Japanese Society at War: Death, Memory and the Russo-Japanese War Naoko Shimazu Index More Information

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-85934-9 - Japanese Society at War: Death, Memory and the Russo-Japanese War Naoko Shimazu Index More information

Index

203 Metre Hill (China), 112, 276, 277–8 Asakusa heiin irō gikai (Asakusa Association of the Recognition of Services of Abe, Isoo (1865–1949) Soldiers), 137–8 and anti-war movement, 37–8 Asian Continent, journeys to, 77–84 Aikoku fujinkai (Patriotic Ladies Association of Shinto Shrines, 226–8, Association), 10–11, 63, 68–9, 127, Association for Socialism, 35–6 201–2, 205 Azumaya, Rakuen (naniwabushi performer), activities, 236–7 219–20 precursors, 170 roles, 131–3 Baltic Fleet, 239–40 Ainu peoples, 82–4 banjin (natives), use of term, 82–4 ajia shugi (Asianism), 159–60 bankokuki (flags), 17–19 Akegarasu, Haya (1877–1967), 65 banzai, 44–5, 48–9, 63–4, 65, 68 Akiyama, Saneyuki (1868–1918), 203–5, origin of term, 65 274–5, 277–8, 279–80 at pageants, 210, 211 Akiyama, Teisuke, 34–5 psychological effects, 70–1 Akiyama, Yoshifuru (1859–1930), 274–5, use of term, 17 277–8, 279–80 battlefield death, 106–14 Alekseev, Mikhail (1857–1918), 17, depictions, 109–10 214–15 and loneliness, 110–11 American Red Cross Society, 170 soldiers’ writings on, 112 amulets, 105–6 see also war death Andō, Tadao (1941– ), 279–80 battlefield souvenirs, 88–9 Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902), 214–15 bilderbogen (prints), 217–18 anti-war movement, 21, 31–43 Bloody Sunday (Russia) (1905), 35–6 Arakawa, Shōji, 70–1, 98 Boshin Rescript (1908), 53–4, 281–2 architecture Boxer Uprising (1900), 14, 27–8, 60, 63 Chinese, , 81–2 and provisions, 90–2 Russian, , 81–2 and Red Cross Society, 169 Ariga, Nagao (1860–1921), 162–3, 175–6 bravery, Japanese admiration for, 107–8 Arima, Seiho, 206–7, 209–10, 225 see also war heroes Armistice Day, 230 Britain Army Burial Ground (rikugun maisōchi), attitudes towards Japan, 2–3 143–4 British, 215–18 Army Day (Rikugun no hi), 231, 240, 251 naval pageantry, 231–2 celebrations, 233–4, 236–7 brothels (comfort houses), 38–9, 97 Army Officers Club, 233–4 near front lines, 90 Army Toyama School Band, 237–8 Buddhism artists, war depictions, 41–2 Buddhist chaplains, , 94–5 Asai, Yoshiji (soldier), life at the front, funerals, 129–30 87–8 memorial services, 115

317

318 Index

Buddhism (cont.) Chihō kairyō undō (Local Improvement Nichiren, 226–8, Movement), 53–4 rituals, 131–3, 148–9 children, 235–6 temples, 137–9, 176–7 as future fighters (shōkokumin), 261–2 vs. Shinto, 133–4 Children’s Event, 235–6 see also Jōdo shinshū (True Pure Land China/Chinese people, 4–5 Buddhism), Sōtō Zen Buddhism filth in, 77–81 Bungo Taketa (Japan), 206–7, 225, 226 Japanese views of, 83–4 Taketa Junior School, 225–6 pejorative images of, 79–81 Tokiwa Park, 208–9 chinzasai (ceremony of the establishment burials, 124–5 of the shrine), 225–6 war dead, 114 Chokugen (Direct Voice, newspaper), 35–6, see also cremations 40–1 Burton Holmes, E. (1870–1958), 26–7 Christians bushi mono (warrior stories), 199, 230 and anti-war movement, 33–4, 37–8 bushidō (way of the warrior), values, 187 missionaries, 94–5 see also Nitobe, Inazō prayers, 105 Roman Catholic Church, , 186–7 call-up Unitarians, 37–8 ambivalence, 59–60 see also Russian Orthodox Church, issues, 58 chrysanthemum dolls, 17–19 soldiers, 58–61 cinemas see also conscription admission costs, 30 Call-up, The (1932) (film), 235, 253 Cinema Control Committee, 256–7 camaraderie, idealised notion of, 100–1 Cinema Education Central Committee, celebrations, 44–7 (victory), 237–8 256–7 see also centennial celebrations, lantern growth of, 27–8 parades cinematography, 21, 51–2 Cenotaph (UK), 143 early, 27–8 censorship, 38–9 invention, 27–8 and photography, 26–7 see also film industry, war war films, 256 cinematography and war imagery, 22–3 civilisation (bunmei), 14–15, 157–8 centennial celebrations, 264–6, civilised states (bunmeikoku), 14–15, benefits, 267 157–8, 195 and local identity, 266 concept of, 158 and mass media, 267 definitions, 163 newspaper coverage, 267–9 discourse (bunmeiron),158–60, 161, 167 and Yasukuni Shrine, 270–1 enlightenment and (bunmei kaika), 81–2, ceremonies 157–8 homecoming, 119–21 and Japanese people, 158–9 unveiling, 209–10 standard of, 158 see also farewells use of term, 195 for war dead, 115, 131–3 Western, 159–60 war memorials, 259 civilised conduct, concept of, 195–6 see also farewell ceremonies, shōkonsai collaborators (ceremony for war dead) roles, 11–12 chaplains, 94–5, 129–30 use of term, 11–12 sermons, 96 commemoration, 10 Shinto, 134–5 commemorative activities, 232 Checkland, Olive (1920–2004), in cities, 259 175–6 commemorative days, 231 Chemulpo (Korea), 78–9 commemorative exhibitions, and filth in, 79 newspapers, 238–9 see also Inchon (Korea) commemorative souvenirs, 131–3

Index 319

commemoration films (kinen eiga), 251–2 dead commemoration industry, 258–9 memorials to, 113–14 use of term, 231–2 souls of, 106 navy, 239–40 see also war dead see also war commemoration dead bodies Commercial Association for Japan identification, 124–5 Department Stores, 248 reactions to, 108–9, 112 commercialization, of war, 22–3 reburying, 112–13 Committee to Commemorate Admiral Russian soldiers, 113 Tōgo, 226–8, smell of, 113–14 Committee to Construct the Statue for Naval death Commander Hirose, 209–10 attitudes towards, 9–10, 87 conscription of friends, 111–12 avoidance, 55–6 and loneliness, 110–11 blood tax, 55–6 perceptions of, 109–10 films, 253 see also battlefield death, meiyo no senshi revisions, 55–6 (honourable war death), war death as service to the state, 98–9 department stores, and exhibitions, 243, see also call-up 244–5, 248 conscripts, 38–9 Dickinson, Frederick, 230 camaraderie, idealised notion of, , 100–1 diet, soldiers’, 90–2 desertion, , 39 see also food diaries, , 9, 280–1 diplomacy education, 55–6 and humanitarianism, 158–9 and family dissolution, 40 multi-track, 264–5 and home, 86–7 Dmowski, Roman (1864–1939), 186–7 and kokumin, 281 see also Poles local identity, 58, 118, 281 documentaries motivation, 102 vs. dramatisations, 30–1 national identity, 58 vs. narratives, 30–1 personal materials, 94, 118, 280–1 Doihara, Michita (military surgeon), 90–2, punishment (shitekiseisai), 93–4 99–100, 123–4 and samurai values, 86–7 dojin (natives), 77–9, sense of duty, 281 confiscation of food from, 92–3 sense of survival, 104–5 origin of term, 82–4 treatment of, 93–4 as pejorative term, 82–4 vs. prisoners of war, 195 Douglas, Mary (1921–2007), Purity and see also soldiers Danger (1966), 81 consolation bags (imonbukuro), 89 drama consumerism ballad (gidayū), 116 mass, 258–9 period (jidaigeki), 249, 250 and war popularisation, 231–2 duty, sense of (gimu), 9–10, 102, 281 cremations, 113–14 Japanese method, 124–5 Edgerton, David, 14 officers vs. other ranks, 124–5 Edo period (1600–1867), 74, 129–30, see also burials 154–5, 218–19 cultural history education modern vs. tradition interpretations, and patriotism, 200 259–60 popular, 256 First World War, 259–60 and Yasukuni Shrine, 153–4 see also social education Daimaru (department store), 244 Egawa, Tatsuya (1961– ), Tale of the Dalian (China), 77–8, 81–2 Russo-Japanese War, 271–2 datsu-A (escape Asia), 159–60 Egypt, nationalism, 4 Dawson, Graham, 236 Ehime Prefecture (Japan), 190–2

