FOLIA 191 Annales Universitatis Paedagogicae Cracoviensis Studia Anglica V (2015) ISSN 2299-2111

Jacek Rachfał Państwowa Wyższa Szkoła Wschodnioeuropejska w Przemyślu, Poland GOTHIC ART: A MORPHOLOGICAL AND SEMANTIC COMPARISON OF POLISH AND ENGLISH ARCHITECTURAL TERMS

Terminology The description to follow will be of a Gothic church, which, to many people, is a prototypical and spectacular embodiment of a church building. However, the main traits of its skeleton should be sought in Carolingian and Romanesque temples, where the typical model is a nave-and-chancel church Here, the main internal space for the congregation is the longitudinally located nave altar (‘kościół z nawą i chórem’). of worship, and beyond the transepts. A transept a transverse(‘nawa główna’), space to eitherextending side upof theto the crossing (‘ołtarz’), which is the focal point area where the nave, the transepts and the chancel (‘transept, intersect. nawa The poprzeczna’) chancel is (‘skrzyżowanie naw’), that is, an and often a choir and an apse. East of the choir is the presbytery (‘chór, wherechór kapłański’) the high altar is the is space situated. to the The east easternmost of the crossing, section which is the contains apse an altar, that is, a semicircular or polygonal space behind the high altar, often(‘prezbiterium’), roofed with a half- (‘apsyda’), arrangement, then it represents a triconch church is, a three-apsed(‘półkopuła, church. koncha’). The choir If the temple has three apses arrayed in a trefoil sits, typically in choir stalls (‘kościół trójkonchowy’), that the transepts and the chancel form (‘chóra cruciform kapłański’) church is, or the a crossarea wherechurch the choir (‘stalla’), i.e. ornately carved benches. Thus, the nave, The nave is flanked on its either side by an aisle (‘kościół corridorna planie which krzyża’), is bounded that is, by one a row whose of columns ground or plan an arcade. is in the An shapearcade of a cross. is a row of columns surmounted by a series of arches.(‘nawa An boczna’), arch a longitudinal symmetrical structure which spans an opening and typically supports the (‘arkada’) weight of a building. The top of an arch is its crown (‘łuk’) is a curved the springer the haunch (‘wierzchołek,intrados nasada’); its base is the masonry (‘wspora,area on the nóżka, outside kliniec of an wezgłowiowy, arch is its spandrel wezgłowie’); its main part is (‘pacha’), the inside area of which is the (‘podłucze’), whereasblind arch column (‘żagielek’). Sometimesbase, an arch is only a decorative element filled up withpier masonry; it is then called (‘łuk ślepy, blenda’). The (‘kolumna, podpora’) consists of the (‘baza’) that is, the part resting on the floor, the (‘trzon’), which is its main GOTHIC ART: A MORPHOLOGICAL AND SEMANTIC COMPARISON OF POLISH… [85] bulk, with vertical flutes along it, and the capital at its top. The capital (‘żłobek, profil’), that is distinctly carved ribs running favoured vine-leaf capitals (‘głowica’) is a separate block or a thickening at the top of a column, which has both decorative – Gothic especiallypillars (‘głowica liściasta’) – and structuralrespond functions. Columns are usually round in plan;demi-column if they are other than round, they are called an(‘filar’). arch. AnotherSupport iselement also provided of structural by corbels importance is the (‘służka’), that is, bracketsa half-pillar projecting or half-pier from ( the face of a: wall.‘półkolumna’) attached to a wall to support (‘kroksztyn’), i.e. ornamental masonry like chapels, a sacristy or a porch. A chapel worshipThe basic and outlineit can beof thelocated church’s in various body is completedplaces about by thesome church. attached On structures the other hand, a sacristy (‘kaplica’) is a small space for private a chamber where robes and other utensils are kept and where the priest prepares for the service. Wherever(‘zakrystia’) the isentrance always situatedto the church near theis, it presbytery can be enclosed and it in is a porch Another structural attachment to the body of a cathedral can be a chapter house (‘kruchta, przedsionek’), i.e., a covered shelter projecting from the wall. church governors, for meetings and discussion. (‘kapitularz’),As discussed that above, is, a thesechamber fundamental originally featuresused by typifyingcanons of thethe structurechapter, i.e. of the church building were developed in the early Middle Ages but it was only the Gothic style that, while drawing upon them, endowed the church building with a sense of overwhelming grandeur and intricate sophistication. With an increased volume of the building, the lateral walls of the nave can now be divided into levels. The groundsurmounted level byis formed a row of by large an arcade windows separating called a the nave from the aisle; above the- isle is an empore; still above it there can be a triforium,empore and the top of the wall is gallery above an aisle, whereas a triforium (‘górne okna, cleresto- wardlyrium’), thefacing AmE open spelling wall passage, being “clearstory”. usually within An the thickness (‘empora’) of the iswall, a columned typically (‘tryforium, okna trójdzielne’) is an in of a triforium have been blocked up with masonry infill theequipped effect withis a blind triple arcade arcades, just below the clerestory.blind triforium If the arches of an arcade or The Gothic church is usually much wider than its Romanesque(‘kamienne antecedent wypełnienie’), and (‘ślepa arkada’) or a (‘ślepe tryforium’).five- aisled church situatedtherefore, aisles its volume separated often with needs arcades to be ordivided colonnades into smaller spaces; hence, a is a row of columns (‘kościół supporting pięcionawowy’) an architrave with the nave and four symmetrically beam resting on their tops. With as many as five aisles,(‘kolumnada’). the transepts A colonnade become less conspicuous in the floor plan of the building.(‘architraw’), The increased i.e. width a horizontal of the crossing. The chancel and the presbytery are now surrounded by an ambulatory, church’s body also offers new solutions chancel in the designaisle, and of apse the areaaisle eastand, ofwhich the

