Appendices Appendix A: Types of

Advocacy Robert Dahl (1970: 149) once suggested that every elected official should have a citizens’ advisory council, members of which would be chosen by lot. A similar proposal for citizens’ advisory commissions has been spelled out in more detail (Dalton, Bürklin, Drummond 2001, Dalton, Scarrow, Cain 2003: 10–11) in order to forge advocacy democracy, which would broaden what now exists at the local level when citizens are notified of hearings regarding housing developments in their neighborhoods and then attend to give their views before planning commissions.

Anticipatory Democracy As coined by Alvin Toffler inFuture Shock (1970), the idea is for policy-making based on credible predictions that are accepted by the public (cf. Bezold 1978). The public should accept expert forecasts while , but there is no procedural innovation involved beyond having more public education and more public input.

Cellular Democracy Neighborhood councils were set up in American cit- ies during the 1970s so that small communities in big cities could deter- mine policies for each part of town. With that concept in mind, the idea arose to divide a country into districts of about 500 persons, and then ten to twenty districts would form a level 2 council and so forth up to the state level (Foldvary 2002). Such a scheme was favored by Thomas Jefferson, who proposed having small wards as the ideal democratic unit (cf. Young 1996). Some proponents believe that cellular democracy could be the foundation for global democracy.

© The Author(s) 2019 317 M. Haas, Why Democracies Flounder and Fail, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-74070-6 318 Appendix A: Types of Democracies

Christian Democracy Much of Western Europe has been governed by Christian Democratic parties that subscribe to a social market economy and until recently have been conservative on cultural issues (Sigmund 1996). There is no procedural innovation involved (cf. Driessen 2013).

Conservative Democracy Turkey’s ruling party coined the term to describe a brand of rule compatible with Islam that is secular, neoliberal in eco- nomics, with some socially liberal policies, and Western-oriented in for- eign policy (Cagaptay 2006). Morocco and Tunisia have similar types of democracies. However, Turkey has veered away from the model, particu- larly after the abortive coup of 2016.

Consociational Democracy Andrew Lijphart (1999) has described a type of democracy in which policy-making is by consensus rather than majority vote. The aim is to enable minority groups and their perspectives to be included as well as to avoid rash decisions that might result in blowback from those not considered. In effect, there is a minority veto. Rather than a majority zero-sum culture, Cabinet positions are carefully selected to represent various veto groups. As a result, legislative compromises, which might be contentious, are superseded by behind-closed-doors bargaining. Lijphart’s prescription is for societies divided by ethnicity, race, or religion to have political parties form a “grand coalition” instead of a minimum winning coalition (cf. Riker 1962). Rather than just a proposal, the model describes how decisions are actually made in parts of Europe (Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Sweden, ) and the State of Hawai’i (Haas 2016). However, consensus decision-making is a major part of Indonesian (Haas 2013). Japanese decision-makers follow the practice of consensus decision-making, known as nemawashi, valuing each person equally when decisions are made (Eisenstadt 1996b), though minority groups are not included in the larger political system. Popular Front governments of many political parties, formed during World War II or immediately afterward in Europe, sought to inform the deeply divided masses (who took opposite viewpoints during the conflict) that they would be treated fairly because decisions would emerge from bargaining and consensus, not payback.

Controlled Democracy In 1992, a democratic election was held in Algeria, but the military would not accept the results. Ever since, the military and a select group of unelected civilians have made major decisions, such as who should be president (Daoud 2015). The same has applied to Burma Appendix A: Types of Democracie s 319

(now Myanmar), where the military would not accept results of the 1990 election, though recent reforms have introduced democratic legislative elections with reserved seats for the military.

Delegative or Although members of legislatures today are usually considered to represent those who elect them, some may con- sider themselves delegates—that is, individuals to whom voters have entrusted the power to act based on their superior experience, judgment, and knowledge—and thus do not necessarily mirror views expressed in public opinion polls. Edmund Burke (1854: vol. I: 446–48) famously lost his seat in parliament when he explained to the electors of Bristol in 1774 that he was their delegate, not their representative. Based on the tradi- tional concept of delegate, some theorists have developed a more flexible though complex system in which knowledgable citizens might serve as delegates in various issue-areas (Paulin 2014). When laws give consider- able discretion to bureaucrats, they in effect become delegates.

Deliberative Democracy Nowadays, legislators often pass measures with a minimum of debate, but not so in Athens, town-hall democracies, and conceptions of the legislature by Edmond Burke (1854: 446–48) and James Madison (Dryzek 2010: 21). In , authentic deliberation must occur for laws to be legitimate. Various rules have been developed to define what “authentic” means in practice (Bessette 1980; Fishkin 2011). After Hurricane Katrina hit New Orleans in 2005, delib- erative democracy describes how citizens came together to determine budget allocations (ibid.: preface; Ross 2011: chap. 3).

Demarchy As proposed by John Burnheim (1985), government would be divided into small, independent groups, with each group responsible for a different function. Volunteers within each group would be selected by lot to serve on the higher decision-making council.

Direct or Pure Democracy As in the classic case of , the people vote directly. No intermediate bodies are involved. Swiss cantons did so in the late Middle Ages, inspiring Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1762). During the Spanish Civil War, direct decision-making by supporters of the Spanish Republic impressed George Orwell to write Homage to Catalonia (1938). Today, with home and office computers, “direct digital democracy” or “e-democracy” is possible if everyone is on the same website (Jafarkarimi et al. 2014). 320 Appendix A: Types of Democracies

Economic Democracy Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels (1846) saw no alter- native but the establishment of economic equality to provide justice after the advent of the industrial age. However, the term “economic democ- racy” has also been used by libertarians to argue that the market is the ultimate equalizer between consumers and producers (Mises 1931). Between the two variants, many theorists have tried to find a way to even the terrain between the rich and the poor with or without economic redis- tribution by governments. Worker self-management is one way at the micro-level (Schweickart 2002: 47–49). Public cooperatives and con- sumer cooperatives can augment the reform (MacLeod 1997). Gar Alperovitz (2013) goes further, urging the formation of a Pluralist Commonwealth of public banks and social enterprises. Social Credit polit- ical parties in Canada, following the line of thinking that assumes robots will take over most industrial jobs (Cook 2008; cf. Douglas 1933: 4–9), argue for government-guaranteed individual income in the form of cash stipends, wiping out poverty. Yet another example is the income received by each Alaskan from revenue derived from taxing petroleum production (Barnes 2006). Such ideas have been supported by Martin Luther King, Jr. (1968: 164) and others (cf. Dahl 1985).

Empowered Democracy Roberto Unger (1987) has proposed several spe- cific government reforms to overcome policy gridlock. Under the umbrella of empowered democracy, he would refocus the economy on small busi- ness, reform education to encourage creativity, establish a government department to handle problems for the disadvantaged, allow subnational jurisdictions to opt out of national policies in order to experiment with reforms, and encourage all citizens to play active roles in both the produc- tive and caring economies. Similar changes would improve social democ- racy (described below).

Ethnic Democracy In contrast with ethnocracy, in which one ethnic group dominates all others, Sammy Smooha (1989) favors a situation in which the main ethnic group has more power and political rights than minority groups but the latter nevertheless retain basic civil rights. His model applies to Israel, and he finds parallels in Estonia, Latvia, Malaysia, and Slovakia. Fiji, similarly, has sought to ensure that the indigenous group will not be outvoted. Appendix A: Types of Democracie s 321

Grassroots Democracy Rather than top-down central control over locali- ties, favors considerable power at the local level, where decisions can be made through (Kaufman and Alfonso 1997). Most contemporary examples of grassroots democracy are local movements to stop developments that compromise the environment, in which protesters block parcels of land from intrusion by developers; this is a form of , which is mentioned below.

Guided Democracy During the era in which developing countries had strong, even autocratic, leaders guiding economic development, Sukarno of Indonesia claimed that he was managing steps toward democracy (Legge 1972; Lev 2009). The idea can be traced to the writings of Plato (360 bce) and Walter Lippmann (1922). Plato viewed the ideal ruler as a guardian of the state. Lippmann wanted politics left to those who are well informed. Robert Dahl (1989: chap. 5) offered a major critique of the concept of rule by those who pretend to be guardians.

Herrenvolk Democracy A country that restricts political participation to the main ethnic group has been called a Herrenvolk democracy by Pierre van den Berghe (1981). He used the term to refer to apartheid South Africa, but the same situation existed in the when slaves of African descent were treated as property, and were not allowed to vote until 1870. However, African Americans were also kept from the polls in the Jim Crow era (1898−1965). The use of the German word clearly applies as well to the treatment of Jews by Hitler’s Third Reich and coun- tries aligned with or occupied by Nazi Germany during World War II.

Illiberal Democracy A term coined by Fareed Zakaria (1997), the concept is of a that is not a because the people lack civil liberties. What happens is that a government initially adopts a procedural democracy but subsequently passes laws to abolish civil liberties, as in the case of Singapore. Such a political system usually some- where is halfway between “free” and “not free” categories used in statisti- cal compilations of degrees of democracy (e.g., Freedom House 1972–).

Inclusive Democracy Takis Fotopoulos (1997) argues for a confederation of communities governed by direct democracy. The idea is “a synthesis of two major historical traditions, the classical democratic and the socialist, although it also encompasses radical green, feminist, and liberation move- 322 Appendix A: Types of Democracies ments in the South” (Jones 2001: 732–33). To bring about political, eco- nomic, social, and environmental democracy, improved citizen education is vital. Assemblies of citizens in each community are to make all decisions about economics, the environment, and society, while the larger society operates as a collection of micro-level decision-making bodies.

Industrial Democracy A component of and other democratic reforms, already exists in Germany, where companies with more than 2,000 employees (1,000 employees in the coal and steel industries) allocate half of the seats on supervisory boards of directors to shareholders and half to the workers. The boards of directors, in turn, elect the managers of the companies. The idea was first proposed by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, who famously said “Property is theft!” in his book What Is Property? (1840). Workers’ councils through- out enterprises went beyond in Yugoslavia, where there were no share- holders (Clegg 1963; Sturmthal 1965). Robert Dahl’s A Preface to Economic Democracy (1985; cf. Dahl 1970: 115–39) also argues that man- agement should allow workers into the decision-making process (cf. Ollman 1996). True industrial democracy, according to Karl Marx, would do away with managers and CEOs, leaving power to the proletariat.

Interactive Democracy The widespread use of social media has made obso- lete many of the assumptions about the need for representative govern- ment. There are two variants of interactive democracy: “e-democracy” involves e-petitions in response to government proposals (top-down); “i-democracy” involves government proposals originating at the grass- roots level, building democracy from the bottom up. Frank Hassard (2009), an interactive democracy advocate, still would keep legislatures as the recipients of instructions from the masses.

Islamic Democracy According to Ira Lapidus (1975), there is a de facto separation between religion and state within Islam. Most Islamic democ- racies have more than one Islamic party, so there is no orthodoxy (Driessen 2013: 27). Iran currently claims to operate as a restoration of the rule in Medina when Mohammed presided over a democracy, with the Supreme Leader having a final say so that laws are consistent with the Quran. The Ayatollah (Supreme Leader) is selected by a council of Shia clerics. Pakistan, mostly Sunni Islam, favors a democratic form, but does not accept a clerical leader. The principles of sharia law apply but have many Appendix A: Types of Democracie s 323 alternative formulations (Rodenbeck 2015; cf. Ali 2015). The complexity of the concept of Islamic democracy is due to varying philosophical and theological writings over the centuries (cf. Khatab and Bouma 2007).

Jacksonian and Jeffersonian Democracy Differences in political culture more than democratic theory distinguish between the thinking associated with former U.S. presidents Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson (Mead 2017). The Jeffersonian approach preferred having nonelite educated men run the government, thus promoting increased educational opportunities and a strong Congress, though with limited government (Banning 1980). Jacksonians favored a strong president, gave little weight to education, favored societal equality, and wanted judges elected rather than appointed by executives with the approval of the legislature (Schlesinger 1945). What survives today is the tendency for one party in the United States to rely on experts, while the other discounts academic wisdom.

Juridical Democracy Theodore Lowi (1969, 1979; cf. Dahl 1985: 97) once complained about the “administrative state,” in which important decisions are made by bureaucrats without checks and balances. His solu- tion was juridical democracy—that is, clear wording of laws that would allow judges to overrule administrative overinterpretations. Yet several democratic safeguards could include a regulation that administrative regu- lations cannot go into effect until after a period of public comment.

Liberal Democracy The requirements of , which can exist in monarchies or republics, and in parliamentary or presidential systems, are that the public enjoys civil and political rights, especially universal suf- frage, with free and fair competitive elections involving at least two viable political parties. The most recent proponent is John Rawls (1971). There is a separation of powers between the branches of government, and rule of law prevails. The main problem is that such complex procedural methods of governance are difficult to sustain and may not necessarily result in deci- sions that reflect the will of the people.I lliberal democracies have the same forms but lack civil and political rights enforced by rule of law.

Monitory Democracy John Keane (2009: 686–95) argues that modern technology has the potential to make democracy work as never before. He points to more than one hundred new ways of scrutinizing government that have arisen since 1945. He refers to blogging, citizens’ assemblies, 324 Appendix A: Types of Democracies citizens’ juries, consensus conferences, experts’ reports, independent pub- lic inquiries, judicial activism, local courts, parliaments for minorities, par- ticipatory budgeting, public integrity commissions, public interest litigation, think tanks, truth and reconciliation commissions, workplace tribunals, and other novel forms of media and public scrutiny. He believes that the new methods of monitoring government “penetrate the corridors of government and occupy the nooks and crannies of civil society, and in so doing they greatly complicate, and sometimes wrong-foot, the lives of politicians, parties, legislatures and governments” (p. xxvii). For Keane, democracy has been reborn, living up to ideals of public accountability that were dreams in the past but are nightmares for corrupt politicians and government officials today.

Network Democracy Sometimes called “digital democracy,” the concept is based on the fact that the Internet offers opportunities for citizen input of all sorts, even from children. Networks which form over the Internet are viewed as equivalents of pressure groups, and they can mobilize direct action as well as jolt executives and legislators with demands (Averback-­ Lietz and d’Haenens 2002; Sørensen and Torfing 2007). However, those who do not have access to or do not join active networks are left out.

New Democracy Mao Zedong sought to achieve what Karl Marx and Vladimir Lenin strove for—socialism en route to communism. His was to overcome colonialism and feudalism by a coalition of peasants, proletarians, nationally based capitalists, and petty bourgeoisie led by the Communist Party and then serve as a temporary stage en route to socialism. Even today, the four groups are represented as stars in the Chinese flag along with a fifth and larger star representing the Communist Party. New Democracy was to be a participatory democracy, with a market-­ based socialism. Insurgent groups in India, Perú, and the Philippines have been inspired by the idea (cf. Saich and Yang 1996).

Nonpartisan Democracy Founders of the United States government did not want political parties to develop. But parties emerged after the presi- dency of George Washington and only disappeared during 1815−1825, when the opposition party collapsed. At the turn of the twentieth century, the Progressive movement in the United States (Buenker, Burnham, Crundan 1976) sought to institute city and state elections in which would never disclose the membership of candidates in any . Appendix A: Types of Democracie s 325

Although the goal was to have all elections be nonpartisan, presumably depriving voters of an intermediate institution, political parties could still make endorsements. De facto nonpartisan countries in the South Pacific (Nauru, Niue, Palau, Pitcairn, Tuvalu) are so small that they lack views that would amount to an opposition. Plato’s Athens fits into the same category (Ware 1987). Until recently, political party affiliations did not appear on some ballots in Canada. Meanwhile, some undemocratic coun- tries ban political parties, as in Kuwait, Oman, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates, where the legislature is advisory.

Participatory Democracy Efforts to broaden inputs from the public as much as possible were responsible for the reforms of Solon, which led to Athenian direct democracy. Solon wanted to limit the power of oligarchs who had monopolized power. The Iroquois Nation has been described as the oldest surviving participatory democracy (Lyons and Mohawk 1998: 32–33). Town hall meetings are the classic re-creations of Athenian democracy. During the 1960s, a major reform allowed members of the public to address decision-making bodies, especially in regard to zoning issues that affect residents in their immediate neighborhoods. When the people actually have a say in zoning, the result is participatory democracy (Cook and Morgan 1971). But deference to the concept has often been gratuitous: The Los Angeles City Council and its committees, for example, allow comments at the end of proceedings, but they are limited to only one or two minutes.

People’s Democracy Similar to Mao’s New Democracy, countries in Eastern Europe under the sway of the Soviet Union during the Cold War did not want class warfare, so some leaders conceived of a government ruled by a Communist Party that would coexist with other political parties and would allow different social classes, but rule on a nonclass and nonparty basis. The idea was suggested by György Lukács (cf. Gibbon 2006), who was a minister during the Hungarian Soviet Republic in 1919, continued in exile as a professor of philosophy, and was a minister in the brief anti-­ Stalinist Hungarian government of Imre Nagy in 1956. Countries that call themselves a “people’s democracy,” in other words, deviate from what Lukács originally proposed. Nevertheless, today the People’s Republic of China claims that the rise of leaders up through the ranks, where they have been close to the people throughout their political careers, is proof that the country is governed in a democratic manner (Fish 2017). 326 Appendix A: Types of Democracies

Pluralist Democracy Robert Dahl devoted most of his writing to polyar- chy, but in Dilemmas of (1982: 5) he defined “plural- ist democracy” as a situation of with independent civil society institutions—that is, no concentration of power, slack resources (any group can mobilize pressure on an equal basis), leaders are incentivized to satisfy the demands of constituents, and groups suffering discrimination will mobilize to bring the system back to a position of equal political power (cf. Burtenshaw 1968). Many competing interests would have overlapping cleavages rather than a unified elite (Dahl1967 : chap. 14). Later, he pointed out that pluralist institutions could also exist in undemo- cratic countries (Dahl 1989: 36).

Polyarchic Democracy Robert Dahl coined the term “polyarchy” to refer to seven components (1989, 1997: vol. I, chap. 6): (1) Officials are cho- sen in competitive elections. (2) Elections are free and fair. (3) Suffrage is inclusive. (4) There is a right to run for office. (5) There is freedom of expression. (6) Sources of information are alternative to those of the gov- ernment. (7) Private associations are autonomous. In other words, he linked election procedures to political rights and an independent civil soci- ety. Yet in his earlier work, Dahl (1961) provided an eighth requirement— government making decisions as compromises between competing pressure groups. According to Dahl (ibid.: 223), “no country has tran- scended polyarchy to a ‘higher’ stage of democracy.” What he called “ideal democracy” (Dahl 1982: 6) is nevertheless consistent with the concept of substantive democracy, as outlined below. Since ideal democracy involving direct rule by the people is unlikely in large communities, he coined the term “polyarchy” (Dahl and Lindblom 1953) to refer to what he consid- ered to be a second best form of democracy (Coppedge 1993). In practice, he viewed polyarchy as a situation in which competing interests get a slice of the political pie through bargaining. The distribution of slices would be based on the needs of the people, which would be determined by govern- ment as a neutral arbiter, though in practice stronger interests prevail.

Popular Democracy The , recall, and similar devices were pro- moted by the populist campaign for in the United States during the late nineteenth century, though the idea originated with the Levellers in seventeenth-century England (Wainwright 2003). Václav Havel’s Velvet Revolution in Czechoslovakia was an effort to bring about popular democracy by reaching out to allow the popular will to make deci- Appendix A: Types of Democracie s 327 sions. Havel (1978) believed that democracy cannot be reduced to institu- tions and mechanisms but must instead rely on an active citizenry. He felt that political parties can become too self-serving and block the will of the people from impacting governmental decision-making. Popular democra- cies would go beyond participatory democracy reforms to redistribute power, property, and wealth from elites to the masses (Robinson 1996: 57–58). Private entities, including universities, would be required to be run democratically.

Procedural Democracy The essence of procedural democracy is that adult citi- zens of all backgrounds are able to elect representatives in free and fair elec- tions. Once in office, however, representatives can pass laws to allow them to remain in office, such as various procedural devices to restrict voters to those with methods of identification before they can be registered to vote.P rocedural democracy, in other words, can pervert liberal democracy by lack of concern for civil liberties. Eric Alterman (2011: 7) coined the term “kabuki democ- racy” to describe when the forms are present but not the substance. The data- set Polity measures “democracy” in terms of “the presence of institutions and procedures through which citizens can express preferences” and “institutional- ized constraints on the power of the executive,” but ignores whether citizens enjoy civil or political liberties, and whether there is a civil society, and lacks interested in whether the will of the people is carried out (Marshall, Gurr, Jaggers 2016: 14; cf. Bollen 1996). Singapore, for example, is a procedural democracy yet is ruled in a totalitarian manner.

Proletarian Democracy When a vanguard rules in the name of the work- ers, as recommended by Vladimir Lenin (1914, 1917), the result is what the Soviet Union called a proletarian democracy. Lenin foresaw four post-­ capitalist stages —a revolutionary government, a post-revolutionary gov- ernment, a socialist state (that is, a proletarian democracy), and eventually industrial communism. However, the Soviet Union and its satellites did not go beyond the socialist stage, which fell apart even before the Berlin Wall was torn down.

Radical Democracy When democracy coexists with dissident groups pointedly deprived of political influence, mass movements often emerge to change the system to bring about true democracy. Such was the idea pro- posed in the book Hegemony and Socialist Strategy: Toward a Radical Democratic Politics (1985) by Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe. The 328 Appendix A: Types of Democracies idea is to allow change through acceptance of the views of popular move- ments of dissident groups, not revolutions. Examples are the Zapatista Army of National Liberation in México and the Unemployed Workers’ Movement in Argentina (Day 2005).

Religious Democracy When laws, rules, and values of a religion are the basis for government by the accepted interpretation of the faith, the appli- cable term is “theocracy.” But when the religion is fully accepted by the people, who otherwise have the right to vote and other trappings of pro- cedural democracy, then a exists, as in Islamic democ- racy described above (cf. Driessen 2013). Some countries may have state religions without being religious democracies because they allow the prac- tice of other religions and have secular governments.

