Biodiversity

KEY5 FACTS as hunting), as pasture grasses or as aquarium species Introduced (in the case of some marine species). They have also • Introduced species are been introduced accidentally, such as in shipments of recognised as a leading Species imported grain or in ballast water. cause of biodiversity loss Introduced plants, or weeds, can invade and world-wide. compete with native plant species for space, light, Trends water and nutrients and because of their rapid growth rates they can quickly smother native vegetation. • Rabbit numbers: a DECLINE since Similarly to weeds, many introduced animals compete introduction of Rabbit Haemorrhagic with and predate on native animals and impact on Disease (RHD, also known as calicivirus) native vegetation. They have high reproductive rates although the extent of the decline varies and can tolerate a wide range of habitats. As a result across the State. they often establish populations very quickly. •Fox numbers: DOWN in high priority Weeds can provide shelter for pest animals, conservation areas due to large-scale although they can provide food for or become habitat baiting programs; STILL A PROBLEM in for native animals. Blackberry, for example, is an ideal other parts of the State. habitat for the threatened Southern Brown Bandicoot. This illustrates the complexity of issues associated •Feral camel and deer numbers: UP. with pest control and highlights the need for control •Feral goat numbers: DECLINING across measures to have considered specific conservation Weed affected land – Mount Lofty Ranges the State. outcomes to be undertaken over time and to be Photo: Kym Nicolson •Feral pig numbers: UNKNOWN. accompanied by habitat restoration outcomes. Weeds can also increase the risk of wildfire and • Mundulla Yellows and Phytophthora can pose a serious threat to agriculture, forestry and cinnamomi: SPREADING. pastoralism. • Extent of terrestrial pest plants: INCREASING. Introduced fish pose a significant environmental problem for inland rivers and streams. Many were Goal introduced last century for recreational fishing and have subsequently spread into inland waterways, where they Minimal impact of pest animals and pest plants on compete with native fish for food and habitat and can primary industries, on natural ecosystems, and on have an adverse impact on water quality. public safety in South Australia. Some native plant and animal species become Animal and Plant Control Commission, Strategic pests if they are introduced to areas beyond their Plan 2001–2003 natural range. For example, the Cootamundra Wattle originating from the eastern states is invading What are the issues? bushland in South Australia. The aim of pest control is to reduce and maintain Species have been deliberately introduced to Australia pest density at levels where the benefits for specific for a wide variety of reasons including for use as garden conservation goals are maximised in comparison to plants, domestic or companion animals, for sport (such the costs of control. Pest control is most effective

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Findings

Making progress Naturally recurring outbreaks of Rabbit Haemorrhagic Disease (RHD) continue to hold rabbit numbers at greatly reduced levels across most of the State compared to before the introduction of RHD. Feral goat and fox numbers in the Flinders Ranges are generally low as a result of activities undertaken during Operation Bounceback, an ecological restoration program. This is having a positive impact on Yellow- footed Rock-wallaby populations and native vegetation condition. Biological control agents (insects and fungi) are being dispersed to assist in the management of Boneseed, Bridal Creeper, Gorse, Horehound, some species of Thistle and Salvation Jane, with positive results seen so far for the control of Horehound and Bridal Creeper. Rabbit in the Flinders Ranges Attention required Photo: Trevor Naismith Mundulla Yellows and Phytophthora cinnamomi pose a significant threat to our native plants. A major research program is investigating the causes, impact and management of Mundulla Yellows. A Threat Abatement Plan is being implemented for Phytophthora and there will be follow-up work to monitor its effectiveness and potential impact on native plants and animals. Despite control efforts, most terrestrial weeds remain a problem. Feral camel and deer numbers are increasing and there is, as yet, no coordinated approach to their control. The impact that introduced fish are having on the ecology of freshwater rivers, streams and the sea is poorly understood. Lack of understanding of appropriate management actions may risk the survival of some native fish, native aquatic plants and other aquatic animals and their habitats. There is limited information on the distribution of Mesquite, which occurs in scattered locations in the Far North. This weed has the potential to significantly impact on biodiversity and livestock industries. What more should we be doing? The Environment Protection Authority recommends that: 5.1 The level of research into Mundulla Yellows is maintained and enhanced to determine its cause, methods of spreading and impact on biodiversity. More research is required on the impact of Phytophthora cinnamomi on native plants and animals in South Australia. The effectiveness of risk management strategies for Phytophthora cinnamomi should also be monitored. 5.2 As a matter of urgency, integrated management programs for camels and deer be developed and implemented, incorporating involvement from all stakeholders. 5.3 The Operation Bounceback and Ark on Eyre programs are continued, and that these programs provide integrated models for all future introduced species management programs. 5.4 Measures are introduced to prevent the plant nursery industry from engaging in the sale of existing weeds, potential weed species and the spread of plant pathogens. 5.5 Programs are established to improve our understanding of the impact that introduced fish are having on the ecology of freshwater and marine environments. 5.6 Further research is undertaken to determine the extent of Mesquite in order to develop management strategies.

where it is conservation outcome-focused – aimed at • Number of new incursions of pest plants reducing the impact of pests rather than simply and animals and responses (new indicator) reducing pest density. Newly emerging pest plants and animals See also chapters on Native Vegetation; and provide an additional threat to biodiversity. Threatened Species.

Environmental indicators What is the current situation?

PRESSURE INDICATORS PRESSURE INDICATOR: Distribution of • Distribution of key terrestrial and marine key terrestrial pest animals pest animals and plants (new indicator) The distribution of pest plant and animal species The most significant pest animals in South Australia that are known to be causing significant threats to that cause damage to the terrestrial environment are biodiversity provides an indication of the extent of rabbits, foxes, feral goats, deer, camels, cats and pigs. the impact that these species are having on the Competition and land degradation by rabbits and environment and on native plants and animals. feral goats, and predation by the European Red Fox Introduced species compete for resources often and feral cats have been recognised as key threatening to the detriment of native species. processes under the Commonwealth Environment

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2003 105 5 Biodiversity

KEY FACTS Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (EPBC) Act East, Mid North, Murraylands, Mount Lofty Ranges 1999. National Threat Abatement Plans have been and Kangaroo Island. • The European Rabbit is still produced for these species. See the State of the It is believed that numbers have increased our most widespread and Environment 2003 Supplementary Report for maps of over recent years as a result of escapes and some destructive pest animal. the distribution of key terrestrial pest animals. deliberate releases from deer farm enterprises, reduced hunting efforts and new habitats in European Rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus •Positive results have been agro-forestry plantations. achieved for Yellow-footed This species is still Australia’s most widespread and Control is generally ad hoc although there have Rock-wallaby populations as a destructive pest despite the introduction of been some attempts by Animal and Plant Control result of feral goat and fox Myxomatosis and RHD. Rabbits are found throughout Boards to introduce cooperative control programs control in the Flinders Ranges. most of South Australia. involving landholders and recreational hunters. RHD is now common throughout the State •Bridal Creeper is considered following its introduction in 1995. It is estimated that Feral Camels Camelus dromedarius one of the most significant RHD has reduced rabbit numbers in South Australia by Feral camels occur in the Far North of the State. weed threats to biodiversity in more than 70% since its introduction, although the Following a number of good seasons it is estimated that South Australia. extent of the decline varies geographically across the their numbers have doubled over the last eight years. State. In high rainfall areas rabbit numbers do not An aerial survey of camels and other large feral appear to have declined and may have increased animals was conducted in 2002 in the Simpson Desert (Animal and Plant Control Board, pers. comm.). Region of South Australia (Axford et. al., 2002). The camel Traditional methods of control (poison baits, population was estimated at over 10,000 animals. warren destruction and removal of shelter) are The impact that these animals have on the encouraged to enhance the effectiveness of RHD. environment is largely unknown. Current control is relatively ad hoc and largely limited to that done by European Red Fox Vulpes vulpes landholders, Indigenous landowners and the Department The European Red Fox occurs in most regions of the for Environment and Heritage (DEH) in its parks and State. Priority is given to managing fox numbers in reserves. Ongoing control activities for camels and other selected, high conservation areas. Large-scale baiting large feral animals include mustering and shooting. programs, such as those carried out as part of The emergence of a camel industry, based on the Operation Bounceback, Ark on Eyre (see chapter on harvest of camels, may become a significant component Threatened Species) and West Coast Integrated Pest in the management of their population. Fox in the Gawler Ranges Management Strategy, have seen a decline in Photo: Steve Doyle numbers over the last 10 years in the Flinders and Feral Cats Felis catus Gammon Ranges and on parts of the Eyre Peninsula. Feral cats are common in all regions of the State. Fox populations in the semi-arid regions are reduced Numbers have fallen to some extent following the where rabbit populations have been controlled by RHD introduction of RHD, as rabbits are a key source of prey. or warren destruction. It is difficult to achieve effective cat control, as Elsewhere in the State, foxes remain a problem, they do not readily take meat baits used for fox despite significant baiting programs in some areas. control. In semi-urban areas, individuals from the domestic cat population are continually recruited to Feral Goats Capra hircus the feral population. Priority for action is currently Feral goats occur in the southern and central areas of given to areas of high conservation value around the the State, particularly the Gawler and Flinders Ranges. State such as the Flinders and Gammon Ranges. Methods for controlling goats include trapping, In other areas of the State, feral cats remain shooting and mustering. As with foxes, numbers are a problem. declining in the Flinders and Gammon Ranges and on parts of the Eyre Peninsula due to large-scale trapping, Feral Pigs Sus Scrofa mustering and shooting programs that are being Feral pigs can be found in the far north-east of the carried out in high priority conservation areas1. State along the water courses and water holes of the Elsewhere in the State, numbers are also declining. Innamincka Regional Reserve, Warburton Creek and Diamantina River. These populations are temporary Feral Deer Cervidae family and recede during periods of drought. Feral pigs can Feral deer occur as populations in remnant vegetation also be found along the upper reaches of the River patches including conservation parks in the South Murray from Renmark to the State border and on the western end of Kangaroo Island. There is no information on the density of feral pig populations in South Australia and their impact on the 1 Vertebrate pests, such as rabbits, foxes and feral goats, environment is not well documented. Soil and have adapted and spread into most of Australia’s vegetation disturbance is associated with feeding and agricultural systems and natural environments. None have trampling. They may also be implicated in the spread been eradicated, despite considerable effort. The National of Phytophthora and other weeds. Feral Animal Control Program (NFACP) is focused on strategic, sustained best practice management of pest Feral pigs are the wild animals of principal animals where they are causing actual rather than concern in Australia in relation to the spread of exotic perceived damage. The NFACP has two components: an diseases, particularly Foot-and-mouth Disease, which agricultural component administered by the Bureau of is Australia’s main exotic disease of concern. They can Rural Sciences of the Department of Agriculture, Fisheries also act as hosts or vectors of several diseases and and Forestry; and an environmental component parasites that can affect other animals, including administered by Environment Australia.