Attached(‘ambit, obejście’), to the ambulatory its other namesis a chevet being is a semicircular extension of side aisles forming a walk behind the high altar. (‘wieniec kaplic’), a kind of a large apse [86] Jacek Rachfał consisting of a ring of radiating chapels with entrances from the ambulatory. The central chapel, which is the easternmost part of the church, is the Lady Chapel (‘promieniste kaplice’) facing outwards but from the ambulatory by a parclose The job of dividing spaces is also performed(‘kaplica by mariacka’). the rood screen Each chapel is separated (‘balustrada’), in the form of a railing or a screen. rood mounted on a rood beam (‘ściana teczowa’),lectern which separates the nave and the chancel and is intended to carry a crucifix or enclosing a stand with a desk from(‘belka behind teczowa’). which scriptures Near the roodare read screen, aloud. a (‘lektorium,Overhead, przegroda the walls chórowa’) are spanned can beby setthe up, ribbed which vault is an ornamental structure structural unit is the rib (‘sklepienie żebrowe’), wholea three-dimensional vault is divided arched into ceilingbays, or construction traves which supports the . Its basic by the adjacent arches or beams.(‘żebro, Each łęk’), bay a protruding consists of linecells of brick or stone. The severies (‘przęsło’), that is, areas marked out are terminated by haunches (‘pole sklepienne’) or which converge(‘wysklepka’), diagonally that isare panels called or groins surfaces betweenogives the ribs. The severies the point of their intersection(‘grzbiet’), is a decorative that is, curvedknob, calledparts ofa bossarches. or Thekeystone ribs (‘szew’) or (‘ostrołuk’) and individual bays are called transverse ribs (‘zwornik,A more intricate klucz, kliniecvault structure szczytowy’). may Thecontain ribs additionalwhich run ribs,horizontally such as aand tierceron define lierne (‘gurt, łęk jarzmowy, żebro jarzmowe’). formed by the ribs, vaults represent the following types: stellar vault (star vault) (‘żebro poboczne’) or a net vault(‘żebro dekoracyjne’). Dependingfan vault on (palm the pattern vault) parasol (‘sklepienievault gwiaździste’), curved(‘sklepienie net vault sieciowe’),swung ribbed vault (‘sklepienie wachlarzowe,loop vault sklepienie palmowe, sklepienieloop stellar kielichowe’), vault (‘sklepieniecrystal parasolowe’), vault ( ) (‘sklepienie krzywolinijne’),While in the Romanesque(‘sklepienie pętlicowe’), windows are small and round-topped,(‘sklepienie inwężowe’) Gothic they and are huge and(‘sklepienie pointed. The kryształowe’). early variety is represented by the lancet window lancet arch acute arch variety, (‘oknothe depressed lancetowe’), arch which is slender and sharp-pointed, withdrop aarch , is less sharp(‘łuk lancetowy, and it is composed łuk podwyższony’) of segments also whose called radii are less(‘łuk than ostry’). the span The of later the arch. The Tudor arch (‘łuk obniżony’) also known as the ogee arch, also called inflected arch consists of two mirrored ogees (‘łuk Tudorów’) is a four-centered pointed arch, whereas the large-sized windows, glazing needs support,(‘łuk w ośli which grzbiet’), is provided by vertical masonry shafts(‘sima, called esownica’),mullions i.e., S-shaped curves, which meet at an apex. In all these called transoms tracery (‘laska’) and, in more intricate designs, by horizontal bars forming a framework(‘szpros of ribs poprzeczny’). for the upper They parts are of basic openings members such of as the windows Gothic or perforated(‘maswerk’), screens. which Early isGothic an ornamental introduced stonefairly andsimple woodwork forms representing decoration plate tracery divided arched opening with a solid plate of masonry or a spandrel (‘płyta z przezroczem, maswerk negatywowy’) consisting of a simply (‘pacha’), which GOTHIC ART: A MORPHOLOGICAL AND SEMANTIC COMPARISON OF POLISH… [87] is the area bounded by an arch, into which a foil other shape has been cut. The plate tracery may contain an oculus is, a decorative circular element. The foil motifs (‘liść’),vary depending i.e. a leaf onmotif, the ornumber some of lobes, and they include trefoils quatrefoils (‘okulus’),cinquefoils that sexfoils multifoils sophisticated traceries contain a large(‘trójliść’), number of thinner,(‘czteroliść’), slender elements and represent(‘pięcioliść), the class called (‘sześcioliść’) bar tracery and (‘wieloliść’). The later, more rayonnant tracery (‘maswerk z laskowaniem’);intersected they also traceryexhibit a wide spectrum of patterns. In a (‘maswerkflamboyant promienisty’) tracery all of the ornamental lines seem to radiate from one centre. In an (‘maswerk z przecinającego się laskowania’) alsogeometric called tracery (‘maswerk płomienisty’), parallel mullions are bent over at their upper ends to forma reticulated a series tracery of interlaced pointed arches. In a (‘maswerk uppergeometryczny’) arch of a slenderwindow verticalwith undulating bars support ogee aforms. pattern A curvilinear of foils and tracery circles. also In named flowing tracery(‘maswerk sieciowy’) vertical members are interlaced in the and ogees. A panel tracery, also known as perpendicular tracery or rectilinear tracery (‘maswerk krzywoliniowy’) contains free-flowing patterns glazing bars. The typical motifs in Gothic traceries are the dagger the mouchette(‘maswerk prependykularny’) is typified by the use of a lacework of vertical two small tracery arcs intersect is the cusp (‘sztylet’) and The outer face(‘rybi of the pęcherz’), church whereasbuilding, athe characteristic façade small ornament where window in its focal point and it is called wheel (‘nosek’). window Catherine wheel window (‘fasada’), often has a round Catherine wheel, a decorative motif consisting of a spiked (‘okno and okrągłe’) burning or wheel with radiating spokes,(‘okno which w kształcie alludes to koła an instrumentśw. Katarzyny’), of torture as its toshape which is basedSt Catherine on the window is the rose window, also named marigold window ofhas Alexandria a very elaborate was bound.tracery. A more intricate type of such a round ornamental The Gothic church is usually reached through a door(‘rozeta, embedded różyca’), in a whichportal archway recessed located(‘portal’), in a which depression is a grand, of a wall often in plan. ornamental The door arched is flanked gateway, by jambs called (‘sklepione przejście’). Gothic portals are usually sculptured(‘uskokowy’), portal that is, jamb statues(‘ościeże’), i.e.statues vertical are sideof kings posts and or surfacesqueens, their on its set either is referred side. In toa as a royal portal (‘portal rzeżbiony’), jambs are adorned with human figures, that is, . If the portal is called the Gate of Heaven (‘portal inkrólewski’); the centre if by the a trumeaustatues represent Mother Mary and saints, the section of the which supports the tympanum (‘Brama Niebios’). The whole structure is secured the arch, usually containing(‘filar sculptures międzyościeżowy’), or reliefs. The that arch is, itself a masonry is accentuated column by a decorated band called archivolt(‘tympanon’): a panel or a space enclosed within by a wimperg blind tracery (‘archiwolta’) and frequently surmounted (‘wimperga’), that is, an ornamental often containing a (‘ślepy maswerk’), which, in fact, is a form of relief ornament. [88] Jacek Rachfał