Representative Democracy Many governments appear to be run by some persons representing others. However, those qualified to run for the posi- tion of representative may be broadly or narrowly defined. TheE states General of monarchical France represented sectors of society. The idea of representative government had progenitors, especially the Roman Republic, but did not take root until the American and French revolutions insisted that citizens would be empowered to elect representatives to fol- low their wishes in legislatures (Manin 1996).

Sectarian Democracy A country has a sectarian democracy if those who belong to the state religion have predominant influence over public poli- cies. Until the of 1998, power in Northern Ireland was concentrated in the Protestant population, leaving Catholics largely outside; an agreement for power-sharing, thus, resolved the con- flict. Currently,I raq is controlled by the Shiite majority, which has alien- ated the Kurdish and Sunni minorities. Turkey, despite describing itself as a , only allows Muslims to participate in the politi- cal process and marginalizes the Kurdish minority.

Social Democracy Most forms of democracy pay attention to procedures, which can often be manipulated by elites for their benefit. Social justice for the poor and destitute, and even for the middle class, does not require any particular economic system, though capitalism tends to favor the few at the expense of the many. Within the framework of a capitalist economy, several types of laws are needed—collective bargaining arrangements, Appendix A: Types of Democracie s 329 methods of income redistribution, free public education to end poverty, regulation of the economy in the general interest, enforcement of nondis- crimination laws, and a welfare state that provides relief for children, the elderly, and the infirm.I n The Moral Basis of Democracy (1940), Eleanor Roosevelt was one of the major exponents of before World War II, basing her thinking on the Christian social gospel. Northern and Western Europe adopted social democracy, including a social market economy, during the Cold War to compete with the “social democracy” promised by communist states in Eastern Europe (Beiner 1996; Berman 2006). Wealthy nations are primarily able to live up to the goals, though the concept of social democracy has been identified as a worldwide imper- ative (Held 2004).

Substantive Democracy Although alphabetically the last, the most impor- tant variant is a form of democracy in which government operations enact and reflect the popular will. The term refers to “popular sovereignty”— when inputs from the public to the political system become government outputs (Dahl 1997: 743). Some procedures may be better than others in bringing about substantive democracy, but there must be rule of law, including civil rights and minority rights.

Other Many other terms have been used, though not defined or utilized in depth, such as emerging, elitist, protective, consoli- dating, and sovereign (Bachrach 1959; Dahl 1967, 1985; Held 1987; Hudson 1995; Mansfield and Snyder2005 ; Pickering and Kisangani 2005; Kurki 2010).1 “Pseudo-democracy,” similar to the term “semi-­ democracy” as used in Appendix B, refers to countries that have some but not all components of democracy. The difference is that countries with pseudo-democracies pretend that they are fully substantive democracies when they are not. Appendix B: Democracies that Have Floundered and Failed

Democracies have collapsed, fallen, or seemed paralyzed for many reasons. Floundering may be subtle (government shutdowns, lack of a governing parliamentary coalition), but failure is dramatic (civil wars, coups). Some countries, democratic or otherwise, may also be annexed by other coun- tries; sometimes the reason for the takeover is due to democratic failure, but a more likely explanation is that the country is considerably weaker than the conquering country, as when Austria was annexed by Nazi Germany in 1938. In A Preface to Economic Democracy (1985), Robert Dahl listed ten cases of democracies that failed, turning into dictatorships. He then tested five hypothetical explanations (pp. 39–45) in an attempt to provide an alternative to the Mass Society Paradigm. However, the test actually proved the validity of the paradigm, as he cited the lack of intermediate institutions in his sample (46–47). Far more than ten countries are listed below. Included are semi-­ democracies, which have some but not all the forms of democracy (Diamond, Linz, Lipset 1988). To qualify for the list, there must be elections, though they may not be fully free and fair; suffrage may be widespread but with denials of the right to vote; some offices, such as a monarch, may have power yet are not fully accountable to the voters. For example, until imple- mentation of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, the United States could only be considered a semi-democracy. A more fine-tuned classification of the

© The Author(s) 2019 331 M. Haas, Why Democracies Flounder and Fail, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-74070-6 332 Appendix B: Democracies that Have Floundered and Failed cases below into democracies and semi-democracies has not been under- taken because the focus is on how they floundered or failed. The set of cases presented below, designed to be exhaustive, gives cre- dence to the need to study the problem in order to determine how such floundering can be avoided and what remedies to apply to avoid failure when difficulties arise in the future. The list, which excludes democracies that have never floundered as well as nondemocracies, may facilitate addi- tional testing by others.

Afghanistan (2006) After the war to oust the Taliban in October 2003, a constitutional democracy was chosen at a conference in December rather than reviving the monarchy, but a democratic election was not held until 2004 (Hopkins 2008). Nevertheless, the Taliban has been active in oppos- ing the government ever since, signaling their intent in 2006 with a riot in Kabul. In 2014, an inconclusive election marred by widespread voter fraud resulted in power-sharing between the two candidates. But they more subsequently unable to agree on ministerial appointments and reforms (Gall 2017: 31).

Algeria (1992) After independence in 1962, reforms in 2989 began to establish a democracy. When a democratic election was held in 1992, the military would not accept the results (Daoud 2015). The military and some civilians selected by the military make decisions for the country, which has been transitioning from socialism to free market capitalism and more recently gradually extending political freedoms.

Argentina (1930, 1955, 1962, 1963, 1966, 1976) The democratic constitu- tion of 1853 was not challenged until a coup in 1930, when conservatives and moderates were disappointed that the government could cope with neither the ailing economy nor the bombings and shootings by radical anarchists. Democracy did not return until 1943, when and poor labor conditions prompted army officers to demand the resignation of the president, who then resigned, and a bloodless coup installed Juan Perón as the new president, whose democratic rule ended by a coup in 1955. Although democracy was restored in 1958, there were attempted coups in 1962 and 1963 by disgruntled right-wing members of the armed forces over the presence of the Peronista party in parliament. A left-wing coup occurred in 1966. Elections in 1973 resulted in a Peronista victory, but anti-­Peronista unrest broke out after Juan Perón returned in 1974, leading Appendix B: Democracies that Have Floundered and Faile d 333 up to the coup of 1976 and the resulting “dirty war” to purge the country of leftists and Peronistas (Hedges 2011). Democracy returned in 1983.

Athens (411 bce, 322 bce) Historians differ in their interpretations of the fall of Athenian democracy, but there is agreement that there was a sharp division between elites and the masses (Ober 1991). The elites needed the masses to fight wars, so they were given a voice to decide whether to favor war. Whenever elite leaders could persuade the masses to vote for war, so that they could acquire more wealth, the army and navy were assured of soldiers. Once empowered, however, the masses taxed the elites not only to pay for the wars but also to redistribute income. The masses passed laws to ostracize those whom they disliked, and foreign business personnel were not allowed to become citizens and thus vote. Wars drained the pub- lic treasury, weakening the ability to make war. The oligarchy’s coup of 411 bce occurred after Sparta had defeated Athens, as the Spartans put the oligarchs in charge of the government. When a pro-democracy general overthrew the oligarchs eight years later, democracy was restored, but the same pattern of overspending for war against formidable adversaries weak- ened democratic Athens to the point that the Macedonians were able to take control by 322 bce (Keane 2009).

Austria (1927, 1933) After World War I broke up the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, the country adopted a democratic constitution in 1920. But the two main political parties organized militias, which clashed in 1927, including ransacking the parliament, and the government fell (Brook-­ Shepherd 1996). In 1933, Chancellor Englebert Dolfuss, fearing the rise of Nazism as well as left-wing militancy, shut down the revived parliament. In 1938, German troops marched into undemocratic Austria to annex the country. Democracy returned after World War II.

Azerbaijan (1993) Formerly a republic in the Soviet Union, the country declared independence and had a democratic election in 1992, but war was ongoing to maintain control of the state’s borders. While President Abulfaz Elchibey was out of town in 1993, seeking to negotiate a settle- ment, the speaker of the parliament assumed control and had Elchibey dismissed from office, a bloodless coup O( lukbasi 2011).

Bangladesh (1981, 2011) After Bangladesh seceded from Pakistan in 1971, conditions of instability precluded implementing the democratic 334 Appendix B: Democracies that Have Floundered and Failed constitution. Coup after coup occurred within the army until democracy seemed to have been put in place during 1979. But coup attempts ­continued, and military rule was imposed in 1981 after the democratic leader, Ziaur Rahman, was assassinated by elements in the military (Lewis 2011). Democracy returned in 1991, as foreign loans were contingent upon more signs of democracy, especially elimination of corruption. Political parties pressured General Hussain Muhammad Ershad to resign, which he did. Thereafter, political power shifted between the two major parties until 2011, when the new government unilaterally changed the constitu- tion, abolished the caretaker government , and rigged the next election (Riaz 2016).

Belgium (2007, 2010) After their secession from the in 1830, the provinces emerging as the state of Belgium were divided by language (dialects of Dutch and French, the Flemish and Walloon sections of the country, respectively) as well as religion (Catholic versus Protestant). A further division between capitalists and socialists came later. From 1893, the resulting divisions and multiparty system have been navigated by a consociationalist ethic (Deschouwer 2009: 23–25), which has meant that some time has been required to negotiate compromises. Each political party, in turn, is the voice of organized pressure groups. Business and labor groups bargain on policy within several governmental institutions, with the government playing a mediatory role; the three are components of a “tri- angle,” and the practice is known as the “social partnership” (ibid.: 193). As the Flemish became more numerous and prosperous, they came to the realization that much of their wealth was being redistributed to Wallonia in the form of subsidies. In 2007, the choosing of a prime min- ister and allocation of Cabinet seats consumed negotiations over 194 days. A similar crisis in 2010 was not resolved for 541 days, a world record (Traynor 2011). At issue in both cases was the Flemish desire to federalize the country, allowing regional financial and social autonomy, and the split of an including Brussels, both opposed by Wallonians. In the agreement of 2011, the Senate will no longer be directly elected but instead will be an assembly of regional parliaments. Some discussion on partition has taken place (Deschouwer 2009: 242–45): Parts of Wallonia might be absorbed by France and others (where German is spoken) by Germany, but the main political parties involved have not escalated beyond taking their time to find compromises. Appendix B: Democracies that Have Floundered and Faile d 335

Belize (2005) Having gained independence in 1981, the democratic country experienced unrest for four months in 2005, when taxes were raised, prompting a general strike that involved some rock-throwing. Schools were then closed, and government workers left their jobs (Reporter 2005). The situation was resolved by the government.

Benin (2013) Formerly Dahomey, Benin has been a democracy since 1991. The one blight is a coup attempt in 2013 involving one member of the Cabinet linked to a member of the military. The plot, however, was foiled (BBC 2013a).

Bolivia (2003, 2005) Although a democracy since 1982, protests have forced two presidents to resign. In 2003, strikes and roadblocks by indig- enous and labor groups, demanding the nationalization of natural gas, brought the country to a standstill. The army shot and killed sixty protest- ers, and martial law was declared. The president then resigned, having lost public support. A repeat protest occurred in 2005 after the government tried partial nationalization. Once again, the president resigned. Evo Morales was then elected, and nationalization became law (Russell and Cohn 2013).

Bosnia and Herzegovina (1992) Although the country broke away from Yugoslavia to establish a democracy in 1991, the Serbian ethnic group voted against the idea of a unified state in 1992, and civil war was waged from 1992−1995. A peace agreement established a federal system, includ- ing a Serbian province empowered to operate separately (Phillips 2004). Democracy has persisted despite protests in 2014, which emerged after government functions were privatized and the government went bankrupt, resulting in lost jobs as well as unpaid salaries and pensions (Bilefsky 2014).

Brazil (1964) After a series of military dictatorships, a semi-democracy emerged in 1945 (Takenaka 2014: 18–19). However, a military coup in 1964 plunged the country back into a dictatorship (Fausto 1999: chap. 6). Democracy returned by 1994.

Burundi (1993) The first democratically elected president was assassi- nated in 1993, only four months after taking office. Ethnic violence slowed after a peace agreement in 2003. The current government is considered transitional (Watt 2016). 336 Appendix B: Democracies that Have Floundered and Failed

Cambodia (1970, 1997, 2017) The Geneva Accords of 1954 gave Cambodia independence from France. A new democracy emerged, but many parts of the country still harbored guerrilla forces linked to the Communist Party, which elected some delegates to the parliament. Prince Norodom Sihanouk, who negotiated at Geneva, was elected as prime min- ister. During the 1960s, he undertook purges of Communist supporters, but he did not have sufficient military capability to stop from transporting support along a route inside the country to the South Vietnamese resistance to the U.S. backed Republic of Vietnam. And he certainly could not prevent massive American bombing of the route in 1969, which traumatized many Cambodians to switch their loyalties to the Khmer Rouge. In 1970, a military coup supported by the United States took over the country while Sihanouk was out of the country (Haas 1991: chap. 1). The American-backed government in Phnom Penh was ousted by the Khmer Rouge in 1975. Vietnam’s forces overwhelmed the Khmer Rouge in a war during 1978/79, whereupon the Khmer Rouge retreated to Thailand, and a new government was set up in Phnom Penh, ultimately led by Prime Minister Hun Sen. American aid then supported a border conflict in which theP hnom Penh government was opposed by remnants of the former civilian government aligned with the Khmer Rouge. After blocking a peace agreement in 1989, the United States finally agreed in 1991 to allow the UN to supervise disarming the Cambodian factions and to organize a democratic election. The election, held in 1993, resulted in an agreement to form a govern- ment composed of a united front of factions, which drafted a constitution (Haas 2012a). However, Hun Sen’s supporters sought to control the gov- ernment, then consisting of co-premiers. In 1997, when troops of both sides remained in the country, Hun Sen’s armies defeated the opposition, and the result has been that Hun Sen has held the upper hand in tilting subsequent elections—using political violence, intimidation, and lack of media access—to achieve victory while maintaining a semblance of multi- party parliamentary rule (Manikas and Bjornlund 1998). In 2006, Hun Sen’s party gained enough votes to change the constitution so that a majority of members of parliament can now pick the prime minister, changing the provision that required a two-thirds vote. In 2017, members of the main opposition party were arrested and accused of treason. Appendix B: Democracies that Have Floundered and Faile d 337

Canada (1970) Fully independent in 1931, the democratic system has been challenged by protests within Québec for recognition of the French language, and even for independence from Canada. The movement began in the 1960s but became violent during 1970 (Munroe 2009), though Canada became officially bilingual in 1969. Violent protests by indigenous people began in 1990 but their concerns are being gradually resolved (Roach 2003: 15, 59–61, 194).

Chile (1973) A democracy for decades, no candidate won the 1970 presi- dential election, though Salvador Allende had the most votes in a three-­ way contest. Congress then chose Allende. In 1972, after Allende’s finance minister increased the money supply, resulting in inflation, there was a major strike involving small businesses, some professional unions, and stu- dents. Allende appointed a right-wing general to head the Interior Ministry to appease the strikers. In 1973, the Christian Democratic Party switched allegiance from Allende’s party to a right-wing party; both opposed Allende and blocked his proposals. A colonel then attempted a coup but failed; meanwhile, miners went on strike. Three months later, the Supreme Court accused Allende of not enforcing the law, and the right-wing par- ties, accusing Allende of unconstitutional pro-socialist acts through execu- tive orders, invited the military to engage in a coup. When General Carlos Prats, Allende’s Defense Minister and head of the Chilean Army, resigned due to a sex scandal, Augusto Pinochet became head of the army. Women then protested in the main square of Santiago but were dispersed with tear gas. Congress next demanded that if Pinochet failed to reverse actions that they considered unconstitutional, they welcomed an army coup, but dep- uties lacked the two-thirds needed to remove Allende from office. When Allende refused to resign, the military took over. Evidence of CIA involve- ment during the crisis has been identified by many sources P( etras and Morley 1974, 1975; Rojas 1975). After Pinochet relaxed control in 1988, democracy returned to Chile by 1990.

Colombia (1948, 1964) The first country in Latin America with a consti- tution, Colombia had two competitive political parties by 1849, though the two became increasingly hostile by the time of the 1948 election, when one of the presidential candidates was assassinated by a supporter of the other (Safford 2002). Finally in 1964, the two parties agreed to a for- mula by which they would alternate presidential terms, an agreement that 338 Appendix B: Democracies that Have Floundered and Failed lasted a decade. In 1964, drug traffickers and other insurgents started a virtual civil war that lasted until a peace agreement in 2016.

Congo, Democratic Republic of (1960) The former Belgian Congo and later Zaïre, the country began with parliamentary elections in 1960. When Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba sought to nationalize the mines, the opposition struck fast and hard to arrest him and remove him from office. Civil war broke out, and the Congo remains under military rule (Edgerton 2002), though future elections are promised.

Congo, Republic of (1997) With a capital in Brazzaville, the Republic of the Congo had a taste of democracy from 1992 until a coup in 1997, when the incumbent president, Pascal Lissouba, was accused of rigging the election to remain in office (Shillington 2005). His successor, Denis Sassou Nguesso, has remained in power ever since.

Cuba (1912, 1933, 1952) After the colonial period, first under Spain and later the United States, José Miguel Gómeza was democratically elected president in 1908, although Washington continued to intervene in Cuban affairs. In 1912, a bloody rebellion to establish a separate republic in Oriente Province was suppressed (Beede 1994: 134). In 1933, student protests, a general strike, and an army revolt led by Fulgencio Batista forced President Carlos Manuel de Céspedes y Quesada into exile (Chaffee and Prevost 1992: 4). Unrest continued until 1940, when Batista was elected president, followed by Ramón Grau San Martín in 1944. Cuban democracy then proceeded until Fulgencio Batista overthrew the govern- ment in 1952 after losing the last free election. The revolution led by Fidel Castro ousted Batista in 1959.

Cyprus (1963, 1983) Independent in 1960, the Greek majority on the island allotted the Turkish minority 30% of parliamentary seats and admin- istrative positions. But gridlock resulted in a civil war during 1963, with Greece and Turkey intervening. Greek troops ousted the president, Archbishop Makarios III, and Turkish troops occupied the northern part of the island. In 1974, Greece allowed Makarios to resume the presidency and restore democracy. But Turkish troops remained, and in 1983 Turkish Cypriots declared the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, which only Turkey recognizes as a country (Anastasiou 2008). Mediation has not uni- Appendix B: Democracies that Have Floundered and Faile d 339 fied the country, but violence has stopped. Reunification talks began in 2015 but remain deadlocked (Beesley 2016).

Czechoslovakia (1938, 1948) A democratic state in 1918 after World War I, part of the country was annexed in 1938 by Germany after the Munich Agreement, and most of the rest in 1939. Independent in 1945 after World War II, the government fell in a coup during 1948 to become part of the Soviet bloc (Orzoff 2011). When democracy was restored after Soviet influence ended in 1989, tension with the Slovak minority led to a peaceful separation of the Czech Republic from Slovakia, effective January 1, 1993 (Heimann 2009).

Czech Republic (2017) The successor government in Prague continued on a democratic basis. However, the 2017 election results were inconclu- sive, and no government had been formed by early 2018 (Goeli 2018).

Denmark (1864, 1940) A democracy from 1849, Germany fought Denmark and won two provinces in 1864. But Denmark got one of them back due to a plebiscite in 1920. Although neutral in both world wars, Nazi Germany seized control in 1940, an occupation that continued until democracy was restored by 1945 (Jespersen 2004).

Dominica (1979, 1981) Fully independent in 1978, an interim govern- ment was set up in 1979, when the incumbent government was chal- lenged. Mercenaries tried but failed to overthrow the government in 1981 (Bell 2008).

Dominican Republic (1930, 1963) On the eastern part of the island of Hispaniola, the Dominican Republic was at war with Haïti until indepen- dence in 1844, but had to contend with external forces, including an American occupation from 1916 to 1924, when elections produced a democratic president, who in turn was overthrown in 1930 by Rafael Trujillo, who became a dictator. After Trujillo’s assassination in 1961, Juan Bosch was elected in 1963, restoring democracy for only seven months before he was overthrown. More instability prompted the United States to land troops in 1965 until the election of Joaquín Balaguer, whose repressive rule continued until he stepped down in 1978, when he was defeated by the opposition party (Wiarda and Kryzanek 1982). Democratic governance continued from 1978, including the re-election of Balaguer in 340 Appendix B: Democracies that Have Floundered and Failed

1986 and 1994, but questions about -stuffing forced Balaguer to hold an election in 1996. New presidents have been chosen in each elec- tion thereafter (Diamond 2005: chap. 11).

Ecuador (2000, 2005) Fully independent in 1830, military rule prevailed until 1895, when a liberal party introduced some democratic reforms, but military rule continued up to 1979, when civil society demanded democ- racy and a new constitution was adopted along with free elections. Protests over neoliberal policies led to demonstrations, especially by indigenous groups, and a coup in 2000 by Lucio Edwin Gutiérrez Borbúa, who was later elected in 2002. Two years later he was impeached for embezzlement but not removed from office (Sawyer2004 ). When he proposed to strip the judiciary of independence, protests emerged, and he declared a one-­ day state of emergency in 2005. He was then removed from office by the Congress, and democracy was restored (Becker 2008).

