC39 10.51 29.42 35.71 35.40 47.30 17.30 1.74

19 Bulk Transect TEB CEC-Am BS-AmO Sand% Silt% Clay% Density WC40 9.57 29.26 32.72 38.20 44.40 17.40 1.82 WC41 7.35 25.42 28.90 28.60 62.10 9.30 1.82 WC42 12.30 29.34 41.94 19.70 55.30 25.00 1.85 WC43 10.56 32.06 32.95 23.30 57.30 19.40 1.70 WC44 8.07 22.86 35.27 20.50 50.20 29.30 1.93

18 Rsq (adj.) 0.680, P < 0.0001 16

4 Cryptophyte richness Cryptophyte

20 40 60 80 Sand %

Figure 11. Sand % and richness of cryptophytic

18 Rsq (adj.) 0.608, P > 0.0001

4 Cryptophyte richness Cryptophyte

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Silt % Figure 12. Silt % and richness of cryptophytic plants 20 1.0 Rsq (adj.) 0.461, P < 0.0003

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

Lichen c/a : PFE diversity (pa) LichenPFE diversity c/a : 0.0

20 40 60 80 Sand % Figure 13. Ratio of total lichen cover-abundance to PFE richness and sand %

1.0 Rsq (adj.) 0.508, P < 0.0001

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

(pa) diversity c/a : PFE Lichen 0.0

-0.2 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Silt %

Figure 14. Ratio of total lichen cover-abundance to PFE richness and silt %

8. Plant biodiversity, soil properties under slash and burn (Tseri) management

This section reviews results from soil analyses of the ten transects representing softwood plantation, seral oak forest and agricultural fallow sequences from 9-10 years to recent cultivation (see Table 4, Figs 6c,d). With a few exceptions, plant-based variables are generally weakly correlated with soil properties. Plant litter depth varies significantly with soil pH as does PFE richness with exchangeable bases and PFT richness with exchangeable K Figure 15. Plant species richness within a sequence of seral and Na. No significant forest, forest plantation and slash and burn fallow periods (yr correlation was found between = year since opening, m = months since opening). species and PFT richness and soil texture including bulk density.

9. Discussion

Non-seasonal rainy weather severely restricted uniform access across the elevational range (Fig. 5) and this reduced the value of subsequent analyses. The sample ‘gap’ is evident in a number of the foregoing graphs. The intermediate that was missed was subsequently included in the following survey of zone “C” (Part IV) in Spring 2010. Despite this gap, the team was fortunate to include a reasonably comprehensive sample of a range of Tseri fallow sequences that included a seral Oak (Castanopsis) forest and a 20 year Alnus softwood plantation. The lack of correlation between the fallow sequences and soil properties is surprising. That soil bulk density is poorly correlated with plant-based variables overall runs counter to most Figure 16. Rooting depth of Pinus wallichiana, near Haa findings in tropical to sub-tropical countries. This feature may be related to the physical nature of the geological substrate that is frequently dominated by fragmented and highly weathered schist. On the other hand, the finding that plant species diversity (richness)

22 peaks at a 9-10 year fallow (Fig. 16) is consistent with findings both in Bhutan (Wangda and Ohsawa, 2007; Wangda, 2008) and elsewhere and is in accord with the ‘Intermediate disturbance hypothesis’ much favoured by plant ecologists (although not without some debate).

The results from this study point to the importance of certain soil properties as potentially significant ecosystem drivers. This is reflected in the relationship between plants and the level of exchangeable cations and pH, soil texture and, to a lesser extent total N% and C%. Some clear relationships between certain PFTs and PFEs and soil texture (Figs. 11,12) can be readily interpreted as a causal (adaptive) condition related to available soil moisture. Because sandy soils generally retain less moisture longer than silty soils, they are more likely to support plants where the adaptive perennating organ (such as cryptophytic, belowground storage roots and stems) is capable of surviving extended periods of soil moisture deficit.

As indicated in Part II, the use of macrolichen groups (Crustose, Fruticose, Foliose) as potential biodiversity indicators shows promise. Lichen sensitivity to soil texture both independently and expressed as a ratio with plant functional elements (Figs. 13,14) is clearly predictable within the context of the present survey. A causal interpretation of this relationship remains an open question (P.M. McCarthy, pers, comm.16). The application of a ‘Lichen Index’ based on cover-abundance of macrolichens and vascular plant species richness is a new development. Present indications suggest this index may be worth following in further surveys. The generic nature of the method also suggests it may have application across most global terrestrial ecosystems. The established use of lichens as indicators of atmospheric pollution also hints at their potential value in monitoring impacts due to environmental change.

Tree rooting depth was estimated along road sides as opportunities permitted. While no formal quantitative estimate was attempted, it was the opinion of the team that soil depth as measured by auger at each transect was a reasonable indicator of adjacent tree rooting depth. This finding suggests that soil depth and related vegetation cover may have value as input variables in certain hydrological models such as DHSVM (Prof. J. Richey pers. comm.). If so it may provide a useful additional data dimension to the developing DrukDIF.

The outcome from a workshop to discuss DrukDIF II was a useful precursor to further developments17 . The positive reaction by most participants indicated a genaeral awareness of the advantages to be gained from a carefully designed and constructed DIF.

16 Dr P.M. McCarthy Australian Biological Resources Study, Canberra. 17 See ‘DrukDIF Status Report. Working Draft, December 8, 2009. Jeffrey Richey and Andrew Gillison. Based on: DrukDIF Stakeholder Workshop and Follow-ups Thimphu, October 21st 2009 Dragon Roots Hotel.

10. Conclusions

As indicated in the foregoing, while the results of the statistical analyses suggest a number of tentative conclusions, experience in surveys along elevational gradients in other countries strongly suggests such conclusions should be witheld until additional data have been analysed from the final survey of the lowland section of the Wang Chhu watershed. For this reason the current report remains interim rather than final.

Despite the above reservations, a high level of statistically consistent relationships between certain plant and soil-based variables, (notably exchangeable cations, pH and soil texture) suggests these are likely to be supported by additional data from lower elevations (previous field reconnaissance reports refer).

The TOR attached to this study require a set of recommendations for institutional responsibilities for sustainable biodiversity management and the developing DrukDIF. The outcome from the DrukDIF II workshop suggest such recommendations would be premature at this stage. The final report covering findings from the completed Wang Chhu watershed should assist in identifying areas for future work and thus indicate areas of future institutional responsibility. The data and analytical outcomes from the final watershed study will also be incorporated in the DrukDIF internet portal currently under development with the University of Washington.

11. References

Mattick, F. (1953). Lichenologische Notizen, I. Der Flechten-Koefficient und seine Bedeutung für Pflanzengeographie. Berichte Deutsche Botanische Gesellschaft, 66: 263-276. Negi, H.R. and Gadgil, M. (2002). Cross-taxon surrogacy of biodiversity in the Indian Garhwal Himalaya. Biological Conservation, 105: 143-155. Söchting U. (1999). Lichens of Bhutan, Biodiversity and Use. University of Copenhagen, Botanical Institute, Department of Mycology. Denmark. 30p. Wangda, P. (2008). Preservation of agro-biodiversity landscape in a typical rural Bhutan. Preservation of Biocultural Diversity – a Global Issue, May 6-8, 2008, BOKU, Vienna. Wangda, P. and Ohsawa, M. (2006). Gradational forest change along the climatically dry valley slopes of Bhutan in the midst of humid eastern Himalaya. Plant Ecology, 186: 109-128. Wangda, P. and Ohsawa, M. (2007). Vegetation succession and soil recovery in the abandoned field at Tshokothangkha in Nahi, Wangdue. Bhutan Journal of Renewable Natural Resources, 3: 68-72.