The tall walls of a Gothic church need to be stabilized and this is the role of buttresses thrust need to be(‘przypora’), secured by flyingi.e., vertical buttresses. masses A offlying masonry buttress providing lateral support to the walls. Also, the vault exerts a lateral (‘parcie’) on the wall tops, which pier on an outer wall. Buttresses, as well as doorways and roofs,(‘łuk are przyporowy, often adorned łęk withprzyporowy’), pinnacles then, is a slender bar of masonry which transmits loading to a heavy well as , and wimpergs can be surmounted by finials is, typically Gothic(‘pinakiel, florid fiala,decorations. sterczyna’), Another i.e., smallcharacteristic pointed turrets.Gothic decoration Pinnacles asis the crocket (‘kwiaton’), that a bud or curled leaf, usually arranged in a series on the inclined side of a pinnacle or gable. A(‘żabka, purely czołganka,decorative szpon’),element which is the is frieze a small carved ornament, typically horizontal band adorning a wall, but a dripstone i.e. a raised protruding moulding above a masonry arch,(‘fryz’), which is that intended is, a decorated to throw off rainwater, is both ornamental and practical. The(‘gzyms same applies okapnikowy’), to another device channeling the rainwater: the gargoyle a projecting stone water-spout at the , which has been carved into the form of a grotesque animal or head. (‘rzygacz, gargulec, plwacz’), that is, The tallest part of the church is the church tower located over the crossing or at the west end of the structure. The pointed steep roof of the tower is the (‘wieża kościelna’), usually in plan. Some churches have a single tower dominating the whole building, others may have two or four towers situated (‘iglica, symmetricallyhełm’) and it is in round, pairs. Thepolygonal general or height square of basilica church roomthe building for the depends clerestory on providingwhether it profuseis a basilica light church to the orcentral a hall partchurch. of the In a interior. On the (‘kościółother hand, bazylikowy’) a hall church the isles are much lower than the nave, this leaving or not, has a single roof of relatively uniform height. The main bulk of the church(‘kościół building halowy’), is surmounted no matter by whether the inclined it is aisled roof ridge eaves and suspended on extendinginto a complicated from the structure (‘kalenica’) called atrafter the top to the (‘okap’) at the bottom, individual rafters are named (‘krokwie’), according to that their is, function. large timber A collar beams, beam arranged is a transverse beam between eaves level and ridge (‘więźba connecting dachowa’), two principal where rafters. A brace (‘jętka’) between two members. A parallel to the ridge. (‘zastrzał’) A strut is the element which stiffens and reinforces the angle the thrust from or otherwise(‘płatew adding pośrednia’) support is ato horizontal a . Andrew’sbeam running cross (‘słupek, trempel’)frame composedis a secondary of two member rafters carryingor poles meeting transversely. A king post (‘krzyżstrut carrying św. Andrzeja, a ridge krzyżownica’) purlin. A tie beamis a ends of supporting rafters together. (‘słupek An arched centralny, brace król) is a central vertical (‘tram, podciąg’) is a beam tying the between a post and a beam. A wind brace (‘jarzmo, krokiew łukowa, więzardesigned jarzmowy’) to maintain is athe naturally rigidity curved of the rooftimber against member the forforces bracing of wind. the junctionA corbel (‘wiatrownica’) is any structural member GOTHIC ART: A MORPHOLOGICAL AND SEMANTIC COMPARISON OF POLISH… [89]