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domestic livestock and humans. The major diseases for the Southern Brown Bandicoot. It is therefore and parasites of concern are Leptospirosis, important that its eradication is staged and Melioidosis, Tuberculosis, Sparganosis and Brucellosis accompanied by habitat restoration. (the last is exclusively spread by pigs). Boneseed Chrysanthemoides monilifera subsp. monilifera PRESSURE INDICATOR: Distribution of Boneseed is particularly prolific in the Mount Lofty key terrestrial pest plants Ranges, with isolated patches elsewhere in the State. It has considerable potential to expand its distribution There are 20 weeds of national significance as it proliferates through rapid growth and massive (WONS) that are regarded as a major threat to seed production. biodiversity, 11 of these have been identified in South The Cooperative Research Centre (CRC) for Australia. These are Alligator Weed, Athel Pine, Australian Weed Management released the Tortrix leaf- Blackberry, Boneseed, Bridal Creeper, Chilean Needle Bridal Creeper smothering native roller moth as a means of biological control, however, vegetation, Owen, South Australia Grass, Mesquite, Gorse, Parkinsonia, Serrated Tussock this has established poorly due to high predation and Photo: John Virtue and Willows. severe drought conditions. Bridal Creeper, Blackberry, Boneseed, Gorse and Boneseed remains a problem in many parts of Mesquite are considered the most significant weed the State, particularly areas that are inaccessible. The threats to biodiversity in South Australia. See the State plant is easy to control via hand-pulling and its density of the Environment 2003 Supplementary Report for is reducing in some easily accessible areas due to the maps of the distribution of key terrestrial pest plants efforts of volunteer groups such as Friends of Parks. Bridal Creeper Asparagus asparagoides Gorse Ulex europaeus and Bridal Veil A. declinatus Gorse is found throughout many agricultural areas of the Bridal Creeper is considered one of the most State, but is most prevalent in higher rainfall areas, such significant weed threats to biodiversity in South as the Mount Lofty Ranges, Clare Valley and the Fleurieu Australia. It is a climber that smothers native vegetation Peninsula. It has the potential to become a serious pest and competes for space, light, water and nutrients. It is throughout the southern areas of South Australia. common in all agricultural areas of the State. A spider mite has been released for biological Populations of well-established Bridal Creeper control of gorse in the Mount Lofty Ranges and other are, however, extremely difficult to control and virtually biological control agents are presently undergoing impossible to eradicate. Removal of new infestations testing. To date, these have not significantly affected is imperative. Two Bridal Creeper bio-control agents the range or density of the weed, which continues to were released by the CSIRO Division of Entomology in be a problem. 1999/2000 and have now been dispersed to over 600 sites across the State. While positive results have Mesquite Prosopis spp. been observed at a few sites with regard to a Mesquite occurs in scattered locations in South reduction in plant density, bridal creeper remains a Australia’s arid interior, however, limited data currently significant threat. exist on weed distribution in these areas. It has the Bridal Veil shares many of the weed characteristics of potential to further extend its range in South Boneseed seedling Bridal Creeper. It is a deciduous climber and produces Australia’s arid regions. Photo: Kate Blood berries that are spread by birds. As with Bridal Creeper Mesquite forms impenetrable thickets, smothering it smothers native vegetation and competes for space, native vegetation and hindering pastoralism. Its light, water and nutrients. At present Bridal Veil is not a potential cost to biodiversity and livestock industries is proclaimed plant under the Animal and Plant Control very high. More work is required to determine the Act 1986. extent of this weed in order to inform the development Bridal Veil is currently found in scattered of integrated management strategies. infestations on southern Eyre Peninsula, Yorke Other environmental weeds in Peninsula, Kangaroo Island and Fleurieu Peninsula. It South Australia has the potential to spread into the Southern Lofty There are a number of other important environmental Ranges and into the South East. weeds in South Australia that are not listed as As yet there is no biological control for Bridal Veil. nationally significant. These include (but not The hand digging of plants is recommended by some exclusively) African Box-thorn, Briar Roses (Dog Rose people, although care must be taken to remove every and Sweet Briar), Cape Broom, Desert Ash, tuber and rhizome fragment. This method can also Hawthorns (May and Azarola), Olives, Perennial cause a lot of soil disturbance, which unfortunately Veldtgrass, Phalaris spp. and Willows. All of these Gorse Broom weed pasture aids in the establishment of other weeds. species remain an environmental threat. Photo: Kate Blood Blackberry Rubus fruticosus agg. In South Australia, Blackberry is principally found in the PRESSURE INDICATOR: Distribution of Mount Lofty Ranges, Fleurieu Peninsula, Northern key marine pests Agricultural Districts, Lower Eyre Peninsula and Lower South East. Approximately 250 introduced marine species have Blackberry is an extremely aggressive invading been discovered in Australian waters, with 38 plant and hard to control. It remains a problem recorded in South Australia. There is little information throughout its range. Blackberry provides ideal habitat on the distribution and density of these marine pests.

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2003 107 5 Biodiversity

Many of the pests found in Adelaide metropolitan coastal waters have been introduced via ballast water PRESSURE INDICATOR: Distribution of or on the hulls or anchor ropes of vessels. Aquaculture key freshwater pests and mining are two other vectors for introducing There are a number of introduced freshwater fishes marine pests and diseases. The State now has that are having a significant impact on freshwater extensive commercial and recreational fisheries, and ecosystems in South Australia. These species compete therefore any invasion would have huge economic and with native fish for food and habitat and can adversely social consequences. affect water quality. There is limited comprehensive The Commonwealth Government currently has information on the distribution and extent of these before it a nomination for ‘the introduction of marine species and so it is difficult to predict trends. pests into the Australian marine environment via Those of primary concern are the European Carp, shipping including the discharge of ballast water and/or Eastern Gambusia (or Mosquitofish), Redfin (or hull fouling’ to be listed as a Key Threatening Process European) Perch, Rainbow Trout, Brown Trout and under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Tench. Release of any of these species following Conservation Act 1999. capture is illegal under the Fisheries Act 1982. South Australian marine experts are extremely The Rainbow and Brown Trouts have established concerned about the risk of spread of both the populations in the Mount Lofty Ranges and Adelaide Japanese Sea Star Asterias amurensis from Port Philip area, while the Eastern Gambusia can be found in Bay in Victoria (via recreational craft), and the Japanese rivers and streams throughout the State. This species seaweed Undaria pinnatifida. was originally introduced in the 1920s to control The most significant marine introduced pest in mosquitos. It proved relatively ineffective at controlling South Australia is the invasive seaweed Caulerpa mosquitos and has now become a significant pest in taxifolia. Two other significant pests in terms of freshwater rivers and streams. damage to the marine environment are the European Caulerpa taxifolia The Redfin Perch and European Carp are found in Fan Worm and toxic dinoflagellates, which are single- Photo: PIRSA rivers and streams of the Murray-Darling Basin. The celled microscopic organisms. Redfin is a heavy predator of native fish. The European Invasive seaweed Caulerpa taxifolia Carp is a particular environmental concern and has Caulerpa taxifolia is a form of algae that was extended its range to almost the whole of the Murray- discovered in West Lakes and the upper Port River in Darling Basin. Its feeding habits increase turbidity or early 2002. Likely vectors for its introduction and muddiness of the water, dislodge aquatic plants and potential spread in these areas are through an affect water quality. escaped aquarium specimen or the transport of For more information see the State of the infected recreational equipment. Environment 2003 Supplementary Report. Caulerpa taxifolia has the potential to spread over large areas as it has done in New South Wales, the Other pest species of concern Phytophthora cinnamomi poses a significant threat Mediterranean countries and California. It has also to biodiversity and is listed under the Environment been associated with the collapse of fisheries Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 as a overseas. An eradication program for the species key threatening process. started in June 2002, coordinated by Primary It is known to have spread throughout many Industries and Resources SA. An eradication plan has Southern Pygmy Perch – a native fish areas in the Mount Lofty Ranges and parts of threatened by altered river flow, habitat been developed by State Government following trials Kangaroo Island. Phytophthora is a microscopic destruction and introduced species to determine the most effective control measures. Photo: Michael Hammer fungus-like organism that rots the roots of susceptible European Fan Worm/Sabellid Fan Worm plants causing death. It is a common pest of nurseries Sabella spallanzanii and domestic gardens. There is no known means of The European Fan Worm is native to the Mediterranean eradicating Phytophthora. Management strategies Sea. Its distribution in South Australia has not been fully involve modifying/adapting human behaviour and mapped but there are significant populations in upper minimising the spread to uninfested areas by Gulf St Vincent and it has also been reported near controlling access and adopting hygiene procedures. Edithburgh. The species is believed to form dense Mundulla Yellows is a progressive, slow populations, out-competing native species for habitat. It yellowing and dieback disease of eucalypts and other is a fouling organism and may interfere with marine native plants, first observed in the vicinity of Mundulla infrastructure and aquaculture developments. in the 1970s. It is characterised by yellowing of the leaves with growth and canopy dieback developing Toxic dinoflagellates Gymnodinium and several years or decades later. It is always fatal. To Alexandrium spp. date, there has been no success in re-establishing These species produce toxins that may accumulate in plants on sites with Mundulla Yellows dieback. filter feeders, causing Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning in In South Australia, the symptoms of Mundulla predator species and human consumers. Blooms of Yellows have been recorded as far west as Streaky these organisms may clog the gills of marine species or Bay and as far north as Wilpena Pound. There appears deplete oxygen from the water, leading to widespread to be a strong association between the presence sR fish kills. Toxic dinoflagellates impact on the fishing and Mundulla Yellow symptoms and roadside vegetation aquaculture industries through the loss of stock and and/or areas that had been disturbed in some way have the potential to affect the health of consumers, by humans. particularly in the case of infected shellfish.