320 Index

Eleventh Division, 176–7 families elites bereaved, 41–2, 145, 152 cultural, 40–1 dissolution, 40 intellectual, 88–9 income from honourable war deaths, Meiji, 99 125–7 see also local elites soldiers’, 109–10 Emi, Suiin (1869–1934), ‘The God of War: farewells Commander Hirose’ (1904), 207–8 ceremonies, 61–71, 84–5 emperor, loyalty to, 84–5, 98–9, 145 effects on soldiers, 70–1 see also loyalty phases of, 70 Endō,Shūsaku (1923–1996), 224 females enemies mobilisation, 66–8 attitudes towards, 157–95 patriotic associations, 64 ensen (war weariness), 14, 19, 31–2, 33–4 postcards of, 89–90 determinants, 38–9 suffering, 39–40 ensenshi war-weary poetry, 40–1 in war films, 251–2 enshrinement of Kami, 150, 154 wartime roles, 63, 96 concept of, 153 film industry eligibility, 149–51 collaborations, 257 war dead, 153 government control of, 256–7 see also Yasukuni Shrine and social education, 256 entertainment, 211 see also cinematography at ceremonies for the war dead, 116 films, 232, 249–58 at exhibitions, 241–2 benshi (narrator), , 28–9 Germany, 250 in cities, 259 oral, 22, 88–9 commemoration, 251–2 at shrines, 151–2 left-leaning, 249 yokyō,,117, 133 masculinity in, 252–3 ethics textbooks (Shūshin), 153–4 presentation, 28–9 exhibitions, 232, 235, 241–8, 264–5, 270–1 representations of Hirose in, 223–4 boom period, 246 topical, 258 in cities, 259 traditional period dramas, 249 commemorative, 238–9 see also war films and department stores, 243, filth 244–5, 248 and Chinese people, 78 entertainment at, 241–2 as disorder, 81 Exhibition of the Sea and the Sky in Korea, 78–81, (1930), 241 soldiers’ concern with, 79–81 Field-Marshall Ōyama Iwao First Hague Conference (1899), 168–9, Exhibition, , 235 182–4 General Nogi and the Fall of Port Arthur First World War (1914–18), 13–14, 230 Exhibition (1929), , 247 cultural history, 259–60 Great National Defence Exhibition enthusiasm, 14 (1930), , 242–3, 247 films, 250 increase, 245–6 Japanese treatment of prisoners of war, public sector, 245 168–9 Reminiscing the Russo-Japanese War memorials, 143 Experience Exhibition, , 235 technology, 260–1 Tokyo Exhibition to Celebrate the Imperial truce, 157 Enthronement and to Promote war cemeteries, 143–4 Domestic Products (1928), , 245–6 flags, 17–19 types of, 244–5 food visitors, 243–4 confiscation, 92–3 expansionist policies, and war prisoners of war, 182–4 commemoration, 13 rations, 92–3

Index 321

soldiers, 90–2 Hirose as, 197, 200–8, 282 see also diet modern notion of, 199 Fortnightly Review, 162–3 Nogi as, 261–2, 276 Fourth Hague Convention (1907), 168–9 Tōgō as, 261–2 Fritzsche, Peter, 260–1 use of term, 199, 228 Fuji, Mount, 74–5, 225–6 see also traditional warrior heroes, war Fujimori Shōkonjō, 119–21, 131, 132, 153 heroes see also Hachiōji Shōkonsha Fujimura, Michio, 274 Hachijō Island (Japan), war monuments, Fujioka, Nobukatsu (1943– ), 279–80 138, 145 Fukuimaru (ship), 203 Hachiōji Shōkonsha, 130–1, 132 Fukuin shinpō (newspaper), 163 see also Fujimori Shōkonjō (place to invoke Fukuzawa, Yukichi (1835–1901), 98 the spirit of the dead) funeral(s) Hachiōji Town (Japan), 119–21, 133–4 Buddhist ceremonies, 129–30 Fujimori Shōkonjō, 130–1 of Hirose, 28–9, 203–5, 206 guidebook, 130–1 and religion, 129–30 Hachiōji Martial Association, 134 Shinto ceremonies, 129–30 Higher Elementary School, 134 Shinto-style, 206 Station, 131–3 village (sonsō), 122–30, Hagi, Masahiro (critic), 252–3 see also burials, cremations Hakatamaru (ship), 68 Furyo shinkō iankai (PoW Religious Relief Hakuaisha (Society of Benevolence), 169 Society), 185–6 Hakubakai (White Horse Society), 41–2 Fūzoku gahō (magazine), 119–21, 152 Hamamatsu (Japan), 74–6, Hamamatsu Patriotic Ladies Geneva Prisoners of War Convention Association, 64 (1929), 168–9 Station, 64 Germany Hamana, Lake, 73–4, Nazi, 256–7 Hamilton, Sir Ian (1853–1947), 28–9, warships, 215–18 107–8, 115, 206–7 wartime entertainments, 250 Hara, Kei (1856–1921), 33 ghost soldier (heitai no yūrei), 60 Hayashi, Senjūrō (1876–1943), 237–8 god of war see gunshin (god of war) Heijikai (Military Affairs Association), Gogol, Nikolai (1809–52), Taras Bulba 61–3, (1835; 1842), 214–15 Heimin shinbun (The Commoner), 23, 34–5, Golden Phoenix, Order of, 125–7, 149–51, 37–8, 40–1, 182, 203–5 anti-war debate, 36, 42–3, 52–3 Gong, Gerrit, 158 circulation, 35–6 Gordon, Andrew, 50–1 criticisms of other newspapers, 44–5 Goseda, Hōryū (1864–1943), 25–6 editorials, 36–7 Great Depression, 230–1 establishment, 35–6 Great Japan Cinema Association, 256–7 socialist views, 38–9 Great War see First World War Heiminsha (Company of Commoners), Gunji fukyūkai (Martial Dissemination 35–6, 42–3 Society), 55–6 humanism, 36 gunji shisō (martial thinking), 246–7, 248, socialism, 36 262–3 heitai no yūrei (ghost soldier), 60 gunjin no kikan (model soldier), 199, 201–3, Hibiya Park (Tokyo), 17, 47–9, 235–6, 237–8 Hibiya Public Hall (Hibiya Kōkaidō, death of, 203 Tokyo), 235, 236–7 Hirose as, 203–5 Hibiya Riot (1905), 4–5, 15–16, 21, 43, search for, 202–3 47–51, 283 gunshin (god of war), 197–228, 261–2 causes, 274–5 concept of, 199, 219 impacts, 49–50, 52–3 gunshinbi (God of War Day), 225–6 legacies, 51, 284

