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ILI'i 'O LISEGA 'O LE FANAA'e Missionary and Government Influences on Samoan Language Change 1906-2014

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ILI'i 'O LISEGA 'O LE FANAA'e Missionary and Government Influences on Samoan Language Change 1906-2014 ‘O LI‘ILI‘I ‘O LISEGA ‘O LE FANAA‘E Missionary and government influences on Samoan language change 1906-2014 Sadat Petelo Tuimuaiava A thesis Submitted to Victoria University of Wellington in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Victoria University of Wellington 2020 ABSTRACT The arrival of the missionaries and foreign administrations1 in Sāmoa in 1830 and 1900, respectively, initiated a surge in the integration of foreign types (words) in the gagana Sāmoa (Samoan language). To date, research regarding changes to the gagana as a result of this contact has largely been observational (Pratt 1862, Cain 1986, Mosel and Hovdhaugen 1992, Allardice 2000, Lāmeta 2005, Tamasese 2005, Ma‘ia‘i 2010, Macpherson 2010, Kruse-Vā‘ai 2011, Ma‘ilo 2016). While these studies are valuable, this study seeks to enhance current research through a systematic and empirical examination of changes to the gagana. As a result, this research is guided by three research questions: 1. What can a diachronic analysis of the lexicons of lāuga fa‘amatai and lāuga fa‘alelotu tell us about language change in gagana Sāmoa since the arrival of the missionaries in 1830? 2. What has been the nature of language contact between lāuga fa‘amatai and lāuga fa‘alelotu? 3. To what extent can changes in the gagana Sāmoa be attributed to social change? Fa‘afaletui and Corpus methodologies were used. The Fa‘afaletui methodology is a Samoan methodology used to obtain the perceptions of insider informants about changes to the gagana. The corpus methodology was used as an empirical method to also analyse changes to the gagana. To investigate changes to the gagana over time and at specific periods, four indicator years were used for the corpus to represent a significant period of social contact in Sāmoa. These are: 1906, 1944, 1977 and 2014. From the corpus of Sulu Sāmoa and Sāvali texts from 1906-2014, a combined word list consisting of 1,475 foreign types was identified. The perceptions of insider informants point to the profound influence of the missions on the gagana, and how the written word, particularly the translation of the Bible, aided religious conversion and formalised new ideologies and vocabularies. Their perceptions also point to the considerable influence of government on the gagana in the areas of government divisions and 1 Foreign administrations here refer to the formal establishment of the German and New Zealand administrations in 1900 and 1914 respectively. It does not include consulates that were in place in Sāmoa prior to 1900. 