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presence of weeds or weed traces in export produce KEY FACTS PRESSURE INDICATOR: Number of reduces quality and can cause buyer resistance. new incursions and responses Impact on rural communities. Introduced species •Prevention and early can have indirect effects on the livelihoods of containment of serious new Significant new incursions, or invasions, of pest plants, landholders and regional communities. weeds before they become animals and pathogens in South Australia over the last Cultural impact. Aboriginal and recreational use of widespread is the most cost- few years that pose a threat to biodiversity include the native ecosystems can be compromised by introduced effective approach to invasive seaweed, Caulerpa taxifolia (see Distribution species displacing natives. weed management. of key marine pests), Branched Broomrape and perennial grass weeds such as Chilean Needle Grass What are we doing about it? and Serrated Tussock2. Branched Broomrape Orobanche ramosa The Animal and Plant Control Commission (APCC) is responsible for the administration and Branched Broomrape is a parasitic weed native to implementation of the Animal and Plant Control Act Southern and Central Europe. It has invaded the 1986. The APCC oversees and coordinates animal and Mediterranean countries, Middle East, Central Asia plant pest control activities throughout the State. and Central America. The weed has an adverse impact In cooperation with the Commission, regionally on yields of specific commercial crops in many of based Animal and Plant Control Boards and/or Soil these regions. Conservation Boards develop coordinated programs Branched Broomrape only occurs in a for destroying or controlling key pest animals and 70-kilometre radius zone around the original discovery plants throughout the State. The Catchment Water close to Murray Bridge. There are now 389 infested Management Boards are also playing a major role in paddocks on 167 properties (PIRSA Annual Report, controlling introduced species along watercourses. 2002) where the broad host range for Branched Redfin – an introduced species that This work will be better integrated with the Broomrape was confirmed. preys on small native fish, frogs Government’s proposed reform of natural resource The full extent of Broomrape’s effect on Australian and invertebrates management activities. native vegetation is unknown, however, it has been Photo: Michael Hammer There has been some success in controlling observed affecting a small number of native species. certain pest animals over the last 10 years. Rabbit There is also a native species of Broomrape Orobanche numbers have remained relatively low since the cernua var. australiana, which is listed as vulnerable introduction of Rabbit Haemorrhagic Disease in under the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972. 1995. This has had an effect on fox and feral cat populations that rely on rabbits as a major food source, What impact do introduced and their numbers have dropped correspondingly. species have? Fox and goat numbers also remain low in the northern Flinders, Gammon and Olary Ranges and on Some of the environmental, social and economic the Eyre Peninsula due to large-scale control programs effects of introduced species are listed below to carried out by the Department for Environment and illustrate the broader significance for sustainability. Heritage as part of Operation Bounceback, the Ark Biodiversity loss. Introduced species are recognised on Eyre Program (see the chapter on Threatened as a leading cause of biodiversity loss world-wide. Species) and the West Coast Integrated Pest Impact on native plants and plant communities. Management Program, which aims to see sustained Weeds smother native vegetation and compete for and integrated pest management across the Eyre space, light, habitat, water and nutrients. Rabbits, Peninsula. However, the numbers of wild camel and feral goats and deer prevent plant regeneration by deer continue to increase. eating seedlings. Feral camels and deer trample The South Australian Weeds Strategy, native vegetation. developed in 1998, provides a framework for Impact on native animals. Foxes and feral cats prey coordinated weed management and links directly with on native animals, some of which are already the National Weed Strategy. However, despite vulnerable due to low population numbers. Most control efforts, pest plants remain a threat to introduced animals compete with native animals for biodiversity. food and habitat. The University of Adelaide is a partner in the Degraded soil and water resources. Weeds degrade Cooperative Research Centre (CRC) for Australian water courses and affect water quality. They also alter Weed Management, established in July 2001. The the composition of soil and increase fire hazard. Feral CRC is working alongside other groups such as the goats, rabbits, deer, pigs and camels erode soil APCC and the CSIRO to reduce the risks posed by resources as the result of trampling and overgrazing. Dead Yaccas affected by Phytophthora current and new weed species. The move towards cinnamomi Losses in agricultural production. Weeds cost South integrated management of natural resources should Photo: Renate Velzeboer Australian agriculture an estimated $650 million per year see the development of more holistic approaches to (http://sustainableresources.pir.sa.gov.au). These costs weed management. are associated with reduced crop yield, poisoning of Biological control programs are being stock, tainting of meat and milk and reduced value of implemented for some plant species with positive wool if contaminated with seeds and burrs. The results seen so far for the control of Horehound and Bridal Creeper. Recently emerging introduced species to cause 2 See the State of the Environment 2003 Supplementary concern include Mundulla Yellows, Phytophthora Report for more information.

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2003 109 5 Biodiversity

cinnamomi and the invasive seaweed Caulerpa References taxifolia. Caulerpa taxifolia represents a significant threat to commercial fisheries and the State Animal and Plant Control Commission Government has launched major control programs. http:/sustainableresources.pir.sa.gov.au The Department for Environment and Heritage Animal and Plant Control Commission (2000). (DEH) has a management framework and educational Strategic Plan 2001–2003. program in place to reduce the impact of Phytophthora cinnamomi across the State, although Animal and Plant Control Commission (2001). Annual more resources are required to assess the Report. APCC, Adelaide. effectiveness of these programs in terms of halting Axford, G., Holden, C. and Farroway, L. (2002). Aerial the spread of the disease. Survey of Camels and other Large Feral Animals in the Progress has been made in researching the Simpson Desert Region of South Australia. impact of Mundulla Yellows on native plant species. Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide. A funding partnership has been formed between Environment Australia and DEH to progress research Primary Industries and Resources South Australia Phytophthora boot-cleaning station into the causes of Mundulla Yellows, its modes of (PIRSA) (2002). Annual Report. South Australia, Photo: Clare Nicolson spread and potential management strategies. This Adelaide. work commenced in March 2003. In addition, the issue was taken to the National Land and Water Biodiversity Committee by DEH as Further information one of potential significance to biodiversity Bush for Life Program conservation at the national scale. Subsequently, a www.treesforlife.org.au/bushcare.html Mundulla Yellows Task Group was set up in September 2002 to determine the current status of research and Bushcare develop a flexible research strategy and appropriate www.ea.gov.au/land/bushcare/about/index.html risk management framework. CSIRO Centre for Research on Introduced There are also a number of community and Marine Pests non-government based organisations across the http://crimp.marine.csiro.au State that are addressing the problems introduced Environment Australia – Invasive Species species cause. These include the Urban Forest www.ea.gov.au/biodiversity/invasive/index.html Biodiversity Program, Bushcare, Trees for Life and Native Fish Australia. Introduced Marine Pests Program In terms of minimising the impact of introduced www.ea.gov.au/coasts/imps species on the marine environment, South Australia National Weeds Strategy has provided input into the development of national www.weeds.org.au ballast water management requirements, effective Native Fish Australia since July 2001. Ballast water from international www.nativefishsa.asn.au vessels is a major source of exotic pests and diseases. The new requirements prevent high-risk ballast water Operation Bounceback from being discharged into Australian waters to help www.environment.sa.gov.au/biodiversity/ reduce the risk of exotic pests or diseases entering threatened.html Australia’s unique marine environment. South Australian Animal and Plant Control Commission For more information on programs and initiatives http://sustainableresources.pir.sa.gov.au see the State of the Environment 2003 Urban Forest Biodiversity Program Supplementary Report. www.urbanforest.on.net/main.htm West Coast Integrated Pest Management strategy www.ea.gov.au/land/bushcare/projects/ saproj.html