322 Index

Hibiya Riot (1905) (cont.) honourable wounded, 236–7 and mass media, 238–9 Horie, Tomoko (nurse), 141–2 symbolic value, 50–1 Horne, John, 261–2 toshi zatsugyō sō (proletarian class), Hosokawa, Gentarō, 111–12 48–9 humanitarian nationalism, 167–76, 283 Higashi Honganji Temple, 63, 67–8 use of term, 195 see also Jōdo shinshū (True Pure Land humanitarianism, 37–8, 162–3 Buddhism) and Ōtani Sect and diplomacy, 158–9 High, Peter B., 249, 251 importance of, 169, 173–5 Hirata, Sanae (soldier), 157 Japanese attitudes towards, 195 Hirose, Katsuhiko (d. 1913), 205, 206–7, and patriotism, 169–70 261–2 Hafiz Ibrahim (1872–1932), ‘The Japanese Hirose, Keiko (b. c. 1893), 205, 206, 209–10 Maiden’, 4 Hirose, Takeo (1868–1904), 12, 197, 198, 216 Ichiji, Kōsuke (1855–1923), 276–7 death, 197, 200–8, 213–14 Ichikawa, Ennosuke (1888–1963), 222 funeral, 28–9, 203–5, 205–7 Ichinose, Toshiya (1971– ), 57 as god of war, 197, 200–8, 282 iconography, and masculinity, 217–18, iconography, 215–18 261–2 memorial, 203–5 Ide, Kinnosuke (director), 257 as model soldier, 203–5 identity, Japanese (nihonjinron), 278 as modern hero, 212 see also local identity; national identity; as overnight hero, 199 self-identity relic, 203, 205 Ii, Kanshirō (soldier), 99–100 representation in films, 223–4 Ijūin, Gorō (1852–1921), 206 as traditional warrior hero, 219–24 Ikeda, Shigechika (critic), 258 war myths, 197–9, 200 Illustrated London News, The, 17–19 Hirose mono (Hirose stories), 223–4 Imperial Army (Japan), 35–6, 275–6 Hirose myth criticisms, 276–7 creation, 200–8 First Division, 122–3, 134, 138 perpetuation, 228, Fourth Division, 242–3 in popular culture, 219, 224 Imperial Guards Division, 73,75–6,113–14 representations, 212 Second Division, 115 success of, 228–9, Shizuoka Thirty-fourth Regiment, 58–9 versatility, 219–24 territorial basis, 61–2 Hirose Shrine, 200, 225–8, Third Army, 277–8 Hirose Statue, 208–12, 222, 225–6, 228 Thirty-fifth Regiment, 92–3 Hiroshima (Japan), 38–9, 61, 70 imperial expansion, 262 Futaba Park, 72–3 Yamagata Thirty-second Regiment, Hiroshima Red Cross Society, 67–8 68–9 journeys to, 71–2, 73–4, 76 Imperial Navy (Japan), 12, 230–1, 251–2 Reserve Hospital, 173–5 commemoration, 239–40 Hitachimaru (battleship), 77–8, 182 films, 255–6 Hiyama, Yukio, 79–81 internationalism, 214–15 Honda, Gen’ei, 138–9 and pageantry,, 231–2, 234 Honganji Sect see Jōdo shinshū (True Pure pro-naval sentiment, 239–40 Land Buddhism), Nishi Honganji war myths, 200 Temple Imperial Proclamation of War (1904), honne (private personae), 103–4 98–9 honour Imperial Reservist Association (Teikoku disillusionment with, 100–1 zaigō gunjinkai), 61–2, 135–6, prioritisation of, 99 225–6, 237–8, 242–3 use of term, 99–100, 104 establishment, 153–4, 281–2 honourable war death see meiyo no senshi goals, 139–40 (honourable war death) and social education, 139–40

Index 323

structure, 139–40 Japanese people, 9 village branches, 140–2, and civilisation, 158–9 war monuments, 142 good vs. bad, 187 Imperial University of Tokyo, 65, 182 imagery, 162–3 pro-war stance, 33 martial prowess, 86–7 Inchon (Korea), 17, 151–2, 266 nature of, 49–50 see also Chemulpo (Korea) self-identity, 166, 278 Inoue, Tetsujirō (1855–1944), 182 stereotypes, 162–3 international laws, of war, 283 see also kokumin International Red Cross, 169 Japanese prints see nishikie (Japanese) prints Iraq War, 267–9, Japanese prisoners of war, 176–7, 189 Ise Shrine, 134–5 outings, 185 Ishida, Tsutsumichi (soldier), 97 psychological issues, 188 Ishida, Umikichi (soldier), 129–30 treatment of, 188–90 Ishii, Hakutei (1882–1958), Nageki Japanese public opinion, Russia in, 159–67 (‘Grief’), 41–2 Japanese Red Cross Society (JRC), 10–11, Ishii, Kendō, Meiji jibutsu kigen (‘Origins of 62–3, 162–3, 195, 283 Meiji Things’), 231 and civilisation, 158–9 Ishikawa, Sanshirō (1876–1956), 36 history, 175–6 ‘Shōgaku kyōshinitsugu’ (‘To The Primary membership, 169–70 School Teachers’) (1904), 36–7 nurses, 172–3 Ishimitsu, Makiyo (soldier), 102 postcards, 173 Islam, Japan as role model for, 4 roles, 169–70 Italy, 256–7 staffing polices, 173–5 Itō, Hirobumi (1841–1909), 169, 206 studies, 175–6 shrine, 226–8, Volunteer Nursing Association, 236–7 Itō,Kyūkichirō (soldier), 183–4, 188 Japanese society Itsukushima Shrine (Miyajima), 72–4, 76 in conflict, 17–53 Ivanov, Semyon (soldier), 184 Meiji period, 284 Iwai, Shichigorō (soldier), 68–9 and nationalism, 284 journey, 74–5, 78 pre-Second World War perspectives, 284 life at the front, 90–3, and Russo-Japanese War, 7–8, Iwakura, Hisako, Countess (1862–1943), 267, 283 63, 127 at war, research, 6–7 Iwakura, Tomomi (1825–83), 169 Japanese spirit (yamato damashii), 259–60, Iwasaki, Akira (1903–81) (critic), 249, 250 272 Japan–America Society of New Hampshire, Japan 264–5 Anglo-Saxon support for, 164–5 Jews/Judaism, 186–7 centennial celebrations, 266, 267–73 Jidai shichō (magazine), 163, 164–5 democracy, 230–1 Jiji Newspaper Company, 131–3 imperial rivalry, 1 Jiji shinpō (newspaper), 93–4, 98, 209–10 international propaganda campaign, 2–3 Jiuliancheng, Battle of (1904), 111–12, journeys through, 85 Jōdo shinshū (True Pure Land Buddhism), modern vs. tradition, 2–3 63, 65, 67–8, 129–30 national unity, 8 Honganji Sect, 89–90, 94–5, 96–7, nationalism, 15–16 Ōtani Sect, 63 state attitudes to war, 14–15 power expansion, 96–7 as warfare state, 14 war effort, 63, 67–8, 94–5 and Western public opinion, Jŏngju, Battle of (1904), 110–11 195–6, 283 Jōshōin (Temple of Soldiers), 138–9 Japan Broadcasting Corporation (NHK), journalism, and anti-war movement, 34–5 245–6, 279–80 journeys Japan Cinematography Association, 235 to Asian Continent, 77–84 Japanese Maritime Self-Defence Force, 266 sea, 77