24 ANNEX I

Listing of Plant Functional Types (PFTs) and vascular plant taxa - sample page*

Transect PFT Family Genus Species Code WC23 le-la-do-de-fi-hc-ad Adiantaceae Pityrogramma calomelanos PITYCALO WC23 me-la-do-de-hc-ad Asteraceae Ainsliaea sp06 AINSSP06 WC23 na-la-do-de-hc-ad-ep Asteraceae Anaphalis margaritacea ANAPMARG WC23 na-la-do-hc-ad Asteraceae Anaphalis sp21 ANAPSP21 WC23 no-la-do-de-cr Asteraceae Cacalia sp11 CACASP11 WC23 no-la-do-de-ro-cr-ad Asteraceae Carpesium sp23 CARPSP23 WC23 ma-la-do-de-ro-su-cr Asteraceae Ligularia amplex LIGUAMPL WC23 na-la-do-de-ro-hc-ad Asteraceae Senecio wallichii SENEWALL WC23 na-la-do-de-ch-ep Berberidaceae Berberis sp29 BERBSP29 WC23 na-la-do-de-ch Berberidaceae Berberis sp29 BERBSP29 WC23 me-la-do-de-ch Betulaceae Betula utilis BETUUTIL WC23 na-la-do-de-ch-li Caprifoliaceae Lonicera sp14 LONISP14 WC23 pi-co-do-ph Cupressaceae Juniperus recurva JUNIRECU WC23 pi-co-do-de-fi-hc-ad-ep Davalliaceae Davallia sp17 DAVASP17 WC23 le-ve-do-de-ro-fi-hc-ad Dryopteridaceae Dryopteris clarkei DRYOCLAR WC23 mi-la-do-ch Ericaceae Rhododendron campylocarpum RHODCAMP WC23 mi-la-do-ch-ad-ep Ericaceae Rhododendron campylocarpum RHODCAMP WC23 na-ve-do-hc-ad Gentianaceae Gentiana sp09 GENTSP09 WC23 pl-ve-is-de-cr Iridaceae Iris sp05 IRISSP05 WC23 me-ve-do-de-su-pv-cr Liliaceae Clintonia udensis CLINUDEN WC23 mi-pe-do-de-cr Liliaceae Polygonatum sp15 POLYSP15 WC23 na-co-do-ph Pinaceae Abies densa ABIEDENS WC23 na-co-do-ph Pinaceae Tsuga dumosa TSUGDUMO WC23 na-ve-do-de-pv-hc-ad Poaceae Eragrostis nigra ERAGNIGR WC23 na-co-do-de-pv-hc-ad Poaceae sp34 SP34 WC23 na-la-do-de-fi-hc-ad Polypodiaceae Polypodiodes lachnopus? POLYLACH WC23 na-la-do-de-fi-hc-ad-ep Polypodiaceae Polypodium sp18 POLYSP18 WC23 mi-ve-do-de-ro-cr Primulaceae Bryocarpum himalaicum BRYOHIMA WC23 na-la-do-de-cr Ranunculaceae Thalictrum sp16 THALSP16 WC23 mi-la-do-de-hc-ad Rosaceae Fragaria nubicola FRAGNUBI WC23 na-la-do-de-ro-hc-ad Rosaceae Potentilla griffithii POTEGRIF WC23 na-la-do-de-ch Rosaceae Rosa sericea ROSASERI WC23 na-la-do-de-ph Rosaceae Rosa sericea ROSASERI WC23 mi-la-do-de-hc-ad Rosaceae Rubus fragarioides RUBUFRAG WC23 na-la-do-hc-ad Rosaceae Rubus nepalensis RUBUNEPA WC23 na-la-do-de-ch-ad Rosaceae Rubus sp40 RUBUSP40 WC23 na-la-do-de-ch-ad Rosaceae Sorbus microphylla SORBMICR WC23 na-la-do-hc-ad Scrophulariaceae sp19 SP19 WC23 na-la-do-de-su-cr Urticaceae Pilea approximata PILEAPPR WC23 me-la-do-de-su-hc-ad Euphorbia? sp25 EUPHSP25 * Full dataset available from author

Biodiversity in Bhutan: A preliminary synthesis

Andrew N. Gillison

Center for Biodiversity Management P.O. Box 120, Yungaburra Queensland 4884, Australia

Email: [email protected]; [email protected] www.cbmglobe.org

12 September 2012

Part IV

Biodiversity Baseline Survey of the Wangchhu Watershed

Section ”C” Low-elevation Section

222m to 2755m elevn.

1. Executive summary

1. This report is the final of a four-part series of reports covering an overview of the biodiversity status of Bhutan and three survey sections of the Wangchhu watershed. As such it is a contribution to the DrukDIF that is integrating key biophysical aspects of the natural resources of Bhutan to assist policy planning and sustainable resource management. A key focus is on biodiversity, hydrology and land use.

2. Because of its size and extensive elevational gradient, the watershed was divided into three operational sections: “A” high elevation (3,000-5,000m), “B” mid-elevation (1,500-3,000m) and “C” lowland (200 – 1,500m). This report contains the results of survey “C” that for logistic and analytical reasons included mid to lower elevational sections of “B” – a total of 31 (200m2) transects. A separate report (Part V) will summarize the findings of the entire watershed study and include statistical analyses and combined data sets.

3. The team consisted of a plant ecologist (RNR-RC, CoRRB), a soil surveyor, a technical assistant and a geomorphologist (NSSC/SLMP) supported by a botanist (NBC). Fieldwork was coordinated by an international biodiversity specialist (CBM) in liaison with NSSC staff. The survey provided an opportunity for advanced in-field training in survey methodology for two team members.

4. The methodology used in this section is described in Part I. For this survey, additional climate data (temperature, evapotranspiration, rainfall, seasonality and runoff) were supplied by the University of Washington.

5. Exploratory data analysis revealed a sequence of vegetation types: 1) simply structured, managed conifer forests (2500-2700m); 2) semi-deciduous, complex conifer –broadleaf forests (2300-2500m); 3) evergreen forests (1500-2300m) 4) Deciduous Sal (Shorea robusta) dipterocarp forest (500-1500m); 5) Lowland semi- deciduous vine forest on deep soils and deciduous leguminous forest on the gravelly outwash plains of the Wangchhu (< 500m) and 6) Successional slash and burn (Tseri) cropping sequences (760-1500m). A classification based solely on lichen cover- abundance identified conifer, broadleaf and successional types. The sequences of vegetation types, plant taxa and functional types reflect a strong climate gradient that supported the gradsect sampling approach.

6. Preliminary analyses indicate a strong predictive relationship between certain plant functional characteristics and climate variables. The use of functional types demonstrates their potential for modeling interactions between plant-based biodiversity and hydrology. As with similar surveys in other countries final data analysis of the watershed is expected to reveal close feedback relationships between biodiversity, soil and land use. The success of the Wangchhu survey was due to close collaboration between national and international agencies. Together with effective capacity enhancement, this has resulted in a unique set of baseline data and resource information that will contribute significantly to the DrukDIF.