Egypt (2013) After the British protectorate ended in 1952, a series of strong leaders ruled until a “people power” protest in 2011. President Hosni Mubarak then left office, and a caretaker military administration, the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces (SCAF), took charge, which in turn adopted constitutional amendments that restricted presidential power. In parliamentary elections later that year, Islamist political parties won a majority, with the most votes going to the Freedom and Justice Party organized by the Muslim Brotherhood, the only organization with national membership. But in 2012, the Supreme Constitutional Court ruled that the law authorizing the parliament was unconstitutional, and SCAF dissolved parliament, giving the impression that they did not want an Islamic-dominated legislature. In the presidential election shortly after- ward, Mohammed Morsi (sometimes spelled “Mursi”) was elected under the banner of the Freedom and Justice Party. The army retained indepen- dent power and, before the votes were counted, issued a declaration that SCAF would exercise legislative power, write the new constitution, and have the power to reverse any action by the new president (Rutherford 2013). One month after his election, Morsi reinstated parliament, and the following month he asked the head of the army to resign and serve as a presidential adviser. Morsi also announced that he was annulling SCAF’s restrictions on presidential power. Other members of the military were fired, and Morsi appointed three women and two Christians as his advis- ers. While parliament was drafting a new constitution, Morsi issued a Appendix B: Democracies that Have Floundered and Faile d 341 declaration that his actions as president were exempt from judicial inter- ference until the new constitution was finalized, whereupon liberal and secular members walked out. He also demanded a retrial of those in the army who had been acquitted of killing protesters in 2011. Then more “people’s power” demonstrations occurred, demanding the dissolution of parliament and rescinding of the declaration. When the draft constitution was completed, Morsi annulled his declaration, and the draft passed in a referendum during December 2012. Liberal groups and others objected to the constitution, which restricted civil liberties. After more “people’s power” demonstrations, far larger than previous rallies (Fayed and Saleh 2013), the army gave Morsi an ultimatum in mid-2013 to rescind his “coup.” When he refused to do so, the army seized power on July 3.

El Salvador (1972) Independent from Spain in 1821, El Salvador joined other Central American countries in two federations until 1896, when the federation was dissolved. After a succession of oligarchs, the first reason- ably free elections were held in 1960. The 1972 elections were considered fraudulent, and the one with the most votes was not allowed to become president. In 1979, there was a coup and civil war began, lasting until 1992, which ended in the Chapultepec Peace Accords. Democracy then returned (Montgomery 1995).

Estonia (1934) After winning its war of independence from Russia in 1920, Estonia was a democracy until popular unrest due to the Great Depression caused a shutdown of parliament in 1934. Controlled by the Soviet Union during and after World War II, Estonian democracy returned in 1991 as the Cold War ended, though Russian troops remained until 1994 (Subrenat 2004).

Fiji (1987, 2000, 2006) Independent in 1970, native Fijians have sought dominance over the Indian population, which settled after the British brought them to work in the sugarcane fields. Democracy was interrupted by a Fijian coup in 1987, when elections gave Indians a parliamentary majority. A second coup occurred the same year when one Fijian leader overthrew another. In 1990, the constitution ensured native Fijian con- trol, and Sitiveni Rabuka, the Lieutenant Colonel who carried out the 1987 coup, became prime minister following elections held under the new constitution (Lawson 1991). Continued opposition to the constitution caused Rabuka to rewrite the constitution, which met the approval of both 342 Appendix B: Democracies that Have Floundered and Failed ethnic groups in 1997. But a coup in 2000 toppled the government of Mahendra Chaudhry, who in 1997 had become the country’s first Indo-­ Fijian prime minister. The High Court in 2001 ordered reinstatement of the constitution, and elections restored democracy. But after a bill was proposed to pardon participants in the 2000 coup, another coup occurred in 2006. The new president then dissolved parliament and in 2009 dis- missed all office-holders, all judges, and the governor of the Central Bank (Lal 2011). Democracy returned in 2014.

France (1852, 1871, 1914, 1940, 1958) The short-lived First Republic occurred in 1792, after members of the Third Estate formed the National Assembly. But the Reign of Terror in 1793 deprived the country of the time to constitute a democracy with a constitution and elections (Hanson 2009). Although constitutional limitations were applied to the king in 1815, after the defeat of Napoléon, the democratic Second Republic came in 1848. Then in 1852, the president declared himself the new emperor (Guyver 2016). The Third Republic emerged in 1870, first as a provi- sional government with the ouster of the emperor. But German troops attacked later that year. Elections were then held in 1871 to negotiate terms for German withdrawal, including reparations. When the terms infuriated the population, left-wing groups and some members of the mil- itary seized control and set up the Commune, which in turn was suppressed by Third Republic military forces. Germany departed after the Third Republic gave up Alsace and Lorraine provinces. In 1875, a constitution was written to end the provisional status of the Third Republic. But the Third Republic was then polarized into republi- can and royalist parties, including an incident in 1877, when parliament was dissolved by the president. In 1889, a coup was threatened but did not gain momentum. The country was further divided by the Dreyfus Affair from 1894−1906 (Sowerwine 2001). Governments lasted only a few months, as conservatives, liberals, monarchists, radicals, and socialists jockeyed for control by trying to patch together governing coalitions, until the country was aflame as World War I began in 1914 (Passmore 1993). Although democracy was restored after the war, Nazi Germany occupied Northern France in 1940, while allowing a Vichy Republic to operate as a satellite in the south until the end of World War II. The Fourth Republic began in 1946. Three sets of coalitions formed twenty-one governments over the next twelve years (Giles 1991). In 1954, a prominent French general began to organize a coup, and in 1958 he Appendix B: Democracies that Have Floundered and Faile d 343 announced that he would march on Paris unless Charles de Gaulle was named the new prime minister by parliament, which in turn responded by agreeing to the condition and then dissolved itself. Prime Minister de Gaulle then organized a referendum, which dissolved the Fourth Republic (Aron 1960). The constitution for the Fifth Republic, which permits a president with executive powers to appoint the prime minister, was soon adopted.

Gabon (1993) A one-party state after independence in 1960, an election with a democratic constitution was held in 1990. Opposition parties refused to validate the 1993 elections until a power-sharing arrangement was negotiated in 1994. But that agreement soon broke down. Protests over later undemocratic elections have continued (Rich 2007).

Gambia (1981, 1994, 2016) From independence in 1961, Gambia was a democracy. But the president was re-elected five times. A coup, sparked by allegations of corruption, failed in 1981 when the president asked neigh- boring Sénégal to send troops, which in turn put down the rebellion. The two countries then federated as Senegambia. However, Gambia withdrew in 1989. In 1994, a successful coup by the army ousted the president, who had held office since independence (NYT1994 ). In 2004, coup leader Jahya Jammeh was elected in free and fair elections (Burke and Else 2002), but undemocratic measures marred his term in office (Mail and Guardian 2005). When elections were held in 2016, the opposition party won, but Jammeh refused to relinquish power for forty days until the Gambian army declared support for the newly elected president, troops from neigh- boring Sénégal intervened with the approval of the UN Security Council, and presidents from Guinea and Mauritania mediated (Dixon 2017).

Georgia (2008) Although independent in 1991 from the former Soviet Union, democracy did not emerge until the Rose Revolution of 2003. But conflict over areas where Russians live resulted in a war in 2008, when Moscow recognized the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia. Russian troops reportedly left the country in 2012. Georgia still considers both territories part of Georgia (Jones 2012).

Germany (1918, 1930, 1933, 2017) In 1918, Germany adopted parlia- mentary democracy but had to suppress an attempted coup in Bavaria. Parliamentary wrangling, with twenty Cabinets lasting an average of 239 days (Henig 1998: 75; Evans 2004: 83; Williamson 2005: 186–204), 344 Appendix B: Democracies that Have Floundered and Failed reflected deep division along class and policy lines (Henig 1998: 75). In 1930, during the Great Depression, President Paul von Hindenburg, who was not in favor of democracy (ibid.: 66; Evans 2004: 83), gave Chancellor Heinrich Brüning the power to act without parliamentary approval, whereupon he adopted fiscal austerity and deflation. Within two years, unemployment rose to almost 30 percent. Adolf Hitler’s Nazi Party won the most seats in the special federal election of 1932, and after a series of unsuccessful Cabinets, Hindenburg appointed Hitler as Chancellor of Germany in 1933 (Fulbrook 1991: 155–58, 172–77). After the parlia- ment burned down later that year, democracy ended until its restoration in 1949 for the western part of the country. Unification with the eastern part occurred after the Berlin Wall fell in 1989. The new German state experienced smooth sailing until the 2017 election, when no party attained a majority in parliament; negotiations for a new government were finally settled in early 2018.

Ghana (1966) Kwame Nkrumah’s Ghana emerged in 1960 as a paragon of democracy until his overthrow in 1966. A series of coups led to the restoration of democracy in 1992, known as Ghana’s fourth republic (Boafo-Arthur 2007).

Greece (1832, 1925, 1967) While under the Ottoman Empire, Greece fought a successful war of independence in 1821−1822 and established a constitutional republic in 1828. But conflict with conservative elites led to the establishment of a monarchy in 1832. After several coups, a revolution forced the king to make the concession of a limited constitution and leg- islature until he was ousted in 1862. In 1877, Prime Minister Charilaos Trikoupis of semi-democratic Greece curbed the power of the monarchy to interfere in the Assembly. Wars, fought to reunite Greece with other Greek-speaking territories occupied by the Ottomans, continued until 1909, when a coup established democracy on firmer ground, though still under the monarchy. The Second Republic was established in 1924, but several coups occurred from 1925 until World War II. After the war, a civil war erupted, and dictatorial rule continued until 1964, when a multiparty election was held. A coup in 1967 cancelled democracy until the declaration of the Third Republic in 1974 and a new constitution in 1975 (Clogg 2002). Appendix B: Democracies that Have Floundered and Faile d 345

Grenada (1979, 1983) Independent in 1974, Grenada held democratic elections in 1976 but experienced a coup in 1979 due to opposition by a Marxist party to the conservative government (Brizan 1984). An ­unsuccessful anti-communist coup in 1983 attracted the attention of the United States, which intervened and left the country in the hands of anti-­ communist groups (Beck 1993). Democratic elections returned in 1984.

Guatemala (1954, 1960, 2015) After gaining independence in 1821, Guatemala was ruled by military dictators until 1944, when the ruling junta organized the first free election. But the United Fruit Company, affected by the government’s banning of brutal labor practices, propagan- dized the notion that the government was “communist.” President Harry Truman planned a coup in 1952 but called off the military operation when word of the plot leaked out (Schlesinger and Kinzer 2005: 102). Two years later, his successor, Dwight Eisenhower, authorized the CIA to do so. Although the invasion force was unimpressive, psychological warfare and the possibility of a U.S. military invasion frightened the Guatemalan army, which refused to fight, and the government fell (ibid.: 190–204). Coups and guerrilla action followed, often with American collusion (Burgos-Debray 2010). A civil war began in 1960, lasting until peace was brokered by the in 1996. Guatemala moved toward democracy until 2015, when protests over massive corruption forced the president to step down, and democracy remains in doubt.

Haïti (1991, 2000) Independent in 1804, the first ruler was proclaimed president for life. A series of coups occurred until American occupation from 1914−1934. Instability continued until 1990, when the first demo- cratically elected president, Jean-Bertrand Aristide, took office, only to be ousted in a military coup the following year. Mediation brought Aristide back in 1994, but his re-election in 2000 was boycotted by opposition parties and social organizations, prompting Aristide to engage in human rights abuses. Another coup occurred four years later (Girard 2010). The government was unable to cope with the earthquake in 2010 but rein- stated democratic elections that year.

Hawai’i (1877, 1893) After adopting a constitution in 1840, the Kingdom of Hawai’i held elections with universal suffrage, including women. Members of the minority Caucasian population, however, gained influ- ence over time. Sugar interests, seeking to sell sugar to the United States, 346 Appendix B: Democracies that Have Floundered and Failed feared that tariff barriers would be raised. In 1877, a group of Caucasians forced the king to adopt a constitution that restricted voting rights so that they would dominate the country. Later, in 1893, they plotted a coup, which occurred when troops from an American ship went into town to hold the queen under arrest until she abdicated. A Republic of Hawai’i was established in 1894 but the country was annexed by the United States in 1898 (Kinzer 2006; Haas 2017c).

Honduras (1981, 2009) Since independence in 1820, the country has experienced about 300 coups, civil wars, and rebellions. Democratic elec- tions were held in 1980 and 1981, but the government fought rebels thereafter. A military coup came in 2009 to prevent changes in the consti- tution by referendum (UN 2009). The new government has operated democratically ever since.

Hungary (1934, 2010) Hungary emerged as a separate country after the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy soon after World War I, but was mired in wars as adjacent countries seized territories in the former kingdom. Parliamentary elections were held in 1920, and the country remained nominally democratic until 1934, when the country tilted toward Nazi Germany in domestic and foreign affairs. After World War II, Hungary became a satellite of the Soviet Union. An attempted movement for independence in 1956 was crushed by Soviet troops. When the Soviet Union collapsed, Hungary’s first democratic election occurred in 1990. Since the election of Victor Orbán as Prime Minister in 2010, constitu- tional changes have gradually turned the country into an “illiberal democ- racy” in which the government controls civil society yet wins elections (Krasztev and Til 2015; Lendvai 2018).

India (1975, 1984) After independence in 1950, India was a paragon of democracy until 1975, when the High Court ruled that Indira Gandhi’s re-election in 1975 was riddled with dishonest election practices and excessive election expenditure, and had used government machinery and officials for party purposes. When the High Court ruled that she should be removed from parliament, in effect disqualifying her as a member of the government, she suspended the constitution to rule by decree until 1977, citing disorder and lawlessness. The election in 1977 unseated her Congress Party, which returned to power in 1980 tilting toward Buddhist nationalism. In 1984, two Sikh bodyguards assassinated Indira Gandhi, Appendix B: Democracies that Have Floundered and Faile d 347 though she was quickly replaced by her son Rajiv. Otherwise, emergency powers have been used nearly one hundred times over the years, usually when the central government has overridden acts of local governments (Brass 1995; Keane 2009: 586–647; Kesavan 2018: 38).

Indonesia (1957) After achieving independence through war with the Netherlands in 1949, President Sukarno tried to balance conflicting ele- ments, but in 1957 he assumed authoritarian control under what he called “” (Legge 1972). A coup in 1965 installed General Suharto as an authoritarian president until mass protests in 1998 forced his resignation and democracy was restored, including the secession of East Timor in 1999. The first direct presidential election was held in 2004. Aceh province in northern Sumatra, which declared independence in 1953 and again in 1976, was in intermittent rebellion until a peace agree- ment in 2005 (Vickers 2013).

Iran (1953, 2009, 2018) During World War II and until 1946, Iran was partly occupied by the Soviet Union. In 1951, the ruling Shah appointed Mohammad Mossadegh as prime minister after a democratic election. His popularity rose as he nationalized the petroleum industry, but an Anglo-­ American coup ousted Mossadegh in 1953, thereby returning power to Shah Reza Pahlavi (Kinzer 2006). A period of increasing dictatorial rule led to street protests in 1978, whereupon the Shah left for the United States, and a new government was established upon the return of Khomeini from exile in 1979 to become the Ayatollah of a new government. The new constitution instituted many democratic reforms, including relatively free elections, though the Ayatollah and his immediate advisers retained the power to screen candidates and disallow them to run for office (Keddie 2003). Two popular disturbances have upset the government—the Green Movement of 2009 centered in Tehran and scattered protests throughout the country in 2018.

Iraq (2005) The first possibility of democracy, after coups, revolutions, and wars, including an attack led by the United States in 2003 (Ricks 2006), came in 2005, when an election was held and a constitution was adopted. However, the government favored Shiite Muslims over other groups, and anti-government attacks soon began (Ghanim 2011). Foreign troops did not leave until 2011, and an insurgency claiming to be an Islamic State began to occupy part of the country in 2014. 348 Appendix B: Democracies that Have Floundered and Failed

Israel (1967) Independent since 1948, the country has fought several wars. In 1967, Israel occupied the West Bank and in 1981 the Golan Heights, denying these regions’ residents their democratic rights ever since. Israel temporarily occupied the Sinai Peninsula (1956–1957, 1967–1982) and part of Southern Lebanon (1982–2000). Mass protests by Palestinians occurred in 1987 and 1991. In 1990, Israel withdrew from the Gaza Strip. Intermittent shelling of Israel from Gaza has led to wars in 2008, 2012, and 2014. A parliamentary system, there are occasional prob- lems of organizing a majority (Sasley and Waller 2016).

Italy (1922) The revolution of 1848 established a constitutional monarchy, but universal suffrage was not granted until 1913. Amid turmoil during World War I and its aftermath, Blackshirts tried to bring down the govern- ment, but were unsuccessful. Nevertheless, King Victor Emmanuel III appointed Benito Mussolini as prime minister in 1922, and he proceeded to rule autocratically until Italy was defeated in World War II (Bosworth 2006). In 1946, a referendum established a republic, and a constitution was adopted in 1948. From the late 1960s to the early 1980s, there were widespread social conflict and terrorist attacks by opposing extremist groups. The Christian Democratic Party was the dominant party until scandals forced it to disband. Throughout the years, nevertheless, a series of coalition govern- ments was pieced together, often resulting in the lack of a government for a period of weeks (Allum 1974). In 2013, for example, the period with no government lasted two months (Donadio 2013).

Japan (1932) Japan adopted a constitution in 1890, but many powers were still held by the emperor until 1912, when the new emperor allowed more democracy, and a competitive party system emerged in 1918 (Takenaka 2014: 7). Subsequently, there was a drift toward authoritarian- ism and restrictions were placed on dissent (Scalapino 1953). The military increasingly displayed independence of the civilian government, beginning with the seizure of Manchuria in 1931. Democracy ended when Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi was assassinated in 1932 (ibid.: 1). After the emperor appointed an interim civilian prime minister, Admiral Saitō Makoto became the new prime minister, and elections were soon called off. Japan remained at war until 1945. The Allied occupation then took over, ending in all but Okinawa in 1952. Okinawa was returned to Japanese sovereignty in 1971. Japan has maintained a democracy since 1952. Appendix B: Democracies that Have Floundered and Faile d 349

Kenya (2007, 2017) Independent in 1963, Kenya had one-party rule until democratic elections in 1992. However, the 2007 elections were disputed, and ­protests escalated into ethnic violence and destruction of property, with almost 1,000 killed and 600,000 displaced. UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan led a mediation effort to end the political stalemate.I n 2008, the two main opposing political parties agreed on a power-sharing arrange- ment. The constitution was changed in 2010 to reduce the power of the president (Bienen 2015). A disputed election in 2017 was declared invalid by the Supreme Court, so another election was scheduled later in the year.

Kuwait (1990) Independent since 1861, the country is semi-democratic (Tértrault 2000). The country has only been confronted by one crisis— the war with Iraq from 1990 to 1991.

Kyrgyzstan (2005, 2010) Independent from the Soviet Union in 1991, democracy came with the Tulip Revolution in 2005. Nevertheless, mem- bers of organized crime assassinated parliamentarians in 2005 and 2006. Civil unrest in a corrupt municipality became so violent in 2010 that a state of emergency was declared, and ethnic violence in another part of the country required military action (Anderson 2013). Democracy continued, though the 2017 election was somewhat flawed.

Latvia (1934, 1991) Independent in 1918, a civil war waged until a freely elected Constituent Assembly met in 1920 and adopted a liberal constitu- tion. However, the constitution was partly suspended after a coup in 1934. The dictatorship continued until the country was incorporated into the Soviet Union in 1940, briefly occupied by the German army in 1941, and reoccupied by the Soviet Union in 1944. In 1990, Latvia declared inde- pendence but had to contend with a Russian offensive in 1991 that failed. Democracy has proceeded since then (Dreifelds 1996; Kalnins 2015).

Lebanon (1952, 1958, 1961, 1969, 1975, 2008, 2011) After multireligious Lebanon became fully independent in 1946, Lebanon’s unwritten “national pact” of 1943 required presidents to be Maronite Christian, parliamentary speakers Shiite Muslim, deputy speakers Greek Orthodox, and prime ministers Sunni Muslim. Parliament was to be formed based on a 6:5 ratio of Christians to Muslims. Difficulties emerged as the Christian population fell below 50 percent. In 1952, there was an uprising of Muslims, forcing the president to resign and a temporary president, 350 Appendix B: Democracies that Have Floundered and Failed

General Fuad Chehab, was appointed to safeguard an emergency demo- cratic presidential election. Gerrymandering and alleged electoral fraud in the 1957 parliamentary election, followed by the dismissal of several pro-Arab ministers, sparked a violent Muslim revolt in 1958 among those seeking to have Lebanon become a part of the Egyptian-sponsored United Arab Republic (Zahar 2005: 230). Chehab, still commander of the army, refused to allow oppo- sition and government partisans to assume positions of strategic impor- tance, such as at airports and government buildings. He requested and received U.S. Marine support, and negotiated an end to the crisis with Egypt’s Gamal Abdel Nasser. Chehab was then chosen as the consensus candidate for president to restore peace to the country (Salibi 2006). In 1961, Chehab suppressed an attempted coup by the Syrian Social Nationalist Party. He then strengthened intelligence and security services to prevent further foreign interference in Lebanese internal affairs. Palestinians, defeated by Israel in 1967 and in an uprising within Jordan- occupied Palestine in 1971, relocated to southern Lebanon, tipping the balance for Muslims over Christians, and prompting two uprisings in 1969. Then in 1975, civil war erupted with Syria (Zahar 2005: 231). In 1982, Palestinians started a fight with Maronite Christians, pan-Arabist groups joined the Palestinians, and Israel occupied southern Lebanon. Israel with- drew in 2000. Syria followed suit in 2005. Military conflict withI srael was renewed and later settled in 2006. Hezbollah violence in 2008 was tanta- mount to a coup. A national unity government collapsed in 2011, though new leaders were eventually selected. Meanwhile, the various parties agreed to change the 6:5 ratio to 50:50 (Khazen 2000; Picard 2002).

Lesotho (1994, 1998, 2014) Independent in 1966, the first peaceful demo- cratic election was held in 1992, when the head of the military junta trans- ferred power to parliament. An abortive coup marred the beginning of democracy during 1994. In 1998, the opposition violently protested the results of what independent observers judged was a free and fair election. South African troops then intervened to restore order, and left in 1999 (Likoti 2007). A system of proportional representation was then insti- tuted, satisfying the concerns of opposition parties. Another abortive coup occurred in 2014 (BBC 2014).

