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The Hammer-Beam Roof: Tradition, Innovation and the Carpenter’S Art in Late Medieval England

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The Hammer-Beam Roof: Tradition, Innovation and the Carpenter’S Art in Late Medieval England The Hammer-Beam Roof: Tradition, Innovation and the Carpenter’s Art in Late Medieval England Robert Beech A thesis submitted to the University of Birmingham for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Art History, Film and Visual Studies College of Arts and Law University of Birmingham September 2014 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. ABSTRACT This thesis is about late medieval carpenters, their techniques and their art, and about the structure that became the fusion of their technical virtuosity and artistic creativity: the hammer-beam roof. The structural nature and origin of the hammer-beam roof is discussed, and it is argued that, although invented in the late thirteenth century, during the fourteenth century the hammer-beam roof became a developmental dead-end. In the early fifteenth century the hammer-beam roof suddenly blossomed into hundreds of structures of great technical proficiency and aesthetic acumen. The thesis assesses the role of the hammer-beam roof of Westminster Hall as the catalyst to such renewed enthusiasm. This structure is analysed and discussed in detail. Its place in the milieu of late medieval architecture is assessed, and its influence evaluated. That influence took effect mainly in East Anglia. Thus, early fifteenth-century trends in hammer-beam carpentry in the region are isolated and analysed. A typology of is created, from which arise surprising conclusions regarding the differing priorities late-medieval carpenters ascribed to structure, form and ornament. A chapter is also devoted to a critical review of literature pertaining to the topic. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Invaluable help was provided during the research of this thesis for which thanks is due (with sincere apologies for any omissions). The following kindly showed me round buildings and roof-spaces not normally accessible to the public: The Abbots’ Hall, Westminster: David Risley. Bishop’s Kitchen, Bishop’s Palace, Chichester: Revd. Canon Ian Gibson. Chichester Cathedral: Ralph Tyreman, Clerk of Works. Ford Church, Shropshire, Elvire Mortimer. Lambeth Palace: Amy Wilson, Events and Tours Manager. The Pilgrims’ Hall, Winchester: Angela Slater, School Secretary. Salisbury Cathedral: Gary Price, Clerk of Works, and Richard Pike, Head Carpenter. Westminster Hall: Dr Mark Collins, Estates Archivist & Historian. York Minster: Rebecca Thompson, Superintendent of Works, and Paul Greene, Building and Services Manager. Notwithstanding our tussles over grammar and word choice, thanks are due to my PhD supervisor David Hemsoll for his positive words and criticism. Traditional carpenters Chris Dalton, Rick Lewis and Ed Crane gave advice on technical matters (although I should add they do not necessarily agree with all my conclusions). Chris’s craftsmanship rendered my Westminster Hall reconstruction considerably less baffling, indeed, possible. Rick and wife Sally supplied food and lodging (and drink) during my Suffolk travels; Sally encouraged me to learn ‘Sketchup.’ Also thanks to the many churchwardens and key-holders who, in order to view their splendid roofs, allowed me to turn many a giant key in many a rusty lock; to Julie Hawkes at the Museum of London for hauling out the Westminster Hall wall post; Graeme Beamish, and Nick Molyneux of English Heritage, for their comments on Idlicote Church; Gerald Steer for confirming the grisly fate of Balle’s Place; John Walker for photographs, and particularly his drawings of Tiptofts; the staff at the Suffolk and Warwickshire Record Offices for their patience during my fruitless searches there. The following architects supplied drawings: Ruth Blackman sent me her wonderful drawings of the roof at Beeston-next-Mileham; Stuart Page supplied crucial drawings of Ightham Mote. Further miscellaneous nuggets of information were supplied by, John Clark, i Dorothy Treasure, Joe Thompson, Dr David Yeomans and Dr Martin Bridge. Evire Mortimer was initially encouraging - and then sympathetic - towards my thwarted attempt to get Ford Church tree-ring dated, and, although ultimately not taken up, I thank the College of Arts and Law for the offer of a research grant towards this project. I also thank Madge Moran for her visit to Ford and her subsequent comments. Finally, thank you to Sonia Ritter, for her cheerful disposition, unflagging encouragement, and willingness to read and comment upon material well beyond her field of expertise. ii The Hammer-Beam Roof: Tradition, Innovation and the Carpenter’s Art in Late Medieval England CONTENTS Preface v Abbreviations vi Introduction 1 Chapter 1: Why the Work of The Medieval Carpenter is Worthy of Study. 