324 Index

journeys (cont.) shō-kokumin (little kokumin), 235–6 significance, 76 social education, 258–9 through Japan,, 61–76, 85 and soldiers, 71 to war, 71–6 and state, 283 JRC see Japanese Red Cross Society support of, 102 judō (martial art), 218–19, 223–4 use of term, 9, 84, 118 war weariness, 53–4, 283 kabuki plays, 222, 224, wartime experiences, 9–10 Kaigun no hi (Navy Day), 231 wartime roles, 281–2 Kainan shinbun (newspaper), 190–2, 195 Kokumin shinbun (broadsheet), 49 kami (god, deity), 12–13, 148–9 Kōno, Hironaka (1849–1923), 47–8, enshrinement, 149–51, 153, 154 49–50 Kamil, Mustafa (1874–1908), The Rising Kōno, Shun’an, Colonel (chief-warden), Sun (1904), 4 177–81, 187, 188–90 Kaneko, Kentarō (1853–1942), 160–1 see also Matsuyama Prisoner of War Camp Kaneko, Ryūichi, 26–7 Korea/Koreans, 4–5, 32–3, 77–8, 176–7 Kan’in, Prince (1865–1945), 171–2, 173, annexation, 274–5 174, 233–4, 237–8 filth in, 78–81, Kan’in, Princess (1872–1947), 63, 171–2 Japanese views of, 83–4 Katō, Hiroyuki (1836–1916), 203–5 pejorative images of, 79–81 Katō, Kiyomasa (1562–1611), 199, photographs, 80 201–2 Korean Strait (Genkainada), 77–9, shrine, 226–8, Kōsaimaru (ship), 1, 99–100, 111–12 Kawakami, Otojirō (1864–1911), 219–20 Kosugi, Misei (1881–1964), 41–2 Keiō University (Tokyo), 17 Kōtoku, Shūsui (1871–1911), 34–6, Kiguchi, Kohei (soldier, 1872–94), 199 anti-war writings, 36–7 Kinema junpō (film review), 251–2 imprisonment, 36–7 kinen sangyō see commemoration industry Kovalevskii, Ariadne Vladimirovna, Kishimoto, Matsukichi (soldier), 101–2 214–15, 218–19, 222 Kitashirakawa, Prince (1887–1923), 206, Kovalevskii, Vladimir, 214–15 233–4 Kōwa hantai kokumin taikai (Association of Kobayashi, Kiyochika (1847–1915), People against Peace), 47–8, 49–50 215–18, Kōwa mondai dōshi rengōkai (United Kobayashi, Senko, Wasure gatami (‘A token Association of Comrades on Peace of remembrance’) (1905), 41–2 Issues), 47–8 Kōbe (Japan), 49–50, 73, 193–5 Kuga, Noboru (d. 1932), 252–3 Station, 77–8 Kumamoto (Japan), 102 Kodama, Gentarō (1852–1906), 277–8 Seiseikō Secondary School, 89–90 kōdan (martial stories), 22, 219–20, 254 kuni okoshi (national regeneration), 272 Koga, Dentarō, 257 Kupchinsky, Filipp Petrovich (soldier), Koga Regiment, The (1932) (film), 257 179–81, 187–8, Koizumi, Jun’ichirō (1942– ), 266 Kure (Japan), 242–3, 252 kokka (state), 281 Kuroiwa, Ruikō (1862–1920), 34–5 concept of, 101–3, Kuroki, Tamemoto (1844–1923), 26 fighting for, 64, 70–1, 84–5 Kuropatkin, Aleksey (1848–1925), 86–7, use of term, 9, 84, 118 274–5 kokumin Kusunoki, Masashige (1294–1336), 197, and anti-war movement, 33–4, 42–3 199, 201–2, 220–1, 225, 226–8, concept of, 102–3, 118, 281 Kwantung Army, 135–6, 230–1, 257 and conscripts, 281 Kyōkai ichiran (religious paper), 96 definition, 8–9 kyokoku itchi (unity of nation), 8, 19, 53–4 duties, 9 Kyoto (Japan), 64, 67–8, 96 and lantern parades, 43–4, 46–7 national identity, 56, 58, 284 Ladies Volunteer Nursing Association patriotism, 46–7, 283 (Tokushi kango fujinkai), 170–3,

Index 325

lantern parades, 43–7, 190–2 Manchurian Army, 131, 168–9, 238, criticisms, 45–6 275–6 interpretation, 45, 46–7 Manchurian Incident (1931), 13, 154, 225, legacies, 51 230–1, 239–40, state views of, 44–5 films, 252, 257 Liaodong Peninsula (China), 47–51, 80 manga (comics), and Russo-Japanese War, war monuments, 135–6 271–2 Liaoyang (China), 81–2 see also Egawa, Tatsuya Station, 187–8 Mano, Suzu, 67 Liaoyang, Battle of (1904), 17–19, 31–2, Marco Polo Bridge Incident (1937), 258–9 106, 113, 114, 226–8, martial arts, 22, 218–19, 223–4, 254 celebrations, 45–6 martial associations, 63–4, 68–9, 127, 134 liberal culture, rise of, 230 origins, 139–40 lieux de mémoire, concept of, 12 Martial Dissemination Society, 55–6 literacy, levels, 55–6, 103–4 martial thinking, 246–7, 248, 262–3 local communities, war commemoration, 121 Masaoka, Shiki (1867–1902), 274–5 local elites, 10 masculinity and farewell ceremonies, 84–5 in films, 252–3 and local nationalism, 11 iconography, 217–18, 261–2 military support groups, 61–2 and war, 261–2 roles, 10–11, 135 in war commemoration, 261–2 and war commemoration, 121, 130, war imagery, , 30–1 134–5, 155, 281–2 Western stereotypes, 218–19 wartime roles, 281–2 Mashita, Hisen (1878–1912), 258 local identity mass consumerism, 258–9 and centennial celebrations, 266 mass media conscripts, 58, 118, 281 and centennial celebrations, 267 Local Improvement Movement, 53–4, 281–2 impacts, 21 local pageantry, 130–5 and pageantry, 238–9 local patriotism, 119–55, 192, 281–2 pro-Japanese, 161–2 growth of, 121 technological advancement, 51–2 and war commemoration, 130, 138–9 and war frenzy, 23 loyalty, 213–14 wartime roles, 52 chū (loyalty), , 145 Matsui, Shōō (1870–1933), 222 chūgi (loyalty), , 213–14 Matsuyama (Japan) loyal soul (chūkon), 142 commercial boom, 193–5 to emperor, 84–5, 145 Dōgo Park, 194 to state, 59–60, 84–5, 145 Dōgo Spa, 184–5, 193–5 lute songs (biwauta), 220–2, 224 Higher Women School, 192 Minatochō district, 193–5 Macdonald, Sir Claude (1852–1915), 206–7 parades, 45 magic lantern (gentō)shows, 23–5 Public Hall, 178 Mainichi shinbun (broadsheet), 34–5, 42–3, Saka no ue no kumo Museum, 279–80 44–5 Town Hall, 176–7 Makarov, Stepan (1849–1904), 26 Yamagoe District, 144 Makihara, Norio, 65, 212 Matsuyama Prisoner of War Camp, 143–4, Mamiya, Eishū (Buddhist chaplain), 159, 173–5, 176–90, 193, 195–6 123–4 accidental tourists in, 190–6, Manchu people, 77–8 compromises, 182–4 Japanese views of, 83–4 food, 182–4 Manchuria, 13, 33, 56, 157, 176–7, 257 housing of officers, 184 journeys to, 77, 78 location choice, 176–7 military expansion in, 236–7, outings, 184–5 prisoners of war, 187–8 as showcase, 190–2 Second World War, 276–7 studies, 176