Liberia (1980) Established by Africans from the United States, a constitu- tion was adopted in 1847, though those not from the United States were Appendix B: Democracies that Have Floundered and Faile d 351 barred from becoming part of the democracy. In 1980, the government was overthrown. Violence continued until 2003, when peace was restored. Democratic elections followed in 2005 (Williams 2006).

Lithuania (1940) Independent of Russia in 1918, the country was occu- pied by Soviet troops in 1940 and remained under Soviet domination until 1990, declared independence again.

Luxembourg (1940) A democratic government, headed by a prince with powers similar to the Queen of England, has existed since the constitution of 1919. The country’s sovereignty was violated by Nazi Germany from 1940 until the end of the World War II (Thewes 2003).

Madagascar (1996, 2002, 2009) Although the country declared itself the Malagasy Republic in 1958 (because the language of the people is Malagasy), France did not allow its independence until 1960. Democratic elections first occurred in 1992, but in 1996 the president was impeached due to alleged corruption, especially when he asked parliament to give him more powers. Democracy returned, but for seven months in 2002 the two political parties engaged in a stand-off over the contested 2001 election until the outcome was resolved (Marcus 2016). A coup in 2009 dislodged a president who was considered to be corrupt and increasingly authoritar- ian. The coup was accepted by the Supreme Court, and a more liberal constitution was adopted in 2010.

Malawi (2011) Independent in 1964, Malawi (formerly Nyasaland) was a one-party state until a referendum in 1993 called for a multiparty democracy. A new constitution was adopted and free elections were held in 1994 (Cutter 2006: 143). In 2011, protests over high living costs and poor governance left eighteen people dead and at least forty-four others suffering from gunshot wounds, though democracy persists (Jomo and Latham 2011).

Malaysia (1962, 1969) The country gained independence as the Federation of Malaya in 1957. With British assistance, a communist insur- gency dating from 1948 was put down in 1960, though revived from 1962 to 1990 (Weichong 2014). The country was renamed Malaysia in 1963 when two Borneo provinces and Singapore were added to the fed- eration; however, Indonesian troops engaged in small-scale attacks on the Borneo border until 1966. The democratic government was so stressed by 352 Appendix B: Democracies that Have Floundered and Failed

Singapore’s contentious representative, Lee Kuan Yee, that parliament voted to expel Singapore from the federation in 1965. Chinese race riots occurred in 1969, prompting the government to favor Malays in govern- ment economic planning (Moten 2007). Civil society restrictions have increased in recent years (Lee 2015).

Mali (2012) In 1959, French Sudan and Sénégal united to become the Mali Federation. Two months after France granted independence, Sénégal withdrew, so Mali became an independent republic. Dictatorial rule pre- vailed until a massive pro-democracy demonstration in 1991, when the army sided with the demonstrators, and democratic rule was established by the 1992 election (Milet and Manaud 2007). In 2012, a rebellion erupted in the north around Timbuktu. When the government proved unable to handle the situation, the government called for assistance from French troops, and the rebellion was ended (BBC 2013b).

Mauritania (1992, 2003, 2008) Independent in 1960, border conflicts kept the country under military rule until 1991, when it adopted a consti- tution by referendum, and the first parliamentary election was held the following year. Although the opposition boycotted at first, they recog- nized the government by 1994. When the government gradually became oppressive, there was an unsuccessful coup in 2003 and a successful one in 2005. The 2005 junta, however, was determined to establish democracy. A new constitution was accepted by referendum in 2006, followed by parliamentary elections later that year, and the first popular vote for presi- dent in 2007. But the new president acted in an authoritarian manner, ignoring parliament, and a coup ousted the president in 2008. Free elec- tions in 2009 brought back some democracy, but the country has not accepted the junta, which has ruled ever since (Foster 2010). Mauritanians took to the streets in the Arab Spring of 2011 but to no avail.

Mauritius (1971, 2014) Independent since 1968, democratic politics was first marred by strikes, leading to a state of emergency in 1971. A student demonstration in 1975 prompted lowering of the voting age to eighteen. A coup was contemplated but aborted in 1983. In 1999, civil unrest erupted briefly when a singing star was arrested on drug charges and found dead in his cell. Parliament shut down in 2014 during negotiations among parliamentary parties to form a government (Albinson 2016), but democ- racy survived. Appendix B: Democracies that Have Floundered and Faile d 353

Moldova (2009, 2015) When Moldova declared independence in 1991, a strip of territory (Transnistria) refused to accept its sovereignty, and clashes continued until 1992. In 1994, the country became a democracy and gave autonomy to Transnistria and another territory (Gagauzia). In 2009, a government could not be formed amid protests, so parliament was dis- solved for new elections in 2010. Massive unrest erupted in 2015 over governmental corruption (Hegarty 2016), but a new government was installed in 2016.

Monaco (1943, 1963) Although independent in 1911, the Monaco democracy asked France for military protection, which has continued since 1918 except for the period from 1943−1945, when Fascist Italy and later the Wehrmacht militarily occupied the country during World War II. France blockaded the country in 1963, seeking to do away with its tax havens (Grinda and Duursma 2010), but democracy continues.

Myanmar (1962) Formerly known as Burma, the country began as a democracy in 1948, but there was a coup in 1962. Military rule has con- tinued ever since. In 1990, free elections were held but the military did not respect the results (Charney 1999). Democratic reforms have been occurring recently, but the prospect is uncertain.

Nepal (2009, 2011, 2014, 2015) A democratic republic replaced the mon- archy in 2008, but instability remains a problem. In 2009, the Maoist government was toppled, but the reverse happened in 2011. In 2014, parliament was dissolved, and the Chief Justice headed a caretaker govern- ment for several months until the parties agreed on a new government (Mocko 2015). For nine months, disagreement between political parties in Nepal delayed the delivery of needed humanitarian relief pledged by worldwide sources after the massive earthquake of 2015 (Hammer 2016). A new constitution continued democracy later in 2015, and a female was elected president.

Netherlands (1918, 1940) A democracy since 1848, the Netherlands has had multiparty politics ever since, with coalitions rising and falling, some- times with a gap between governments. The only major interruptions have been a coup attempt in 1918 and German occupation from 1940−1945 (Andeweg and Irwin 2005). 354 Appendix B: Democracies that Have Floundered and Failed

Niger (1996, 1999, 2007) Independent in 1958, the country was ruled by the military until 1989, when a constitution was adopted that allowed only one political party. A multiparty democracy emerged from elections in 1993 (Ibrahim 1994). Government paralysis was an excuse for a coup in 1996 and another in 1999. An imperfect democracy was then in place until a rebellion started in 2007 and a coup in 2010 due to efforts by the president to extend his powers. A free and fair election restored democracy in 2011 (Baudais and Chauzal 2011). Although democracy continues, rebels control parts of the north.

Nigeria (1966) After independence in 1960, elections were held twice until coups in 1966, and a civil war broke out in 1967. Military juntas took over from 1970 to 1999, when the country held the first of several democratic elections despite charges that they were unfree and unfair. The 2011 and 2015 elections, however, have been considered free and fair (Bourne 2015).

Norway (1940) Since Norway split from Sweden in 1905, Norwegian democracy has been interrupted only by the Nazi occupation during 1940−1945 (Larsen 1948; Yilek 2015).

Pakistan (1970, 1977, 1999) Independent in 1947, military rule tried to keep order in a country that was formed in a chaotic manner with many minority groups. After the first democratic election in 1970, the eastern portion began to break away to form Bangladesh. The military at first refused to give power to the newly elected civilian government but stepped aside in 1972. A coup in 1977 reinstated military rule. After that military leader died in 1988, democracy returned. Internal conflict (left–right and civilian–military) paved the way for another coup in 1999, but democratic forms have continued (McCartney 2011).

Panamá (1968) From its independence in 1903 until 1968, Panamá was a constitutional democracy dominated by corrupt business-minded oli- garchs, who were opposed from the 1950s by the military. When the rul- ing party lost the 1968 election, the new government tried to appease the oligarchy, whereupon the military overthrew the government, initiated populist reforms, and stayed in power until military intervention by the United States in 1989, when an anti-military candidate won the presi- Appendix B: Democracies that Have Floundered and Faile d 355 dency but was unable to take office. The intervention facilitated the resto- ration of democracy (Joster and Sanchez 1990; Weeks and Gunson 1992).

Papua New Guinea (1975, 1983, 2011) In 1975, when Australia granted independence to Papua New Guinea, one province (Bougainville) did not accept rule from Port Moresby and began a revolt, conducted from 1975−1976 and later in 1983−1997, with some terrorist action in the capital. In 2009, an anti-Chinese riot broke out. In 2011, the Supreme Court disallowed a parliamentary selection of prime minister. Government was not stabilized until 2012, when parliament removed that power from the court (Chan 2016).

Paraguay (1996, 1999, 2012) Independent in 1811, the government was a dictatorship until 1992, when a constitution established a democratic system. The first free and fair elections were held in 1992. A coup attempt was foiled in 1996. However, after the newly elected president commuted the coup plotter’s sentence and released him that same year, the Supreme Court declared his actions unconstitutional. The murder of the new presi- dent’s rival in 1999 led the Chamber of Deputies to impeach him, where- upon demonstrators supporting the impeachment were fired upon, killing eight. Nevertheless, the president resigned that year (Hetherington 2011). The victory of Bishop Fernando Lugo, the first leftist president, in 2008 was marred by demonstrations and accusations over the violent eviction of squatters from rural lands until he was impeached in 2012 and constitu- tionally removed from office by both houses of the legislature, which had conservative majorities (Desantis 2012). A new president then took office, and democratic elections were held in 2013 and are scheduled for 2018.

Perú (1968, 2000) Plagued by border wars after independence in 1824, the country achieved some stability in the early 1900s but did not have its first democratic government until 1963, when Fernando Balaúnde Terry was elected president. Five years later the military, jealous of his demo- cratic reforms, removed him from office in a coup (Klarén2000 ). The Communist Party of Perú (Sendero Luminoso) was then formed and soon began a guerrilla war, which continued until 1999, though the democratic process continued in the rest of the country. Protests against the govern- ment of President Alberto Fujimori resulted in his resignation and self-­ exile in 2000, but the democratic government has continued to function. 356 Appendix B: Democracies that Have Floundered and Failed

Philippines (1972, 1986, 2001) Independent in 1946, the Philippines began as a democracy and continued when Ferdinand Marcos was elected presi- dent in 1965 and re-elected in 1969, but was constitutionally ineligible for a third term. However, the stalled economy, which favored rural elites in the face of widespread poverty (Boyce 1993), soon blurred the line between leftists and pro-communists, and protests escalated. Rumors of coup and assassination plots circulated, and many bombing incidents followed (Lacaba 1982; Overholt 1986). Marcos then declared martial law in 1972. When martial was lifted in 1981, Marcos’s main rival, Benigno Aquino, Jr., flew to Manila in 1983 but was shot dead on the tarmac. Demonstrations then began, so Marcos called for a snap election in 1986 and stole the election from Aquino’s widow, Corazon. A “people power” demonstration demanded that the army under Fidel Ramos bring Marcos’s reign to an end, and Marcos left the country. Corazon Aquino was then sworn in as president and drew up a new constitution, but Marcos supporters in the army attempted a coup each year while she was in office. Her successor, Fidel Ramos, enjoyed a peace- ful term in office and was replaced by Joseph Estrada. However, in 2001 Estrada was impeached over allegations of corruption and was ousted by another “people power” demonstration. Democracy resumed until the 2016 election of Rodrigo Duterte, who has engaged in extrajudicial mur- ders (Nadeau 2008).

Poland (1926, 2016) The Treaty of Versailles of 1919 gave Poland sover- eignty, and a democratic constitution was adopted in 1921. But the new state was plagued with a turnover of cabinets due to fragmented political parties, corruption, and ethnic mistrust. First Marshall Jozef Piłsudski, who went to war to gain more Polish territory, was dissatisfied with the limited powers allocated to the presidency, and with a government domi- nated by opponents of his view of a multiethnic Poland. He resigned in 1926 and soon led a coup that put an end to democracy (Rothschild 1966; Polonsky 1972). During World War II, German and later Soviet troops occupied the country, and afterward Poland became a satellite of the Soviet Union. After the end of the Communist government in 1989, Poland reconsti- tuted a democratic government. However, efforts by the majority govern- ment to control the judiciary and the media in 2016 prompted the opposition party to block access to parliament for a month after the gov- Appendix B: Democracies that Have Floundered and Faile d 357 ernment went to an auxiliary site to pass the budget (Sobczak and Barteczko 2017). President Andrej Duda has sought to increase his powers ever since.

Portugal (1926) Portugal became a constitutional republic in 1910, when a revolution deposed the monarchy. But a coup in 1926 led to the iron rule of António de Oliveira Salazar from 1932 to 1968. His successor, Marcelo Caetano, continued authoritarian rule until the Carnation Revolution of 1974 and the establishment of democracy on a firm basis by 1976 (Graham and Manuel 1979).

Rhodesia (1965) After declaring independence in 1965 as a Herrenvolk democracy, with White rule over a predominantly African population, there was increasing Black protest and violence, known as the Bush War, until 1979. International pressure forced the prime minister to agree to majority Black rule by 1978. Elections in 1979 resulted in a Black prime minister, and the name of the country was changed to Zimbabwe. An elec- tion in 1980 was won by another Black prime minister, whereupon Whites fled en masse (Raftopoulos and Mlambo2009 ).

Roman Republic (27 bce) The Roman Republic had many elements of democracy, including separation of powers, annual voting by at least 200,000 citizens for composition of the assemblies and magistrates and— most important—the codification and rule by law (Millar 1984: 2, 17, 1986; North 1990). An oligarchic executive was aided by two short-term Consuls, both patricians, though for a time the law required one to be a plebeian. The Senate, though advisory, was composed of patricians, whose eloquence sometimes changed policies. The Assembly of Plebeians, elected by the people from 287 bce, had the power to appoint the Consuls and pass laws binding on everyone, including patricians, and carried more weight when the oligarchy was divided, but was ignored after 31 bce (ibid.: 4, 18). As Consul, Julius Caesar added many members to the Senate, which swelled to more than 1,000 persons. Although Caesar tried to overthrow democracy, he was assassinated by two senators in 44 bce, and Roman democracy was restored. However, succession after Caesar was a problem: Octavius was Caesar’s adopted son and thus his heir, but he had to command an army in order to defeat Marc Antony, his only rival. However, after Octavius became the sole Consul, with an enormous, faction-ridden, and unworkable Senate, he sought to limit the body to solid, venerable senators. He then removed senators deemed immoral and 358 Appendix B: Democracies that Have Floundered and Failed irresponsible and abolished the quorum requirement (400); senators had to satisfy an income requirement, meet on fixed days, and become more representative (ibid.: 58, 61). After cutting the number of senators to about 600, he declared himself Emperor Augustus in 27 bce, in effect engaging in a coup (Talbert 1984). Proceeding step by step to acquire more power, he abolished the Assembly of Plebeians and paid no more attention to the Senate’s deliberations.

Romania (1930, 1990, 2007) After World War I, Romania adopted some democratic reforms in 1920 under King Carol II. But there were twenty- five governments in the 1930s, and Romania was taken over by a fascist regime in 1938 that lasted until the end of World War II, when Romania became a satellite of the Soviet Union. After trying to resume democracy in 1989, protests against the election in 1990 became violent but eventu- ally subsided (Hellman 1998). Several governments rose and fell until the election of Traian Băsescu in 2004, who was later re-elected despite impeachment proceedings in 2007. An impeachment referendum in 2012 was invalidated by the Constitutional Court. Băsescu did not run for re- election in 2014, and there was a peaceful transfer of power to the next president. The prime minister resigned the following year due to massive protests over corruption (Abraham 2016).

Russia (1993, 2004) Although opponents of the monarchy tried to estab- lish democracy early in 1917, in October another revolution installed a dictatorship that lasted until 1991. After a democratic election, a coup attempt came in 1993, and Boris Yeltsin became president of Russia. In 1999, Yeltsin resigned in favor of Vladimir Putin, who was elected presi- dent in 2000. However, Putin has continued to reverse democratic reforms since his re-election in 2004 (Dimbleby 2008).

San Marino (1915, 1926) A republic since 301, San Marino became a democracy in about 1600 (Duursma 1996: 211). The country offered to form an alliance with the USA under President , award- ing him citizenship, and Lincoln accepted (Doyle 2011). Italy invaded in 1915 during World War I. A fascist party, formed in 1922 after Mussolini assumed power in Italy, used intimidation and violence against other par- ties. When the party gained control of the government, all other parties were banned in 1926. After German occupation during World War II, democracy resumed in 1945. Appendix B: Democracies that Have Floundered and Faile d 359

São Tomé and Príncipe (2003, 2009) After independence in 1975, the country established a democracy in 1990. However, the army seized power briefly in 2003 based on complaints of corruption and unfair division of oil revenues to the people. Negotiations returned the president to office in 2006. A coup was attempted in 2009 but was foiled (Seibert 2016).

Sénégal (1982) Independent in 1960, the democracy dealt with separatist violence from 1982. A permanent truce has not been negotiated despite efforts by the government. In 1982, Senegambia was declared, combining the country with Gambia, but they split in 1989, with no adverse effect on democracy (Gellar 2005).

Sierra Leone (1967, 1978) Conservative Milton Margai negotiated inde- pendence for the country, which was granted in 1961; he was designated as the unelected prime minister. Before holding parliamentary elections in 1962, he arrested leaders of the opposition for disrupting the celebrations on independence day. Nevertheless, he sought to share power with ethnic groups, political parties, pressure groups, and paramount provincial chiefs. After his death in 1964, parliament named his brother as his successor, but his brother then fired many in the government who were allied with rivals for the position. He also had laws passed to restrict the opposition, did not respect provincial chiefs, favored his own ethnic group, and became increas- ingly authoritarian. As a result, riots broke out in 1967, and he declared a state of emergency. He then called for an election and lost to Siaka Stephens. But an army brigadier then arrested Stephens, whereupon the head of the army seized power. Next, a group of army officers succeeded in a counter- coup, which restored Stephens to office. Stephens then implemented some modern leftist policies. But a mutiny of soldiers in 1971 was suppressed, and a widespread student uprising was put down in 1977. Stephens had been trying to craft a one-party state, which became law in the constitution of 1978, when he became president. From 1991 to 2002, the country experienced civil war, including coups. Democracy was finally established in 1996, especially after intervention by a Nigerian-led military force in 1998 and UN peacekeepers in 1999. Democracy returned in 2002 (Harris 2012).

Slovenia (2011) Recognized in 1992 as a breakaway state from Yugoslavia, the country established a democracy, but encountered major protests in 2011 and 2012−2013 due to corruption and arbitrary executive decisions (Adam 2016). 360 Appendix B: Democracies that Have Floundered and Failed

Solomon Islands (1998) After gaining independence in 1978, the migra- tion of residents from one island to encroach on residents of the main island provoked some militants to start a campaign of intimidation and violence towards the settlers in 1998. Although the democratic ­government tried to resolve the issue, including declaring a state of emergency in 1999, the militants removed him from office (Dinnen and Firth 2011), and eth- nic violence continued until 2003, when contingents from fifteen other South Pacific island countries, including Australia, quelled the unrest and tried to re-establish democracy in 2006. However, rioting and looting of Chinatown soon forced the newly elected prime minister to resign. The international force did not withdraw until 2013 (Breen 2016).

Somalia (1969) Independent in 1960, Somalia ratified a constitution in 1961 and organized a democratic government in 1967, but a coup emerged in 1969, ending constitutional government. In 1979, the People’s Assembly drafted a new constitution, which was ignored, and civil war broke out after a coup in 1991. Somalia adopted a democratic government in 2012, with a parliament selecting the prime minister, yet terrorist remnants of the long civil war remain (Shay 2006; Fergusson 2013).

South Africa (2004) Fully sovereign in 1961, South Africa became a Herrenvolk democracy only for Caucasians in 1948. The situation was reversed in 1994, when apartheid was abolished (Worden 2000). Since 2004, protests and repression have been endemic in the new democracy (Johnson 2015).

Spain (1923, 1936, 1981, 2016, 2017) The Glorious Revolution of 1868 set Spain on the road to democracy. However, a period of authoritarian rule occurred from 1923 to 1931. After a series of military coups, the Spanish king supported the formation of a democratic government and called for elections in 1931. As a result, a left-wing coalition of liberals and socialists constituted a ruling majority in parliament, which initially had broad public support (Preston 2006: 38–39). However, support was eroded when the government appeared to adopt an anti-clerical policy and ordered the army and police to break up one of several strikes called by a major trade union. A right-wing government, elected in 1933, proceeded to reverse reforms of the previous government, whereupon militant groups engaged in street protests and violence. After a coalition of communists Appendix B: Democracies that Have Floundered and Faile d 361 and socialists won the 1936 election, efforts to purge the army of ­right-­wing elements provoked a group of generals to issue a declaration of opposition, supported by several right-wing organizations. Some military units then seized part of Spain, while other units resisted. Civil war con- tinued until 1939, when General Francisco Franco was declared El Caudillo (the Leader). When Franco died in 1975, King Carlos became the head of govern- ment and a new constitution was written. Elections were held in 1978, and Spain became largely a two-party parliamentary democracy with some autonomy granted to the non-Spanish-speaking Basque, Catalonia, and Galicia provinces. A coup attempt in 1981 was successfully resisted. However, the ’s solution to the global financial crisis of 2008/09 was to institute austerity measures, and the Spanish people expressed their frustration on May 15, 2011, when the Indignados (indig- nant) movement, with the motto “They don’t represent us,” protested both political parties. Unemployment by 2013 was 56% among those under twenty-five (Burgen2013 ). By the elections of December 2015, Spain had become a multiparty system, with the addition of a nationalist right-wing and a left-wing party based on the Indignados. With no party or coalition of parties able to form a government due to left–right antago- nisms dating from the Franco era (Bourdreaux 2016) and corruption in the mainstream right-wing party, a second election was held in June 2016. Finally, after 300 days, a government was formed when the center-left Socialist Party abstained to allow a right-wing government to form but pledged not to vote for proposals by the new government (White and Bennett 2016). Many Spanish then demonstrated against what they con- sidered an “illegitimate government.” Due to a majority vote for indepen- dence in 2017, Catalonia declared independence, whereupon the Spanish government instituted direct rule over the province.