Acronyms and Bhutanese terms: (see Part I)

Contents Page 1. Executive summary 1 2. Introduction 4 3. The team in the landscape 4 4. Methodology 5 5. Site location and physical characteristics 6 6. Results 11 7. Discussion 22 8. Acknowledgements 23

Tables

Table 1. Team membership and area of expertise 4 Table 2. Transect locations and site physical properties 10 Table 3. Vegetation type and land use 11 Table 4. Summary of species, PFTs and PFC 13 Table 5. Vegetation structural values 14 Table 6 Plant Functional Elements (PFEs) listed for all 18 transects in lower Wangchhu 15 Table 7. Cover-abundance scores of lichens 16 Table 8. Climate values for Lower Wangchhu 17

Figures

Fig. 1(a) Survey team L->R, Tandin Wangdi (Botanist), A.N. Gillison (Biodiversity specialist), Kinley Penjor (Soil Surveyor), Cheten Thinley (Plant Ecologist), (b) L->R Chador (field assistant), H. van Noord (Geomorphologist) 5 Fig. 2. a). Steeply sloping gorges in the lower Wangchhu limit sampling access. b) View of the lowland outwash plains of the Wangchhu From WC55, Baikunza 881m 7 Fig. 3. Location of the 62 transects. Area under dotted line includes subset from Section B (13 transects) combined with Section C (18 transects) used in the preliminary numerical analysis in this report 8 Fig. 4. Distribution of 62 transect points along the Wangchhu watershed relative to topographical relief, National boundary (bright yellow line) and key road systems (dull yellow line) (GoogleEarth 2010) (see Fig. 4 for transect labels) 9 Fig. 5. Wangchhu biodiversity. (a) Terrestrial orchid Galeola lindleyana near Kemalakha 1550m (b) Rhododendron campylocarpum Chelela 2700m (c) Rhododendron cf. hodgsonii Chelela 2750m (d) Gonatanthus pumilis Baikunza 800m (e) Cyprinid fish Labeo dyocheilus Wangchhu river 220m (f) Woodpecker tree 1800m Gedu (g) Paris Peacock Achillides paris 2

Jemichhu 220 (h) L-R Common Mormon Menelaides polytes, Six-bar Swordtail Pazala eurous, Glassy Bluebottle Idaides cloanthus Cluster at 240m on cow dung, Wangchhu riverside near Alam Thang 12 Fig. 6. Relationship between number of species possessing the isobilateral ‘IS’ PFE per transect. Closely related to the distribution of Pine species along a thermal and rainfall seasonality gradient 18 Fig. 7. Classification based on counts of plant genera. Group (A) Disturbed, mainly evergreen broadleaf forest with successional stages. (B) Tall evergreen broadleaf forest (C) Tseri slash and burn sequences, Pakchika area (D) Buckwheat and padi rice (E) Lower elevation Tseri at Baikunza (F) Conifer forests with some deciduous broadleaf elements. 19 Fig. 8. Classification based on vegetation structure (Table 5). Group (A) Mixed group of highly disturbed broadleaf evergreen forest and heavily disturbed conifer forest (WC45-46). (B) Late stage Tseri sequences Pakchika and Baikunza (C) Mostly conifer forests with one Alnus plantation (WC36). (D) Early Tseri stages and recent agricultural crops 20 Fig. 9. Classification based on Plant Functional Elements (PFEs) weighted by number of species with each PFE attribute per transect. Group (A) Highly disturbed broadleaf (mainly fagaceous) forest (WC32,34,37) and Tseri slash and burn succession at Pakchika (Bongo geog). (B) Mixed tall broadleaf forest including Sal (deciduous Shorea robusta forest WC58). (C) Conifer forests (D) Buckwheat crop (E) Agricultural crops (Maize, Millet) and outlier (WC60) forest on outwash plains with many weedy species 21 Fig. 10. Classification based solely on lichen cover-abundance. Group (A) Highly disturbed broadleaf forest including Alnus plantation (B) Semi-deciduous and deciduous (Sal) broadleaf forest including late stage Tseri (WC37) (C) Conifer forests (D) Mostly Tseri successional sequences (E) Early Tseri (WC40) and agricultural crops. 22

Annexes I Table 1. Sample page of tentative species recorded for Section C 18 transects 24 Table 2. Sample page of unique Plant Functional Types (PFTs) listed in alphabectical order for Section C 25

II Photographic records of Section C vegetation types 26

2. Introduction

The DrukDIF is integrating key biophysical aspects of the natural resources of Bhutan to assist policy planning and sustainable resource management. A key focus is on biodiversity, hydrology and land use. As one of the key drainage systems within Bhutan and the Eastern Himalaya the Wangchhu watershed was therefore a logical baseline for documenting and modeling ecosystem performance at the regional and landscape level. Following close discussion with national stakeholders and training of national personnel from different agencies, a comprehensive ‘landscape-based’ survey of the watershed was designed and implemented with national and international support. This report covers the third and final section (Section C) of a three-part survey of the Wangchhu watershed. Section A (2600- 4600m), Section B (1500-3000m), Section C (220m – 2700m). The present submission is thus a logical continuation of previous reports18 19

The survey of Section C was timed to coincide with late spring flowering and fruiting in order to improve biodiversity sampling as well as to avoid monsoonal rains. In addition to sampling the lower section of the Wangchhu watershed the survey also targeted sampling gaps in the previous survey of Section B where lack of access was due to heavy unseasonal rain and flooding. As with previous surveys, the team collected basic data on vegetation, soils and land use history. For that reason the present report is an interim account that deals with vegetation and land use alone. A final report including data from the entire Wangchhu watershed (Sections A,B.C) will be submitted together with data analyses. Unlike many, more readily sampled lowland areas of Indomalesia, the Bhutanese landscape presents considerable physical barriers to survey activities both in terms of the highly dissected and steep-sided landscape and episodic flooding that frequently results in numerous landslips that remove bridges and roading infrastructure. For these reasons, in many cases the team experienced considerable difficulty in gaining access to sites

3. The team in the landscape

Table 1. Team membership and area of expertise No. Name Institution Task/Expertise 1 Tandin Wangdi NBC Botanist 2 Cheten Thinley RNR-RC, CoRRB Plant ecologist 3 Kinley Penjor NSSC Soil surveyor 4 Chador NSSC Driver/ field assistant 5 Hans van Noord NSSC Geomorphologist 6 Andrew N. Gillison CBM Biodiversity specialist

18 Gillison, A.N. (2009). Developing a Functional Landscape-Scale Land Cover, Biodiversity, Hydrology Modeling Framework (DrukDIF) for the SLMP areas of Bhutan. Phase II: Rapid Natural Resource Assessment Along Land Cover and Land Use Gradients. Wangchhu watershed, Alpine section (3000-5000m). Including report by van Noord, H. and Dorji, T. The Physical Base of the Survey Gradsect: Geology, geomorphology and soil development along the Upper Wang Chhu. World Bank, Sustainable Land Management Project, Bhutan. 5 Sept. 2009. 19 Gillison, A.N. (2009) Biodiversity Baseline Survey of the Wangchhu Watershed Section”B” Mid-elevation zone. World Bank, Sustainable Land Management Project, Bhutan.18 December 2009. 4

a b

Figure 1(a) The L-R, Tandin Wangdi (Botanist), A.N. Gillison (Biodiversity specialist), Kinley Penjor (Soil Surveyor), Cheten Thinley (Plant Ecologist) (b) Chador (field assistant), H. van Noord (Geomorphologist). The multidisciplinary expertise of the team ( Table 1., Figs. 1a,b) enabled an integrated aproach to survey. While each team member contributed specific expertise in the recording of field data, the survey was designed and coordinated jointly by NSSC and CBM.

4. Methodology (See also Part I )

As indicated in the foregoing, due to unseasonal weather and local flooding, a section of the primary gradsect in Section B could not be sampled. This section, between the lower Haa valley and Gedu was subsequently sampled in the present survey. These sample sites overlapped with those in Section C and a number of sites previously sampled in the Pakchika area of the Bongo geog also fell within the lower elevation region (ca. 1500m). For analytical purposes they were therefore combined with the 18 transects in the present survey, making a total of 31 transects.

Much of the lower Wangchhu consists of steeply sided gorges that renders access difficult and impractical. This limitation is the underlying reason for some obvious sample gaps in the thermal and elevational gradients. While the survey was timed to avoid monsoonal rains and to coincide with maximum flowering and fruiting, unexpected flooding of the Wangchhu due to unseasonal rains prevented the team from accessing an area on the northern side of the river east of the village of Bongo.

Final data analysis can only be undertaken with the entire survey of 62 transects. A significant umber of species remain to be identified from voucher specimens. For this reason a numerical analysis of plant genera was undertaken instead of species. For indicative purposes, preliminary exploratory analysis of data from the 31 transects was applied to four data subsets (presence/absence of plant genera, vegetation structure, species-weighted plant functional elements (PFEs) and lichen cover-

5 abundance). Using the PATN software package20 (Belbin 1992), a Bray-Curtis association measure was applied with a polythetic agglomerative fusion strategy and a Beta clustering value of -0.25. Classificatory dendrograms rather than the less interpretable ordinations are presented.