326 Index

Matsuyama Record see Matsuyama shūyōjo Minami Tama County (Tokyo), 119–21, rokoku furyo (Matsuyama Camp 122–3, 127, 132, 153 Russian Prisoners of War) Imperial Reservist Association, 140–1 Matsuyama shūyōjo rokoku furyo (Matsuyama Minami Tama County Office (Tokyo), Camp Russian Prisoners of War), 130–1, 186–7, 195–6 Minami Village (Tokyo), 97, 122–3, 127, unofficial publication, 177–9 133–4, Medved (Russia), 176–7, 185 Imperial Reservist Association, 141–2 Meiji, Emperor (1852–1912), 96–7, 151–2, Kaimō Elementary School, 127 169–70, 242–3, 248, 270–1 war ceremonies, 153 death, 240–1, 254 Ministry of the Army (Japan), 148, 184–5, Meiji, Empress (1849–1914), 151–2, 188–90 169–70 Department of Military Research, Meiji Constitution (1889), 65, 256–7 231–2 films, 257 Meiji mono (Meiji stories), 220–1 Maintenance Division, 246 Meiji period (1868–1912), 5–7, 13, 53–4, Ministry of Education (Japan), 246–7, 82–4, 220–1, 273 256–7 authoritarianism, 7–8 Ministry of the Interior (Japan), 136–7, conservatism, 230 145, 148 constructed memory of, 262–3 Censorship Bureau, 256 idealistic images of, 278 Ministry of the Navy (Japan), 148, Japanese society, 284 200–8, military actions, 154 Department of Naval Dissemination, Meiji Restoration (1868), 2–3, 14, 148, 239–40, 256–7 169, 273 films, 257 Meiji sanjū shichihachinen kaisenshi (1911), Ministry for Popular Enlightenment and 201–2 Propaganda (Germany), 256–7 Meiji Shrine, 266 minkan (private sector), 11–12, 13 Meiji tennō to nichiro dai sensō (Emperor Meiji missionaries, 185–6 and the Great Russo-Japanese War) see also chaplains (1956) (film), 275 Mitsukoshi (department store), 244 meiyo no senshi (honourable war death), Mitsune Village (Tokyo), 138 9–10, 86–116, 123–4, 134 war monuments, 145 family income from, 125–7 Mitsutani, Kunishiro (1874–1936), Gunjin Hirose, 200–8 no tsuma (Wife of a Soldier), 41–2 origin of term, 86, 98 Miyachi, Masato, 36 meiyo no fushōsha (honourable wounded), Miyajima (Japan) see Itsukushima Shrine 236–7 (Miyajima) as propaganda, 99–100 Mizogami, Sadao (soldier), life at the front, propagation of term, 118 89–90, 110–11 rhetoric of, 97–104 Mizuno, Hironori (soldier, 1875–1945), use of term, 98, 127 Kono issen (1969), 181–2, 192 McGee, Anita Newcomb (1864–1940), 26, mobilisation, 10 173–5 females, 66–8 Mikasa (battleship), 25–6, 225–6, as Grand Tour, 71–2 234, 241 soldiers, 55–84 Mikasa Preservation Society, 241 model soldiers see gunjin no kikan (model military soldier) bravery, Japanese admiration for, modern warfare, 260–1 107–8 exercises, 234 discipline, 93–4 modernity militarism, criticisms, 276–7 and technology, 260–1 support groups, local elites, 61–2 visualisation, 30–1 violence and weaponry, 260–1 vs. tradition, 282

Index 327

Moral Suasion Mobilisation National Diet, 138–9, 141–2 Campaign, 246 national efficiency movement, 2–3 Mosse, George (1918–99), 217–18 national identity Mount Hakkoda Incident, , 93–4 conscripts, 58 Mount Hakugyoku Shrine (China), consolidation, 85 135–6 development, 15–16 Mozawa, Yūsaku (soldier), 86 kokumin, 56, 58, 284 life at the front, 87–9, 90–2, 100–1, soldiers, 84–5 107–8 national unity (Japan) see kyokoku itchi (unity Mukaida, Hatsuichi (soldier), 60, 69–70 of nation) life at the front, 90–2, 110–11, 111–12 nationalism Mukden (China), 81–2, 90, 97, 99–100, chauvinistic, 32–3, 52–3 151–2, 238 horizontal bonding, 71, 84–5 Mukden, Battle of (1905), 101–2, 186–7 humanitarian, 167–76 commemorations, 238 Japan, 15–16 Murakami, Hisao (critic), 257 and Japanese society, 284 Myōjō (magazine), 40–1 local, vs. official, 11 national consciousness, 56, 154 Nabeshima, Nagako, Marchioness neo-nationalism, 13–14, 267–70, (1855–1941), 170–1 279–80 Nakamura, Jun, 82–4 goals, 269–70, 272 Nakamura, Masanori, 274, 280 popular, 21, 46–7, 51 Nakazato, Iichi, 147 official, 15–16, 284 Nakazato, Motojirō, 122–4, 125–7, 134, religious, 94–5 141–2 see also humanitarian nationalism, kokka Nakazato, Yoshiji (soldier) (1881–1904), (state), kokumin, popular nationalism 122, 123, 131, 133–4, 146 natives, 77–9, biographical notes, 122–3 see also dojin (natives) burial place, 143–4 Natsume, Sōseki (1867–1916), 197 death, 123–4, 125–7, 135–6, 153–4 I am a Cat (1905–6), 40–1 funeral, 127–30 Navy Day (Kaigun no hi), 231, 240 memorial day, 147 celebrations, 233–4 memorials, 141–2, 145–7, 149–51 Negoro, Tōkichi (soldier), 66–8 symbolic burials, 154–5 journey, 74, 78–9 Nakazato family, 145–7, 153–4 life at the front, 87–8 Nakazawa, Ichitarō (soldier), 68 New Hampshire (US), 264–6, journey, 75–6, 78–9 New York Times, 161–2 life at the front, 87–8, 90–2, 112, newspapers 113–14 and anti-war movement, 34–5 Namiki, Sōichirō (soldier), 97 centennial celebrations coverage, naniwabushi (epic recitation), 22, 116, 267–9 219–20, 254–5, 275 and commemorative exhibitions, 238–9 Narikawa, Sei, 165–6 NHK (Japan Broadcasting Corporation), Narita, Ryūichi, 278–9 245–6, 279–80 narratives Nichiro sensō jikki (Russo-Japanese War of Russo-Japanese War, 266 Reports), 23, 24, 25, 123–4 Shiba Ryōtarō’s, 273–80 Nicholas II of Russia (1868–1918), 160–1, vs. documentaries, 30–1 165, 214–15 Nashimoto, Princess (1882–1976), 170–1 Nikkatsu Films, 235, 250–2, 255–6 nation Nikolai, Archbishop (1836–1912), 161–2, sense of, 9 185–6 unity of, 8, 19, 53–4 see also Russian Orthodox Church see also kokumin and kokka nikudan (human bullets), 4–5 National Congress for Religious Leaders Niroku shinbun (broadsheet), 34–5, 47–51, (1904), 163 207–8