Sri Lanka (1962, 1971, 1983) Since independence in 1948, the demo- cratic government has had to deal with an abortive coup (1962), a com- munist insurgency (1971), and a secessionist movement among Tamils in the north that became a civil war from 1983 to 2002. In the latter two cases, a state of emergency interrupted the democratic system (de Silva 2005).

Suriname (1980, 1986) Independent in 1975, democracy emerged when a constitution was soon adopted. But the country experienced a spate of 362 Appendix B: Democracies that Have Floundered and Failed coups (1980−1982), a civil war (1986−1992), and another coup (1990). Democracy returned with elections in 2010 (Dew 1994; VOA 2015).

Thailand (2006, 2008, 2013) The Kingdom of Thailand adopted the basic framework for a democratic system in 1932. Subsequently, a series of eighteen military coups occurred. The military has viewed itself as a guard- ian of the kingdom against corruption by civilian rule, which often gets hungry for payoffs (Hewison 1997; Chachavalpongpun 2014). In 1947, after the king died, the military staged a coup so that the country would not descend into chaos during the traditional one-year mourning period (ibid.: 12). The semi-democracy returned, but uncertainty about the 1957 election results was the pretext for another coup (ibid.: 13). Gridlock between the left and right in 1968 prompted yet another coup (Hewison 1997: 14). In 1971, a coup occurred when parliament was unable to negotiate a budget (Mezey 1973). After student protests in 1973, democratic forms were restored (Takenaka 2014: 19–21). But the army and right-wing parties began a propaganda war against student , resulting in a massacre of stu- dent demonstrators in 1976, and yet another coup was based on the frac- tious parliament (ibid.: 14). Although the military then withdrew to barracks (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009: 194), they emerged to stage unsuccessful coups in 1981 and 1985 (Hewison 1997: 1). In 1991, the military forced popular Prime Minister Chatichai Choonhavan out of office because his democratic reforms were marginalizing the military (ibid.). Finally, in 1997 a constitution was adopted with of both houses of parliament, making the country a full-fledged democracy. In 2001, the most open, corruption-free election in Thai history resulted in a majority for the party of millionaire Thaksin Shinawatra, who became prime minister. However, vote buying and electoral violence plagued the 2005 election, and there was open corruption by Thaksin, who appealed to rural residents to outvote the city establishment. Protests led to a coup in 2006 (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009: 270–74). A new constitution was approved by referendum in 2007, and Thaksin won in a democratic held at the end of the year. Corruption and election fraud by the Thaksin government, leading to protests, resulted in his removal from office by the Constitutional Court in 2008. The opposition then formed a government, but protests over the “judicial Appendix B: Democracies that Have Floundered and Faile d 363 coup” brought the government to a standstill as “red shirts” filled the streets in 2009 and 2010. In the 2011 election Thaksin’s youngest sister was elected by a land- slide. In 2013, “yellow shirts” opposing the government and supporting the king took to the streets, a stand-off that paralyzed government until a coup in 2014 (Bernstein 2014; Marshall 2014). Military rule continues today, though voters in 2016 approved a semi-­ democratic constitution that reserves power to the military (BBC 2016). Often coups are welcomed by the people in order to end a gridlocked or corrupt regime, but later the undemocratic military tends to overstep, whereupon street demonstrations force coup leaders to agree to demo- cratic reforms, and the cycle is repeated (Chachavalpongpun 2014).

Tunisia (2015) After independence in 1956, Tunisia did not develop democracy until 2011. Terrorist attacks in 2015 caused the declaration of a state of emergency for three months (Alexander 2016), but democracy returned. Tunisian democracy remains the crowning achievement of the Arab Spring.

Turkey (1960, 1971, 1980, 1993, 1997, 2007, 2016) A constitutional republic from 1923, universal suffrage came in 1933, but single-party rule prevailed until 1946. Nearly one-quarter of the population are Kurds, a few of whom seek to form an independent state. Accordingly, uprisings have been suppressed from 1925 to the present, including coup attempts in 1960, 1971, 1980, and 1997, and a contemplated coup leading to a political crisis in 2007, each time with the army trying to prevent the gov- ernment from betraying the secular principles of the founding revolution by Kemal Ataturk (Pope and Pope 2011). Although the president has nominal powers under the constitution, he has responded to unrest in recent years by expanding his powers (Genç 2016), especially after an attempted coup in 2016.

Uganda (1966, 1971) In 1962, the country became independent and held a democratic election. The constitution was suspended in 1966 after factional wrangling, and a new constitution was issued in 1967. A military coup in 1971 installed Idi Amin, who carried out many constitutional violations and atrocities (Kyemba 1977). War with Tanzania resulted in the removal of Amin in 1979, but democracy was not restored due to coups in 1980, 1985, and 1986 (Mutibwa 1992). A constitutional refer- 364 Appendix B: Democracies that Have Floundered and Failed endum re-established democracy in 2005, though there have been accusa- tions that the 2011 election was rigged (European Union 2011).

Ukraine (2004, 2014) After centuries of foreign occupation, the existing parliament declared independence in 1991. In 1996, a democratically elected president was charged with corruption, electoral fraud, discourag- ing free speech, and concentrating too much power in his office.I n 2004, Viktor Yanukovych won a run-off­ election, which was determined to be rigged. The streets were then filled with protests, known as theO range Revolution. The Supreme Court declared the election void, and voters in a new run-off election picked Victor Yushchenko (Yekelchyk 2007). But when Yanukovych won in the 2010 election and ditched an agreement to join the European Union in 2013, protests erupted again, and he was ousted by parliament in 2014 and fled the country.P edro Poroshenko won new elections later that year. Russia then seized Crimea and facilitated the takeover of eastern provinces by Russian-speaking Ukrainians (Menon and Rumer 2015).

United States of America (1861, 1995, 2013, 2018) The United States elects presidents based on a system known as the Electoral College. In 1800, no candidate for president had a majority in the Electoral College, so the decision was constitutionally referred in 1801 to the House of Representatives. Because Maryland and cast blank ballots for seven days, paralysis prevented a majority decision until Jefferson was finally declared the winner (Keane2009 : 291–93). On other occasions (1824, 1870, 1888, 2000, 2016), the winner of the Electoral College vote has failed to gain a majority of the popular vote, though less dramatically. The , which began in 1861, attested to the failure of democracy. President Abraham Lincoln said as much in his Gettysburg Address in 1863, though the “democracy” of the day allowed neither non-Whites nor women to vote. The end of the war meant that democracy was imposed on the South by military occupation from the North, includ- ing Blacks elected to office after they gained the right to vote by constitu- tional amendment in 1870. Military occupation ended in 1877, when democracy was restored for Whites in southern states, who then discrimi- nated against Blacks. Until the Voting Rights Act of 1965, the country was virtually a Herrenvolk democracy (cf. Mickey, Levitsky, Way 2017). Appendix B: Democracies that Have Floundered and Faile d 365

Full government shutdowns have occurred on a few more than a dozen occasions, though most of the time for less than a week, while Congress and the president tried to negotiate compromise budgets. In 1995, there were twenty-one days of gridlock. In 2013, the delay lasted sixteen days. Earlier problems have occurred because of policy disputes, but more recently the dispute has been ideological, indicating a major breakdown in consensus about what kind of government the American population pre- fers (Brass 2011; Wearden 2013). The election of Donald Trump has produced turmoil, with some 16,000 employee positions vacant, including ambassadorial positions (Kwong 2017). A series of executive orders reversed previous policies, only to be stopped in some cases by the courts. Three temporary budgets in 2017 were followed by a government shutdown in mid-January 2018. Meanwhile, Trump engaged in impeachable offenses that violated either federal laws or political customs. If Democrats regain control of Congress, efforts to remove him from office will doubtless begin in 2019.

Uruguay (1933, 1968, 1973) Independent by 1828, Uruguay’s democ- racy can be traced to constitutional developments in 1903. A coup by the incumbent president in 1933 led to a redrafted constitution in 1934. However, the rise of a communist threat led to the declaration of a state of emergency in 1968 and a military coup in 1973. A vibrant democracy was restored in 1984 (Gonzales 1992).

Venezuela (1989, 1992, 1993, 2002) Fully independent in 1821, Venezuela was under caudillo rule until 1945 and military rule until 1958, when democracy began. Guerrilla movements in the 1960s were followed by economic downturns (Ewell 1984). Riots broke out in 1989, two coups were attempted in 1992, and the impeachment of the president for ­corruption in 1993 sowed the seeds for the popular leftist movement led by Hugo Chávez, who was first elected in 1998. As opposition developed, and he destroyed the independence of the judiciary while coping with a coup in 2002, business lockouts and strikes in late 2002 and early 2003, and a recall referendum in 2004 (Gott 2005). Although he was re-elected in 2006 and 2012, he was by then running a one-party state (Brading 2012). When he died in 2013 (BBC 2013c), a new president was selected who was close to Chávez in philosophy, but unrest continues (de Córdoba and Vyas 2012). 366 Appendix B: Democracies that Have Floundered and Failed

Yemen (1994, 2004) Yemen tried to set up a democracy with elections and a parliament in 1990, when North Yemen and South Yemen ended their civil war and agreed to unify. Following food riots in 1992, a parliament was elected in 1993 and a was formed, but the vice president withdrew to the south in 1994 when his demands were not met. An accord between the president and vice president did not stop a civil war in 1994 (Phillips 2008). In 1999, Yemen held its first direct presidential election, but an insurgency began in 2004 and the country has been torn apart ever since. Notes

Chapter 1 1. The list of definitions of “democracy” in Appendix A should also alert those who believe in the “democratic peace” ideology to the fact that they have never clarified their basic terms (Haas2014a : 11–23). Which kinds of democracies do not go to war with which kinds of democracies? Which components have to be present to be a “democracy”? Such questions have never been asked or answered, raising doubts about whether the scholars are really interested in conclusions based on evidence or instead on pushing an ideology that will legitimate efforts by governments to impose democracy elsewhere.

Chapter 2 1. i am obviously describing what happened after Hitler was elected in Germany but also the first days of Donald Trump’s presidency. 2. in a survey of voters in 2016 (MacWilliams 2016), only one vari- able was robustly related to voting preferences for Donald Trump—a four-­point scale identifying authoritarian childrearing preferences. All other explanations washed out. 3. The base value among indigenous peoples was determined to be rectitude.

© The Author(s) 2019 367 M. Haas, Why Democracies Flounder and Fail, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-74070-6 368 Notes

4. For a more detailed diagrammatic presentation of the paradigm, including several variants, see Haas (2017a: chap. 5, 2017b: chap. 7). 5. For an exposition of the Structural-Functional Paradigm, see Haas (2017a: 168–70, 2017b: 82–85). 6. For a more extensive exposition of the Pressure Group Paradigm, see Haas (2017a: 129–33, 2017b: 52–54). 7. For a fuller exposition of social capital theory, see Halpern (2005). Increasing social capital is the subject of the Social Exchange Paradigm of George Homans (1958, 1961), Peter Blau (1964), and Richard Emerson (1976), as explicated in Haas (2017a: 146– 47). The Rational Choice Paradigm is explained more fully in Haas (2017a: chap. 7, 2017b: 138–39). 8. For an exposition of network theory, see Wasserman and Faust (1994) and Rainee and Wellman (2012). Network Theory is an application of the Field Paradigm (Haas 2017a: 129–33, 2017b: 74–76).

Chapter 4 1. Straits Times, the main newspaper in Singapore, does not have bylines, so the articles cited are given dates without article titles. The same applies to the Manila Chronicle. 2. FEER is the acronym of the Far Eastern Economic Review.

Chapter 5 1. For an explication of the Rational Choice Paradigm, see Haas (2017a: chap. 7, 2017b: chap. 6). 2. The term “gerrymander” comes from the salamander shape of the voting district drawn by Governor Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts in 1812. Although his name was pronounced with a hard “g” and thus does not sound like “jerry,” the incorrect pronunciation of “gerrymander” has taken hold in the media and is echoed even among political scientists today. 3. As in Chap. 2, I use the term “pressure groups” instead of the more fashionable “interest groups.” The reason is that interest groups only matter within the Mass Society Paradigm when they exert pressure. Note s 369

4. At a panel held during the annual convention of the American Political Science Association, , September 1, 2017. 5. For example, in 2017 Congress passed the Over-the-Counter Hearing Aid Act. Instead of receiving acclaim for ensuring that hearing aids would meet minimum standards, the media were mostly silent about the new law, which was covered in the publica- tion of a public interest pressure group (Consumer Reports 2017) and in the Washington Times (Moore 2017). 6. Most states are not in gridlock. For an analysis of a state where the will of the people is enacted by government, see my How to Demolish Racism: Lessons from the State of Hawai’i (2016). 7. evidence for many statements in this section is found in One Nation After Trump by Dionne, Ornstein, Mann (2017). 8. Schadenfreude is translated as the “joy of making damages.” Many voters picked Trump because they wanted to “shake things up,” a phrase consistent with that sentiment. Interestingly, German American voters heavily supported Trump, especially in the Dakotas and , where German Americans are nearly half the popu- lation (Devtob 2016). 9. All American news media were banned from attending Trump’s meeting with the Russian ambassador to the United States and Russian foreign minister on May 10, though Russian media were allowed in. Although the banned media could have filed a court case to contest their exclusion, similar to one lost by a Honolulu mayor (Haas 2016: 117), they declined to do so. 10. The term “punk” is applied because Trump appears to demon- strate the ideology of the punk rock movement—the alienation of the 1970s, when respect for government dramatically declined and powerlessness and reduced expectations pervaded the younger generation. Songs of punk rock musicians were filled with anarchistic, angry, confrontational, energetic, hostile, inef- fable, intelligent, libertinistic, rebellious shock tactics; they appeared to want social upheaval yet were worldly and filled with inarticulate inner concerns (J. Savage). Nevertheless, Trump grew up in the 1960s, and his favorite songs come from Elton John (“Rocket Man”), Queen (“We Are Champions”), the Rolling Stones (“Start Me Up”), Twisted Sister (“We’re Not Gonna Take It”), and Neil Young (“Rockin’ in the Free World”), all of whom resent his use of their songs at his rallies (J. Lynch, 370 Notes

M. Lynch 2016). Yet his style resonates with the Sex Pistols (Parker 2016) and other punk rock bands (the Dictators, the Heart Breakers, Talking Heads) that populated the Queens sec- tion of until they were overshadowed by the disco era. 11. Germany started World War I on a similar basis (Zinnes, North, Koch 1961; Haas 2018). 12. A majority of the House Judiciary Committee also charged Nixon with abuse of power and contempt of Congress. Only a minority wanted to accuse him of failure to pay taxes and of secretly bomb- ing Cambodia.

Chapter 6 1. Rather than using the term “global governance,” wordcoiner John Keane (2005) prefers the term “cosmocracy” as midway between total anarchy and world government. The terms “globalization” and “regime” are rather ambiguous (Lipson 2004: 7; Kamola 2013). 2. Some use the term “transnational governance” to refer to “global governance” (Roger and Dauvergne 2016). “Intergovernmental governance” and “transnational governance” are two components of “global governance.” 3. For an excellent historiographic account of the origin and evolution of the concept of global governance, see Weiss and Wilkinson (2014: 208–10). Much of the globalization literature is descriptive rather than taking the paradigmatic approach as in the present volume. 4. Treaties, which are more commonly bilateral, have existed since about 2500 bce (Altman 2012).

Chapter 7 1. Communitarianism is often confused with communism and reli- gious or ethnoracial identity politics (cf. Kepel 2017). 2. Although I refer primarily to Hawai’i, is also innovative, having established the cap-and-trade system and many other reforms. Note s 371

Appendix A 1. The Polity database has never been dimensionalized but instead pools specific variables into a single index as if “democracy” were a unidimensional concept, focusing mainly on “free and fair elec- tions.” Polity has no measure of civil society, whereas there is a civil society database covering forty-four countries in Heinrich (2007).

Appendix B 1. other types of democracy could be added, such as agonistic democ- racy, ancestral democracy, aristocratic democracy, bourgeois democracy, caudillo democracy, committee democracy, cosmopoli- tan democracy, counterfeit democracy, electoral democracy, kabuki democracy, overhead democracy, performance democracy, primi- tive democracy, primary democracy, protective democracy, referen- dum democracy, republican democracy, stakeholder democracy, stealth democracy, and tribal democracy (Redford 1969; Dahl 1970: 68–69, 71; Held 1995, 2006; Terchek and Conte 2000; Hibbing and Theiss-Morse 2002; Paley 2002; Archibugi 2008; Marchetti 2008a, b; Keane 2009: xx, xxiv, 95–101, 107–13, 374– 454, 877; Alterman 2011; Klaas 2017). References

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A “Administrative state,” 23, 197, Abbasid Caliphate, 245 295, 323 Abkhazia, 233, 343 Administrative tribunals, 203 Abortion, 124, 142, 146, 172, 188, 207 Adorno, Theodore, Abramowitz, Alan, x, 154, 158, 172 43, 44, 148 Absentee landlords, 46 Advertising, 44, 115, 174, 180, Academic freedom, 120 183, 205 Academic standards, 185 Advisory Opinions, Academic world, 231 265, 266 Access to power, 58, 163 Advocacy scientists, 253 Accountability Adzharskaya, 233 economic, 263 Affection, 44 governmental, 9, 15, 334 Affirmative action, 308 political, 15 Affluence, 250 Accountants, 174, 236 Afghanistan Acculturation, 141, 150 democracy, 1, 6, 24, 332 Adams, James Truslow, 148 elections, 332 Adams, John, 14, 16, 27, 170 Kabul, 332 Addiction, 56, 151, 207 monarchy, 332 Adios, America: The Left’s Plan to power-sharing, 332 Turn Our Country into a Third riots, 332 World Hellhole, 182 Taliban, 332

1 Note: Page numbers followed by ‘n’ refer to notes.

© The Author(s) 2019 465 M. Haas, Why Democracies Flounder and Fail, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-74070-6 466 INDEX

Africa, 17, 215, 219, 232, 239, 240, Anarchy, vii, viii, 7, 63, 257, 290, 248, 252, 253, 256, 259, 263, 310, 370 271, 272, 276, 277, 285, 286, Andean Tribunal of Justice, 267 303, 306, 321, 360 Anglicans, 141 See also specific countries Anglo-European culture, see Culture African Union, 235, 272 Annan, Kofi, 349 Agenda setting, 183 Anomie, 41, 48, 63, 151 Agglutinative hypothesis, 44, 50 Anti-Alcohol Regime, 237 Aggregation Anti-clericalism, 87 heterogeneous, 76, 97 Anti-colonialism, 283 homogeneous, 76, 96, 97 Anti-democratic attitudes, 51 Aggressiveness, 42, 94 Anti-democratic politics, 28, 37 Agricultural self-sufficiency, 283, 306 Antigua and Barbuda, 270 Agriculture, 72, 86, 93, 94, 136, 218, Anti-Piracy Regime, 238, 274–275 276, 283 Anti-Slavery International, 236 AIDS, 237, 243 Anti-Tobacco Regime, 237 Airline companies, 259 Anti-Westernization, 247 Albania, 258 Antony, Marc, 357 Alcoholism, 63, 151, 207 Anxiety, cultural, 207 Algeria Anxiety, economic, 244 economy, 301 Apartheid, 252, 253, 272, 292, 303, election, 318, 332 321, 360 military, 70, 318, 332 See also South Africa Algerian War, 76 Aquinas, Thomas, 245 Alienation, 41, 47, 48, 72, 85, 90, Aquino, Benigno, Jr., 356 103, 117, 130, 137, 205, 360 Aquino, Corazon, 356 Alighieri, Dante, 308 Arabic language, 249 Allende, Salvador, 337 Arabic-speaking countries, 243 Almond, Gabriel, 49, 72, 151, 166 Arab Spring, 59, 64, 243, 250, 289, Aloha Spirit, 54 352, 363 Aloha State, see United States, Hawai’i Aragón, 12 Alperovitz, Gar, 320 Arbitration, 203, 237, 266, 268, 269, Alterman, Eric, 189, 197, 294, 295, 271, 280 327, 371 Arctic Ocean, 268 Alternative trade organizations Arendt, Hannah, 43 (ATOs), 282–285, 287 Argentina America Online, 250 anarchists, 332 Amin, Idi, 363 constitution, 332 Amnesty International, 108, 116, 251, coups, 332 253, 277, 311 “dirty war,” 332 Analects, The, 35 economy, 276, 332 Anarcho-syndicalism, 94 elections, 332 INDEX 467

labor conditions, 332 citizenship, 333 military, 328, 332 economy, 7, 8, 329, 330 Peronista Party, 332 elites, 333 president, 332 military, 7, 333 Unemployed Workers’ oligarchy, 8, 333 Movement, 328 ostracism, 333 Aristide, Jean-Bertrand, 345 taxes, 333 Aristocracy, 7, 72 wars, 8, 333 Aristotle, 7–9 See also Greece Arms control, 234 Atolls, 242 “Arrogant capital,” 169 Atomization, 48 Arson, 36 Attitudinal cleavages, 70, 91 Artsakh, 233 Attitudinal inoculation, 183 Asia, 102, 103, 106–108, 110, 118, Attitudinal polarization, 51, 52, 154 119, 129, 130, 219, 248, 259, Attorneys, 115, 116, 122, 127, 271, 272, 275, 286 186, 202, 208, 217, 220, 221, See also specific countries 241, 306 Asian African Legal Consultative See also Lawyers Organization, 271 Au, Alex, 115 Asian Development Bank, 240, 271 Australia, 17, 19, 110, 130, 159, 256, Asian Infrastructure Investment 263, 268, 272, 276, 296, 355, 360 Bank, 240 Australian ballot, 18 Asian regional cooperation, viii Austria “Asian Values,” 114, 118, 119 annexation by Germany, 328, 330 Asiaweek, 106, 107, 113, 131 militias, 333 Assange, Julian, 179 parliament, 333 Assemblies, 11, 18, 21, 36, 106, 119, political parties, 318, 333 254, 256–258, 260, 284, 286, Austria-Hungary, 333 322, 323, 334, 342, 344, 349, Authoritarianism, 57, 348 357, 358, 360 Autocracy, 291 See also Legislatures Automation, 165, 226 Assembly line, 41 Ayatollah, 322, 347 Assimilation, 48, 140 Azerbaijan Associated Press, 178 coup, 333 Association for the Taxation of Soviet era, 333 Financial Transactions for the Aid war, 333 of Citizens (ATTAC), 237 Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN), 235, 269, B 271, 272 B-20, 276 Ataturk, Kemal, 363 Bachrach, Peter, 22, 51, 329 Athens (city-state) Bagehot, Walter, 10, 309 468 INDEX