2 education. In addition, the lack of gagana standardisation and the increase in Samoan population movement and growth in metropolitan centres have intensified language change. The fa‘afaletui sessions were enhanced by the corpus findings which indicate that over time, the evolution of foreign words into the gagana was integrated using five different lexical constructions and demonstrate the Samoan language has changed considerably between 1906- 2014. The implementation of the fa‘afaletui and corpus methodologies meets the Pacific research aims of this research in that it values the use of both Pacific and non-Pacific methodologies for Pacific language research. This research offers a platform for examining changes to gagana Sāmoa over time that draws on the perspectives of insider informants and data from newspaper texts. The examination is an in-depth discussion and overview of the influences of the mission Church and Westminster State on changes to the gagana and provides a holistic approach and appreciation of the correlations between language and the social environment. Finally, this research values the call by Teaiwa (2009) for more Pacific-related research that values and incorporates both Pacific and non-Pacific methodologies. 3 DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to our late grandparents, my father’s parents Tuimuai‘ava Ioane and Asosa‘asa‘a To‘iaivao Tuimuai‘ava and my mother’s parents Leatuāvao Matai‘a Fa‘alata and Tagisia Vaisigano Leatuāvao, whose gagana and fa‘amanuiaga we have inherited. I felt your spirits with me during this journey. ‘O lā ‘outou tautua ma alolofa ‘i le nu‘u, ‘ekālesia, fa‘afeagaiga ‘o le nu‘u, lea ‘ua fua mai. E manatua pea ‘outou ‘i o mātou loto ma agaga. Tuimuai‘ava Ioane Tuimuai‘ava Leatuāvao Matai‘a Fa‘alata Leatuāvao and Asosa‘asa‘a To‘iaivao and Tagisia Vaisigano Leatuāvao Tuimuai‘ava 4 ‘O LA‘U FA‘AFETAI ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS “Aua ne‘i iā te’i matou, le Ali‘i e, ‘aua ne‘i iā te’i matou, a ia tu‘uina atu le vi‘iga i lou Suafa, ‘ona ‘o lou alofa ma lou fa‘amaoni.” (Salamo 115: 1). First and foremost I would like to give all praise and thanks to God for His guidance and endless love. Tamā, fa‘afetai ‘i lou alofa. ‘Ia vi‘ia lou Suafa e lē aunoa. I would like to thank Professor Dr. John Macalister and Associate Professor Dr. Tamasa‘ilau Suaali‘i-Sāuni for their knowledge and patience throughout this journey. God Bless you both abundantly. Thank you to my Va ‘aomanū ‘āiga for your love and support. To our dear colleague Associate Professor Teresia Teaiwa who passed away last year, thank you for all your love and support throughout the years. It has never been the same without you. We miss you! Thank you to our church congregation, the Congregational Christian Church of American Sāmoa (EFKAS) in Wainuiomata for your never-ending prayers and support. Fa‘afetai le nofo tatalo. Le susū ‘i lau Susūga ‘i le Toeā‘ina ma le faletua, le Susū ‘i Susūga ‘i A‘oa‘o Fesoasoani ma ‘outou faletua, le Nofoase‘etasi ‘o le Matāgaluega, lau Afioga ‘i le Ti‘ākono Toeā‘ina Pātea Misa Pātea ma lou faletua Veta Patea, Afioga ‘i Ti‘ākono ma ‘outou faletua, Ti‘ākono Tinā ma o ‘outou ali‘i, le nofoamatāfale ‘o le ‘Ekālesia, mātua tausi ‘o si o tātou ‘Ekālesia, se‘ia o‘o ‘i lalovaoa, a‘o le pa ‘ia lava fo‘i lea ‘o Sāmoa ‘ua