Standard Pearson correlation and linear and non-linear regression analysis (SigmaPlot v. 9.0 and Minitab v. 15) were applied to climate values and PFEs. Further analyses are reported in a separate overview report. All recorded vegetation data were compiled using the VegClass software package as in previous surveys. Electronic copies have been lodged with NSSC, NBC and CBM. When corrected and edited, final copies of the original data and metadata will be made available via the DrukDIF web portal managed by UW. No fauna were recorded during the survey. Pictorial records only were made of avifauna, fish and insects (butterflies).

Unlike the previous surveys, certain climate data were made available through the kind offices of the University of Washington, Seattle (Prof. J. Richey and staff). For each georeferenced transect these included maximum mean annual temperature, minimum temperature of the coldest month, mean annual preciptiation, cv% of precipitation over a 12 month period in 2006 (a measure of rainfall seasonality), actual evapotranspiration (mm day-1 and annual) and runoff (mm day-1 and annual).

5. Site location and physical characteristics

As described in the foregoing, the lower part of the Wangchhu valley is bounded by steep gorges (Fig. 2a) that continue to the outwash plains near the confluence at Jimichhu, close to the Indian border (Fig. 2b). Sites for the completed Wangchhu survey are labelled in Figure 3 with a topographic overview of site locations together with National boundaries and major road networks in Figure 4. Table 2 summarises geolocations, elevation, slope and aspect.

20 Belbin, L. (1992) P ATN Pattern Analysis Package: T echnical Reference. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Div. Wildlife & Ecology, Canberra. 6

Figure 2. a). Steeply sloping gorges in the lower Wangchhu limit sampling access. b) View of the lowland outwash plains of the Wangchhu From WC55, Baikunza 881m.

Figure 3. Location of the 62 transects. Area under dotted line includes subset from Section ‘B’ (13 transects) combined with Section ‘C’ (18 transects) used in the preliminary numerical analysis in this report. Dashed line includes Section C.

India

Figure 4. Distribution of 62 transect points along the Wangchhu watershed relative to topographical relief, National boundary (bright yellow line) and key road systems (dull yellow line) (GoogleEarth 2010) (White dashed ellipse includes Section C ).

Table 2. Transect locations and site physical properties *

Elevn Slope Aspect Transect Location Lat. S Long. E (m) % Deg. WC32 4km from Haa towards Chelela 26.95414 89.56335 1856 35 145 WC33 3km to Situ from just before Chasilaka 26.95366 89.56526 1819 60 62 WC34 6km towwards Situ from Chasilaka 26.90430 89.58836 1510 79 85 WC35 Near Alaykha community school, Gedu area 26.91669 89.54804 1753 35 350 WC36 Near Alaykha School 26.91457 89.54340 1805 20 359 WC37 Near Alaykha School 26.92830 89.59958 1439 45 113 WC38 Bayme Pang, (Pakchika, Bongo Geog) 26.93148 89.58818 1386 45 4 WC39 Zomchuthay (Pakchika, Bongo Geog) 26.93163 89.59877 1420 65 55 WC40 Zawalaktha (Pakichika - Bongo Geog) 26.92957 89.59944 1471 35 74 WC41 Pakichikha, Bongo geog 26.92950 89.59977 1448 50 80 WC42 Pakchikha, Bongo geog 26.99994 89.59971 1447 38 72 WC43 Pakchikha - Bongo geog 26.92993 89.59971 1447 35 60 WC44 Pakichikha =- Bongo geog [Survey B locations] 26.93192 89.59504 1477 35 60 WC45 Paro side of Chelela 27.38668 89.39790 2688 31 15 WC46 Logging road above Jyenkana, Haa valley 27.31505 89.31917 2705 90 300 WC47 20 km from Susuna towards Haa. Haa valley 27.23537 89.42417 2634 45 208 WC48 Near Nago, Haa valley 27.26270 89.36712 2755 80 220 WC49 8 km N of Jyenkana village, Haa valley 27.26021 89.32532 2739 85 128 WC50 Near Jyenkana village. Adj. bridge Haachhu 27.28857 89.30459 2592 2 254 WC51 Near Chapcha on Thimphu-Phuentsoling hwy. 27.20795 89.52826 2363 85 260 WC52 Above Tashi Gatshel. Main Phuents. hwy. 27.07189 89.57144 2221 24 203 WC53 1 km N of Taktikoti. Main Phuents. hwy 27.01668 89.56992 2023 80 330 WC54 2km E of Chasilaka 26.99739 89.58875 2023 54 8 WC55 Aewa Ganto (Baikunza). 26.79147 89.70702 881 38 294 WC56 Khapsilakha (Baikunza) 26.79209 89.70687 879 50 234 WC57 Khapsilakha (Baikunza) 26.78948 89.70251 767 3 287 WC58 Am Sepho (Between Baikunza and Jemichhu) 26.78229 89.70721 681 80 180 WC59 Jemichhu, lowest point on watershed 26.76936 89.72853 222 5 208 WC60 Alam thang 26.77463 89.71431 237 0 0 WC61 Jemi thang, near bridge crossing. Southern side. 26.80297 89.67926 340 50 30 WC62 Between Kemalakha and Chargarey. 26.78182 89.62955 1540 30 338

* Transects WC 32-44 are from Section ‘B’. WC45-62 Section ‘C’.

6. Results

Away from riparian flats, site recording was influenced by steepness of slope for which corrections had to be made in plot layout. For Section ‘C’, slopes ranged from 30-90% with an average of about 60%. Table 3 lists broadly descriptive vegetation types and related land use.

Table 3. Vegetation type and land use

Transect Vegetation type and land use WC32 Secondary succession. Alcimandra dominant tree. Dense Strobilanthes, weeds WC33 Disturbed Oak-Laurel forest. Cut over, grazed WC34 Disturbed fagaceous forest with shrub undrerstorey. Cut over, grazed. WC35 Castanopsis forest with shrubby understorey. Cut over, grazed. WC36 Alnus nepalensis forest (plantation). Dense Strobilanthes, Cryptomeria japonica WC37 Seral shrubland following slash and burn (S/B). Remnant tree cover. WC38 Six year fallow stage. Dominated by shrubs. Some remaining trees. WC39 3-4 year shrub fallow dominated by Artemisia vulgaris. Some remnant trees. WC40 2yr seral shrubland in s/b cycle. Artemisia/ Chromolaena WC41 Cultivation, mixed crop and non-crop species. 8 month fallow. WC42 Newly emerging buckwheat, Fagopyrum esculentum WC43 Dominantly Amaranthus (caudatus?) crop WC44 Padi rice just before harvest. 3 months since planting, WC45 Managed conifer forest, Pinus wallichiana, Picea spinulosa. WC46 Managed conifer forest, shrubby understorey. Pinus wallichiana, Picea spinulosa. WC47 Pinus wallichiana forest WC48 Mixed Pinus wallichiana and broadleaf (Populus ciliata) forest. WC49 Mixed conifer broadleaf forest; Populus, Pinus, Picea, Tsuga, Oak. WC50 Tall conifer (P. wallichiana) forest with Pieris understorey. WC51 Mixed conifer/broadleaf (Pinus/Quercus) low forest. WC52 Tall broadleaf vine forest. WC53 Tall temperate broadleaf forest with Strobilanthes understorey WC54 Mixed temperate broadleaf forest. Semi-deciduous. WC55 Three year successional stage in Tseri slash and burn system. WC56 Two month old crop with Maize, Finger Millet and Foxtail Millet. WC57 Pure Maize crop. WC58 Deciduous Sal (Shorea robusta) forest. WC59 Secondary humid lowland semi-deciduous vine forest. Edge of the Douars plain. WC60 Seasonal low deciduous forest. Adenanthera, Acacia. WC61 Tall open, mixed successional forest. U’storey Chromolaena adenophorum. WC62 Tall temperate, mainly evergreen, humid broadleaf forest.