Bail, 202 Belize Bakunin, Mikhail, 64 general strike, 335 Balaguer, Joaquín, 339 taxes, 335 Balance of power, 246, 305 Bell, Daniel, 1, 49, 67, 138 Balaúnde Terry, Fernando, 355 Benelux, 300, 310 Baltzell, E. Digby, 46 Benin Bangladesh Cabinet, 335 constitution, 334 coup attempt, 335 corruption, 334 military, 335 coups, 353 Bentham, Jeremy, 8 elections, 334, 353 Bentley, Arthur, 43, 50 military, 334 Berger, Peter, 15, 54 political parties, 334 Berlin Conference, 239 secession from Pakistan, 334 Berlin, Isaiah, 47 Bankruptcy, 167, 195, 302 Berry, Jeffrey, 13, 161, 164, Bannon, Steve, 206–208, 215, 295 166, 169 Baptists, 141, 142 Biased pluralism, 169 Baratz, Morton, 22, 51 Bible, 19, 109 Barber, Benjamin, 225 Bicameralism, 12, 184, 185, 187 Barber, Richard, 161 Bigo, Didier, 241 Bargaining, 84, 193, 198, 233, 270, Bilderberg Conference, 241 318, 326 Bilingualism, 132 Basic human values, 43 Billionaires, 63, 158, 205, 241 “Basket of currencies,” 276 Bills of rights, 19 Batista, Fulgencio, 338 Binder, Sarah, 185, 187, 225, 293 Bauman, Eric, 180 Biology, 38, 123 Baum, L. Frank, 40 Bipartisanship, 217, 294 Behavioral economics, 182 Blacklisting, 43 Belgian Congo, see Congo, Blackmail, 106 Democratic Republic of Black Sea, 239 Belgium Blaming the Victim, 57 Brussels, 334 Blasphemy, 61 consociationalism, 334 Bleak House, 40 federal proposal, 334 Blogs, 114, 250 languages, 334 Blood pressure, 213 parliaments, 334 Blue-chip companies, 280 partition proposal, 334 Blue-collar workers, see Workers political parties, 334 “Bluewashing,” 279 pressure groups, 334 Boards of directors, 125, 322 religions, 334 Boards of regents, 252 secession from the Netherlands, 334 Bobbie, Norberto, 13 “social partnership,” 334 Boehner, John, 144, 190, 191 subsides, 334 Bolívar, Simón, 272 INDEX 469

Bolivia, 335 Good Friday Agreement, 328 indigenous people, 335 Isle of Man, 11 martial law, 335 Magna Carta, 12, 18, 34 military, 335 Northern Ireland, 328 nationalization, 335 Oxford University, 132 natural gas, 335 parliament, 120 presidents, 335 Poll Tax Protest, 216 pressure groups, 335 Privy Council, 122 Bolshevism, 62 Protestants, 328 Bonaparte, Napoleón, 36 Tories, 14 Bonding, 54, 131 Whigs, 14 Boot, Max, 214 British colonialism, 36, 120, 121, 127, Bork, Robert, 188, 201 128, 132 Bosch, Juan, 339 Brown, David, 102, 134, 136 Bosnia and Herzegovina Brunei, 102 civil war, 335 Brüning, Heinrich, 344 federal system, 335 Brussels General Act of 1889-1890, 237 privatization, 335 Brzezinski, Zbigniew, 47 secession from Yugoslavia, 335 Băsescu, Traian, 358 Serbians, 335 Buddhism, 100, 346 Bourgeoisification, 94 Bullying, 182, 205 Bowling, 53, 54 Bunker, Archie, 216 Boxer, Barbara, 293 Bureaucracy, 23, 74, 75, 157, 164, Boycott campaigns, see Campaigns 168, 199, 302 Brady, David, 192, 193, 198, 296, 298 Bureaucratic paternalism, 87 Brain drain, 135, 293 Bureaucratic rule, 42, 52, 157 Brainwashing, 303 Bureaucratic rule making, 23, 28, Brazil 32, 42, 52, 87, 98, 146, 152, coup, 335 157, 167, 168, 197, 199, dictatorships, 335 317, 321 military, 335 Bureaucratization, 23 Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Bureaucrats, 28, 32, 33, 35, 52, 152, Africa (BRICS), 240, 277, 286 167, 168, 193, 197–199, 214, Bread riots, 312 240, 319, 323 Breitmeier, Helmut, 243, 252, Burgesses, 12 273, 279 Burke, Edmund, 21, 26, 155, 319 Brexit, 18, 182, 309 Burma, see Myanmar Bribery, 254 Burnham, James, 161 Bridging, 54, 55 Burnheim, John, 22, 319 Britain Burtenshaw, Claude, 51, 326 Bristol, 319 Burundi Catholics, 14 assassination of the president, 335 empire, 239 ethnic violence, 335 470 INDEX

Bush, George W., 178, 179, 181, 196, Phnom Penh, 233, 336 197, 199, 269 political parties, 336 Businesses, 7, 14, 17, 37–41, 43, 46, United Nations era, 233, 336 50, 54–56, 68, 79, 82, 83, 87–93, wars, 336 96, 108, 114, 124, 125, 128, 145, Campaigns 158, 159, 161, 164, 165, 168, boycott, 182, 253 174, 182, 183, 186, 189, 204, direct action, 253 207, 211, 214, 217, 218, 226, direct enforcement, 253 227, 233, 238, 249, 262–264, funding, 163, 293 269, 278, 281, 282, 284–286, issue, 158, 171, 178, 195, 205, 304, 305, 333, 334, 365 227, 236, 251, 253, 256, 301 associations, 280 negative, 157, 301 owners, 87–91 positive, 301 Buycott campaigns, see Campaigns promises, 139, 195, 209, 219, 269 “Buyer’s remorse,” 207 publicity, 24, 253 Byzantine Empire, 275 verbal, 253 See also Political, campaigns Canada C independence, 337 Cabinets, government, 73, 76, 115, indigenous people, 337 136, 139, 208, 211, 219, 224, Klondike, 216 318, 356 languages, 337 Cable News Network (CNN), 181 Québec, 337 Caesar, Augustus, 357 Social Credit Party, 320 Caesaristic breakthroughs, 72 University of Alberta, x Caesar, Julius, 357 Cancer, 126, 130, 159 Caesar, Octavius, 357 Caning, 128, 129 Caetano, Marcelo, 357 Canon 29, 245 Cáin Adomnáin, 245 Cantons, 18, 35, 81, 319 Caldwell, Malcolm, 127 Cantor, Eric, 190 Caliphates, 245 Cantril, Hadley, 56, 85 See also specific caliphate Capital Cambodia accumulation, 54 Communist Party, 336 economic, 37, 42, 55, 59, 244, 263, constitution, 336 272, 282 coup, 336 offenses, 121 elections, 336 political, 183, 198 foreign relations, 226 social, 54–57, 147, 364n7 French colony, 332 Capitalism guerrillas, 336 crony, 125 Khmer Rouge, 233, 336 market-oriented, 50 military, 336 unregulated, 42 parliament, 336 Western, 242 INDEX 471

Carbon emissions, 267 Chemical industry, 253 Carlsson, Ingvar, 230 Cheng, Vincent, 116, 128 Carnegie, Andrew, 39 Chewing gum, 134, 135 Carol II, 358 Chia Thye Poh, 127 Cartels, 234, 280 Chicanery, 24 Cash crops, 261 Child soldiers, 252 Castile, Kingdom of, 12 Chile Castro, Fidel, 338 Congress, 337 Catalonia, 10, 12, 361 coups, 337 See also Spain economy, 337 “Catch-22,” 308 elections, 337 Cat food, 162 political parties, 337 Catholic Church, 95, 105, 109, 232, relations with the United States, 236, 245 263, 270 Catholicism, 89 Santiago, 337 Caucasians, 99, 150, 151, 346, 360 sex scandal, 337 Causal analysis, 236 strikes, 337 Cellphones, 56, 60, 179 China, see China, People’s Republic of Censorship, 115 “China model,” 67 Central America, 150 China, People’s Republic of Central banks, 242, 276, 342 Beijing, 240, 268, 286 Centrism, 95 Ming Dynasty China, 10 Céspedes y Quesada, Carlos Shanghai, 240, 326 Manuel, 338 Chinese language, 111, 132 Ceylon, see Sri Lanka Cholera, 260 Chamberlain, Neville, 239 Cholesterol, 213 Chambers, Whittaker, 45 Choonhavan, Chatichai, 362 Chapultepec Peace Accords, 341 Christian Conference of Asia, 110 Charisma, 142, 149, 298, 307 Christian culture, see Culture, Charles I, 12 Christian Charles IV, 10 Christian Democratic Parties, Charter of Economic Rights and 318, 337, 348 Duties of States, 286 Christianity, 24, 117, 245 Chaudhry, Mahendra, 341 Christian religion, 100, 146 Chauvinism, 38, 111, 118, 143, 144, Christian social gospel, 329 215, 216 Chrysler Motor company, 195 Chavez, Carlos, 33 Chua, Beng-Huat, 104, 107, 110, Chavez, Hugo, 365 113, 117, 119, 121, 125, 127, Checks and balances, 25, 170, 209, 130, 134 293, 301, 323 Churches, 41, 47, 49, 151, 164, Chee Soon Juan, 105, 115, 129 245, 283 Chehab, Fuad, 350 Churchill, Winston, 28 472 INDEX

Citizen advisory councils, 294, 317 “Clientelist politics,” 165 Citizenship loss, 135, 292 Climate Action Network, 252 Citizens’ juries, 324 Clinton, Bill, 171, 196, 197 City-states Clinton, Hillary, ix, 144, 171, 179, Greek, 5, 7, 8, 13 182, 194, 206, 207, 209, 221 (see also Athens; Sparta) Club of Rome, 241 Italian, 13 Coal industry, 322 “Civic politics,” 165 Coalition building, 307 Civil and political rights, 18–19, 21, Coalitions, 6, 26, 27, 42, 70, 72–74, 28, 185, 278, 295, 306, 310, 323 76, 78, 81, 82, 91, 92, 170, 193, Civil disobedience, 254 257, 301, 307, 318, 324, 331, Civilian control of the military, 292 342, 348, 353, 360, 361, 366 Civilization, 41, 42, 61, 149, 247, 290 See also Minimum winning coalition Civil rights, 19, 22, 35, 45, 145, 146, Cocoa, 283 164, 166, 171, 307, 320, 329 Code of Æthelberht, 9 Civil servants, 24, 107, 199, 209, Code of Hammurabi, 9 221, 241 Codes of conduct, 256, 279 Civil society, 3, 6, 13–15, 28, 39, 41, Coffee, 283 43, 47–49, 52–63, 67, 68, 99, Coffee plantations, 283 100, 103–124, 135, 140, 157, Cognitivism, 279 164, 175, 184, 185, 191, 204, Cohen, Daniel, 242, 247 223, 225, 227, 229–231, 241, Cold War, 1, 2, 43, 44, 61, 64, 77, 84, 243, 247–255, 258, 259, 263, 95, 97, 144, 164, 167, 197, 229, 276–278, 282, 285, 292, 293, 233, 240, 246, 247, 286, 309, 297, 299, 302, 307, 311–312, 325, 329, 341 324, 326, 327, 340, 352, 371 Cole, David, 163, 168, 178, 183, See also Media; Political parties; 202, 212 Pressure groups Colin, André, 95 Civil strife, 58, 62 Collective bargaining, 95, 133, Civil war, 2, 3, 5, 12, 34, 64, 67, 76, 278, 328 140, 141, 166, 197, 214, 307, Collectivism, 88 319, 331, 335, 338, 339, 341, College, 49, 119–120, 124, 133, 135, 344, 345, 349, 350, 354, 142, 147, 150, 151, 153, 158, 359–361, 364, 366 159, 162, 171, 185, 194, 226, Clarkson, Thomas, 237 261, 293–295, 307, 364 “Clash of civilizations,” 61, 247, 290 College education, 142, 147, 153 Class-action cases, 202 Colombia Class enmity, 85 civil war, 338 Classical economic theory, 37, 143 constitution, 337 Class warfare, 325 drug traffic, 338 Clean Clothes Campaign, 284 elections, 337 Cleisthenes, 7, 34 insurgency, 338 Clerical policies, 360 political parties, 338 INDEX 473

Colombo Plan, 272 Compromise, ix, 6, 28, 33, 50, 69, 73, Colonialism, 272, 302, 324 84, 86, 93, 149, 166, 167, 169, Colonial retention, 78 171, 172, 174, 176, 181, 185, Colonies, 10, 11, 16–18, 36, 100, 187, 188, 190–193, 199, 201, 232, 256, 258, 260, 272, 283 297, 304, 305, 316, 319, 324, Columbus, Christopher, 232 331, 361 Comey, James, 199, 208, 221, 224 Concentration span, 180 Command posts, 46 Concert of Europe, 239 Commentary, 144 Confidentiality Commission on Global Governance, banking, 125 230, 299 business, 125 Common market, 248 Conflict, 34, 37, 58, 61, 62, 70, 81, Communal farming, 283 86, 112, 138, 143, 148, 180, Communication, 44, 46, 49, 56, 59, 192, 219, 220, 225, 227, 237, 115, 247, 250, 278, 286 239, 248, 256, 258, 264, 271, face-to-face, 55 280, 316, 326, 333, 340, 341, Communism, 306, 324, 327, 370 344, 346, 348, 350 See also Euro-Communism nonconfrontation, 36 Communist parties, 42, 48, 60, 76, Conflict resolution, 256 84–86, 93–94, 100, 103, 324, Conformity, 116 325, 337, 355 Confucian values, 24, 119, 302 Communitarianism, 305, 306 Congo, Democratic Republic of Community, 2, 5, 11, 18, 22, 34, 41, civil war, 338 46, 47, 49, 53–55, 57–59, elections, 337 108–110, 130, 131, 159, 207, military, 337 236, 243, 255, 277, 296, 301, mines, 337 306, 307, 313, 315, 320, 324 nationalization, 337 identity, 47 Congo, Republic of Community Building Paradigm, Brazzaville, 337 290, 299–301, 310, 312, 313 coup, 337 Companies, 78, 111, 125, 159, 195, elections, 338 203, 249, 253, 279–281, 283, Congregationalists, 141 284, 320 Congresses, European, 239 See also Blue-chip companies; Congress of Vienna, 239 Businesses Consensus Competition, 59, 93, 118, 133, 160, cultural, 72 162, 227, 234, 254, 281, 282 political, 112 Competitive orientation, 118 Conservation, 247 Complaint processing, 270 Conservatism, 145, 304, 306 Complaints, 33, 114, 137, 168, 175, Conspiracy, 126, 221, 298 266, 269–271, 355 Conspiracy theories, 33, 142, 205, 206 Compliance reviews, 270 Constant, Benjamin, 36 474 INDEX

Constitutional convention, 294 Corruption, 24, 59, 105, 125, 126, Constitutional reform, 293–294 130, 151, 152, 168, 179, 200, Constitution of Medina, 9 206, 212, 253, 262, 278, 282, Constitutions, 3, 7–11, 15, 17, 19, 28, 330, 340, 342, 347, 349, 352, 52, 70, 77, 98, 100, 120, 121, 354, 355, 357, 358, 360, 361 140, 141, 184–186, 194, 196, Corsica, 10, 15, 16, 70 199, 211, 212, 224, 293, 294, Cosmopolitanism, 246, 286, 313 296, 301, 309, 339, 334, 337, Cosmopolitans, 2, 248, 249, 310, 367 338, 340–341, 343–346, 349, Costa Rica, 266, 270 351, 357–359, 362–367 Cost-benefit analysis, 147, 148 “Constraints decision-making,” 198 Cost of litigation, 202 Consumer global governance, Coubertin, Baron Pierre de, 254 282–283 Coulter, Ann, 182, 206 Consumerism, 169, 247, 250, 285, Council of Europe (CoE), 267 286, 310 See also European Court Contact Group on Piracy of the of Human Rights Somali Coast, 274–275 Counter-elites, 60, 96, 138 Contractors, 200 Counterterrorism regime, 274–275 See also Subcontractors Countervailing power, 50 Contracts, 13, 95, 126, 203, 240, Coups d’état, 3, 209 255, 262 Court filing fees, 203 Cook, James, 306 Courts, see Judiciary Cooperatives Cover-up, 221 consumer, 320 Crime, 41, 121, 123, 127, 129, 130, public, 320 137, 167, 178, 179, 196, 197, Coordination service firms, 280 201–203, 221, 222, 234, 236, Corporate acquisitions, 282 239, 242, 243, 247, 250, 256, Corporate executives, 229, 240, 241 266, 278, 297, 345, 364 Corporate global governance, Crimea, 221, 242, 364 280–282 Crimean War, 239 Corporate managers, 161 Crime deterrence, 129 Corporate mergers, 111, 225, 282 Criminal justice, 120, 127, 129, 202 Corporate state, 51 Crisis, vii, 1, 2, 20, 27, 40, 58, 64, Corporate takeovers, 274 117, 126, 140, 146, 197, 203, Corporations, multinational, see 242, 243, 276, 281, 301, 303, Corporations, transnational 307, 308, 312, 313, 331, 334, Corporations, transnational (TNCs), 345, 346, 357, 364 162, 229, 233–234, 237, 240, Critical mass, 8, 252 242, 244, 247, 248, 250, 251, Cromwell, Oliver, 10, 12 259, 262, 280–282, 284, 286, Crop specialization, 89 287, 292, 299, 300, 308, 310 Crossbow, 245 Corporatism, 124–125, 211 Crouch, Colin, 23, 180, 226, 291 INDEX 475

Crusades, 245, 311 D Cuba Dahl, Robert, x, viii, 7, 8, 21, 22, 25, colonial eras, 338 27, 28, 38, 41, 49–52, 63, 73, coups, 338 158, 161, 169, 170, 211, 244, elections, 338 294, 295, 298, 320–323, 326, general strike, 338 329, 330, 369n1 military, 338 Dahomey, see Benin Oriente Province, 338 Dairy industry, 85 rebellions, 338 Dalton, Russell, 54, 171, 294, 315 “Cult of the small,” 96 Dangers of mass society politics, 6 Cultural destruction, 247 Danube River, 265 Cultural insensitivity, 136 “Dark money,” 158 Cultural transformation, 297–298 Davies, Derek, 101, 110, 111, Culture 125, 128 American, 140, 147, 148, 244 Davos Conference, 241 Anglo-European, 141 Dawn of political consciousness, 34 Christian, 24, 147 Dean, Malcolm, 180 English, 140, 245 Death penalty, 116, 202, 245 global, 244–248 Death row, 265 imperial, 246 Debates, 44, 54, 105, 119, 158, 164, industry, 148 173, 178, 180, 181, 183, 187, international legal, 246 189, 191, 195, 200, 226, 258, political, 72, 140–150, 321 262, 304, 319 See also Subcultures Decabillionaires, 162 Culture-bound ideas, 24–25 Decapitalization, 42, 229, 281 Cutler, Claire, 280 Declining middle class, 243 Cyberwar, 211, 221, 250 Decolonization, 232, 246 Cyprus Deconstruction, 43 civil war, 338 “Deep state,”, foreign interventions, 338 see “Administrative state” Greeks, 338 Defamation, 104, 114, 224 military, 338 Defendants, 202, 203, 221 Turks, 338 Deferred maintenance, 167 Czechoslovakia De Gaulle, Charles, 69, 70, 76, 77, annexation, 338 88, 90, 91, 98, 292, 302, 343 Germans, 300 Dekker, Eduard Douwes, 283 Slovaks, 338 Delegates, 12, 21, 74, 172, 185, 195, Soviet era, 338 211, 319, 336 Sudetenland, 300 Demagoguery, 58 Velvet Revolution, 327 Demagogues, 7, 8, 25, 27, 42, 149, Czech Republic, 338 155, 185 Czempiel, Ernest, 231 Demarchy, 22, 319 476 INDEX