110 NATIVE VEGETATION

an agreement between a private landholder and the KEY FACTS Native Vegetation State Government to protect areas of native vegetation in perpetuity. Heritage Agreements now • Native vegetation provides cover over half a million hectares of native vegetation vital habitats for native Trends in South Australia. animals, prevents soil erosion, In the agricultural lands, a range of revegetation guards against soil salinity •Broadacre clearance: HALTED except under activities are underway. However, a large proportion and is the basis for regulated conditions. of this is for commercial or landcare purposes and healthy catchments. •Area of land held under Heritage the contribution to biodiversity outcomes is limited Agreements: INCREASED 12% (60,749 or unknown. hectares) since 1998. Native vegetation associated with the River •Area of land held in National Parks and Murray and its floodplains and wetlands has been Wildlife Reserves: INCREASED 1.6% highly modified due to the effects associated with river (334,937 hectares) since 1998. regulation and the extraction of water for irrigation development. Deteriorating water quality and • Revegetation activity: STABLE, no change increasing water extraction and drainage for since 1998. agricultural purposes is affecting the health of aquatic vegetation in rivers, streams and wetlands throughout Goal the State. Marine vegetation such as seagrass and mangroves are suffering the effects of poor water To reverse the long-term decline in the quality and quality and increasing coastal development. The extent of Australia’s native vegetation and ecological chapters on Rivers, Streams and Wetlands; River communities and the ecosystem services they provide. Murray; and the Health of the Marine and Coastal The National Objectives and Targets for Environment provide more information on these Biodiversity Conservation 2001–2005 (Environment Cup Gum (Eucalyptus cosmophylla) issues. Australia, 2002) Photo: Kym Nicolson See also chapters on Introduced Species; Land Use; and Threatened Species. What are the issues? Native vegetation is one of our most precious natural Environmental indicators assets. It provides essential habitat for native animals and underpins the continued persistence and evolution CONDITION INDICATOR of our natural ecosystems. Native vegetation plays an • Extent and condition of remnant native important role in stabilising the soil, making it less vegetation (reported on in the State of the vulnerable to wind and water erosion. It also reduces Environment Report 1998) the impact associated with climate change by The extent and condition of native vegetation is absorbing greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, considered to be the best available measure from the atmosphere. we currently have of the condition of Native vegetation is also important in preventing ecosystem diversity. dryland salinity through its influence on groundwater levels. It also provides valuable shelter and windbreaks RESPONSE INDICATORS Hakea for stock and crops. • Area of land held under protected status Photo: Kym Nicolson Since European settlement, native vegetation has (reported on in the State of the Environment been subjected to a range of pressures that have Report 1998) resulted in its extensive degradation. In urban areas, An adequate reserve system is necessary to settlement has led to its destruction and replacement protect and maintain ecosystem, species and with introduced plants, buildings and infrastructure. In genetic biodiversity. the agricultural areas, clearance and fragmentation of • Area of revegetation (reported on in the habitat have left less than one-third of South Australia’s State of the Environment Report 1998) original native vegetation intact. Although extensive While revegetated areas do not have the same areas of native vegetation remain in the arid zone, these environmental benefits as uncleared land, they are in various states of degradation and modification. contribute towards the restoration of many Other pressures that have affected the condition ecological values. It is critical that land is of native vegetation include grazing by sheep, cattle, revegetated with locally occurring native species rabbits, goats and camels; trampling; invasion by to achieve maximum biodiversity outcomes. weeds such as Bridal Creeper and Blackberry; changed fire regimes; plant pathogens such as Phytophthora cinnamomi and Mundulla Yellows; firewood collection; What is the current situation? increasing soil salinity and rising groundwater; altered water flows in rivers and streams; and pollution CONDITION INDICATOR: Extent (NLWRA, 2002). and condition of remnant The current system of parks and reserves plays terrestrial vegetation an important role in protecting remnant native vegetation. In the agricultural zone, 35% of remaining Around 85% of the State is covered in native vegetation is preserved either in formal reserves or vegetation, however, the majority occurs in the privately managed Heritage Agreements. The latter is

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2003 111 5 Biodiversity

Findings

Making progress Vegetation clearance is now subject to much stricter controls as a result of recent (2002) amendments to the Native Vegetation Act 1991. The amendments prohibit broadacre clearance of intact native vegetation and impose much stricter penalties for illegal clearance. The last five years have seen the initiation of a number of State Government programs aimed at a more integrated and regional approach to the protection and conservation of native vegetation. These include the Regional Biodiversity Planning Program, NatureLinks and the State Revegetation Strategy. These will be complemented by, and integrated with, the National Action Plan (NAP) for Salinity and Water Quality and Natural Resource Management Planning. The Pastoral Lease Assessment Program has completed the first round of property based condition assessment. In the last 14 years the program has established vegetation and soil monitoring points in every paddock of every pastoral property, representing about 40% of the State. The Biological Survey Program of South Australia has conducted biological inventories and established monitoring baselines across approximately 75% of the State. Fire Management Plans or Statements are being prepared for each fire-prone National Park and Wildlife Aerial view of denuded land, Maitland, Reserve, and assessed against performance indicators. Priority for rehabilitation works will be given to those Yorke Peninsula areas most disturbed by fire, or where the disturbance has the greatest potential to impact on reserve values. Photo: Mapland Attention required Scientific and replicable techniques for measuring the condition of all key vegetation communities are yet to be developed. In light of the many threats to native vegetation, this is a critical shortcoming of the State’s Reserve system. While Heritage Agreements require the protection of native plants and animals, they do not always address on-ground and on-going management requirements. Many of our national parks and reserves do not have formal management plans. To date, most revegetation efforts using native species have been small scale and not specifically designed to meet the needs of biodiversity conservation, particularly in terms of restoring ecological processes or wildlife habitat on a broad scale. A few large-scale ecological restoration trials are presently underway across the State to determine the best methods for restoring habitat on a broad scale. The impact on habitat quality and biodiversity associated with the removal of firewood is currently not being adequately addressed. Native vegetation may still be cleared legally in accordance with exemptions in the Regulations to the Native Vegetation Act 1991. New regulations introduced in August 2003 resulted in a tightening of many existing exemptions. What more should we be doing? The Environment Protection Authority recommends that: 5.7 A long term monitoring program is developed to scientifically assess the condition of native vegetation across the State. 5.8 The principles of the NatureLinks Program, which aims to restore habitat at the landscape scale, are incorporated into the natural resource management planning process and associated investment strategies. To assist in achieving the objectives of the NatureLinks Program, existing broadscale habitat restoration trials should be maintained and new trials initiated to cover the varied ecosystems of the State. 5.9 Continued effort is directed to the development and improvement of Regional Biodiversity Plans to inform development planning and natural resource management planning. 5.10 The development and implementation of management plans for Heritage Agreement areas receives a higher priority, particularly in terms of providing greater support to the managers of Heritage Agreements. There also needs to be greater emphasis on establishing Heritage Agreements in the arid lands of South Australia. 5.11 Effective resourcing for the development and implementation of management plans for National Parks and Wildlife Reserves is given greater priority. 5.12 A firewood strategy is progressed further in order to improve our information base, educate the public and develop a sustainable firewood industry. 5.13 Additional effort is directed towards the development of strategies for managing fire and fuel loads in native vegetation for both safety and ecological purposes.