potopoto, mai lava le Tai Samasama nai Saua se‘ia pa‘ia le Tai ‘Ula‘ula na tauilo ai mālō. Fa‘afetai mo talosaga, fa‘afetai mo le tapuā‘iga. Le tapuā‘iga a le Matāgaluega EFKAS a Niu Sila ma ‘Ausetalia, lau Susūga ‘i le Toeā‘ina Māfutaga Fa‘aleaogā ma lou faletua La‘ia Fa‘alēaogā. Le Pulega EFKAS ‘i Uelegitone, lau Susūga ‘i le Fa‘afeagaiga Ieremia ma Lagi Allan, le nofo a fa‘afeagaiga ma ‘outou faletua, fa‘afetai le nofo tatalo. Fa‘afetai fo‘i ‘i le tapuā‘iga a le Māfutaga a Faife‘au So‘ofa‘atasi a Uelegitone, lau Susūga ‘i le Ta‘ita‘ifono ma le laulauafono, Susū ‘o Toeā‘i‘ina, Afioga ‘i Sea ma Pātele, susūga ‘i fa‘afeagaiga, fa‘afetai tele ‘o lā ‘outou pule lea. ‘O ‘upu a le atunu‘u, ‘o le tagata ma lona gafa, ‘o le tagata fo‘i ma lona fa‘asinomaga. ‘Avea lenei avanoa e momoli ai la‘u fa‘afetai ‘i le tapuā‘iga a fa‘afeagaiga taulagi ‘uma ‘o Sāfa‘ato‘a 5 ma Faleāse‘elā. Lau Susūga ‘i le Toeā‘ina Nomeneta ma Taua Simanu, lau Susūga ‘i le Fa‘afeagaiga I‘aeva ma Fatu‘olo Amitai, lau Susūga ‘i le Fa ‘afeagaiga Mōtuga ma Sioi Matagi (Tuimuaiava), fa‘afeagaiga ma o lātou faletua, fa‘apea la tātou ‘Ekālesia EFKS ‘i Sāfa‘ato‘a- Tai ma le ‘Ekālesia Katoliko ‘i Faleāse‘elā-Tai. Fa‘afetai mo talosaga mōlia. Mālō le tapua‘i. Momoli la‘u fa‘afetai ‘i le tapuā‘iga a o‘u nu‘u, le Afifio ‘o le ‘Āiga Sātuala, le Uso ma le ‘Ailaoa, le Susū ‘o Lavasi‘iuta ma Lavasi‘itai, le Tafa‘i Pa‘ia, lau Tōfā Tuimuai‘ava, le mamalu lava lea ‘iā te ‘oe Tuisāvailu‘u ma lou Nofoitū‘āiga. Fa‘apea le Taulagi ma Matua ‘o Sātuala, To‘oto‘o ‘o Ma‘auga ma le mamalu ‘i le Faleā‘ana. Le tapuā‘iga ‘i le Tama ‘Āiga ma le Falefitu ‘o le ‘Āiga Taua‘ana ma ‘upu ‘iā te ‘oe Falelātai, le tapuā‘iga a le ‘Āiga Sā Gauifaleai ma Tuisāmau, fa‘apea Sālevalasi, le Afio ‘o le Sa‘o Fa‘apito ma le Ulua‘i Sa‘o ma le mamalu ‘i le Faleātua. Fa‘afetai le tatalo! ‘O le talitonuga a Sāmoa anamuā, e mou le tino, ‘ae feso‘ota‘i pea mauli ma mātua ‘ua fai ‘i lagi le folauga. E manatua ma le alofa mātua a o mātou mātua, Tuimuaiava Ioane Tuimuaiava ma Asosa‘asa‘a To‘iaivao Tuimuaiava, Leatuāvao Fa‘alata Matai‘a Leatuāvao ma Tagisia Vaisigano Leatuāvao, matou te alolofa tele mo ‘outou. Le tapuā‘iga a nai o‘u ‘āiga, lau Tofā i le Tafa‘ipa‘ia Tuimuaiava Alofipō Toso ma Tai Tuimuaiava; Leatuāvao Lupematasila Masoe Atonio and Taua Leatuāvao, Leatuāvao Vito ma Silafa‘i Leatuāvao; Le’ausalilō Petelo ma Maima, Taualumaga Kitiona Tuimuaiava ma Finao Tuimuaiava, Lilomaiava Iulio ma Fa’asalafa Pati; my late uncle Le’ausalilō Ameto ma Alofa; Le’ausalilō Tasi ma Asofa, Tausaga Leatuāvao ma Leota Mū, Molia and Jeff Tuimuaiava; Tāvita ma Selau Lologa; Aneta ma Eikiumeni Fau‘olo, ‘Auala Enele ma Sitoga Tuimuaiava, nai o‘u tausoga fa‘apea o‘u uso ma tuafāfine, Semisi ma ‘Ula, Matai‘a Susana, Peter ma le fānau, Le‘ausālilō Kasi, Azaria ma le fānau, Tea ma Fatiala Tiso Sa‘olele ma baby Nu‘ulua, Sānita ma Fa‘aeteete Faituā ma baby Pelenatete, ma Asosa ‘asa ‘a Tuimuaiava. E manatua pea le tuafāfine ‘o le matou tua‘ā, Fa‘asalafa ma Lei‘ataua Tokuma, sā mātou nofo ā‘o‘oga ai ‘i Sogi, Sāmoa.
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