328 Index

Nishi Honganji Temple, 67–8, 94–5 Okumura, Ioko (1845–1907), 63, 201–2 see also Jōdo shinshū (True Pure Land Ōmachi, Keigetsu (1869–1925), 40–1 Buddhism), Honganji Sect Ōmura, Masujirō (1824–1869), statue, Nishida, Kitarō (1870–1945), 46 208–9 Nishikawa, Mitsujirō, 36–7 one hundred prayers (ohyakudo mōde), 105 nishikie (Japanese) prints, 21, 89–90, 165, Osaka asahi shinbun (broadsheet), 215–18, 47–51, 252 vs. photography, 22, 26–7 Osaka (Japan), 64, 74–5, 185–6 Nishimura Morse, Anne, 21 commemorative activities, 259 Nisshin sensō jikki (Sino-Japanese War Dōtonbori, 75 Reports), 23 exhibitions, 243, 247 Nitobe, Inazō (1862–1933), Bushido, Shiba Ryōtarō Museum, 279–80 the Soul of Japan (1899), 2–3, Shitennō Temple, 75 86–7 Osaka mainichi shinbun (broadsheet), 184–5, Nogi, Maresuke (1849–1912), 4, 46, 65–6, 209–10, 225–6, 238–9, 251 141–2, 179–81, 222, 248 Osaka Takashimaya Department Store, character of, 236 242–3 death, 212, 254 Ōsawa, Sōkichi (soldier), 108–9, 111–12 films, 254–5, Ōtani, Kōzui (1876–1948), 94–5, 96 as god of war, 261–2, 276 Ōtani Sect see Jōdo shinshū (True Pure Land myths, 276 Buddhism), Higashi Honganji shrine, 222, 226–8, Temple as war hero, 197–9 Ōtsu Incident (1891), 214–15 Nora, Pierre (1931– ), 12 Ōtsuka, Kusuoko (1875–1910), Ohyakudo nostalgia, 250 mōde (‘One Hundred Prayers’) Notehelfer, F. G., 26–7 (1905), 40–1, 105 Novgorod (Russia), 176–7, 183–4 Ōuchi, Seiran (1845–1918), 163 nurses Ōyama, Iwao (1842–1916), 131, 142, 238 as angels of mercy, 170–1 Ozaki, Yukio (1858–1954), 65–6 as Florence Nightingales, 172–3 postcards, 174, pacifists, 33–4 professionalism, 170–1 see also anti-war movement Red Cross Society, 90, 141–2, 174, pageantry, 232–41, representations, 172–3 in cities, 259 symbolic value of, 171–2 and Imperial Navy, 234 see also Ladies Volunteer Nursing importance of, 200–1 Association local, 130–5 and mass media, 238–9 Ōe, Shinobu, 102–3, 153–4, 207–8 naval, 231–2 Ogasawara, Akimune (director), 251–2 roles, 238, 240–1 Ogasawara, Naganari (1867–1958), see also war pageantry 213–14, 226–8, 239–40, 251–2 parades and Admiral Tōgō, 201–2, deaths at, 44–5 and Hirose myth, 200–8 official, 44–5, Naval History of the Russo-Japanese War victory, 17, 18 (1904–11), 200–8, see also lantern parades Naval History of the Sino-Japanese War Patriotic Ladies Association see Aikoku (1895–1905), 201–2 fujinkai (Patriotic Ladies as official naval historian, 201–2 Association) Ogawa, Heikichi (1870–1942), 47–8 patriotism, 46–7 Ogyū, Yuzuru, 169 and beauty, 76 Ōhashi, Keikichi (soldier), 151–2 criticisms, 40–1 Ohh, ohh, General Nogi (1934) (film), displays, 17–19 254–5 and education, 200 Ōkuma, Shigenobu (1838–1922), 161 evidence of, 19

Index 329

and humanitarianism, 169–70 psychological issues, 187–8 kokumin, 46–7, 283 treatment of, 168–9 soldiers, 58–9 vs. conscripts, 195 suicide as, 39–40 see also Japanese prisoners of war, symbols, positive vs. negative, 19 Matsuyama Prisoner of War Camp, see also lantern parades, local patriots Russian prisoners of war Pertev (Demirhan), Colonel (1871–1964), 4 private personae (honne), 103–4 photographs, 157 propaganda censorship, 26–7 against Yellow Peril, 167 Korea, 80 honourable war death as, 99–100 as social documents, 26–7 international, 161–2 vs. nishikie (Japanese) prints, 22, 26–7 Japan, 2–3 war imagery, 26 militarist, 200–8 poetry, 197, 210 pro-war vs. anti-war lobbies, 32–3 war-weary, 40–1 war, 236 Poles, 186–7, 193–5 and war imagery, 30 popular cultural memory, 266, 279–80 prostitution, 39–40, 184–5, 251–2 war in, 230–62 near front lines, 90 Port Arthur (Lüshun) (China), 4–5, 12–13, see also brothels 46, 122–3, 184, 236 public opinion blockade, 197, 200–8, 209–10, 213–14, international, 160–1 215–18, 222 Japanese, 159–67 campaigns, 197–9, 277–8 Western, 195–6 fall of, 90–2, 109, 149–51, 157, 176–7, public personae (tatemae), 103–4 179–81, 276 public sphere funeral service, 214–15 strength of, 33–4, 53–4, 159–60 Mount Hakugyoku Shrine, 135–6 in wartime society, 21 Russian defeat at, 186–7 Port Arthur Massacre (1894), 168–9 racial discourse (jinshuron), 159–60, 165–6 Portsmouth Historical Association (US), radicalisation, of popular nationalism, 21, 264–5 43–54 Portsmouth Peace Treaty Anniversary Red Cross Society, 63–4, 68, 75–6, 169 Committee (US), 264–5 American, 170 Portsmouth, Treaty of (1905), 4–5, 47–8, flag, 171–2 274–5 nurses, 90, 141–2, 174, centennial celebrations, 264–6, see also Japanese Red Cross Society media circus, 52 Reingard, Feodor (soldier), 184–5 terms, 47–51, religion postcards, 2, 30–1, 157 and funerals, 129–30 of beauties, 89–90, 91 see also Buddhism, Christians, Russian of females, 89–90 Orthodox Church, Shinto, imagery, 171–2 Yasukuni Shrine Imperial Family, 174 Repington, Charles A’Court (1858–1925), nurses, 174, 161–2 postcard disease, 89–90 Richardson, Teresa Eden (d. 1918), 69 Russian prisoners of war, 173, Rikugō zasshi (Unitarian journal), 37–8 174, 178 Roman Catholic Church, 186–7 poverty missionaries, 185–6 and diet, 39–40 Roosevelt, Theodore (1858–1919), 2–3 and suicide, 39 Nobel Peace Prize, 5 PoWs see prisoners of war (PoWs) Royal Navy (Britain), 214–15, 234 prisoners of war (PoWs), 14–15, 143–4 Rüger, Jan, 250 camps, 176–7 Russia conventions regarding, 168–9 centennial celebrations, 266 food, 182–4 as enemy, 159

330 Index

Russia (cont.) Saitō, Makoto (1858–1936), 209–10 government, 188–90 Sakai, Toshihiko (1871–1933), 34–6, 152 in Japanese public opinion, 159–67 imprisonment, 36–7 propaganda, 2–3 Sakurai, Tadayoshi (1879–1965), 201–2, St. Petersburg, , 176–7, 214–15, 223–4 236 Russian Baltic Fleet, 252 Human Bullets (1907), 107, 122–3 Russian Orthodox Church, 186–7 Salvation Army, 235–6 in Japan, 143–4, 161–2 samurai missionaries, 185–6 class, 86–7, 99, 274–5 see also Nikolai, Archbishop (1836–1912) ethical code, 106–7 Russian Pacific Fleet, 266 values, 86–7, 254, 261–2 Russian prisoners of war, 14–15, 143–4, Sankei shinbun (newspaper), 273 180, 189, 193, 194 centennial celebrations coverage, 267–9 ambivalence towards, 181–2 Sano, Tsunetami (1822–1902), 169 food, 182–4 Santiniketan (India), 3 local attitudes towards, 190–5 Satō, Tadao (1930– ), 256–7 non-ethnic Russians, 186–7 Satō, Yukio (critic), 223–4 outings, 184–5 Sawada, Matashige (soldier), 59–60, pastoral care, 185–6 63–4, 84 postcards, 173, 174, 178 journey, 73, 77–8, 79 symbolic value of, 171–2 life at the front, 97, 112–13 treatment of, 158–9, 167–8, 176–90, Scharf, Frederic A., 264–5 195–6 Schencking, Charles, 239–40 see also Matsuyama Prisoner of War Camp Sea of Japan, Battle of (1905), 5, 25–6, Russian Revolution (1905), 1, 254 186–7, 208–9, 214–15 Russian soldiers, 33 anniversaries, 222, 225 cemeteries, 143–4, architect of, 274–5 dead bodies, 113 commemoration, 231, 241 Japanese views of, 108–9 film, 252 Russians, 77–8 iconography, 215–18 Japanese attitudes towards, 157–95, remembrance ceremony, 266 Japanese views of, 81–2, 107–8, 109, see also Akiyama, Saneyuki and Tōgō, 158–9 Heihachirō Russo-Japanese War (1904–5) Second World War in Asia (1937–45), casualties, 14 6–7, 284 centenary, 6–7, 13–14, 264–6, 267–73 Japanese attitudes towards, 267, 272–3, costs, 4–5 284–5 foreign cinematographic coverage, Japanese trauma, 13–14 29–30 Manchuria, 276–7 historiography, 5–7 war dead, 154 Japanese attitudes towards, 284–5 Seinan War or Satsuma Rebellion (1877), Japanese societal perspectives, 7–8, 142, 169 267, 283 self-identity, 58–9 Japanese strategies, 4–5 Japanese people, 166, 278 justifications for, 195–6 soldiers, 76 legacies, 13, 267, 271–2, 274–5 Seoul (Korea), 226–8, in popular cultural memory, , 230–62 Shakaishugi kyōkai (Association for post-Second World War perspectives, Socialism), 35–6 273–80 Shanghai (China), 230–1, 236–7, 252–3 revisionist perspectives, 275–6 Shanghai Incident (1932), 252–3, 261–2 significance, 41–2 Shiba, Ryōtarō (1923–96), 13–14 spiritual legacy, 262–3 criticisms, 278–9 veterans, 119–21 historical perspectives, 274 Russo-Japanese War Reports, 23, 24, 25, legacies, 279 123–4 narrative power, 273–80