Dementia, 213 liberal, 21, 22, 138, 159, 304, 321, Demilitarization, 239 323, 327 Democracy liquid, 319 advocacy, 294, 317 majoritarian, 104 anticipatory, 317 monitory, 23, 325 cellular, 22, 317, 318 network, 23, 324 Christian, 318 nonpartisan, 324 conservative, 318, 329 opponents of, 25 consociational, 22, 306, 318 paradigm, 2, 58, 163 consolidating, 329 participatory, 22, 52, 321, 324, constitutional, 53, 330, 357 325, 327 controlled, 319 people’s, 325 cosmopolitan, 247, 249, 371 pluralist, 326 definition, 3, 363n1 polyarchic, 326 delegative, 319 popular, 22, 327 deliberative, 21, 319 procedural, 8–20, 31, 38, 72, 303, digital, 320, 327 313, 321, 327, 328 direct, 18, 21, 33, 35, 53, 158, 321, proletarian, 22, 327 322, 325 protective, 329, 369 economic, 22, 51, 320, 322, 330 by Public Opinion, 151 elitist, 329 pure, 319–321 emerging, 329 radical, 328 empowered, 320, 337 religious, 328 environmental, 247, 323 representative, 21, 33, 35, 39, ethnic, 320–321 53, 328 for the Few, 51 sectarian, 328 functional, 9 social, 22, 40, 88, 320, 329 global, 230, 238, 244, 248, 265, sovereign, 2, 25, 32, 329, 347, 349, 286, 287, 308–314, 318 351, 354, 358 grassroots, 22, 321 stakeholder, 285, 369 guided, 321, 345 substantive, 6, 9, 20, 28, 38, 69, 72, Herrenfolk, 22, 321, 359 293, 299, 303, 306, 315, 314, ideal, 21, 28, 327 321, 329 illiberal, 21, 138, 31, 323 town-hall, 319 inclusive, 22, 147, 322, 326 tribal, 5, 158, 369 industrial, 322 Democracy Under Attack: How the interactive, 23, 322 Media Distort Policy and Politics, Islamic, 322, 323, 328 180–184 Jacksonian, 323 Democratic Party, vii, 40, 88, 139, Jeffersonian, 323 144–146, 150, 156, 170, 171, juridical, 295, 323 173, 174, 180, 186, 205, 220, kabuki, 197, 327, 369 318, 336, 349 INDEX 477

Democratic selection of executives, Disequilibrated social system, 61 15–16 Disillusionment, 88 , 145 Displaced families, 131 Democratic theory, x, vii, 6, 7, 39, 50, Disqualification for office, 194 52, 69, 324 Dissent, 52, 109, 123, 347 Demographics, ix, 72, 74, 84, 86, 88, Dissidence, 41 91, 92, 97, 149–151, 172, 173, Dissident groups, 329 175, 208 “Dissimulation,” 36 Demoralization, 56, 157 Disturbance theory of group “Demosclerosis,” 139 formation, 164 Denmark Diversionary theory, viii, 63 plebiscite, 339 Divestment, 212 relations with Germany, Divide-and-conquer strategy, 149, 244 146, 318, 339 Divorce, 130, 151, 166 wars, 318, 339 Doctors Without Borders, 253 Department stores, 283 Doha Round, 230 Dependency theory, 127 Dolfuss, Englebert, 334 Deportation, 223 Domhoff, G. William, 51, 163 Deposition, 203 Dominica Desegregation, 300 independence, 339 Desertion, 36 mercenaries, 339 Destiny’s Children, 115 Dominican Republic Detomasi, David, 233, 263, 277, 282 elections, 339 Deutsch, Karl, 300, 307 independence, 339 Developing countries, 49, 59, 226, relations with the United States, 339 229, 242, 244, 253, 255, 261, war, 339 262, 276, 278, 281, 282, “Double agents,” 241 284–286, 289, 321 “Double government,” 197 Development economics, 241 Drawings, 55, 115 Deviant behavior, 59, 129 Drew, Elizabeth, 139, 156, 158, Dewey, John, 145, 305 160, 186 Dickens, Charles, 40 Drug addiction, 151, 207 Dictatorships, vii, 33, 51, 209, 331, Drug fatalities, 207 335, 349, 357, 358 Drug Regime, Global, 256 Dilemmas of Pluralist Democracy, 327 Drug rehabilitation, 130 Direct action campaigns, Drumpf, Friedrich, 215–216 see Campaigns d’Souza, Edgar, 110 Direct enforcement campaigns, Dual economy, 200 see Campaigns Ducpétiaux, Edouard, 238 Disbarment, 105, 122 Duda, Andrej, 357 Discrimination, 167, 188, 200, 204, “Dumbed down” content, 180 217, 278, 327, 329 Dunant, Henri, 236 478 INDEX

Durkheim, Émile, 41, 43, 44, 46–48, Economics 53, 56, 59, 61, 63, 64, 102, 103, classical, 37, 143 124, 151, 207 supply-side, 146 Dutch East India Company, 233 See also Behavioral economics Dutch Republic, 13, 232 Economic sanctions, 221 Duterte, Rodrigo, 357 Economic sectors, 145, 168 Dutton, Fred, 171 See also specific sectors Duverger, Maurice, x, 71–73, 81, 86, Economic stagnation, 59, 172 87, 94–96, 170 Economic warfare, 264 Duverger’s Law, 170 Economist, The, 113, 114, 135 Dye, Thomas, 162, 166 Economy, global, 1, 143, 162, 227, Dynastic families, 46 230, 236, 241, 274, 278, 281, Dynastic politics, 114 285, 286, 298, 303, 315 Dysfunction, 29, 49, 72, 74, 286 Ecuador, 247, 270, 339 Congress, 340 constitution, 340 E coups, 340 Earl of Leicester, 12 elections, 340 Easton, David, 49 impeachment, 340 East Timor, 258, 268, 347 indigenous people, 340 Eastwood, Clint, 149 judiciary, 340 Ebola, 259 military, 340 Eck, Kristine, 58 E-democracy, 320, 322 Eckstein, Harry, x Education Ecofriendly production, 284 citizen, 322 Economic austerity, 261 courses in, 133, 296 Economic bubbles, 39, 42 college, 49, 119, 120, 124, 133, Economic crises, 63, 118, 308 135, 142, 147, 153, 171, 208 Economic deterioration, 62 compulsory, 117 Economic development, 53, 101, 263, free, 153, 332 272, 323 morals, 117 Economic dominance, 43, 242 postsecondary, 119, 133 Economic downturns, 62, 301, 367 primary, 133, 261 Economic freedom, 7 public, 50, 318, 332 Economic growth, 59, 60, 103, 133, religious, 117, 245 163, 174, 225, 261, 263, 298 secondary, 133 Economic problems, 24, 149, 151, values courses, 133 152, 276 See also College education Economic reform, 172, 298 Educational curriculum, 133 Economic Regime, 286 Educational Reform, 293, 296 global, 286 Edward I, 12 Economic rights, 145, 286 Edward III, 12 INDEX 479

Egotism, 213 Eminent domain, 125 Egypt, 6, 64, 69, 261, 340 Emmanuel, Victor, III, 348 British protectorate era, 340 Empires, 9, 11, 18, 35, 36, 231, 232, Cairo, 245, 271 239, 245, 345 constitution, 10, 340 Empirical evidence, 38 Coptic Christians, 10 Employer-employee relations, 85 elections, 340, 349 Employer–worker pay ratio, 162 judiciary, 340 End-of-days apocalypse, 142 military, 340 “End of history,” 230 parliament, 340, 349 “End of liberalism,” 168 political parties, 6, 340 Energy sector, 163, 311 protests, 64, 340 Enforcement power, 264, 309 religions, 64 Engels, Friedrich, 15, 22, 34, 39, 40, Einstein, Albert, 42, 313 254, 306, 321 Eisenhower, Dwight, 45, 50, 196, 345 England, see Britain Elazar, Daniel, 147 English Constitution, The, 10, 309 Elchibey, Abulfaz, 334 English language, 132 Elderly persons, 160, 188, 207, 332 Enlightenment (knowledge), 35, 37, Election reform, 293, 295, 296 38, 43, 44, 52, 64, 147, 148, Elections, ix, 2, 24, 32, 73, 100, 146, 153, 214, 305 278, 292 Entrepreneurs, 125, 164, 251, 301, competitive, 19, 104, 160, 325, 327 302, 306–308, 313 Elective monarchy, 337 Entrepreneur theory of group Electoral constituency, 89, 185, 194, formation, 164 293, 294, 359, 363 Environmental conservation, 247 Electoral fusion, 173, 174 Environmental disasters, 249, 313 Electronic surveillance, 132 Environmental movements, 60 Elite–mass gap, 44, 46, 47 Environmental policy, 37, 60 Elites Environmental Regimes, global, 284 academic, 205 e-Petitions, 323 divisions, 301, 331 Epistemic communities, 236, 255 dominationism, 169 Equality, 7, 25, 28, 52, 141, 148, 174, media, 205 247, 306, 308, 318, 324 political, 49, 85, 205, 302 Equatorial Africa, 17 El Salvador, 18, 184, 216, 343 Erasmus, Desiderius, 305 civil war, 343 Ershad, General Hussain coups, 343 Muhammad, 334 military, 338 Estates General, 12, 329 Embezzlement, 339 Estonia, 321, 341 Emergence of modern democracy, independence war, 341 34–58 Soviet era, 341 Emerging markets, 224 Estrada, Joseph, 357 480 INDEX

Etheridge, Marcus, 198, 225 Ex-Political Prisoner Speaks Out in Ethiopia, 10 Singapore, 115 Ethnic chauvinism, 111 Expulsion from office, 82, 105 Ethnic diversity, 150 Extension of the franchise, 16, 40 Ethnicity, 319 Ethnic slurs, 134 Ethnocentrism, 136 F Ethnocracy, 320 Facebook, 178, 207, 215, 250 Etzioni, Amitai, 167, 300, 306 Factchecking, 183 Eurasians, 136 Factionalism, 14, 105 Eurobonds, 280 Factories, 15, 41, 59, 131, 133, Eurocentrism, 267 136, 269 Euro-Communism, 127 Failed democracies, 23, 331, 347 Europe Fair Trade Federation, 283 See also specific countries Fairtrade Labeling Organization European Coal and Steel (FLO), 283, 284 Community, 300 Fair trade movement, 253, 282, European colonies, 272, 283 283, 285 European Court of Human Rights, 267 Fair Trade System, 236 European Economic Community, 300 Fake news, 57, 141, 178, 199, 214, European integration, 65 215, 250 European Union, vii, 18, 235, 242, Falk, Richard, 227, 231, 244, 252, 248, 263, 269, 270, 273, 276, 261, 309 300, 309, 310, 367 False compliance, 36 Europe, banks, 280 Family, 41, 44, 46, 47, 54, 118, 123, Europe, Post-Communist countries, 58 124, 131, 133, 137, 150, 154, Evangelicalism, 142, 147, 149, 157, 204, 211–213, 215 172, 205 Famine, 259, 307 Eviction, 130, 131, 355 Far Eastern Economic Review, Evolution, 37, 143 112–114, 369 Exchange rates, 242, 261, 275, 276 Farming, 40 Exclusive economic zones, Farm labor, 94 233, 266, 269 Fascism, 211 Exculpatory evidence, 203 Fast-food restaurants, 213 Executive branch of government, 175 Fatimid Caliphate, 245 Existentialism, 43 Fauré, Edgar, 80 Experts, 52, 148, 155, 157, 158, 180, Fay, Michael, 128, 129 192, 197, 236, 237, 240, 252, Feasibility analysis, 192, 209 257, 260, 295, 299, 312, 313, Federal systems, 185, 335 315, 323, 324 Feigned ignorance, 36 resentment of, 155 Feldstein, Lewis, 54 Exploitation, 42, 119, 242 Felony, 203 INDEX 481

Feminism, 56 Foreign investment, see Investment, Ferejohn, John, 8 international Feudalism, 8, 34, 325 Foreign trade, see Trade, international Figureheads, 16 Forests, 45, 213, 279, 283–285 Fiji Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), Central Bank, 341 284, 285 coups, 341 Forest sustainability, 284 economy, 341 Formula 17, 115 elections, 341 Fossil fuels, 243 ethnic groups, 341 Fotopoulos, Takis, 322 independence, 341 Foucault, Michel, 36 judiciary, 341 Foundations, charitable, 125, 141 Filibuster, 145, 189, 210, 222, 295 Fourteen Points, 234 Filipinos, see Philippines FoxNews, 180–182, 210, 213, 249 Film industry, 43 Framing, 33, 178, 209 Films, 45, 115, 149, 247, 250 France Finance ministers, 276 Alsace, 343 Financial crisis 2008/09, 146, 203, Barangé Act, 81 242, 281, 359 cantons, 81 Financial–Monetary Regime, 274–277 Catholic Action, 95 Fingerprinting, 132 Catholic Association of Young Fiorina, Morris, 146, 151, 154, 156, Frenchmen, 95 159, 171, 172, 186, 198, 293 Clerical-Anti-Clerical cleavage, 80 First international, 238 coalition governments, 6 First World, 246, 260, 262, 276, 282 Communist-Non-Communist Fishing zones, 234 (East-West) cleavage, 82 Flipflopism, 209, 223 Communist Party, 84, 86, 93 FLO-CERT, 284 Confederation of French Christian FLO International, 284 Workers, 95 Floundering, ix, 2, 5, 7, 23, 28, 58, constitutions, 98, 301, 341, 342 61, 98, 172, 290–312, 331 coup, 76, 290, 291, 301, 342 Floundering democracies, 296, 299, Declaration of the Rights of Man 301, 307, 308 and Citizen, 19 Fogel, Cathleen, 48, 252 Declaration of the Rights of Woman Folk theory of democracy, 157 and Female Citizens, 19 Food Regime, 238 départments, 85, 94 Food safety, 281 Dreyfus Affair, 342 Food shortages, 40, 261 elections, 341, 342 Food sovereignty, 261 empire, 36, 232 Footdragging, 36 Estates General, 12, 329 Ford, Gerald, 196, 197 Farmer’s Union, 94 Forecasting, 315 Fifth Republic, 98, 292, 301, 342 482 INDEX

France (cont.) Republican Liberty Party (PRL), First Republic, 341 76, 90 Force Ouvier (FO), 94 Resistance during World War II, Fourth Force, 91 88, 103 Fourth Republic, viii, 1, 6, 52, 65, revolution, 13, 18, 19, 36, 60, 329 67–99, 139, 173, 187, 192, Riviera, 84 225, 291, 301, 302, 312, 342 Second Republic, 342 General Confederation of Socialist–Capitalist Cleavage, 77 Agriculture (CGA), 94 Socialist Party, 76, 78, 94 General Worker’s Confederation Third Estate, 12, 36, 341 (CGT), 93 Third Force, 91 Independent Unions’ Third Republic, 342 Confederation, 95 tripartism, 70, 78, 91 Institute of Public Opinion, 76 Union for the Defense of Law Concerning the Contracts of Shopkeepers and Artisans, 96 the Association of Capital and Vendée, 81 Labor, 95 Vichy Republic, 342 Lorraine, 81, 342 wars, 76, 77, 82, 83, 97, 342 Marseilles, 87 Young Republic, 95 Massif Central, 84 Franceville, 17 monarchists, 342 Franchise, 16, 21, 40, 43, 143, 159 monarchs, 60, 98 Franco, Francisco, 363 National Assembly, 36, 341 Frank, André Gunder, 281 National Council of French Frankfurt School, 43 Employers, 96 Franklin, Benjamin, 13 National Federation of Farmers, 94 Franks, 9 Paris, 36, 98, 342 Frank, Thomas, 144, 175 Paris Commune, 342 Free and fair elections, 59, 327, 343, Paris Gas Company, 78 349, 353, 354, 369 parliament, 76, 84, 88, 98, 301, Freedom of expression, 326 342, 351 Freedom of the press, 19, 110, 210 Partisans for Peace, 93 Free trade, 150, 218, 229, 247, 271 political parties, 6, 25, 73, 84, 148, French Sudan, see Mali 331, 349 Freud, Sigmund, 41, 42, 149 Radical and Radical-Socialist Party, 89 Friedrich, Carl, 47 referendum, 342 Friendliness, 147 Reign of Terror, 341 Fruits, 42, 283, 343 relations with Germany, 69, 89, Fujimori, Alberto, 354 239, 241, 276, 300, 342 Fukuyama, Francis, 1, 144, 230, Republican Catholic party, 88 248, 314 Republican Front, 91 Functional Spillover, 300 Republican Left Rally (RGR), Fundamentalism, 61, 146 80, 89, 95 Future Shock, 319 INDEX 483

G Germanic peoples, 9 G-6 summit, 276 German Ideology, The, 39 G-7 summit, 277 German language, 213 G-8 summit, 276 Germany G-20 summit, 211 Bavaria, 343 Gabon Berlin Wall, 343 constitution, 342 Bonn, 283 political parties, 342 Cabinets, 343 power-sharing arrangement, 342 Chancellors, 343 Galbraith, John Kenneth, 37, 50 economy, 276 Gallup Poll, 54, 219 Nazi era, 42, 47, 89, 300, 339, Gambia 342, 349 corruption, 343 Nazism, 206 coup, 343 Reichstag, 26 foreign relations, 343 Social Democratic Party, 40 president, 343 Third Reich, 321 “Game of politics,” 72, 180 unification, 343 Gandhi, Indira, 345 Wehrmacht, 239 Garland, Merrick, 189 Weimar Republic, 69 Garment industry, 284 See also Prussia Gates, Jeff, 243, 297 Gesellschaft, 58 Gay and lesbian rights, 142, 145, 278 Ghali, Boutros Boutros, 230 Gay marriage, 172, 207, 241 Ghana Gemeinschaft, 58 coups, 344 Gender identity, 164 republics, 344 General Agreement on Tariffs and Ghettoes, 130, 131 Trade (GATT), 264, 269, 270 “Gilded Age,” 38, 39 General Motors, 195 Gilens, Martin, 169, 183 Genetically modified food, 162 Gilsdorf, Robert, x Genetically modified organisms Gingrich, Newt, 139 (GMOs), 253, 284 Give Peace a Chance, 307 Geneva Accords, 335 Glasnost, 112 Geneva Conferences, 234, 236 Glennon, Michael, 151, 197 Genoa, 15, 268 Global businesses, see Corporations, Genocide, 266 transnational George W. Bush, War Criminal? The Global civil society, 68, 229–231, 243, Bush Administration’s Liability 247, 249–255, 258, 259, 285, for 269 War Crimes, 178 292, 299, 312 Georgia Global class struggle, 247 relations with Russia, 343 Global concentration, 251 Rose Revolution, 343 Global court, 309 Soviet era, 343 Global democracy, see Democracy 484 INDEX

Global dysfunction, 286 Global Witness, 251 Global economy, see Economy Glory, 62 Global elite, 238–242, 245, 249, 250, Godlessness, 141 255, 261, 274 Goffman, Alice, 297 Global environmental law, 267 Goguel, François, 72, 76, 81, 83, Global financial crisis of 2008, 84, 88 146, 359 Goh Chok Tong, 107, 112, 114, “Global good,” 248 132, 134 Global governance, 230, 231, 234, Goh Keng Swee, 118 236–239, 243, 244, 251, 252, Gold, 123, 232, 275, 276 255–286, 290, 299–301, 308, Golden age of journalism, 176 310–313, 366n1–3 Golden Bull of 1222, 18 Global Governance, 23 Golden Bull of 1356, 10 Global inequality, 282, 310, 312 Gold standard, 275, 276 Global institutions, 230, 231 Goldwater, Barry, 144, 146 Globalise Resistance, 247 Gómeza, José Miguel, 337 Globalization Google, 250 economic, 308 Gorbachëv, Mikhail, 112 predatory, 244 Governance Without Government, 231 Globalization-from-below, 252 Governmental process reform, Globalizers 294–295 corporate, 242 Government contractors, see institutional, 230, 231 Contractors Global justice, 286 Government crackdowns, 138 Global Justice Now, 250 Government gridlock, see Gridlock Global mass society, 63, 65, 68, 227, Government-guaranteed income, 318 229–287, 299, 308–313 Government inefficiency, 25 Global media, 247–251, 253 Government instability, 351 Global norms, 247 Government institutions, 49, 225 Global pluralism, 251 See also specific institutions Global power structure, 239–243, Government intervention, 251, 270, 299, 308 143, 304 Global public opinion, 243–244 Government nonresponsiveness, viii Global regimes, 231, 237, 238, Government overload, 60 273, 280 Government regulation, See also specific regimes 132, 209, 211 Global society, 231–238, 245, 246, Government subsidies, 227, 242 299, 313 Grafton, Lord Harry, 15 “Global standards,” 281, 282 Gramsci, Antonio, 13, 63 Global warming, 60, 148, 153, 155, “Grand coalition,” 316 163, 165, 183, 214, 230, 236, Grassley, Chuck, 144 253, 308, 311, 312 Grassroots, 16, 22, 56, 261, 321, 322 INDEX 485

Great Depression, 42, 43, 197, 275, military, 344 306, 341, 343 relations with the United Great Law of Peace, 10 Nations, 345 Great man theory, 101 relations with the United States, 345 Great Recession, 29, 277, 308 Guestworkers, 128 Greece Guild courts, 268 constitutions, 344 Guilds, 12, 13, 53, 241, 268 coups, 344 Gun killings, 207 independence, 344 Gurr, Ted Robert, x, 58 monarchy, 344 Gutiérrez Borbúa, Lucio Edwin, 340 Ottoman era, 344 political parties, 344 republics, 344 H revolution, 344 Haas, Ernst, 149, 246, 247, 300 wars, 344 Habeas corpus, 120, 202 See also Athens; Sparta Habermas, Jürgen, 13, 24, 33, 52, 53, Greed, 40, 46, 64, 311, 313 140, 309 Green movements, 323 Hacking of emails, 211 Greenpeace, 253 Hague Peace Conferences, 234 Grenada Haïti, 216, 258 elections, 344 American occupation, 340, 345 independence, 344 coups, 345 political parties, 344 election, 216, 340, 345 relations with the United States, 344 independence, 340, 346 Gridlock military, 345 governmental, 68, 161 Hale, Thomas, 230, 236, 270, 271, 280 judicial, 201, 202 Hamilton, Richard, 63, 85, 159, 307 legislative, 153, 163, 200, 226, 303 Handicapped persons, 164 Gridlock: Why Global Cooperation Handicrafts, 283, 284 Is Failing When We Need Hanging, 107, 121 It Most, 230 Hanifan, Lyda, 54 Grievances, 13, 14, 59, 108, 109, 176, Hanseatic League, 12, 235 204, 233 Harassment, 105, 137, 175, 218 Grote, George, 8 Hardin, Garrett, 26 Grotius, Hugo, 35, 246 Hard Times, 40 Guantánamo Naval Base, 178, 182, 247 Hard Truths to Keep Singapore Guatemala Going, 136 coup, 344 Hasenclever, Andreas, 273, 279 dictators, 344 Hassard, Frank, 23, 322 domestic violence, 184, 342 Hatch, Orrin, 144, 216, 233 guerrillas, 345 Hate groups, 57, 60 independence, 344 See also United States, Ku Klux Klan 486 INDEX