wall post hammer beam (‘wspornik, konsola’) is a bracket projecting from a wall, while a (‘belka naścienna, murłata’) is a beam adhering to a wall and supporting a Analysis(‘kroksztyn’), that is, a short horizontal member cantilevered out from a wall top. The analysis to follow is intended to highlight selected aspects of the morphological structure and meaning of chosen architectural terms.

Morphology The three word-formation processes which play significant roles in creating architectural terms are compounding, derivation and conversion.

Compounding its structure often requires a more general concept to be modified by another, moreA specific technical one. term Hence, relates many to a specificof architectural type of item, terms object are ornominal method; compounds, therefore, and they are typically endocentric. This term applies to cases where a compound is but, non-heads in English compounds can be nouns, adjectives or verbs. The lists a hyponym of its head (Bauer 1983: 30). The head of a nominal compound is a noun below exemplify the three patterns:

(1) choir stall, cross church, chapter house, masonry infill, chancel isle, Lady Chapel, rood N + N screen, rood beam, keystone, star vault, lancet window, lancet arch, Tudor arch, ogee arch, plate tracery, bar tracery, wheel window, rose window, jamb statue cross church, church tower, basilica church, hall church, , king post, wind brace, wall post, hammer beam

Norman style, Decorated style, Perpendicular style, stellar vault, rayonnant tracery, A + N flamboyant tracery, perpendicular tracery, royal portal, blind tracery, lateral thrust

drop arch, dripstone V + N złożenia elements with a linking vowel inserted in between, as in śrub-o-kręt, or wod- o-wstrętThe classic type of Polish compounds. Among ( architectural) involves terms the fusion this type of two is represented by: (Grzegorczykowa 1979: 59) ostrołuk ostry o łuk czteroliść (cztery ’four’ – o – liść ’leaf’ (2) ( ’acute’ – – ’arch’) pięcioliść (pięć ’five’ – o – liść ’leaf’ ) ) [90] Jacek Rachfał

sześcioliść sześć ’ ’ – o – liść ’leaf’ wieloliść wiele ’many’ – o -liść ’leaf’ ( six ) The same( type of link occurs) in compound adjectives, as shown by the

followingpięcionawowy examples:pięć o nawa owySufAdj wczesnoangielski wczesny ’early’ – o – angielski ’ (3) ( ’five’ – – ‘aisle’- ) krzywoliniowy krzywy ‘ – o – liniowy ’linear’ ( English’) dwupoziomowy dwa ’two’ – u – poziom ‘level’- owy ( curved’ SufAdj) Polish also contains( the so-called solid compounds) composed of elements engaged in syntactic relationships, such as Wielkanoc psubrat , that is, complex lexemeswielk·a noc ’Easter’ or ’varlet’ (Grzegorczykowa-a, 1979: 59). The link between -u, in ‘great’ps·u-brat and ’night’ is based on agreement in gender and number, which predeterminesThe architectural the terms selection analysed of the in suffix this study whereas do not includethe Dative-case such forms. suffix What is prevails a realization among of Polish government multi-word obtaining architectural between termsthe compound’s is juxtapositions units. zestawienia they belong to morphology raises controversy: on the one hand, their elements are ( ), that is, fixed word combinations, usually of the A+N type. Whether combined through syntactic links and should be regarded as “syntactic objects” (Szymanek 2010: 219), but on the other, each such formation corresponds to a fixed concept.kaplica Below mariacka are some kaplica examplesN ’ of+ mariackisuch terms:Adj ’MaryAttr’ = ‘ ściana tęczowa ściana ’wall’ + tęczowy ’rainbow ’ (4) ( N chapel’ Adj Attr Lady chapel’) belka tęczowa belka ’beam’ + tęczowy ’rainbow ’ ( N Adj Attr ) przegroda chórowa przegroda ’screen’ + chórowy ’choir ’ ( N Adj ) Attr sklepienie żebrowe sklepienie ’vault’ + żebrowy ’ribbed’ ( N Adj ) pole sklepienne pole ’area’ + sklepienny ’vault ’ = ‘ ( N Adj Attr ) kliniec szczytowy kliniec ’wedge’ + szczytowy ’peak ’ = ‘keystone’ ( N Adj severy’)Attr łęk jarzmowy łuk ’arch’ + jarzmowy ’yoke ’ = ‘ (N Adj Attr ) żebro jarzmowe rib ’ ’ + jarzmowy ’yoke ’ = ‘transverse rib’ ( N Adj Attrtransverse rib’) Just as the terms ( aboveżebro are based on the syntactic link of agreement,) those listed below are based on government and they create the same kind of controversy:

skrzyżowanie naw skrzyżowanieN ’crossing’ + nawaGenPl ’ wieniec kaplic wieniec ’wreath, ring’ + kaplica ’chapel’ = (5) ( N GenPl nave’ = ‘crossing’) łuk Tudorów łuk ’arch’ + Tudorów ’of Tudors’ = ( N GenPl ‘chevet’) Brama Niebios brama ’gate’ + niebiosa ’heaven’ = ( N GenPl ‘Tudor arch’) ( lexicalised‘Gate of phrases Heaven’). The glosses in syntacticThe moststructure: complex multi-word terms are the examples below are literal translations which are intended to render their GOTHIC ART: A MORPHOLOGICAL AND SEMANTIC COMPARISON OF POLISH… [91]

płyta z przezroczem maswerk z laskowaniem (6) (‘plate with a transparency’) dach z łukowymi wiatrownicami (‘tracery with bars’) dach z łukowymi krokwiami (‘roof with arched windbraces’) kościół na planie krzyża (‘roof with arched rafters’) okno w kształcie koła św. Katarzyny (‘church according to cross floor-plan’) łuk w ośli grzbiet (‘window in the shape of St. Catherine’s wheel’) An interesting (‘archbut likerare a donkey’scategory back’) is the class of exocentric compounds. pickpocket Athe compound Polish term of thisrybi typepęcherz is not a hyponym of its head, as in the classic example, (A pickpocket is not a kind of pocket). In the context of architecture, combination rybiAdj Attr pęcherzN bladder but a particular type of(‘mouchette’) decorative pattern is an exocentric in a gothic compound, tracery. since the ‘fish ’ + ‘bladder’ does not denote a special kind of Derivation English architectural terms formed through derivation confirm a general tendency whereby native bases are typicallyhouse married hūs , withdoor nativeduru , affixes,floor flōr and, Latinatehall hall, bases heall are, kitchen matched cycene with Latinate, roof hrōf affixes., etc. However, and they since reflect OE origin fundamental prevails amongconcepts, common such words house-building tend to be terms monomorphemic. (like ( Consequently,) ( there) are( few) derivatives( of entirely) OE( origin) among( architectural) ) terms. On the other hand, Latinate word-origin stands for sophistication, which is reflected by words of increased morphological complexity, and hence, the combination of the Latinate base with Latinate suffix is quite richly represented. The examples below are typical-ian Latinate Carolingian suffixes, as used in architectural terms: -esque Romanesque (7) ( ) -ar Perpendicular ( ) -ism Mannerism ( ) -ion elevation ( ) -al finial ( ) -ance Renaissance ( ) -ery tracery ( ) -ade colonnade ( ) -er springer ( ) -el corbel ( ) -ory ambulatory ( ) -tern lectern ( ) -ant flamboyant ( ) -ress buttress ( ) ( ) [92] Jacek Rachfał reflected by architectural terms. Many of them are denominal nouns, like those in the right-handPolish exhibits column a considerable in the cases below:variety of derivational patterns, which is well

głowa głow-ica igła igl-ica (8) (‘head’) � (‘capital’) pętla pętl-ica (‘needle’) � (‘spire’) róża róż-yca (‘loop’) � (‘loop ornament’) wiatr wiatr-ow-nica (‘rose’) � (‘rose window’) klin klini-ec (‘wind’) � (‘wind brace’) kapituła kapitul-arz (‘wedge’) � (‘arch stone’) laska lask-ow-anie (‘chapter’) � (‘chapter house’) kolumna kolumn-ada (‘bar, mullion’) � (‘bar tracery’) kwiat kwiat-on (‘column’) � (‘colonnade’) These (‘flower’) derivatives represent� different (‘finial’) classes when viewed semantically. ica, -nica and -ec typify Polish nomina instrumenti, as in the words głow-ica, klini-ec, pętl-ica, róż-yca and igl-ica, where the derivative signifies Thus,a device such functioning suffixes as in - the way suggested by the meaning of the base. For instance, głow-ica głowa -arz in kapitul-arz is one of those characteristic of nomina loci, whereas -anie in laskowanie(‘capital’) puts this is noun an instrument in the category which of behaves nomina likeresultativum (‘head’).. The suffix