112 NATIVE VEGETATION

pastoral regions and Aboriginal lands. Less than one- funding will be required from the State Government to KEY FACTS third of the original native vegetation occurs in the enable vegetation condition assessments and agricultural areas of the State – most has been cleared monitoring to be conducted in the agricultural regions • Less than one-third of South for agricultural and urban development (Map 5.1). of the State. Australia’s original native A quarter of the State’s remaining native vegetation communities vegetation is protected in National Parks and Wildlife Pressures on native vegetation remain in agricultural areas; (NPW) Reserves and another 10% via Heritage the majority is not Agreements. The remaining 65% occurs on private Vegetation clearance formally protected. land and is not necessarily subject to any form of The clearance of healthy, intact native vegetation is not protection, conservation or management for allowed in South Australia under requirements of the conservation outcomes. Native Vegetation Act 1991. Some regions have been subjected to more Over the five-year period from 1996/97 to extensive clearance than others. The Mount Lofty 2001/02, a total of 9161 hectares of degraded native Ranges and the South East have been most vegetation was approved for clearing. Some of this significantly affected due to their suitability for area comprised plots where only scattered trees were agricultural development in terms of climate, soil type cleared. This is equivalent to an area 10 times the size and topography. Only around 15% of native vegetation of Belair National Park. However, an area of 5299 in the Mount Lofty Ranges and 13% of native hectares was refused permission for clearance in the vegetation in the South East remains. same period. South Australia has strictly controlled broadscale In turn, a total area of 6233 hectares of natural clearance for the past two decades with the Native regeneration or revegetation was required during this Vegetation Act 1991 the most recent of a succession period to offset the losses associated with the of strategies aimed at minimising clearance rates. clearance. It should be noted that ad hoc revegetation Eremophila Condition of native vegetation is not an ideal substitute; instead a landscape Photo: Kym Nicolson There is now considerable information available on the approach towards nature conservation should be current condition of native vegetation in the pastoral adopted that includes the strategic re-establishment of areas of the State. In some areas, inappropriate native vegetation communities on a broad scale, to grazing practices over the last 150 years have led to maximise habitat value and connectivity. The Native land degradation, a loss of productive potential and an Vegetation Council appreciates the importance of this impact on biodiversity. approach and will increasingly apply the principle in As part of the State Government’s Pastoral Lease conditions attached to any clearance approvals. Assessment Program (1990–2000) over 5500 Figure 5.1 shows the number of clearance permanent photopoint monitoring sites have been applications received since 1996/97. The declining trend established on pastoral properties. These were set up indicates the changing attitude towards the clearance of to provide a baseline to monitor the condition of soil native vegetation and the recognition that applications and vegetation over time. These monitoring points are less likely to receive approval. Applications are now form the basis for the calculation of a land condition being modified to more realistic levels. index (LCI) for each lease in the sheep country south Despite generally strict controls on clearance, of the Dog Fence. The LCI ranks pastoral leases as native vegetation may still be legally cleared subject Bluebush shrubland, Whyalla having high, moderate or low ‘disturbance’ or to exemptions included in the Regulations to the Photo: Kym Nicolson departure from original (pristine) condition. The Native Vegetation Act 1991. These exemptions were completion of the rangeland assessment process originally designed to permit clearance that would reasonably be approved – for example for safety allows for ongoing monitoring of change in soil and Figure 5.1: Number of clearance reasons, the establishment of fuelbreaks, tracks and vegetation condition, improved grazing management applications in South Australia – and the rehabilitation of degraded areas (see the State fenceline clearance. 1996/97–2001/02 One such example is the current exemption of of the Environment 2003 Supplementary Report for 200 more information). clearance associated with the erection of a building or other structure (e.g. housing developments). This can In the agricultural regions of the State, measures 180 to assess the condition of native vegetation in result in the loss of intact and healthy areas of native Heritage Agreements, other protected areas and vegetation and is of particular concern in the Mount 160 unprotected areas are under development. A program Lofty Ranges (see chapter on Land Use). Changes to 140 to monitor the condition and ecological integrity of the Regulations have been prepared to reduce this impact on substantially intact native vegetation and Heritage Agreement areas began in June 2000. A 120 small number of areas have been monitored since larger eucalypt trees. Number of applications then, and the program will continue subject to the Despite a strong legislative base to prevent 100 availability of funding. vegetation clearance, illegal clearance still continues, Despite this activity, scientific and replicable particularly where there is the perception that policing 80 techniques for measuring the condition of all key is inadequate. 1996/97 1997/98 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/02 vegetation communities in agricultural regions are yet Firewood removal YEAR to be developed. The impacts of firewood removal on habitat and SOURCE: DWLBC Information on the condition of native vegetation biodiversity within South Australia need to be is to be collected as part of the NAP for Salinity and addressed. Unsustainable activities include the Water Quality. In order to fulfil our reporting collection of fallen timber, removal of dead branches requirements under the NAP, a significant injection of and hollow logs on live trees, and the cutting of

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2003 113 5 Biodiversity

standing dead trees. Remnant woodlands in close atmosphere. Their removal will mean greater proximity to large urban centres are under the concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere greatest pressure. than there would otherwise have been. Continuing The Native Vegetation Act 1991 prohibits the degradation and loss of vegetation also means the harvesting of live timber for firewood unless under loss of future benefits should carbon trading schemes exceptional conditions. Currently there are no be initiated (see chapter on Climate Change). controls on the collection of dead timber on privately Degradation of soil and water resources. Native owned land and this is likely to be having an impact vegetation stabilises the soil, preventing wind and on wildlife habitat in South Australia. However, new water erosion, and underpins catchment health and Regulations will control the clearance of large dead good quality water. trees that provide habitat for listed threatened Losses in agricultural production. Native species under the Commonwealth Environment vegetation provides shelter for stock, wind breaks Native vegetation regenerating after Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. that prevent damage to crops, and habitat for a bushfire The taking or cutting of live timber and the collection valuable crop pest predators. Photo: Kym Nicolson and use of fallen dead timber in parks and reserves Lost opportunities for leisure and recreation. Native for any purpose is not permitted under the National vegetation is a fundamental component of the Parks and Wildlife Act 1972. Australian landscape, and must be protected and The Department for Environment and Heritage managed in parks, reserves, open spaces and has developed a draft South Australian Action Plan for private land. Firewood Collection and Use (DEH, unpub.). Fire management What are we doing about it? Fire is perhaps the single most significant natural and human induced risk factor affecting native vegetation RESPONSE INDICATOR: Area of land and its ecological health. Bushfires can have held under protected status devastating effects on the community and on native vegetation communities. Poorly managed native In August 2003, 25.5% of the State was held under vegetation, from a fire perspective, represents an some form of protected status, a rise from 21.4% in unacceptable risk to human life and property, as well 1996 (as reported in the State of the Environment Cleland Wildlife Reserve as to the health of ecosystems. Habitat fragmentation, Report 1998). This increase was due largely to the Photo: Clare Nicolson grazing pressure, diseases, weed invasion and a creation of four Indigenous Protected Areas under the landscape shaped by fire over long periods of time Commonwealth Environment Protection and make ecologically sensitive fire management a difficult Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. These are technical task. Nantawarrina in the northern Flinders Ranges, Yalata Figure 5.2: Number and area of NPW Fire Management Plans or Statements are being reserves in South Australia – 1972–2003 on the edge of the Nullarbor Plain and Walalkara and prepared for each fire-prone National Park and Wildlife Watarru in the Anangu Pitjantjatjara lands to the north- 25 350 Reserve, and being assessed against performance west of Coober Pedy. Indigenous Protected Areas now

300 indicators. Priority for rehabilitation works, such as comprise 3.2% of all land in South Australia. 20 revegetation, will be given to those areas most The vast majority of the State’s protected areas 250 disturbed by fire, or where the disturbance has the (21.7%) are preserved under the National Parks and 15 200 greatest potential to impact on reserve values. Wildlife (NPW) Reserve system (Table 5.1), which is managed by DEH. The number of NPW Reserves rose 150 10 What impact does clearing native to 332 in 2003, 16 more than in 1998. The increase in Number of reserves 100 area protected rose 1.6% – from 20,998,936 hectares

Area (millions of hectares) vegetation have? 5 in 1998 to 21,352,679 hectares in 2003 (Figure 5.2). 50 Some of the environmental, social and economic Despite the increase in area of land protected, the 0 0 effects associated with the clearance of native contribution of this land to conserving important vegetation are outlined below to illustrate the broader 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 2002 communities, species and their habitats has not been YEAR significance for sustainability. fully determined. Number of Reserves Loss of habitat for native plants and animals. This Map 5.2 shows areas protected under the NPW Area (millions hectares) will lead to reductions in population sizes and possible reserve system in South Australia. species extinctions. SOURCE: DEH Of the 332 protected areas under the NPW Potential loss of genetic resources. The loss of plant Reserve system there is a legal requirement to species will also threaten genetic resources which are prepare formal management plans for 282 (areas of potential value for the development of protected under the Crown Lands Act 1929 are not pharmaceuticals and agricultural products. legally required to have management plans). Of these, Increasing dryland salinity. Deep-rooted perennial 94 do not yet have a formal management plan. The vegetation helps to maintain or minimise the rise of absence of a formal management plan for around one- saline groundwater. Its removal causes groundwater third of NPW Reserves is of concern. levels to rise rapidly bringing naturally occurring salts The Heritage Agreement scheme, launched in to the surface. This is one of the principal causes of 1980, was a visionary and progressive move to protect dryland salinity. significant parts of the State’s biodiversity that lay Increasing greenhouse impact. Plants absorb carbon outside of the formal National Parks and Reserves dioxide, a major greenhouse gas, from the system. Since then, over 1300 landholders have

114 NATIVE VEGETATION

Table 5.1: Terrestrial protected areas of South Australia – Summary (August 2003)

Category Number of Number of Area (hectares) Percentage with Percentage reserve types protected areas mining access State protected1 National Parks and Wildlife Reserves2 7 332 21,352,679 78 21.7 Forestry Reserves 2 199 26,109 0 0.03 Indigenous land owners 1 4 3,143,527 100 3.2 Private land owners (Heritage Agreements) 1 1277 564,000 100 0.6