7 Chapter 2: Truth, Falsehood and Pendant Posts: What is a Hammer-Beam Roof? 42 Chapter 3: Literature Pertaining to the Chronology and Typology of the Medieval Hammer-Beam Roof. 61 Chapter 4: Structural Precursors and Fourteenth-Century Developments. 105 Chapter 5: Medieval Westminster Hall. Pt. 1: Westminster Hall 1099-1393. 134 Pt. 2: Dudgeon, Demi-Gods, and Dealing: Richard II’s Rebuilding of Westminster Hall. 154 Chapter 6: The Hammer-Beam Roof of Westminster Hall and the Structural Rationale of Hugh Herland. 166 Chapter 7: Architectural Contexts and Stimuli for Westminster Hall. 200 iii Chapter 8: Post-Westminster Hall Developments: Typology and the Function of Form. 220 Appendices: 1. Checklist for the Survey of Hammer-beam Roofs 267 2. The Roof of William II’s Great Hall at Westminster: Aisled or Clear Span? 268 3. Evidence for Dates of Early Fifteenth-Century Hammer- Beam Roofs 275 Glossary 284 Bibliography 296 Illustrations 347 iv PREFACE A NOTE ON CARPENTRY TERMS AND TAXONOMY The study of medieval roof carpentry is often rendered opaque by excessive scrutiny of its minutiae and taxonomical pedantry. Nevertheless, certain concepts and terms need to be grasped. In the Middle Ages British carpentry achieved a level of technical competence and artistic expression that has never been equalled. Yet until recent decades academia largely ignored the field. Scholars adept at discussing the nuances of a mouchette or a tas-de-charge in masonry structures would have had difficulty identifying the most basic component in a coeval timber roof. While advances have been made, the study of medieval timber roofs remains a specialised field. I recommend, therefore, that the reader refer frequently to my illustrated glossary. The glossaries in later editions of Pevsner’s The Buildings of England series also contain diagrams of roof- types and their components. The Council for British Archaeology’s Recording Timber Buildings: An Illustrated Glossary (1996), while some of its terms remain contestable, is essential. Highly recommended is R.W. Brunskill’s Timber Building in Britain (2007). NOTE ON DATES A date thus: ‘1427d’; ‘d’ signifies that the structure has been dated by dendrochronology. Tree-ring dates are taken from the Archaeology Data Service Dendrochronology Database and Vernacular Architecture. v ABBREVIATIONS AC : Age of Chivalry: Art in Plantagenet England 1200-1400, eds. Jonathan Alexander & Paul Binski (London: Royal Academy of Arts, 1987) ADSDD: The Archaeology Data Service Dendrochronology Database. CBA: Council for British Archaeology, specifically, N. W. Alcock et al., Recording Timber-Framed Buildings: an Illustrated Glossary (York: Council for British Archaeology, 1996) DNB : Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online ed., Jan 2009 <http://www.oxforddnb.com> EH: English Heritage EHC : Cecil A. Hewett, English Historic Carpentry (Fresno, Ca.: Linden, 1997) NHLE : English Heritage: ‘National Heritage List for England’, 2014 <www.english- heritage.org.uk> EMA : John Harvey, English Medieval Architects (Gloucester: Alan Sutton, revised ed., 1984) HKW : H. M. Colvin et al. (eds.), The History of the King’s Works, Vols. 1 & 2, The Middle Ages (London: HMSO, 1963) NA : National Archives RCHME: Royal Commission Historic on Monuments (England), various regional and metropolitan volumes (London: HMSO) Salzman: L. F. Salzman, Building in England Down to 1540 (Oxford, OUP, 1952) VA: Vernacular Architecture VCH: Victoria County History, various county volumes. WC: The Westminster Chronicle, ed. & trans. L. C. Hector and Barbara F. Harvey (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982) vi THE HAMMER-BEAM ROOF: TRADITION, INNOVATION AND THE CARPENTER’S ART IN LATE MEDIEVAL ENGLAND INTRODUCTION This PhD is about the ostensibly prosaic subject of carpentry and carpenters. Specifically it is about the metier of craftsmen during the golden age of English carpentry in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries and the pinnacle of their achievement: the hammer- beam roof. The literature on gothic architecture is vast, but in such studies the work of the carpenter has always been the poor cousin of the more obvious skills of the mason. Yet without the ingenuity of the carpenter, the architectural and engineering feats of the Middle Ages could never have been accomplished. The hammer-beam roof, the apogee of
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