For the 31 transects a total of 1113 vascular plant species was recorded. It is expected that further identification will reduce this total by about 15%. An example of species listing together with codes can be seen in Annex I, Table 1. We recorded 172 families, 463 unique genera and 481 unique PFTs. Totals of species, PFTs and a measure of Plant Functional Complexity (PFC) are listed in Table 4. Vegetation structural values are listed in Table 5. Photographs of each vegetation type can be seen in Annex II, Figures 1-18.

A cross-section of biota photographed during the survey of Section C is presented in Figure 7 below.

a b

c d

e f

g h

Figure 5. Wangchhu biodiversity. (a) Terrestrial orchid Galeola lindleyana near Kemalakha 1550m (b) Rhododendron campylocarpum Chelela 2700m (c) Rhododendron cf. hodgsonii Chelela 2750m (d) Gonatanthus pumilis Baikunza 800m (e) Cyprinid fish Labeo dyocheilus Wangchhu river 220m (f) Woodpecker tree 1800m Gedu (g) Paris Peacock Achillides paris Jemichhu 220 (h) L-R Common Mormon Menelaides polytes, Six-bar Swordtail Pazala eurous, Glassy Bluebottle Idaides cloanthus Cluster at 240m on cow dung, Wangchhu riverside near Alam Thang.

Table 4. Summary of species, PFTs and PFC Transect Species PFTs Spp:PFT PFC WC32 98 72 1.36 358 WC33 52 41 1.27 222 WC34 76 58 1.31 292 WC35 54 44 1.23 280 WC36 40 30 1.33 198 WC37 81 56 1.45 294 WC38 66 44 1.50 282 WC39 59 44 1.34 232 WC40 65 44 1.48 264 WC41 57 47 1.21 230 WC42 10 10 1.00 82 WC43 38 31 1.23 146 WC44 26 22 1.18 126 WC45 38 24 1.58 160 WC46 32 23 1.39 144 WC47 38 29 1.31 192 WC48 41 34 1.21 230 WC49 43 30 1.43 192 WC50 35 27 1.30 192 WC51 44 35 1.26 196 WC52 46 37 1.24 238 WC53 46 37 1.24 228 WC54 47 39 1.21 226 WC55 46 37 1.24 254 WC56 28 24 1.17 162 WC57 26 24 1.08 146 WC58 46 42 1.10 268 WC59 63 47 1.34 240 WC60 23 22 1.05 172 WC61 51 41 1.24 266 WC62 40 29 1.38 158

Table 5. Vegetation structural values *

Transect Ht CCTot CCWdy CCNwdy Bryo WPlts Litt BA MFI FICV WC32 10.00 98 95 3 8 7 2.00 11.330 61.00 50.36 WC33 40.00 92 75 17 6 8 0.01 34.000 51.00 54.41 WC34 30.00 99 90 9 8 8 8.00 30.000 52.30 49.54 WC35 18.00 95 92 3 8 6 3.00 24.000 55.75 57.11 WC36 19.00 99 98 1 9 5 3.00 24.670 4.50 447.21 WC37 3.00 99 90 9 8 4 5.00 2.670 63.00 73.30 WC38 2.80 99 90 9 9 5 2.50 1.000 99.00 3.11 WC39 2.50 99 95 4 9 5 2.00 1.330 100.00 0.00 WC40 2.00 99 85 14 8 3 2.00 1.000 95.50 21.07 WC41 0.40 85 10 75 1 2 0.01 0.100 93.50 21.47 WC42 0.15 75 0 75 0 0 0.00 0.000 0.00 0.00 WC43 0.60 92 10 82 2 2 0.10 0.100 99.40 2.27 WC44 1.00 90 0 90 0 1 0.00 0.000 0.00 0.00 WC45 19.00 90 80 10 4 8 3.00 18.67 50.90 95.60 WC46 32.00 90 85 5 7 9 5.00 26.67 57.65 84.57 WC47 17.00 85 75 10 5 6 2.50 20.67 34.75 139.85 WC48 17.00 95 90 5 6 4 3.00 20.67 30.00 156.72 WC49 30.00 95 90 5 6 8 8.00 18.67 36.00 127.26 WC50 38.00 90 85 5 6 6 0.00 36.67 14.90 244.24 WC51 18.00 85 75 10 3 6 5.00 24.67 29.75 156.76 WC52 17.00 98 95 3 7 4 10.00 36.67 54.25 49.43 WC53 20.00 98 95 3 8 8 7.00 28.67 51.50 42.39 WC54 17.00 98 95 3 7 4 7.00 30.67 46.00 59.07 WC55 1.00 99 75 24 2 9 2.00 1.00 100.00 0.00 WC56 0.80 85 5 80 1 1 0.50 0.01 0.00 0.00 WC57 1.80 90 0 90 1 0 0.20 0.00 0.00 0.00 WC58 15.00 80 75 5 5 5 5.00 31.33 34.00 57.57 WC59 13.00 98 90 8 3 8 3.00 14.67 57.95 51.58 WC60 9.00 95 80 15 2 9 2.00 10.00 46.00 74.78 WC61 15.00 98 95 3 6 9 2.00 6.67 71.65 34.27 WC62 19.00 98 96 2 7 8 1.00 19.33 49.50 69.67 * Ht = Mean canopy height (m); Cctot= Total canopy projective foliage cover percent; Ccwdy = projective foliage cover percent of woody plants; CCNwdy, PFC of non-woody plants; Bryo = cover-abundance of bryophytes; Wplts = cover-abundance of woody plants <2m tall; Litt = plant litter depth (cm); BA = basal area of all woody plants (m2ha-1); MFI = mean furcation index; FICV = coefficient of variation percent of FI. (See also Part I Annex III for complete listing of site variables)

Due to the large number of unique PFTs, as with species, listing is restricted to an example in I, Table 2. Species weighted PFE counts (number of species per PFE in each transect) are listed in Table 6. Note: A maximum 36 generic PFEs21 are used to construct PFTs as indicated in the methodological detail outlined in survey A. Cover-abundance values for fruticose, crustose and foliose lichens and totals are listed in Table 7.

21 See www.cbmglobe.org VegClass for details 14

Climate data as supplied by UW (H. Greenberg, M. Sonessa) are listed in Table 8. Values for ET and runoff are as used in a daily time step in the VIC (Variable Infiltration Capacity) hydrological model in use by the University of Washington. Annual ET and runoff values are being calculated separately (M. Sonessa, pers com.) for additional analyses.

Table 6 Plant Functional Elements (PFEs) listed for all 18 transects in lower Wangchhu*