Index 331

Saka no ue no kumo (Clouds above the prisoner of war camps, 177–9 Slope) (1969–72), 266, 271–2, and Red Cross Society, 169 273–80 Shiba Ryōtarō’s views, 274–5 legacies, 280 significance, 41–2 museum, 279–80 soldiers’ experiences, 79–81 and popular cultural memory, 279–80 village funerals, 127, 129–30 popularity, 277–9, war dead, 125–7, 154 post-Second World War perspectives, , war imagery, 21 273–80 war myths, 199 serialisation, 273, 279–80 Sino-Japanese War Reports, 23 significance, 275 Slavs, stereotypes, 162–3 Shiba Ryōtarō Museum, 279–80 social education, 246–7 Shimada, Jōji, 214–15 and film industry, 256 Shimada, Saburō (1852–1923), and Imperial Reservist Association, 34–5, 164 139–40 Shinbashi Station (Tokyo), 20, 65–6, of kokumin, 258–9 73–4, 205, socialism, 35–6 shinpa theatre groups, 219–20 and anti-war movement, 38–9 Shinto, 12–13 Heiminsha, 36 chaplains, 134–5 see also Heimin Shinbun and enshrinement, 153 socialists, imprisonment, 36–7 funerals, 206 Society of Benevolence (Hakuaisha), 169 rituals, 115, 129–30, 131–3 soldiers shrines, 130–1, 137–8, 148–9, 225–6 ambivalence, 59–60, 84 torii gates, , 74, 113–14, 226 attitudes towards war, 84 vs. Buddhism, 133–4 billeting, 63–4 Shirokiya Department Store, 235 brutalisation, 112–13 Shizuoka Prefecture (Japan), 72–3, 128–9, call-up, 58–61 138–9, desertion, 39 Shōju, Mount (Port Arthur), 122–3 diet, 90–2 attack on, 123–4 effects of farewells on, 70–1 shōkonsai (ceremony for war dead), 115, families, 109–10 131–3, 153 food, 90–2 amusements (yokyō), 117 journeys attendees, 133–4 to Asian Continent, 71–6 military, 134 to war, 71–6 origins, 148 and kokumin, 71 procedures, 116 life at the front, 87–94 shōkonsha (shrines), 142, 153–4 mobilisation, 55–84 definition, 148 national identity, 84–5 Showa, Emperor (Hirohito) (1901–89), parting, 61–71 232–4, 240–1, 245–6 pastoral care of, 94–7 Shōwa period (1926–89), 252–3, 262–3 patriotism, 58–9 shrines, 105–6, 142 primacy, 38–9 entertainment at, 151–2 private vs. public personae, 103–4 nation-protecting, 148 self-identity, 76 prefectural, 225–6 social stigma, 87–8 Shinto, 130–1, 137–8, 148–9, 225–6 waiting vs. fighting, 88–9 see also Hirose Shrine, shōkonsha (shrines), war diaries, 56–8 Yasukuni Shrine war experiences, 86 Sino-Japanese War (1894–5), 4–5, 14, 37–8, see also conscripts, gunjin no kikan (model 61–2, 98, 257 soldier), Russian soldiers, veterans, celebrations, 130–1 war wounded historical significance, 6–7 Sōtō Zen Buddhism, 125–7, 138–9 and martial associations, 139–40 South Manchurian Railway, 47–51,

332 Index

state Takarabe, Takeshi (1867–1949), 203–5, and anti-war movement, 52–3 209–10 and kokumin, 283 Takashimaya Department Store, 235, 243, loyalty to, 59–60, 84–5, 145 244, 247, and popular culture, 258–9 Taketa (Japan) see Bungo Taketa (Japan) state–commercial sector collaboration, Tanaka, Giichi (1864–1929), 139–40, 246 232 Tanaka, Hiromi, 201–2 state–society relationships, , 7–8, Tanaka, Shōzō (1841–1913), 37–8 122, 282 Tanida, Tanigorō (soldier), 81–2 and village funerals, 130 Tartars, 186–7 see also kokka (state) tatemae (public personae), 103–4 statues, 209–10, 228 tateyaku (masculine leading hero), 224 stereotypes, 162–3 technological advancement masculinity, 218–19 in iconography, 215–18 Stoessel, Anatoly (1848–1915), 157, mass media, 51–2 179–81, 222 visual culture, 21 Suematsu, Kenchō (1855–1920), 160–1 warfare, 21 Sugino, Magoshichi (sailor), 203, 206–7, technology, and modernity, 260–1 208–9, 209–10, 211–12, 213–14, Teikoku zaigō gunjinkai see Imperial 219–20, 222 Reservist Association (Teikoku zaigō suicide gunjinkai) attitudes towards, 104–5, 106–7 Temple of Soldiers (Jōshōin Temple, battlefield, 106–7 Heitaidera), 138–9, corps (kesshitai), 123–4, 202–3 temples, local, 125–7 missions, 252–3 Tenchūken, Ungetsu (performer), 219–20 mothers, 39–40 Tōgō, Heihachirō (1848–1934), 142, 199, as patriotism, 39–40 206–7, 209–10, 241 and poverty, 39 Admiral Tōgō Memorial Park (Tokyo), , ritual, 254 226–8 Suzuki, Sergei, 185–6 calligraphy, 210 dominance of, 239–40 Tachibana, Shūta (1865–1904), 212, in films, 251–2 223–4 funeral, 226–8, Tachibana Shrine, 226–8, as god of war, 261–2 Tada, Kaizō (soldier), 60–1, 65–6, 84 strategies, 214–15 journey, 73–4, 78, 83–4 Tama Cemetery (Tokyo), 226–8, life at the front, 115 temples, 226–8, Tagore, Rabindranath (1861–1941), 3 as war hero, 197–9, 201–2 Taguchi, Ukichi (1855–1905), 163–4, Tōgō Shrine, 226–8, Taigai kōdōshikai (Society for Strong Tōgō stories, 255–6 Foreign Policy), 32–3 Togura Village (Japan), 128, 153 Taiheiyō gakai (Pacific Painting Society), Soldiers Special Treatment 41–2 Association, 128 Taira no Kiyomori (1118–81), 72–3 Tokutomi, Sohō (1863–1957), 232–3 Tairo dōshikai (Society of Comrades against Tokyo (Japan), 73, 74–6, 203–5 Russia), 32–3, 47–8 anarchy in, 48–9 Taisho period (1912–25), 82–4, 230, Aoyama Drilling Ground, 134 274–5, 284 Army Day celebrations, 235 Taiwan, 135–6 Asakusa Temple Park, 137–8 aborigines, 82–4 Azabu Regiment, , 122–3, 127, 141–2, Taiyō (magazine), 40–1, 161, 162–3, 166 237–8 Takada, Kiichi (soldier), 58–9 Bunkyō Ward, 143–4 journey, 72–3, 77 cinemas, 27–8 life at the front, 109–10 commemorative activities, 259 Takahama (Shikoku Island), 176–7, 184–5 farewell ceremonies, 62, 67–8,