-ek and -ka. These nouns constitute a significant fraction of architectural terms, as shownAnother by the group instances of denominal below: nouns are diminutives, with their typical suffixes:

wierzch wierzch-ołek

(9) (‘top’) � (‘peak, point’) żagiel (‘sail’) � żagiel-ek (‘spandrel’) nos nos-ek żłób (‘trough’) � żłob-ek (‘flute’) słup słup-ek (‘nose’) � (‘cusp’) noga nóż-ka (‘post’) � (‘small post’) sługa służ-ka (‘leg’) � (‘springer’) (‘servant’) � (‘respond’) koleba koleb-ka żaba (‘frog’) � żab-ka (‘crocket’) Some terms(‘a hollow’) originate � from verbs: hence, (‘cradle’ they � are ‘barrel classified vault’) as deverbal nouns:

wypełniać ‘ wypełni-enie ‘infill’ obejść ‘ obejś-cie ‘ambulatory’ (10) ( to fill in’) � ( ) zwierać ‘ zwor-nik ‘ ( to bypass’) � ( ) sterczeć ‘ stercz-yna ‘pinnacle’ ( to clench’) � ( boss, keystone’) czołgać się ‘to crawl’ czołg-anka ‘crocket’ ( to stick out’)� ( ) rzygać ‘to puke’ rzyg-acz ‘gargoyle’ ( ) � ( ) plwać ‘ plw-acz ( ) � ( ) ( to spit’) � (‘gargoyle’) GOTHIC ART: A MORPHOLOGICAL AND SEMANTIC COMPARISON OF POLISH… [93]

A more complex kind of structure is displayed by nouns and adjectives derived pod łukiem podłucz-e from phrases, as in the examples below: N N przed sienią przedsion-ek (11) (‘under arch’) � (‘[underN arch] ’ = ‘intrados’ ) między ościeżami międzyoścież-owy (‘before entrance-hall’) � (‘porch’)Adj Adj po środku pośred-ni (‘between jambs’) � Adj (‘[between jambs] ’) po bokach pobocz-ny (‘in middle’) � Adj(‘medial’) (‘along sides’) � (‘lateral’) Conversion Some English terms show effects of the operation of conversion. This can be observed in compounds whose non-heads end in the -ed from nouns, such as: sculptured portal, recessed portal or ribbed vault. On the other suffix respondbut originally and lateral come thrust. With reference to Polish, Szymanek uses the term paradigmatic derivation, hand, the perfect examples of verb-to-noun conversion are: okap podciąg forwhich the he process calls “a here special are theform verbs of conversion” okap·ać (2010: 234).podciąg·ać The architectural terms havewhich been exemplify deprived this ofprocess their areverbal inflectional (‘eaves’) and markers, with (‘hold-up’). no nominalizing The bases (‘drip’) and (‘hold up’) which

Semanticssuffix having been added. The semantic analysis to follow concerns selected issues connected with metaphor. lexical relations and some problems related to the notions of polysemy and Relations between lexemes lexical relations A useful tool in the examination of word meaningsantonymy is the here. study This of is not surprising,. The considering set of terms the under nature this of analysis the terms, does which not include do not cases typically of all reflectlexical processesrelations. Foror states, example, for therewhich areantonyms no instances could be of provided. This set of terms,

Assuming that words of seemingly identical meaning usually differ in connotations,however, exhibits and othertherefore, lexical absolute relations synomymy that are dealt is rare, with the below. below-listed pairs or clusters of terms should rather be regarded as sets of near-synonyms:

cruciform church: cross church ambulatory: chancel aisle: apse aisle (12) bay: trave boss: keystone stellar vault: star vault fan vault: palm vault curved net vault: swung ribbed vault [94] Jacek Rachfał

depressed arch: drop arch ogee arch: inflected arch curvilinear tracery: flowing tracery panel tracery: perpendicular tracery: rectilinear tracery wheel window: Catherine wheel window rose window: marigold window

Architectural terms include many endocentric compounds, where the relationship between the elements is based on hyponymy, since each such compound is a hyponym of its head. This, rather intrinsic form of hyponymy can be found dwelling in the examples given below: Romanesque style, Gothic style, Early English, Decorated style, Perpendicular style, nave- (13) and-chancel church, triconch church, choir stall, cruciform church, cross church, vine-leaf capital, blind arch, chapter house, masonry infill, blind arcade, chancel isle, radiating isle, Lady Chapel, rood screen, rood beam, keystone, star vault, transverse rib, stellar vault, fan vault, parasol vault, lancet window, lancet arch, acute arch, depressed arch, drop arch, Tudor arch, ogee arch, inflected arch, plate tracery, trefoil, quatrefoil, cinquefoil, sexfoil, rayonnant tracery, archivolt, flamboyant tracery, wheel window, rose window, marigold window, sculptured portal, jamb statue, royal portal, lateral thrust, flying buttress, dripstone, basilica church, hall church