P W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W F C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C E 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 pi 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 le 1 2 5 3 5 2 1 1 1 3 2 2 1 3 1 0 3 1 na 11 10 15 12 9 6 9 6 11 8 6 3 5 2 4 3 4 3 mi 20 13 11 18 22 22 22 14 4 10 10 13 9 4 11 8 10 6 no 5 6 3 6 4 7 10 15 15 16 10 8 3 10 15 3 11 7 m 1 0 4 4 3 0 2 6 14 5 14 1 5 23 27 5 16 23 e pl 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 3 2 0 2 2 2 3 4 0 m 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 3 0 1 0 a m 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 g ve 7 4 4 2 1 2 2 1 2 5 7 6 5 6 5 3 5 3 la 29 25 28 33 32 29 36 35 29 31 25 10 16 13 52 13 36 34 pe 0 1 0 2 1 1 0 5 4 1 3 2 1 13 2 3 9 2 co 4 2 6 6 9 5 7 5 11 10 10 10 4 14 4 4 1 2 do 37 32 36 41 41 35 44 45 46 47 44 28 26 46 63 23 51 41 is 3 0 2 2 2 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 de 1 6 19 21 28 17 29 3 3 9 9 2 0 7 5 5 6 1 ct 2 1 0 5 4 1 0 6 4 8 2 0 0 5 8 5 5 11 ac 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ro 4 2 3 2 1 2 3 1 2 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 0 so 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 3 1 0 0 1 1 0 2 2 su 1 0 1 6 2 3 3 9 13 8 4 2 3 6 3 1 5 6 pv 1 1 4 2 1 3 4 3 4 3 5 7 3 9 4 2 2 1 fi 1 7 7 7 6 5 4 10 14 11 1 3 1 8 1 1 4 6 ph 4 5 2 10 5 6 2 8 7 11 3 0 0 6 10 6 6 12 ch 24 14 9 16 18 9 16 16 9 12 24 5 7 8 29 8 15 12 hc 8 11 24 16 17 19 23 18 29 23 12 16 13 28 18 8 22 15 cr 4 2 3 1 3 3 2 4 1 1 3 1 0 4 2 0 5 1 th 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 3 6 6 0 4 1 3 1 li 3 4 1 1 6 5 7 8 6 5 10 3 4 11 21 4 13 2 ad 10 12 23 19 21 23 29 31 36 32 17 19 14 23 20 9 29 18 ep 0 1 2 3 1 3 2 20 17 15 2 0 0 10 14 4 15 9 pa 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 * Values are species-weighted (number of species per PFE). For WC32-44 values see previous report.

Table 7. Cover-abundance scores of lichens

Transect No. Fruticose Crustose Foliose Total WC32 2 1 3 6 WC33 2 2 2 6 WC34 2 2 1 5 WC35 0 2 0 2 WC36 2 2 1 5 WC37 1 3 3 7 WC38 0 2 0 2 WC39 0 2 1 3 WC40 0 0 0 0 WC41 0 0 0 0 WC42 0 0 0 0 WC43 0 0 0 0 WC44 0 0 0 0 WC45 6 2 4 12 WC46 4 2 7 13 WC47 6 2 6 14 WC48 2 4 5 11 WC49 1 4 3 8 WC50 3 4 6 13 WC51 4 2 5 11 WC52 1 5 1 7 WC53 0 4 1 5 WC54 0 7 1 8 WC55 0 2 0 2 WC56 0 1 0 1 WC57 0 2 0 2 WC58 0 6 2 8 WC59 0 6 1 7 WC60 0 5 0 5 WC61 0 7 2 9 WC62 0 6 1 7

In general, crustose lichen cover-abundance increases with exposure to sun and wind, while foliose and fruticose lichens increase with vegetation canopy cover. Note that Tseri group WC40-44 contained zero lichen records

Table 8. Climate values for Lower Wangchhu*

Min temp °C Max temp Precip. Precip. ET Runoff Transect coldest month °C mm yr-1 cv% mm day-1 mm yr-1 WC32 -3.1992 19.0750 3293.52 104.5102.34772 1301.05 WC33 -3.0283 19.2365 3296.56 104.4972.35708 1302.36 WC34 1.4797 23.3386 3407.02 104.0222.59881 1340.88 WC35 -1.9260 20.1717 3354.03 104.2642.39040 1344.17 WC36 -2.1350 19.9698 3353.16 104.2692.38427 1344.26 WC37 1.2306 23.3016 3345.08 104.2712.60311 1139.89 WC38 0.7640 22.8399 3345.37 104.2742.57615 1188.50 WC39 1.2342 23.3150 3342.30 104.2822.60274 1126.14 WC40 1.2252 23.3016 3343.58 104.2772.60249 1133.20 WC41 1.2322 23.3065 3344.13 104.2752.60300 1135.17 WC42 1.2351 23.3123 3343.31 104.2782.60300 1130.92 WC43 1.2351 23.3123 3343.31 104.2782.60300 1130.92 WC44 1.1418 23.2176 3344.02 104.2762.59775 1143.70 WC45 -9.8951 15.1373 1917.83 110.9571.64331 405.32 WC46 -10.6645 13.4266 2167.64 111.2871.60105 511.80 WC47 -10.1287 14.0579 2372.44 108.7621.74596 607.90 WC48 -11.8189 12.2913 2249.46 110.0671.59174 555.93 WC49 -10.6306 13.3513 2209.71 110.9781.64450 534.22 WC50 -10.3339 13.6739 2183.02 111.2461.63087 522.08 WC51 -8.3086 15.3680 2791.67 106.6351.92984 837.34 WC52 -5.6074 17.4770 3039.42 105.5212.28056 953.59 WC53 -6.9039 15.8551 3140.34 105.1142.18935 1014.48 WC54 -3.9844 18.5979 3197.99 104.8642.28038 1128.81 WC55 5.0726 25.7815 3623.54 102.9302.58431 1582.43 WC56 5.0292 25.7403 3622.96 102.9332.58101 1582.06 WC57 5.0999 25.8108 3623.80 102.9322.59036 1581.73 WC58 5.5472 26.2321 3629.64 102.9032.61889 1586.64 WC59 7.4411 28.0419 3648.12 102.8102.70600 1603.32 WC60 6.5672 27.2006 3640.88 102.8472.67155 1596.94 WC61 4.4217 25.2283 3605.05 103.0282.48908 1567.34 WC62 4.5389 25.6349 3569.81 103.2722.40437 1535.34 * Supplied by H. Greenberg and M. Sonessa University of Washington Seattle

Standard statistical analyses show that the climate values listed above are not significantly correlated with species of PFT richness or PFC. On the other hand all climate values are significantly correlated with three aspects of vegetation structure (mean canopy height, basal area and bryophyte cover-abundance). Few PFTs are correlated with the climate data. When PFTs are disaggregated into their constituent PFEs there are a number of highly significant 17

correlations between many PFEs and all four climate variables. Highest among these are plants with isobilateral leaves (photosynthetic tissue surrounding the entire leaf surface – as in many Pinus spp.) as well as deciduousness, liane richness and leaf size classes.

In the present example, (Fig. 8) the strong statistical relationship suggests that the pines Pinus wallichiana and Picea spinulosa (Pinaceae) both species with isoblateral leaves, closely follow an evapotranspiration gradient (also reflected by a high negative correlation (P< 0.0001) with temperature, rainfall and runoff and a positive correlation (P< 0.0001) with elevation and rainfall seasonality. This relationship is consistent with the known physiological characteristics of these two species that are associated with adaptation to increasing drought and rainfall seasonality.

Figure 6. Relationship between number of species possessing the isobilateral ‘IS’ PFE per transect. Closely related to the distribution of Pine species along a thermal and rainfall seasonality gradient

Cluster analysis of the 31 transects applied to individual data sets of separate counts of plant genera and PFTs, vegetation structure, species-weighted PFEs and lichen cover-abundance generated a series of closely related dendrograms. While producing a number of outlying groups the classifications also indicated a general level of congruence particularly among the more mature and less disturbed forest assemblages such as those dominated by conifers. These patterns are displayed in the following figures (9,10,11,12).

The classification based on lichen cover-abundance (Fig. 12) clearly differentiates the key vegetation types and may indicate a novel approach to vegetation classifcation.

Figure 7. Classification based on counts of plant genera. Group (A) Disturbed, mainly evergreen broadleaf forest with successional stages. (B) Tall evergreen broadleaf forest (C) Tseri slash and burn sequences, Pakchika area (D) Buckwheat and padi rice (E) Lower elevation Tseri at Baikunza (F) Conifer forests with some deciduous broadleaf elements.

Figure 8. Classification based on vegetation structure (Table 5). Group (A) Mixed group of highly disturbed broadleaf evergreen forest and heavily disturbed conifer forest (WC45-46). (B) Late stage Tseri sequences Pakchika and Baikunza (C) Mostly conifer forests with one Alnus plantation (WC36). (D) Early Tseri stages and recent agricultural crops.