Total 11 1812 25,086,315 95 25.5 Mount Monster Conservation Park, South East Source: DEH Photo: Kym Nicolson entered into agreements with the State Government Only around one-third of revegetation during this to protect areas of native vegetation in perpetuity. period involved the use of native species. In 1998, 503,251 hectares were protected via Programs and policy Heritage Agreements, and in 2003 this rose to There is now a high degree of protection given to 564,000 hectares, a 12% increase. Although Heritage remaining native vegetation in South Australia and, in Agreements comprise only 0.6% of the State, in some recognition of the vital role that native vegetation regions they protect relatively significant proportions plays in maintaining healthy ecosystems, efforts of native vegetation communities. are increasing. Most of the Heritage Agreements are scattered To ensure the integration of native vegetation widely in the agricultural regions of the State. To assist issues with property planning and water resource holders of Heritage Agreements with the conservation management, the State Government has established management of their land, financial grants are the Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity provided to assist with projects like fencing to protect Conservation (DWLBC), which brings together key areas from stock damage and other works such as Little Para River revegetation project, functions relating to these issues. The integration of Salisbury Heights mapping vegetation types, important native species natural resource management activities in South Photo: Waterwatch SA and weeds, and repairing damaged land. In addition to Australia will further enhance these efforts. these initiatives, more emphasis on implementing In November 2002 the Native Vegetation ongoing management plans for Heritage Agreement (Miscellaneous) Amendment Act 2002 was passed. areas to ensure biodiversity conservation in the long Figure 5.3: Nature of major revegetation The Act allows for a number of changes that reflect the term is required. activity in South Australia – 1999–2001 Government’s commitment to further improve 30 protection for the State’s native vegetation. These RESPONSE INDICATOR: Area of include an end to broadacre clearance and increased revegetation 25 penalties for unauthorised clearance (including fines of up to $100,000). The Native Vegetation (Miscellaneous) 20 Information on revegetation activity in South Amendment Act 2002 also provides for revegetation Australia is collected by Rural Solutions SA (part of works that mimic a naturally occurring plant 15 Primary Industries and Resources SA). The definition community, and for incentives to be provided which Hectares (000’s) of ‘revegetation’ used by Rural Solutions SA is wide 10 encourage landholders to revegetate in this way. and includes a variety of activities ranging from the Under the Act, revegetated areas must conform with re-establishment of native plants to commercial 5 the requirements of regional biodiversity plans and forestry, the establishment of fodder shrubs and pre-European vegetation mapping. 0 farm forestry. 1999 2000 2001 Most recorded revegetation activity in the State Figure 5.3 summarises major revegetation YEAR has been for commercial or land management Blue Gums activity in South Australia from 1999 to 2001 as purposes, with a relatively small proportion involving assessed by Rural Solutions SA (2002). Most of this Tagasaste (Fodder) the re-establishment of native vegetation. The State activity was for commercial or land management Saltbush (Fodder) Revegetation Strategy (2001), the second for the purposes. The planting of Tasmanian Blue Gum Farm Forestry State, indicates that efforts will continue to place an plantations in the lower South East for the wood chip Native Grasses emphasis on the economic and ecological implications industry comprised a large proportion of total of revegetation activity. Non-indigenous Trees and Shrubs revegetation activity, especially in 2000. The increased While there is now a high degree of protection for Indigenous Trees and Shrubs growth of Blue Gum plantations has raised concerns native vegetation, many areas are isolated and in Note: Indigenous refers to locally occurring about the sustainable use of groundwater resources in native native species; Non-indigenous danger of further fragmentation and degradation via refers to native, but non-locally occurring, the region (see chapter on Land Use). species. Figures exclude ‘Broombrush’, pressures such as pests and wildfire. In the past there ‘Other Products’ and ‘Pines’ categories. The former two are too small to graph and has not been enough emphasis on managing the the establishment of plantation pine trees in 2001 cannot be compared to 1999 and 2000. State’s remaining native vegetation as a whole. There The 1999 and 2000 data includes second and subsequent rotations, 2001 data only includes 1 Total area of the state is 98,515,752 hectares. is now increasing recognition that effective biodiversity new areas of pines. 2 Inland reserves under the National Parks and Wildlife Act conservation requires strategic planning and action on SOURCE: RURAL SOLUTIONS SA, 2002 1972; the Wilderness Protection Act 1992 and the Crown a large scale over long periods. Land Act 1929.

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2003 115 5 Biodiversity

The State Government has established conservation and sustainable management of native NatureLinks a major initiative that takes a long term grasslands in the Mid North. and landscape-based approach to biodiversity For more information on policy and programs conservation across the land and sea. NatureLinks see the State of the Environment 2003 involves managing the State’s reserve system as a Supplementary Report. series of ‘ecological cores’. Partnerships with landholders and others will be established to ensure References that surrounding areas are managed and developed, via restoration and revegetation, as ‘links’ thus Department for Environment and Heritage creating connected habitat across the landscape. (unpublished). Draft South Australian Action Plan for Projects being implemented according to NatureLinks Firewood Collection and Use. Government of South principles will build on existing major initiatives Australia, Adelaide. Pultenaea including the State’s network of parks and reserves, Environment Australia (2002). National Objectives and Photo: Kym Nicolson large scale ecological restoration projects such as Targets for Biodiversity Conservation 2001–2005. Operation Bounceback (see chapter on Threatened Environment Australia, Canberra. Species), revegetation initiatives and programs for marine planning and Marine Protected Areas. National Land and Water Resources Audit (NLWRA) To support the NatureLinks objectives (2002). Australian Terrestrial Biodiversity Management ecological restoration trials are being conducted in 2002. Land and Water Australia, Commonwealth of regional areas to determine the most appropriate Australia. methods for restoring habitat. These will lead, ultimately, to the development of ecological Rural Solutions SA (2002). Re-establishment of restoration guidelines tied to scientifically vegetation in South Australia – 2001. A Report for the supportable measures of the contribution of Department for Water, Land and Biodiversity restoration efforts to biodiversity conservation. Conservation Revegetation Program. The Large Scale Habitat Re-establishment Working Group was formed in 2002. Its objective is Further Information to consider and scope the issues in relation to large- scale habitat re-establishment. The group comprises Australia’s Native Vegetation representatives from the University of Adelaide, DEH www.ea.gov.au/land/vegetation/index.html and DWLBC. Its focus is on the provision of strategic Biological Surveys direction for ecological restoration through large-scale www.environment.sa.gov.au/biodiversity/ habitat reinstatement, encompassing issues such as biosurveys.html planning and legislation, resourcing, socio-political considerations and technical principles. Bushcare The Biological Survey Program of South www.ea.gov.au/land/bushcare Australia commenced in 1971 with the intention of Conserving Biodiversity – Native Vegetation providing a systematic survey of South Australia’s flora www.environment.sa.gov.au/parks/ and fauna. The program’s goal is to achieve a complete native_education.html survey and map coverage of the state by 2015. The National Parks and Wildlife SA quality and coverage of the information collected as www.parks.sa.gov.au part of the Biological Survey will give South Australia one of the most complete inventories of native flora Native Vegetation Management in Australia and fauna in Australia. www.ea.gov.au/land/vegetation/management/ Regional Biodiversity Plans are being developed index.html as part of our commitment to the National Strategy for Landcare the Conservation of Australia’s Biological Diversity 1996. www.landcaresa.org.au These plans provide a regional approach for the conservation and management of biodiversity, as well as considering land management and agricultural goals. Local communities have been involved in their preparation, particularly in identifying issues and priorities and developing strategies for achieving on- ground action. The Plans are important for providing regional biodiversity information upon which to base natural resource management and planning decisions. Community participation plays a major role in biodiversity conservation. Bushcare is a key program of the Natural Heritage Trust (NHT) that places a strong emphasis on community participation and ownership. South Australian Bushcare projects involve habitat restoration for the Brush-tailed Bettong and the

116 NATIVE VEGETATION

Map 5.1: Remnant native vegetation cover across the agricutural zone of South Australia SOURCE: DEH

Port Augusta

Whyalla Port Pirie

Native Vegetation (inc. some native grassland) Renmark Cleared/modified native vegetation

Major Waterbody Adelaide NPWSA Reserve Port Lincoln Agricultural Region Boundary (approx.) Major Road

Mount Gambier

Map 5.2: Areas protected under the NPW reserve system in South Australia SOURCE: DEH