An interesting case is that of trefoil, quatrefoil, cinquefoil, sexfoil and multifoil. Each of them, in its own right, can be interpreted as an endocentric compound based on hyponymy. But at the same time multifoil is a hyponym of trefoil, quatrefoil, cinquefoil and sexfoil. natural way is meronymy. Since the present study focuses on the terms related to churchThe lexical structure, relation most which of structuresthem can bethe regarded field of architectural as meronyms terms of church in a very, as in church: nave. With holonyms other than church, other meronymies can be identified, such as those given below:

arch: crown, springer, haunch, intrados, respond (14) column: base, shaft, pier, capital blind arcade: masonry infill blind arch: masonry: infill colonnade: architrave vault: rib, trave, cell, severy, bay chevet: radiating chapel chancel: rood screen rood screen: rood beam bay: boss, keystone, lierne, tierceron window: mullion, transom, tracery tracery: trefoil, quatrefoil, cinquefoil, sexfoil, multifoil, mouchette, cusp portal: Gate of Heaven, wimperg, jamb, trumeau, dripstone, tympanum GOTHIC ART: A MORPHOLOGICAL AND SEMANTIC COMPARISON OF POLISH… [95] vault: arch, bay, rib façade rose window roof: ridge, plane

Transitivity foot is part of leg and leg is part of body, then foot is also part of body meronymies. With is functional-component-to-its-holefelt to be inherent in meronymy type (If of meronymy, transitivity does not obtain, as it would be bizarre to say), but, that in crocketfact, it doesis part not of apply a church, to all whereas regarding crocket as part of wimperg is correct.

Relations between senses of a lexeme Many of the terms under this study are polysemous sense: . In the examples below, the architectural sense of a lexeme is derived from a more general, non-technical

crossing, presbytery, choir, aisle, crown, springer, haunch, base, pier, shaft, capital, (15) respond, ambulatory, rib, bay, cell, groin, boss, cusp, tympanum, thrust, ridge where the primary meaning is rooted in architecture and the derived meanings On the other hand, the next list comprises another set of polysemous words, are its extensions: arcade, arch, column, pillar, chapel, masonry, colonnade, vault, ogive, tracery, facade, (16) portal, buttress, spire, brace, strut, truss

architectureMany of butthe theirPolish derived “cathedral senses terms” are architectural are of polysemous terms: nature, too. The list given below comprises lexemes whose primary meanings are not connected with

(17) chór DERIVED SENSE PRIMARY SENSE łuk ‘chancel’ < ‘group of singers’ nóżka ‘arch’ < ‘bow’ wezgłowie ‘springer’ < ‘small leg’ pacha ‘springer’ < ‘bedhead’ żagielek ‘haunch’ < ‘armpit’ głowica ‘spandrel’ < ‘small sail’ służka ‘capital’ < ‘big head’ żebro ‘respond’ < ‘servant’ grzbiet ‘rib in a vault’ < ‘rib bone’ żabka ‘haunch’ < ‘back of a human or an animal’ szpon ‘crocket’ < ‘small frog’ rzygacz ‘crocket’ < ‘claw' ‘gargoyle’ < ‘vomiter’ [96] Jacek Rachfał

plwacz hełm jarzmo ‘gargoyle’ < ‘spitter’ ‘spire’ < ‘helmet’ On the other‘arched hand, brace’ there are< few‘yoke’ cases of polysemous words whose primary fasada and portal , patternmeanings of arepolysemy, related the to architecture. words may well These be cancases be of exemplified borrowing. by (‘facade’) (‘portal’) but since their English counterparts exhibit exactly the same Metaphor The classical theory of metaphor interprets its operation in terms of a particular type of tension between Topic, Vehicle and Ground. According to Goatly, is the actual referent whose introduction is unconventional, whereas the Ground the Vehicle (marked in bold) is the conventional referent, the Topic (underlined)

(italicised) is a reason for analogy or similarity (1997: 9). In the example below, Goatly’sMy home typographic is my castle convention: I feel secure is used and independentin order to there.illustrate metaphor structure: (18) On the other hand, in cognitive linguistics, metaphor is viewed either as an effect of blending mapping from a source category to a target category haunch the structure of the of two mental spaces (Fauconnier), or of source category HAUNCH operating within the domain HUMAN BODY is mapped onto the relevant category in (Lakoff).the domain For ARCH. instance, in an allegory is conceived. A good source for allegories is altar. Originally, the word denotesIf a ametaphor table or ais flat-toppedextended in block such locateda way thatin the correlated presbytery images but itsproliferate, allegoric sacrifice something at the altar of lead someone to the altar extensions drift further away towards such images as idealistic offering (as in ), or matrimony (as in ). According to Goatly, an extension occurs when in succeeding metaphors Vehicles belong to the same semantic field, and Topics share a semantic field, as well (1997: 264). This can be exemplified by a piece from Golding’s fiction, where the context is a gothic cathedral (here, again, Vehicles are marked in bold and Topics are underlined):The model was like a man lying on his back. The nave was his legs placed together, the transepts on either side were his arms outspread. The choir was his body; and the Lady (19) Chapel, where now services would be held, was his head.