Figure 9. Classification based on Plant Functional Elements (PFEs) weighted by number of species with each PFE attribute per transect. Group (A) Highly disturbed broadleaf (mainly fagaceous) forest (WC32,34,37) and Tseri slash and burn succession at Pakchika (Bongo geog). (B) Mixed tall broadleaf forest including Sal (deciduous Shorea robusta forest WC58). (C) Conifer forests (D) Buckwheat crop (E) Agricultural crops (Maize, Millet) and outlier (WC60) forest on outwash plains with many weedy species.

Figure 10. Classification based solely on lichen cover-abundance. Group (A) Highly disturbed broadleaf forest including Alnus plantation (B) Semi-deciduous and deciduous (Sal) broadleaf forest including late stage Tseri (WC37) (C) Conifer forests (D) Mostly Tseri successional sequences (E) Early Tseri (WC40) and agricultural crops.

7. Discussion

7.1 Biodiversity pattern As indicated by the preliminary statistical analyses, the distributional pattern of vegetation floristics, structure and functional types corresponds closely with a thermal and elevational gradient and related gradients of evapotranspiration, rainfall seasonality and runoff. While no conclusions can be drawn without a final analysis of the entire watershed survey, current trends fully support the underlying gradsect sampling strategy. It remains to be seen how these patterns will be linked with soil properties and land management. To date biodiversity richness in zones B and C appears to be highest in those vegetation types impacted by intermediate levels of disturbance, thus supporting the ecologically well known ‘Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis’.

The close relationship between certain PFEs and climate variables especially runoff, has moved the outcome of this survey a step closer to identifying a quantifiable link between plant functional attributes and hydrological dynamics. The extent to which functional and other plant-based variables can contribute to hydrological modeling with VIC and DHSVM may become clearer with a final analysis of the Wangchhu watershed. Of particular ecological interest is the discovery that readily observable scores of lichen cover-abundance are of potential use as biodiversity indicators. Again, relative indicator value along the watershed will become clearer with the final analyses of the entire 62 transects.

7.2 Training and capacity enhancement The additional in-field training of two former trainees from NBC and CoRRB led to improved recording consistency. This is evident from the close statistical correlation between recorded species and PFTs (P< 0.0001). A subjective assessment of performance of these and other trainees included in the previous surveys indicates a clear capacity to design and implement similar gradient-based, integrated biodiversity surveys in Bhutan.

8. Acknowledgements

The detailed preparation for this survey undertaken by the Program Director and staff of NSSC /SLMP is gratefully acknowledged. The Program Director of NBC (Dr Tashi Yangzome Dorji) and Dr Pema Wangda (RNR-RC, CoRRB) also kindly supported the survey with botanical and ecological personnel respectively. Prof. J. Richey, H. Greenberg and M. Sonessa from the University of Washington also kindly provided climate data for the numerical analyses.

Annex I

Table 1. Sample page of tentative species recorded for Section C 18 transects

W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C Family, Genus, Species, Code 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 Acanthaceae sp31 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Acanthaceae sp32 SP32 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Acanthaceae Strobilanthes multidens STROBMULT 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Aceraceae Acer sp44 ACERSP44 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Aceraceae Acer? sp30 ACERSP30 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Adiantaceae Monachosorum henryi MONAHENR 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Adiantaceae Pteris biaurita? PTERBIAU 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 Adiantaceae Pteris cretica PTERCRET 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 Amaranthaceae sp12 SP12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 Amaranthaceae Amaranthus lividus AMARLIVI 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 Amaranthaceae Amaranthus sp13 AMARSP13 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 Amaranthaceae Amaranthus sp39 AMARSP39 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Amaranthaceae? sp28 SP28 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 Amaranthaceae? sp30 SP30 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Anacardiaceae Buchanania? sp11 BUCHSP11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 Anacardiaceae Buchanania? sp34 BUCHSP34 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 Anacardiaceae Rhus taitensis? RHUSTAIT 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 Anacardiaceae Spondias sp37 SPONSP37 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Anacardiaceae? sp44 SP44 'ITCHY TREE' 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Apiaceae sp14 SP14 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Apiaceae Acronema sp20 ACROSP20 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Apiaceae Heracleum sp11 HERASP11 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Apiaceae Heracleum sp35 HERASP35 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Apocynaceae sp12 SP12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Apocynaceae sp24 SP24 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Apocynaceae sp54 SP54 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 Apocynaceae Ervatamia sp21 ERVASP21 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 Apocynaceae Parsonsia? sp18 PARSSP18 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

Table 2. Sample page of unique Plant Functional Types (PFTs) listed in alphabectical order for Section C * W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W PFT C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 le-la-do-fi-hc-ad 1 2 1 1 0 2 0 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 me-ve-do-ch 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 2 1 0 0 0 mi-co-do-ph 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 mi-la-do-ch 9 7 4 2 5 4 2 2 0 0 1 2 1 0 3 1 0 0 mi-la-do-ch-li 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 mi-la-do-ct-ch 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 mi-la-do-ct-ph 1 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 mi-la-do-hc-ad 1 1 2 2 0 0 0 1 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 1 2 0 mi-la-do-hc-li 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 mi-la-do-ph 0 1 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 mi-la-do-ro-cr 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 mi-ve-do-de-su-cr 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 mi-ve-do-hc-ad 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 na-co-do-ch 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 na-co-do-pv-hc-ad 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 na-co-is-ph 1 0 1 1 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 na-la-do-ch 3 0 0 3 3 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 na-la-do-ch-ad 2 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 na-la-do-ch-li 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 na-la-do-de-hc 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 na-la-do-hc-ad 1 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 na-la-do-ro-hc-ad 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 na-ve-do-pv-hc-ad 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 na-ve-do-ro-cr-ad 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 no-la-do-ch 3 3 0 0 0 0 3 1 0 3 3 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 no-la-do-ph 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 no-la-do-ro-cr 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 no-pe-do-ch-li 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 pi-ve-is-ch 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 * Total of 319 unique PFTs listed for transects WC45-62. Values are species-weighted (number of species with a specific PFT). For WC32-44 values see previous report.