Coober Pedy

Port Augusta

Whyalla

Native Forest Reserve Port Pirie Conservation Park

Conservation Reserve Renmark Game Reserve

National Park

Recreation Park Port Lincoln Adelaide Regional Reserve

Wilderness Protection Area

Indigenous Protected Area

Major Waterbody

Mount Gambier

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2003 117 5 Biodiversity

KEY FACTS the least threatened, but at some risk due to their low Threatened numbers, restricted distribution or observed decline. •Around 24% of all plants and Species are also listed as threatened at the animals recorded in South Species national level under the Environment Protection and Australia are listed as Biodiversity Conservation (EPBC) Act 1999. These threatened. plants and animals tend to receive priority for Trends conservation activities because they are threatened at both the national and State level. • The number of plants and animals and See also chapters on Introduced Species; and ecological communities at risk: INCREASING Native Vegetation. particularly at the regional level. • Recovery efforts: have INCREASED Environmental indicators significantly across the State but remain less than is required to minimise the CONDITION INDICATOR potential for species loss. • Number of extinct, endangered and vulnerable species and ecological Goal communities (reported on in the State of the Environment Report 1998) The stomach contents of this average The South Australian Government has a policy sized female cat revealed an unusually The number of species considered extinct, commitment to ‘no species loss’. In line with this, the large number of native and introduced endangered or vulnerable is the best available goal from the Draft Strategy for the Recovery of animals including 33 reptiles, one house surrogate for the loss of species. However, it is mouse and one Zebra Finch Threatened Species in South Australia (unpublished) is: not an ideal measure and care must be taken Photo: John Read To enable South Australia’s species and ecological with its interpretation. There is an emerging communities threatened with extinction to survive and trend to monitor threatened communities, thrive in their natural habitats and to retain their however, at this stage more work is required to genetic diversity and potential for evolutionary develop methodology for monitoring threatened development, and prevent additional species and communities. ecological communities from becoming threatened. RESPONSE INDICATOR • Number of recovery plans prepared and What are the issues? implemented (reported on in the State of Threatened species are those considered to be at risk the Environment Report 1998) of extinction in the wild. Around one-quarter of all The number of recovery plans prepared and, species recorded in South Australia are considered to more importantly, implemented provides an be threatened. indication of the extent and effectiveness of our response to the decline in species diversity. The historical loss of habitat and fragmentation prior to clearance controls being enacted in South Australia is one of the most significant threats to our What is the current situation? native plants and animals. Most of the agricultural zone has been cleared of native vegetation, and much of the remaining vegetation is in small, isolated CONDITION INDICATOR: Number of patches, prone to disturbance and degradation. extinct, endangered and vulnerable Other threatening processes include competition species and ecological communities and land degradation by rabbits, feral goats and camels, inappropriate livestock grazing regimes, In South Australia 1041 of the approximately 4350 predation by feral cats and foxes, dieback caused by species recorded in the State (or 24%) are listed as plant diseases such as the root rot fungus threatened at the State level: 785 plant, 88 mammal, Phytophthora cinnamomi, invasion by weeds, 127 bird, 39 reptile and 2 amphibian species (Table degradation of water bodies, loss of drought refuges, 5.2). It is known that 23 mammal, 2 bird and 26 plant altered fire regimes and climate change caused by species are presumed to have become extinct in human-generated emissions of greenhouse gases. South Australia since European settlement. Many of these threats are State-wide while others For information on the status of species on a affect particular regions such as the pastoral or regional basis see the State of the Environment 2003 agricultural zones. Supplementary Report. In South Australia the term ‘threatened species’ A review of the official listing of threatened refers to species classified as either rare, endangered or species in South Australia (the Threatened Species vulnerable on Schedules 7, 8 and 9 respectively of the Schedules of the NPW Act 1972) was completed in National Parks and Wildlife (NPW) Act 1972. 2000, the first review since 1991. This review has Endangered species are under the most threat and resulted in an increase in the total number of likely to become extinct in the near future unless the threatened plant and animal species occurring in South circumstances and factors threatening their survival Australia from 778 in 1991 to 1041 in 2000.1 The 2000 cease to occur. Vulnerable species are those likely to move into the endangered category in the near future unless the circumstances and factors threatening their 1 The 1998 State of the Environment Report reported on survival cease to occur. Rare species are those that are numbers contained in the 1991 Schedules and this makes it difficult to report on trends.

118 THREATENED SPECIES

Findings

Making progress We have seen a number of success stories in terms of the recovery of threatened plants and animals ranging from captive breeding programs to the re-establishment of populations in the wild. Recovery success stories include the Yellow-footed Rock-wallaby, Kangaroo Island Glossy Black Cockatoo, Brush- tailed Bettong, Greater Bilby and Greater Stick-nest Rat. Although these are still listed as threatened, each species has experienced an increase in numbers as a result of recovery actions. A list of marine species of conservation concern in South Australia is being developed. This is the first time for the State and addresses a key target identified in the Marine and Estuarine Strategy for South Australia 1998. Attention required Around one-quarter of all South Australian species are considered to be threatened. In particular, 63% of South Australia’s mammals are at risk. Many species are declining at a regional level, but they often receive inadequate funding or attention because they do not rate highly on national or State listings. There is a risk that while we focus our investment on the recovery of nationally threatened species, many more will become extinct regionally and across the State. To address this, the Government is in the process of developing a No Species Loss strategy. The threats to our native species persist. Until these are addressed on a wide scale and over the long Osborn’s Eyebright (Euphrasia osbornii) term, species will continue to decline. Photo: D. Kraehenbuehl What more should we be doing? The Environment Protection Authority recommends that: 5.14 Policy, program development and regulatory frameworks that focus on biodiversity provide for major, large-scale habitat restoration in key regions and be integrated into broader natural resource management programs. 5.15 A higher priority is given to the recovery and management of species declining at the regional level.

Table 5.2: Species listed as threatened in South Australia – 2000

Plants Mammals Birds Reptiles Amphibians (as a % of total (as a % of total (as a % of total (as a % of total (as a % of total number recorded number recorded number recorded number recorded number recorded in South Australia in South Australia in South Australia in South Australia in South Australia – 3500) – 1400) – 460) – 227) – 26) Endangered* 144 (3%) 41 (29%) 20 (4%) 6 (3%) 0 Vulnerable 212 (6%) 14 (10%) 44 (10%) 8 (4%) 1 (4%) Rare 429 (12%) 33 (24%) 63 (14%) 25 (11%) 1 (4%) Total 785 (22%) 88 (63%) 127 (28%) 39 (17%) 2 (8%)

* Includes species considered extinct in South Australia. Source: Department for Environment and Heritage – as listed on the 2000 revision of Schedules 7, 8 and 9 of the NPW Act 1972.

Schedule has undergone review and updated With improved information and knowledge, a Schedules will be in place by September 2004. number of new species have now been identified as of Freshwater fish have been included in the schedules conservation concern. In particular, a better for the first time. understanding of the distribution and abundance of the This increase in numbers does not necessarily State’s birds has led to a substantial increase in the mean that we now have 263 more threatened plants number of bird species considered to be threatened. and animals, although some new ones have been Similarly, more is now known of the status of reptiles to added to the list. Other factors that have influenced enable the assessment of the conservation status of all the number include taxonomic revisions (which can species for the 2000 Schedule review. result in one species being split into many) and No species were removed from the 2000 list of records of new plants and animals previously threatened species due to population recovery. unrecorded in South Australia. However, a small number have had their conservation

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2003 119 5 Biodiversity

KEY FACTS status downgraded (that is, from endangered to There are also three ecological communities that vulnerable) as the consequence of recovery efforts, occur in South Australia under consideration for listing •Over 63% of South Australia’s including the Brush-tailed Bettong and the Cape in the Act : mammals are listed as Barren Goose. • natural temperate grasslands; threatened at the State level; Work is currently proceeding to assess the •Peppermint Box (Eucalyptus odorata) grassy 31% are threatened at the conservation status of marine species occurring in woodland; national level. South Australia. The development of a list of marine • Iron Grass (Lomandra effusa – L. multiflora ssp. threatened species was identified as a key target in dura) tussock grassland. • Approximately 50% of the the Marine and Estuarine Strategy for South Australia, birds in the Mount Lofty to be achieved by 2000. Ranges are likely to become What impact does losing species have? regionally extinct unless Regionally threatened species Some environmental, social and economic effects action is taken to restore There are many species and communities that, while associated with the loss of species are outlined below. habitat on a broad scale. still relatively secure across the State, are threatened Loss of biodiversity. Any loss of native plants and with extinction in one or more regions of the State. • More effort must be made to animals contributes towards a loss of biodiversity. prevent the loss of species at Other species and communities are declining at rapid Biodiversity underpins the processes that make the regional level. rates but do not yet meet State or Commonwealth life possible. criteria for listing as threatened. Loss of untapped genetic potential. The genetic Many bird species in the Mount Lofty Ranges material in plants and animals can deliver social, face such a situation. Loss of native vegetation and economic and environmental benefits via the fragmentation of the remaining vegetation has placed biotechnology industry. This includes the development many of the region’s bird species at risk. It is predicted of disease-resistant crops and drugs to fight diseases. that unless drastic action is taken to restore habitat on Impact on tourism. Our native plants and animals a large scale and reduce other threats, approximately provide a focal point for tourism, which produces a half of the birds in the Mount Lofty Ranges will significant economic return for the State. become regionally extinct (Paton et. al., 2003). Impact on cultural identity. Many Australians place a Nationally threatened species high value on native plants and animals, which occurring in South Australia contribute to recreation activities and a sense of cultural identity and spiritual enrichment. A total of 185 species that occur in South Australia are Impact on Indigenous culture. Many native plants threatened at the national level, this is around 31% of and animals are central to Aboriginal and Torres Strait all nationally threatened species (EPBC Act 1999) Islander cultures. (Table 5.3). Female Southern Emu Wren, Ethical issues. It can be argued that we do not have Mount Compass Nationally threatened the right to exploit or cause the extinction of any Photo: Deb Hopton ecological communities species we share this planet with. An ecological community is a group of interacting species that have adapted to particular conditions of What are we doing about it? soil, topography, water availability and climate. A number of ecological communities are considered threatened with extinction. The Commonwealth RESPONSE INDICATOR: Number of Government has recognised the need to protect and recovery plans prepared and recover these communities through enabling their implemented listing as threatened under the EPBC Act 1999. There are currently three ecological communities A recovery plan is a document that outlines the occurring in South Australia that are listed as management actions required for the ‘recovery’ of a endangered under the Act: particular threatened species. The plan provides • Buloke Woodlands of the Riverina and Murray- details on how to minimise or eradicate the threats Darling Depression Bioregions; and risks to these species. It also identifies • the community of native species dependent on knowledge gaps and research needs. At present, natural discharge of groundwater from the Great most recovery plans are written for nationally Artesian Basin; threatened species, which tend to receive the •swamps of the Fleurieu Peninsula. highest priority for recovery plan development.