Index 333

Gima, , 211, 234 Vietnam War, 51–2 Hama Detached Palace, , 151–2, 206–7 village funerals, 122–30, Hibiya Park, 17, 47–9, 235–6, funding, 128–9, Hongō Regiment, , 237–8 in Sino-Japanese War, 127 Mansei Bridge, 208–9, 222, 225–6 and state, 130 Mayor of, 205 village offices (mura yakuba), 125–7 official celebrations, 44–5 visual culture, technological panorama halls, 25–6 advancement, 21 pro-war gatherings, 32–3 Vladivostok (Russia), 266 Ueno Park (Tokyo), 17, 26, 152, 241 victory parades, 17, 18 Waliarg (ship), 151–2 village funerals, , 126 war war monuments, 137–8 collective national experience, 155–6 wounded soldiers, 236–7 commercialisation of, 22–3 Yoyogi Drilling Ground, , 234 concept of, 230–1 see also Hibiya Riots conduct guidelines, 168–9 Tokyo asahi shinbun (broadsheet), 238–9 international laws of, 283 Tokyo nichinichi shinbun (broadsheet), 34–5, leaving for, 55–84 49, 209–10, 232–3, 235–7, and masculinity, 261–2 238–9, 240 soldiers’ attitudes towards, 84 Tokyo sōjō gahō (Tokyo Riot Pictorial state attitudes towards, 14–15 Magazine), 48–9 war cemeteries, 143–4, Tolstoy, Leo (1828–1910), ‘Bethink war cinematography Yourselves’ (1904), 36–7 fake, 29–30 Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, 143 globalisation, 29–30 Torii, Ryūzō (1870–1953), 163 war commemoration, 12–13, 230 Tōyama, Mitsuru (1855–1944), 47–8 ceremonies, 131 Toyama, Shōichi (1843–1900), 65 county level, 130 tradition, vs. modernity, 282 and expansionist policies, 13 triumphal arches (haribode), 17–19, 119–21, in Japanese colonial empire, 238 True Pure Land Buddhism see Jōdo shinshū local communities, 121 (True Pure Land Buddhism) and local elites, 121, 130, 134–5, 155, Tsuchida, Shirohei (soldier), life at the 281–2 front, 90 and local patriotism, 130, 138–9 Tsurukawa Village Reservist Association, local sites of, 122 establishment, 140–1 masculinity in, 261–2 Tsushima, Battle of see Sea of Japan, Battle national site of, 122 of (1905) and public remembrance, 231 venues for, 119–21 Uchimura, Kanzō (1861–1930), 34–6, war dead, 125–7 Uchiseki, Tsuneyuki (soldier), 110–11 burials, 114 Ujina (Japan), 61, 66–8, 70, 84–5, ceremonies for, 115, 131–3 departures from, 77 dealing with, 143–4 journeys to, 71–2, 73–4, 75–6 enshrinement, 153 Ukita, Kazutami (1859–1945), 36–7, 182 eulogies for, 127 Umegaki, Kazuo (soldier), 102–3 family registers, 149–51 United States (US) military ranks, 143 attitudes towards Japan, 2–3 numbers, 121 Japanese missions to, 160–1 remains, 143 state appropriation, 123–4 veterans, 119–21 symbolic burials, 154–5 at celebrations, 237–8 as unquiet or vengeful spirits (goryō), 148–9 control of, 139–40 see also Fujimori Shōkonjō (place to invoke see also Imperial Reservist Association the spirit of the dead), shōkonsai (Teikoku zaigō gunjinkai) (ceremony for war dead)

334 Index

war death warrior attitudes towards, 9–10, 104–18, cult, 199 109–10 ethics, 2–3 ceremonies, 115 stories (bushi mono), 199, 230 soldiers’ writings on, 112 tradition, 86–7 see also battlefield death, meiyo no senshi way of (bushidō), 187 (honourable war death) Watanabe, Kunio (d. 1981), 235, 253 war diaries, 56–8 Watanabe, Osao (1874–1952), 208–9 call-up, 58–61 weaponry and life at the front, 87–8 exhibitions, 245–6 war effort, and self-sacrifice, 39–40, 262 and military violence, 260–1 war films, 27–8, 235, 249–58 Wells, Herbert George (1866–1946), audience reactions, 28–9 Modern Utopia (1905), 2–3 censorship, 256 Wilhelm II, German Kaiser (1859–1941), females in, 251–2 Knackfuss picture, 160–1 topical, 258 Winter, Jay (1945– ), 259–60 see also Nogi films women see females war heroes, 197–228 hagiographies, 200 Yalu River, 151–2 modern, 212 Yamagata, Aritomo (1838–1922), 142 pre-1945, 197–9 Yamagata (Japan), 68–9, 74–5 traditional warrior heroes, 12, 197 Yamamoto, Gonnohyōe (also known as see also gunshin (god of war) Gonbei) (1852–1933), 206 war imagery Yamamoto, Isoroku (1884–1943), and censorship, 22–3 274–5 dissemination, 30 Yamamoto, Kaichi (1877–1939), 251–2 documentaries vs. dramatisations, 30–1 Yamamoto, Shōkoku (1870–1965), 26–7 gender differences, 30–1 Yamamuro, Kentoku (1954– ), 200–1 photography, 26 Yanagida, Kunio (1875–1962), On Ancestors and propaganda, 30 (1945), 153 war monuments, 121 Yasukuni Shrine, 12–13, 122, 142, 147, construction, 135–47 154–5, 225 costs, 133–4 Army Day celebrations, 233–4 erection, 130–1, 145 and centennial celebrations, 270–1 Imperial Reservist Association, 142 Chief Priest, 237–8 individual, 145 and education, 153–4 inscriptions, 136–7, 142, 145–7 enshrinement at, 147–54, policies, 136–7 ideological bases, 148–9 popular attitudes towards, 137–8, 145 origins, 148 prevalence, 147 roles, 147, 155–6, 270–1 private, 135–47, significance, 147, 153–4, public, 135–47 statues, 208–9 regulations, 137–8 Yūshūkan (War Museum), 151–2 war myths, 197–9, Yellow Peril, 161–2 creation, 200–8, 212, 228 images of, 160–1 Imperial Navy, 200 Knackfuss picture, 160–1, modern heroic, 200 propaganda against, 167 perpetuation, 209–10 resurgence, 161 war weariness (ensen), 14, 31–2, 33–4 use of term, 163 kokumin, 53–4, 283 vs. White Peril, 165–6 war wounded Yi, Prince (1897–1970), 233–4 attitudes towards, 236–7 Yokohama (Japan), 49–50, 63–4 events for, 236–7 Yokohama Martial Association, 63–4 repatriation, 20 Yokohama Patriotic Ladies Association, representations, 236–7 63–4

Index 335

Yomiuri shinbun (broadsheet), 26, 40–1, Yosano, Akiko (1878–1941), ‘Kimi 211–12, 232–3 shinitamaukoto nakare’ (You must Yomiuri shōnen shinbun, 236 not die) (1904), 31–2, 40–1 Yorodzu chōhō (broadsheet), 35–6, Yoshizawa shōten, 27–8, 203–5 42–3, 44–5, 161, 207–9, war films, 28–9 214–15, 223–4 Yūshūkan see Yasukuni Shrine anti-war stance, 34–5, 38–9 circulation, 34–5 Zenkoku shūkyō taikai (National Congress on Treaty of Portsmouth, 47–51, for Religious Leaders) (1904), 163