Like in English, the Polish word ołtarz (Goatly 1997: 265) na ołtarzu ojczyzny (‘altar’) participates in forming asextended in zaprowadzić metaphors. kogoś It canprzed be ołtarz found in allegoric descriptions of sacrifice, as in Some of the Polish(‘at the compounds altar of homeland’), listed in this or depictionspaper reveal of awedding considerable ceremonies, degree of idiomaticity, or, in other words, are(‘lead not fully someone analyzable. to the Thesealtar’). include: GOTHIC ART: A MORPHOLOGICAL AND SEMANTIC COMPARISON OF POLISH… [97]

ściana tęczowa ‘ belka tęczowa ‘ ‘ (20) ‘rood screen’: literally rainbow wall’ wieniec kaplic ‘ ‘ rood beam’: literally rainbow beam’ rybi pęcherz ‘ ‘ chevet’: literally wreath of chapels’ mouchette’: literally fish swim-bladder’ has metaphorical meaning. But the last one, rybi pęcherz, is metaphorical in full. In the first three cases listed above, only one of the two lexemes in a compound compound, as mouchette is not a special type of bladder, but a decorative pattern. From the point of view of morphological classification, it is a case offlyway exocentric and , as flyway Similar architectural terms which exhibitway the same property are and skylight is not a(‘length kind of lightof a logbut thata type stands of window. out or Theseextends two outwards terms, however, beyond area notched not applicable corner joint’) to Gothic is not cathedrals. a kind of Another (unless interesting in the ornithological case is łuk sense),w ośli grzbiet metaphor-based in full but it has not been included in the list above, as it is not (‘ogee arch’), whose literal translation is ‘an arch like donkey’s back’. It is a compoundAt this point,but a lexicalized this study phrase. returns to its starting point, with the notion of morphology meets semantics. exocentric compound overlapping with the idea of metaphor, and this is where Bibliography The Cathedrals of England. London: B.T. Batsford Ltd. English Word-formation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Batsford, H. and Fry, C. 1936. Creative Compounding in English. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benja- Bauer, L. 1983. mins. Benczes, R., 2006. Lexical Semantics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dictionary of Architecture and Building Construction. Am- Cruse, D. 1986. sterdam: Elsevier. Architectural Press. Davies, N. and Jokiniemi, E. 2008. Mappings in Thought and Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Fauconnier, G. 1997. The Language of Metaphors. London and New York: Routledge. Zarys Słowotwórstwa Polskiego: Słowotwórstwo Opisowe. War- Goatly, A. 1997. szawa: PWN. Grzegorczykowa, R. 1979. Gramatyka Współczesnego Języka Polskiego: Morfologia. Warszawa: PWN. Grzegorczykowa, R., Laskowski R. and Wróbel H. 1984. Style w Architekturze. Arcydzieła budownictwa europejskiego od antyku po czasy współczesne. Warszawa: Weltbild. Koch, W. 2011. Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Lakoff, G. and Johnson M. 1980. The categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation. Mün-

Marchand, H. 1969. chen: C.H. Beck’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung. [98] Jacek Rachfał

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Pearsall, J. (ed.) 1998. . New York: Oxford University Word-formation in English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Press Inc. A Panorama of Polish Word-Formation. Lublin: Wydawnictwo KUL. Plag, I. 2002. The Gothic Cathedral. The Architecture of the Great Church 1130–1530. Lon- Szymanek, B. 2010. don: Thames and Hudson. Wilson, C. 1990. The Architecture of Britain, London: B.T. Batsford.

Yarwood, D. 1976. Sztuka gotycka – morfologiczno-semantyczne porównanie terminów architektonicznych w językach polskim i angielskim

Streszczenie - - Katedry gotyckie były arcydziełem średniowiecznej sztuki, rzemiosła i myśli. Niniejszy arty kuł skupia uwagę na zaledwie małej części tego co niesie w sobie zjawisko katedry. W pierw- szej części artykułu typowe terminy z dziedziny architektury sakralnej poddane zostały synchronicznej analizie morfologicznej. Terminy angielskie zestawione są z polskimi odpo wiednikami, co umożliwia równoległe prowadzenie dwóch analiz i wyciągnięcie wniosków. Na przykład, angielskie terminy w znacznej mierze stanowią paletę różnych typów złożeń, jak i zawierają przykłady konwersji. Z kolei w języku polskim dominują zestawienia, ale są też złożenia oparte na związku rządu, jak i derywaty niosące w sobie subtelne rozróżnienia semantyczne. Po analizie słowotwórczej następuje semantyczne porównanie angielskiego- i polskiego leksykonu architektury. Większość relacji semantycznych przebiega równolegle w obu językach, ale wyraźne różnice widoczne są w dziedzinie polisemii. Dzieje się tak, ponie waż polisemia i idiomatyczność opierają się na powiązaniach metaforycznych, które często- podążają innymi ścieżkami w różnych językach. Kolejna część artykułu przywołuje klasyczne- trycznymi nowe teorie i metaforycznym. metafory, aby w tym świetle skupić się na terminach architektury. Pojęcie me tafory sprowadza artykuł na powrót ku morfologii, a ściślej mówiąc ku złożeniom eksocen Słowa kluczowe:

złożenie, derywat, relacje leksykalne, polisemia, metafora