Table 5.3: Number of nationally threatened species occurring in South Australia

Status Plants Mammals Birds Reptiles Amphibians Extinct 2 15 1 0 0 Endangered 35 9 10 2 0 Vulnerable 60 19 23 8 1 Total 97 43 34 10 1

Source: DEH

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Table 5.4: Status of species recovery in South Australia – 2002

Completed Recovery plan Recovery plan Other recovery recovery plan being implemented in preparation actions underway Mammals 2 1 1 25 Birds 7 7 52* 7 Reptiles 3 2 0 8 Fish 0 0 17 0 Amphibians 0 0 0 8 Plants 9 9 42 16 Total 21 19 112 64

* Being prepared as part of the Birds for Biodiversity Program (see ‘What are we doing about it?’ in this chapter). Source: DEH

Table 5.5: Threatened species in South Australia that have recovery plans – 2002

Mammals Birds Plants Kangaroo Island Dunnart Orange-bellied Parrot Spiny Everlasting Daisy (Acanthocladium Sandhill Dunnart Glossy Black Cockatoo dockeri) (Kangaroo Island subspecies) Spalding Blown Grass (Agrostis limitanea) Reptiles Swift Parrot Pink-lip Spider Orchid (Caladenia behrii) Pygmy Bluetongue Black-eared Miner Large-club Spider Orchid (Caladenia Striped Snake Lizard Southern Emu Wren (Mount macroclavia) Great Desert Skink Lofty Ranges subspecies) Woolcock’s Spider Orchid (Caladenia Malleefowl woolcockiorum) Red-tailed Black Cockatoo Pterostylis despectans (South-eastern subspecies) Halbury Greenhood (Pterostylis Halbury) Hindmarsh Valley Greenhood (Pterostylis bryophila) Source: DEH

Table 5.4 summarises the current status of Ecological restoration is the long term aim of recovery plans and other recovery actions. This NatureLinks (see the chapter on Native Vegetation). indicates that 21 species have formal recovery plans The Birds for Biodiversity Program is a approved under State and Commonwealth legislation, collaborative program underway in the Mount Lofty most of which are being implemented to some Ranges. This program is addressing the recovery of degree. The plants and animals subject to these over 80 declining bird species and sub-species and recovery plans are listed in Table 5.5. their habitats, and is jointly funded and supported by A further 112 species have recovery plans in DEH, Environment Australia and managed by the preparation and 64 species have no formal recovery Conservation Council of South Australia. Birds for plans but are subject to a range of recovery actions Biodiversity is working in partnership to achieve bird including research and monitoring, or on-ground recovery in the region through the integration of actions such as habitat protection. targeted research, planning, extension and on-ground The number of threatened species subject to works, within an adaptive management framework. recovery action has increased substantially since the The program is also seeking to address many existing 40 reported in the State of the Environment Report knowledge constraints to recovery and restoration 1998. However, due to the large number of recovery goals through a learning approach to implementation. actions identified, funding shortfalls often mean that Operation Bounceback, coordinated by the action cannot be implemented to the extent required Department for Environment and Heritage, is a very for species recovery. successful ecological restoration program that has been operating in the Flinders and Olary Ranges since 1992. Policy and programs A dramatic reduction in grazing pressure has been The State Government is in the process of developing achieved through the control of rabbits, feral goats and a No Species Loss strategy. There are a number of kangaroos. Combined with the virtual elimination of programs currently underway that are contributing to foxes and the suppression of feral cat populations, this preventing the decline of species at the regional level. has enabled the recovery of native species and The Department for Environment and Heritage is ecological communities (see Case Study). This success implementing NatureLinks, a program to protect has led to Operation Bounceback being extended to the threatened species at regional and State levels.

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2003 121 5 Biodiversity

Figure 5.4: Estimated population size for the Yellow-footed Rock-wallaby in the Winning the conservation battle Flinders Ranges National Park (FRNP) Blinman area – 1993–2002 CASE STUDY – Yellow-footed CASE STUDY – South Australian Rock-wallaby Glossy Black Cockatoo (Kangaroo 800 The Yellow-footed Rock-wallaby is listed as Island subspecies)

700 vulnerable at the national and State levels. A The South Australian Glossy Black Cockatoo is recovery program was established in the early currently listed as endangered at the national and 600 1990s as part of Operation Bounceback in the State levels. It now breeds only on Kangaroo 500 Flinders and Olary Ranges. Extensive fox, rabbit Island. A recovery program commenced in 1995 400 and feral goat control programs combined with with involvement from the local community, 300 reduction in rabbit numbers via Rabbit business organisations and Government. Recovery

200 Haemorrhagic Disease has achieved a substantial action has involved the protection of nest sites, the Estimated number of individuals and sustained increase in Rock-wallaby numbers erection of artificial nest hollows and the provision 100 (Figure 5.4). The slight drop in numbers during of incentives for the protection and revegetation of 0 2002 is believed to be due to drought conditions. potential nesting and feeding tree species. As a 1993 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 result numbers of Glossy Black Cockatoos have YEAR increased from an estimated 162 birds in 1993 to Outside FRNP an estimated 260–280 birds in 2002 (Figure 5.5). (Limited Goat/Fox Control) Inside FRNP (Fox/Goat Control) Outside and inside FRNP (combined)

SOURCE: DEH www.environment.sa.gov.au/biodiversity/ yellow_foot.html

Figure 5.5: Estimated population size for the South Australian Glossy Black-Cockatoo – 1993–2002

300

250

200 Yellow-footed Rock-wallaby, Flinders Ranges 150 Photo: T. Robinson

100 Estimated number of birds

50

0 1993 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 YEAR Glossy Black Cockatoo,

SOURCE: DEH Binnies Track, Penneshaw www.environment.sa.gov.au/biodiversity/ glossyblack.html Photo: L. Pedler

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Gammon Ranges National Park and other landholdings References KEY FACTS in the Northern Flinders Ranges region. The Ark on Eyre Program, launched in 1999, Department for Environment and Heritage • Unless there is a major focuses on biodiversity projects across Eyre Peninsula. (unpublished). Draft Strategy for Recovery of commitment to reinstate The program serves as a promotional banner to the Threatened Species in South Australia. Government of habitat and address other local community and has built a high profile for South Australia, Adelaide. threats on a large scale, regional conservation programs through increased species and ecological Paton, D.C., Rogers, D.J. and Harris, W. (2003). community awareness and involvement. It contributes communities will continue ‘Birdscaping the environment: restoring the woodland to and links a number of projects including threatened to decline. systems of the Mt Lofty region, South Australia’. In flora and fauna recovery and the new initiative ‘East Lunney, D. (ed.) Conservation of Australia’s Forest • Cooperative efforts from meets West’, which aims to manage the east-west Fauna (2nd edition). Royal Zoological Society of New community groups and all biogeographic link across the north of Eyre Peninsula South Wales, Sydney. levels of Government are to Western Australia. having positive on-ground A series of Regional Biodiversity Plans have results for some species. been developed to identify priorities to protect and Further information restore regionally threatened species. The Biodiversity Plans identify conservation priorities for major regions Ark on Eyre and Operation Bounceback of the State and provide guidance on conservation www.biodiversity.sa.gov.au/ecocons.html actions that can be undertaken. The Plans are prepared Regional Biodiversity Plans in consultation with the local community, including www.environment.sa.gov.au/biodiversity/ landholders and community groups, as well as with bioplans.html#regional input from experts. Threatened Species in South Australia A range of species recovery programs are being www.environment.sa.gov.au/reporting/ implemented across the State facilitated by cooperative biodiversity.html efforts from all levels of Government and the community. The efforts that are made in this regard Threatened Species Network deserve recognition. Many of these programs are in the www.wwf.org.au early stages of development but have had successful results in terms of increasing population numbers. One of these is the recovery program for the South Australian Glossy Black Cockatoo (see Case Study). Despite the various programs and initiatives underway, the risks to our native species remain. Unless there is a major commitment to reinstate and manage habitats for the future on a large scale, species and communities will continue to decline. For more information on programs and initiatives see the State of the Environment 2003 Supplementary Report.

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