Annex II Photographic records of Section C vegetation types List of figures Figure 1. WC45 Paro side of Chelela. Managed conifer forest. Pinus wallichiana, Picea spinulosa. Pieris formosa and Quercus semecarpifolia understorey (37 spp, 24 PFT). 2688 Figure 2. WC46. Near Jyenkana, Haa valley. Managed conifer forest. Pinus wallichiana, Picea spinulosa. Shrubby understorey of Lyonia villosa, Pieris formosa and Daphne bholua (32 spp, 23 PFT) 2705m. Figure 3. WC47. 20 K S. of Susuna, Haa valley.Conifer forest of Pinus wallichiana with understorey of Berberis sp. Lyonia villosa and Rosa sericea. (38 spp. 29 PFT) 2634m Figure 4. WC48. Near Nago, Haa valley. Conifer-Broadleaf forest Pinus wallichiana, Picea spinulosa, Populus ciliata with understorey of Rosa sericea, Lyonia villosa and Berberis praecipua. (41 spp., 34 PFT) 2755m. Figure 5. WC49. 10 K. E. of Jyenkana. Mixed conifer-broadleaf forest. Pinus wallicihiana, Picea spinulosa, Tsuga dumosa, Populus ciliata, Salix spp. Understorey with Rosa sericea, Berberis praecipua Daphne bholua. (42 spp. 30 PFT) 2739m. Figure 6. WC50. Near Jyenkana, Haa valley. Tall conifer forest Pinus wallichiana, Picea spinulosa with understorey of Quercus semecarpifolia, Berberis spp., Daphne bholua and Lyonia villosa. (35 spp. 27 PFT) 2592m Figure 7. WC51. Near Chapcha. Mainly conifer (Pinus wallichiana) forest with Oak (Quercus lanata) and understorey of Rhododendron arboreum, Berberis praecipua, Rosa brunonia and Lyonia villosa. (44 spp. 35 PFT) 2363m. Figure 8. WC52. Above Tashi Gatshel. Tall semi-deciduous broadleaf forest. Quercus lamellosa, Euphorbiaceae. Understorey of Viburnum sp., Daphne bholua and Symplocos aff. nepalensis. (45 spp. 37 PFT) 2221m. Figure 9. WC53. 1 K N of Taktikoti. Tall, semi-deciduous broadleaf forest. Castanopsis sp., Quercus lamellosa, Symplocos lucida with Strobilanthes dominated understorey. Numerous ferns (46 spp. 37 PFT) 2023m. Figure 10. WC54. 2km E. of Chasilaka. Mixed semi-deciduous broadleaf forest dominated by Castanopsis sp., Juglans regia, Acer sp., Persea fructifera, Araliaceae. Understorey with Symplocos lucida, Maytenus rufa. Numerous ferns. (47 spp. 39 PFT) 2023m Figure 11. WC55. Baikunza. Three-year old slash and burn ‘Tseri’ at Baikunza. Artemisia vulgaris dominant. Emergent Ostodes paniculata, Mallotus philippensis, Glochidion sp. Many Dioscorea spp. (46 spp. 37 PFT) 881m. Figure 12. WC56. Baikunza. Two month old mixed crop of Maize (Zea mays), Finger millet (Eleusine coracana) and Foxtail millet (Setaria italica) (28 spp. 24 PFT) 879m. Figure 13. WC57. Three month old pure Maize (Zea mays) crop. Baikunza. (28 spp. 24 PFT) 767m Figure 14. WC58. Sal (Shorea robusta) deciduous forest. Amsepho. Herbaceous understorey (Curculigo, Hedychium, Kyllinga, Dioscorea spp. Fabaceae) (46 spp. 42 PFT) 681m. Figure 15. WC59. Tall semi-deciduous vine forest. Jemichu. Lower Wangchhu floodplain. Pterospermum sp., Adenanthera pavonina. Understorey of Murraya koenigii, Bauhinia purpurea, Mallotus philippensis, Ervatamia sp. Numerous lianes. (63 spp. 47 PFT) 222m Figure 16. WC60. Alamthang – lower Wangchhu floodplain. Heavily grazed, dry deciduous low, weedy, forest dominated mostly by Adenathera pavonina, Bombax ceiba and Acacia sp. (23 spp. 22 PFT) 237m. Figure 17. WC61. Jemi Thang. Tall mostly evergreen riparian forest dominated by Duabanga grandiflora. Understorey Maesa chisia, Clerodendrum paniculatum, Adenanthera sp., Murraya koenigii, Leea sp. Mussaenda. Numerous lianes, succulent aroids (Amorphophallus, Colocasia) (51 spp. 41 PFT) 340m. Figure 18. WC62. Between Kemalakha and Chargarey. Tall mixed, broadleaved, mainly evergreen forest with dominant Alcimandra cathcartii, Castanopsis sp., Litsea sp. Understorey with Ardisia sp., Ostodes paniculata, Daphniphyllum, Casearia glomerata, Melastoma sp., Daphne bholua. (40 spp. 29 PFT) 1540m.

Figure 1. WC45 Paro side of Chelela. Managed conifer forest. Pinus wallichiana, Picea spinulosa. Pieris formosa and Quercus semecarpifolia understorey (37 spp, 24 PFT). 2688m.

Figure 2. WC46. Near Jyenkana, Haa valley. Managed conifer forest. Pinus wallichiana, Picea spinulosa. Shrubby understorey of Lyonia villosa, Pieris formosa and Daphne bholua (32 spp, 23 PFT) 2705m.

Figure 3. WC47. 20 K S. of Susuna, Haa valley.Conifer forest of Pinus wallichiana with understorey of Berberis sp. Lyonia villosa and Rosa sericea. (38 spp. 29 PFT) 2634m.

Figure 4. WC48. Near Nago, Haa valley. Conifer-Broadleaf forest Pinus wallichiana, Picea spinulosa, Populus ciliata with understorey of Rosa sericea, Lyonia villosa and Berberis praecipua. (41 spp., 34 PFT) 2755m. 28

Figure 5. WC49. 10 K. E. of Jyenkana. Mixed conifer-broadleaf forest. Pinus wallicihiana, Picea spinulosa, Tsuga dumosa, Populus ciliata, Salix spp. Understorey with Rosa sericea, Berberis praecipua Daphne bholua. (42 spp. 30 PFT) 2739m.

Figure 6. WC50. Near Jyenkana, Haa valley. Tall conifer forest Pinus wallichiana, Picea spinulosa with understorey of Quercus semecarpifolia, Berberis spp., Daphne bholua and Lyonia villosa. (35 spp. 27 PFT) 2592m. 29

Figure 7. WC51. Near Chapcha. Mainly conifer (Pinus wallichiana) forest with Oak (Quercus lanata) and understorey of Rhododendron arboreum, Berberis praecipua, Rosa brunonia and Lyonia villosa. (44 spp. 35 PFT) 2363m.

Figure 8. WC52. Above Tashi Gatshel. Tall semi-deciduous broadleaf forest. Quercus lamellosa, Euphorbiaceae. Understorey of Viburnum sp., Daphne bholua and Symplocos aff. nepalensis. (45 spp. 37 PFT) 2221m. 30

Figure 9. WC53. 1 K N of Taktikoti. Tall, semi-deciduous broadleaf forest. Castanopsis sp., Quercus lamellosa, Symplocos lucida with Strobilanthes dominated understorey. Numerous ferns (46 spp. 37 PFT) 2023m.

Figure 10. WC54. 2km E. of Chasilaka. Mixed semi-deciduous broadleaf forest dominated by Castanopsis sp., Juglans regia, Acer sp., Persea fructifera, Araliaceae. Understorey with Symplocos lucida, Maytenus rufa. Numerous ferns. (47 spp. 39 PFT) 2023m. 31

Figure 11. WC55. Baikunza. Three-year old slash and burn ‘Tseri’ at Baikunza. Artemisia vulgaris dominant. Emergent Ostodes paniculata, Mallotus philippensis, Glochidion sp. Many Dioscorea spp. (46 spp. 37 PFT) 881m.

Figure 12. WC56. Baikunza. Two month old mixed crop of Maize (Zea mays), Finger millet (Eleusine coracana) and Foxtail millet (Setaria italica) (28 spp. 24 PFT) 879m.

Figure 13. WC57. Three month old pure Maize (Zea mays) crop. Baikunza. (28 spp. 24 PFT) 767m

Figure 14. WC58. Sal (Shorea robusta) deciduous forest. Amsepho. Herbaceous understorey (Curculigo, Hedychium, Kyllinga, Dioscorea spp. Fabaceae) (46 spp. 42 PFT) 681m.

Figure 15. WC59. Tall semi-deciduous vine forest. Jemichu. Lower Wangchhu floodplain. Pterospermum sp., Adenanthera pavonina. Understorey of Murraya koenigii, Bauhinia purpurea, Mallotus philippensis, Ervatamia sp. Numerous lianes. (63 spp. 47 PFT) 222m.

Figure 16. WC60. Alamthang – lower Wangchhu floodplain. Heavily grazed, dry deciduous low, weedy, forest dominated mostly by Adenathera pavonina, Bombax ceiba and Acacia sp. (23 spp. 22 PFT) 237m. 34

Figure 17. WC61. Jemi Thang. Tall mostly evergreen riparian forest dominated by Duabanga grandiflora. Understorey Maesa chisia, Clerodendrum paniculatum, Adenanthera sp., Murraya koenigii, Leea sp. Mussaenda. Numerous lianes, succulent aroids (Amorphophallus, Colocasia) (51 spp. 41 PFT) 340m.

Figure 18. WC62. Between Kemalakha and Chargarey. Tall mixed, broadleaved, mainly evergreen forest with dominant Alcimandra cathcartii, Castanopsis sp., Litsea sp. Understorey with Ardisia sp., Ostodes paniculata, Daphniphyllum, Casearia glomerata, Melastoma sp., Daphne bholua. (40 spp. 29 PFT) 1540m. 35