Havelaar Foundation, 283 Hindenburg, Paul von, 26, 343 Havel, Václav, 22, 283, 327 Hippies, 207 Hawai’i, viii, x, 16, 17, 22, 34, 54, Hispaniola, 340 151, 157, 269, 300, 306, 314, See also Dominican Republic; Haïti 319, 345, 366n2 Hitler, Adolf, 26, 33, 38, 42, 43, 52, Kingdom of, constitution, 345 60, 63, 138, 148, 149, 215, 239, Kingdom of, coup, 345 321, 342, 363n1 Kingdom of, economy, 269 Hitler Youth, 63 Kingdom of, racial groups, 345 Hobbesianism, 35 Kingdom of, relations with the Hobbes, Thomas, 34 United States, 257 Hochschild, Arlie, 154, 158 Kingdom of, royalty, 16, 345 Holland, see Netherlands Kingdom of, voting rights, 345 Hollywood films, 149 Republic of, 345 Holy Roman Empire, 232 State of see United States, Hawai’i Homage to Catalonia, 320 Hayek, Friedrich, 37, 146 Homans, George, 55, 364n7 Hazardous negligence, 268 Home Depot, 285 Health care, 152, 173, 174, 219 Homelessness, 131, 132 Health insurance, 144, 152, 153, 174, Homicides, 207 223, 224 Homosexuality, 142 Health Regime, Global, 260 Honduras, 184, 266, 345 Heart disease, 130 civil wars, 345 Hedonism, 26, 147, 250, 305 constitution, 345 Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 13 coups, 345 Hegemon, 230, 240 independence, 345 Hegemony and Socialist Strategy: military, 266, 345 Toward a Radical Democratic rebellions, 345 Politics, 329 Honey, 284 Hegemony, financial, 247 Horkheimer, Max, 38, 43, 44, 148, Hegemony, military, 247 149, 153, 296, 305 Heilbrunn, Jacob, 143, 144 Hostile outbursts, 59 Held, David, 38, 230, 236, 242, 309, Hostile takeover, 208 311, 330 Hotels, 211, 212, 220, 224, 249 Hellenic War, 8 Housing construction, 131 Hellwig, Timothy, 153, 172, How to Demolish Racism: Lessons 226, 227 from the State of Hawai’i, viii Hendrickson, E. Mason, 128 Human Henry III, 12 suffering, 6, 145 Herbs, 284 Human behavior, 44 Hereditary monarch, 17 Humanism, 37, 305, 306 Hidden Persuaders, The, 44, 182 Humanitarian aid, 241 High-rise apartments, 102, 130 Humanities, 142, 263 INDEX 487

Human rights, 24, 25, 35, 44, 60, economic, 72, 86, 163 103, 112, 117, 129, 147, 210, electoral, 73, 160 214, 231, 238, 246–248, infrastructural, 74, 91–96, 251–253, 255, 259, 260, 263, 163, 170 265, 270, 274, 277, 278, 285, parliamentary, 74–77, 187, 301 286, 299, 310, 311, 345 social, 74, 84–91, 150, 151 Committee, 103, 129, 278 See also France Regime, 231, 251, 274, Impeachment, 196, 221, 223, 224, 277–278, 299 355, 358, 365 Watch, 253, 255, 310 Imperial conquest, 34, 232 Hungarian Soviet Republic, 325 Implementation Hungary, 9, 18, 138, 265 effectiveness, 301 Hunter, Floyd, 34, 46, 49, 50 skills, 301 Hunter–gatherer stage, 34 Imposed governments, 119, 363n1 Huntington, Samuel, 1, 52, 59–61, Imprisonment, 105, 266 101, 156, 161, 165, 171, 241, Inclusiveness, 6, 147 247, 290, 296 Income Hurricane Katrina, 317 distribution, 73 Hyperinflation, 84 redistribution, 146, 298, 305, Hypernationalism, 42 329, 333 Incumbents, 152, 172, 174, 225, 338, 339, 365 I Indefinite detention, 121 Iceland, 11, 232, 263 Independence, 15, 16, 36, 76, 100, I-Democracy, 23, 322 102, 103, 111, 116, 119, 121, Identity 122, 126, 138, 141, 185, 199, lack of, 48 209, 256, 258, 260, 272, 302, politics, 171, 244, 366n1 306, 333, 335–337, 339–341, Ideology, 37, 72, 96, 118, 141, 146, 343–349, 351–355, 357, 148, 151, 172, 290, 304, 313, 359–361, 363–365 363n1, 365n10 Independent Media, 250 Idiocracy, 214 India, 5, 9, 11, 100, 132, 233, 237, Ikea, 285 240, 265, 272, 277, 279, 324, IMF riots, 261 346–347 See also International Monetary Fund Congress Party, 346 Immigration, 38, 56, 102, 140, 143, constitution, 9, 346 144, 148, 150, 152–154, 172, elections, 341, 346 182, 199, 205, 206, 215, 217, emergency powers, 347 220, 222, 289 independence, 347 Immobilism judiciary, 346 attitudinal, 70–73, 75, 77–83, 156 local governments, 347 cultural, 72, 73, 150 Indian Ocean, 258 488 INDEX

Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Initiative, 18, 21, 40, 158, 286, 311 Convention, 260 Inputs, 22, 23, 28, 49, 50, 70, 99, 107, Indigenous people, viii, 11, 63, 242, 140, 166, 168, 191, 197, 211, 245, 251, 260, 337, 363n3 235, 241, 252, 255, 274, 276, Individualism, 90, 141, 147 277, 280, 282, 284, 285, 295, Indochina, 78, 81 299, 313, 317, 324, 325, 329 See also Cambodia; Vietnam Insanity plea, 122 Indoctrination, 109, 133, 182 Instincts, 41, 42 Indonesia, 24, 137, 276, 321, 347 Institutional Relations Theory: Aceh, 347 Competing Empirical Paradigms, ix coups, 347 Insultocracy, 134 independence, 347 Integration, residential, 131 presidents, 24, 347 Integration theory, 300 rebellions, 347 Intellectual imperialism, 148 Sumatra, 347 Intellectuals, 42, 49, 72, 84, 87 Timor, 347 Interest aggregation, 49, 76 Industrial age, 8, 58, 320 Interest articulation, 49 Industrialization, 41, 47 Interest groups, see Pressure groups Industry, 40, 43, 72, 78, 79, 87, 96, Intergovernmental organizations 148, 159, 163, 165, 185, 195, (IGOs), 107, 231, 234, 235, 237, 227, 253, 261, 269, 275, 238, 244, 248, 250–253, 280–282, 284, 322, 347 255–275, 277, 279, 280, 286, Inefficiency, 25 299, 300, 308–310 Inequality, 7, 29, 50–52, 55, 59, 133, See also specific organizations 169, 183, 205, 206, 227, 242, Intermediate institutions, 243, 262, 270, 278, 282, 285, see Civil society 304, 305, 310, 312, 313 International Accounting Standards Inexorable change, 7 Board, 236, 281 Infant International Action Network on formulas, 253 Small Arms, 252, 274 industry, 261 International Alliance of Women, 254 Infectious diseases, 243 International arbitration, 268 Infirm persons, 329 International Atomic Energy Inflation, 27. 84, 133, 150, 162, 337 Agency, 235 See also Hyperinflation International Bank for Reconstruction Informal industry norms and Development (IBRD), and practices, 280 262, 270 Information International Bureau of monopolization, 247 Education, 256 political, 13, 303 International Business Brokers Infrastructure Association, 280 economic, 153, 172 International Center for Investment political, 95 Disputes (ICSID), 262 INDEX 489

International Center for the International institutions, Settlement of Investment 264, 265, 268 Disputes (ICSID), 269 Internationalism, 81 International Chamber of International judges, 241 Commerce, 237 International jurisprudence, 265 International civil servants, 241 International Labor Organization International Competition (ILO), 238, 256, 260, Network, 282 262, 279 International conferences, 234, 235, International law, 35, 243, 246, 258, 238, 241 264, 265, 268, 270, 273 See also specific conferences International lawyers, 241 International Congress of Women, 234 International legal culture, see Culture, International Container Bureau, 281 international legal International Court of Justice (ICJ), International Monetary and Financial 265, 266 Committee, 262 International courts, 266, 267, 309 International Monetary Fund (IMF), International Covenant and Economic, 100, 235, 240, 242, 261, 262, Social, and Cultural Rights, 310 275–277 International Covenant on Civil and International Narcotics Control Political Rights, 19, 310 Board, 256 International Criminal Court (ICC), International nongovernmental 235, 266, 277 organizations (INGOs) International Criminal Police environmental, 280 Organization, 235 labor, 264, 280 International currency stakegiver, 252 dollar, 240, 275 stakeholder, 251 gold standard, 275 staketaker, 251 silver standard, 275 women’s, 252 Solidus, 275 See also specific organizations yuan, 240 International Office of Public International custom, 246 Health, 234 International Development Association International Olympic Committee (IDA), 262, 270 (IOC), 254 International Federation of Alternative International Organization, 238 Trade, see World Fair Trade International Organization for Organization (WFTO) Standardization, 281 International Federation of Building International Passenger and Wood Workers, 285 Association, 259 International Finance Corporation International regions, 271 (IFC), 262, 271 International Sanitary Bureau, 234 International Grains Council, 236 International subregions, 272 International Herald Tribune (IHT), International Telecommunications 112, 114, 249 Union, 250 490 INDEX

International Telegraph Union, Iraq wars, 179 234, 235 Ireland, 11, 328 International Tribunal on the Law of Dublin, 232 the Sea (ITLOS), 266 Iron law of oligarchy, 25, 40, 57, 96, International Tropical Timber 166, 255 Organization, 284 “Iron triangle,” 168 International Workingmen’s Iroquois Confederation, 10 Association, 254 Iroquois League, 10 Internet Iroquois Nation, 325 blog, 114–116, 250 Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS), privacy, 274 219, 233, 258, 275 Interpol, see International Criminal Islam, Shiite, 245, 328, 347, 349 Police Organization Islam, Sunni, 245, 322, 328, 349 Invaders, 35, 178 Isle of Man, see Britain Investigative journalists, 253 Isomorphism, 58 Investment, 42, 96, 101, 125, 134, Israel, 219, 320 212, 217, 225, 226, 229, 241, Gaza Strip, 348 252, 253, 261, 269, 277, 278, Golan Heights, 344 281, 282, 303 independence, 348 capital, 282 kibbutzes, 306 international, 269 Palestinians, 348, 350 Investors, 241 protests, 347 Iran, 219, 322 relations with Lebanon, 348, 349 coup, 343 Sinai, 348 foreign relations, 347 wars, 348 Green Revolution, 347 West Bank, 258, 348 nationalization of oil, 347 Issue-areas, 50, 231, 234, 238, 253, parliament, 347 273, 274, 313, 319 rule by the Shah, 347 See also specific issue-areas Soviet occupation, 347 Issue campaigns, see Campaigns Supreme Ayatollah, 347 Issue entrepreneurs (vanguards), 251 Tehran, 347 Issue orientation voting, 157 Iraq, 6, 24, 64, 248, 257, 258, 347 Issue politics, 171 Baghdad, 245 Italy, 13, 51, 53, 56, 67, 124, 239, coups, 344 241, 276, 300, 353, 358 insurgencies, 347 Blackshirts, 348 Kurds, 328 coalitions, 6, 348 relations with the United States, monarchy, 348 25, 240, 247, 278, 347 political parties, 69, 348 revolutions, 347 referendum, 348 Iraqi Shia, 322 republic, 6, 348 Iraqi Sunnis, 245, 322, 328, 349 revolution, 348 INDEX 491

terrorism, 348 Judicial activism, 324 voting, 69, 348 Judicial appeals, 122 wars, 6, 239, 348, 353, 358 Judicial discretion, 123 Judicial independence, 126 Judicial review, 109, 120, 121 J Judicial sentence, 123 Jackson, Andrew, 170, 208, 323 Judiciary, 33, 40, 114, 116, 121, Jacobs, Aletta, 234 123, 205, 210, 223, 226, 340, James, Patrick, x, 27 356, 365 Jamieson, Kathleen Hall, 214 politicized, 120 Jammeh, Jayha, 343 Juices, 283 Japan Jungle, The, 177 Allied occupation, 348 Justice constitutions, 348 civil, 120 elections, 349 criminal, 120, 127, 129, 202 emperors, 348 “Just war,” 245, 264 foreign relations, 100, 103, 128, 241, 256, 276, 348 military, 348 K Okinawa, 348 Kafkaesque melodrama, 138 political parties, 348 Kahneman, Daniel, 182 Tokyo, 129, 312 Kant, Immanual, 35, 53, 246 wars, 348 Keane, John, 5, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14, 16, Jay Treaty, 268 18, 23–27, 38, 40, 42, 60, 180, Jefferson, Thomas, 14, 16, 146, 170, 234, 254, 323, 333, 347, 364, 317, 323, 364 370, 371 Jehovah’s Witnesses, 109 Kennedy, John, 151, 171, 240, 309 Jesus of Nazareth, 25 Kenya Jet travel, 235 constitutions, 349 Jews, 10, 215, 321 elections, 349 Jeyaretnam, Benjamin, 103, 105, 106, ethnic violence, 349 122, 128 independence, 349 Jihadism, 243 political parties, 349 Job hopping, 134 power-sharing, 349 Johnson, Chalmers, 61 Keynes, John Maynard, 42, 146 Johnson, Lyndon, 145, 179 Khmer Rouge, see Cambodia Johnson, Travis, x Khomein, Ayatollah, 347 Jones, Charles, 168 Khrushchëv, Nikita, 240 Journalism, 33, 110, 114, 179, 180 Kiasu, 130 Journalistic packs, 36, 297 Kim Dae-Jung, 118, 135 Jubilee 2000, 262, 276 Kim Jong un, 220 Judges, 122, 123, 188, 201–203, 209, King Ashoka, 9 210, 221, 251, 295, 323, 342 King Carlos, 361 492 INDEX

King, Martin Luther, Jr., 306, 320 Latvia, 320, 349 Klein, Naomi, 311 civil war, 349 Knights, 12 constitution, 349 “Kool aid,” 175 coup, 349 Korean War, 219, 248 independence, 349 Kornhauser, William, 47, 48, 51, 57, relations with Russia, 349 59–64, 99, 103 Soviet era, 349 Kosovo, 233 Law(s) Kuroda, Yasumasa, x enforcement, 200–204, 329 Kuwait of warfare, 245 independence, 349 Lawsuits war with Iraq, 349 frivolous, 204 Kyrgyzstan meritorious, 203 assassinations, 349 Lawyers, 13, 129, 202, 241 ethnic violence, 349 Lazarus, David, x independence, 349 League of Arab States, 272 military, 349 League of Nations organized crime, 349 Assembly, 256 Tulip Revolution, 349 Commission for Refugees, 256 Council, 256 Covenant, 246 L Disarmament Commission, 256 L-20, 376 Health Organization, 234 Labor International Commission on child, 278, 284 Intellectual cooperation, 256 forced, 108, 278 Mandates Commission, 256 regime, global, 238 Slavery Commission, 256 surplus, 59 Learning, 15, 183, 279 Labor–Management Regime, 256 curve, 15, 19, 119, 179, 205, 240, Laclau, Ernesto, 327 274, 279, 300 Laissez-faire, 8, 58, 80, 90 Lebanon, 348, 349 “Lame ducks,” 198 civil war, 350 Landlords, 46, 87, 88 elections, 350 Land mines, 252 foreign relations, 350 Lane, Robert, viii independence, 349 Language dialects, 134, 334 military, 350 Lapidus, Ira, 322 “national pact,” 349 Lasswell, Harold, 43–45, 50, 151 Palestinians, 348, 350 Lasswellian values, 44, 45 population, 349 Latin America, 237, 248, 337 religious groups, 350 See also specific countries uprisings, 349 INDEX 493

Le Bon, Gustave, 46, 52, 58 Liberation Lee, Frances, 148 movements, 110, 117, 321–322 Lee Hsien Loong, 107, 110, 111, theology, 117 115, 125, 129, 132, 136 Liberia, 258, 350–351 Lee Kuan Yew, 24, 100, 101, 103–107, coup, 347 110, 112, 114, 117, 120, 121, elections, 351 123–126, 128, 130, 131, 133, relations with the United States, 350 135–137, 139, 209, 210 , 145 Leftism, 52, 86 Libertinism, 365n10 Legal precedent, see Precedent Liberty Legal regime, global, 264 negative, 47 Legislation positive, 47 substantive, 192, 303 Libya, 64 symbolic, 192 Licensing, 98, 114, 177, 225, 284 Legislative intent, 201 Lieu, Ted, 211, 212 Legislators Life expectancy, 130 as delegates, 21 Life sentence, 121 as trustees, 155 Lijphart, Arend, 15, 22, 306, 318 Legislatures, 2, 8, 9, 11, 12, 14–17, Lim Hock Siew, Dr., 115 19–21, 27, 32, 36, 49, 69, 74, 98, Lim Hong Kiang, 107 139, 160, 164, 186, 302, 319, Limits to Growth, The, 241 322–325, 328, 340, 344, 355 Lincoln, Abraham, 20, 176, 197, Legitimacy, political, 280 358, 364 Legitimation crisis, 140 Lindblom, Charles, viii, 73, 164, Le Léap, Alain, 93 298, 326 Lemann, Nicholas, 55, 173, 226 Lingle, Christopher, 101, 113, 114, Lenin, Vladimir, 22, 38, 41, 64, 125, 128, 134 324, 327 Lippmann, Walter, 36, 48, 321 Lenski, Gerhard, 55 Lipschutz, Ronnie, 243, 251, 252, 285 Lenski, Jean, 55 Lissouba, Pascal, 338 León, Kingdom of, 12 Litigation, 202–204, 267, 324 Lesotho, 350 Living wage, 283, 284 attempted coups, 350 Loans elections, 350 to governments, 262 independence, 350 to the private sector, 262 military, 350 Lobbying, 75, 108, 164, 167–169, political parties, 350 175, 178, 262 relations with South Africa, 350 Locke, John, 35, 39, 145 Levellers, 326 Loewenstein, Roger, 277 Libel, 105, 112, 114, 210 Logging, 284 Liberalism, 53, 145, 147, 168, London Financial Times, 112 304, 362 Lowe’s Home Improvement, 285 494 INDEX

Lowi, Theodore, 23, 146, 157, 168, Malaria, 260 169, 197, 199, 206, 295, 323 Malawi, 351 Lugo, Fernando, 355 economy, 351 Lukács, György, 325 independence, 351 Lumumba, Patrice, 338 political parties, 351 Lunt, Paul, 46 protests, 351 Luxembourg, 300, 351 Malaya, see Malaysia constitution, 351 Malay language, 101, 108, 111, 130, relations with Germany, 300, 351 132, 133, 135, 136 Lycurgus, 7, 9 Malaysia, 101, 130, 320, 351 Lynd, Helen, 46 Borneo, 101, 351 Lynd, Robert, 46 Chinese, 352 civil society, 135, 352 Communist insurgency, 351 M ethnic groups, 136, 321 Macedon, 8 independence, 351 Macedonia, 219, 333 Kuala Lumpur, 101, 271 Machiavelli, Niccolò, 13, 104 Malays, 100, 108, 130, 131, “Machine politics,”, see Political 134–136, 351 party(s), machines relations with Singapore, Macridis, Roy, 86 101, 130, 351 Macroeconomics, 45 riots, 352 Macrotheory, see Paradigms Tamils, 132 Madagascar, 351 Male chauvinism, see Sexism constitutions, 351 Male dominance, see Sexism corruption, 351 Mali, 10, 352 coup, 351 military, 352 elections, 351 rebellion, 352 judiciary, 351 relations with France, 352 language, 351 relations with Sénégal, 352 political parties, 351 Timbuktu, 352 Madison, James, 14, 36, 170, 319 Mandarin language, 134 Mafias, 237, 240 Mandatory sentencing, 203 Magazines, 113, 115, 176 Mandatory voting, 17, 159, 296 Magna Carta, see Britain Mandela, Nelson, 127, 252, 311 Mailing list organizations, 165 Manifesto of the Communist Party, Majority rule with minority rights, 295 15, 40, 254 Major powers, 232, 233, 235, 246, Mannheim, Karl, 43 255, 258, 259, 264, 271, 273, Manning, Chelsea, 179 274, 279, 308 Mann, Thomas, 297 Makarios III, Archbishop, 338 Manslaughter, 121 Makoto, Saitō, 348 Manufactured crises, 63 Malagasy, see Madagascar Manufacturing sector, 226 INDEX 495

Mao Zedong, 324 Massu, General Jacques, 70 Marauders, 35 Mauritania, 343, 352 Marchetti, Raffaele, 156, 286, 309, border conflicts, 352 371n1 constitutions, 352 Marcos, Ferdinand, 117, 356 coups, 352 Marcuse, Herbert, 43 elections, 343, 352 Margai, Milton, 359 independence, 352 Marginalization, 150, 286 unrest, 352 Maritain, Jacques, 24 Mauritius, 352 Maritime industry, 275 independence, 352 Market expansion, 37 parliament, 352 Market power, 162 strikes, 352 Marriage, 123, 124, 136, 151, 172, Max Haavelar, or the Coffee 207, 241 Auctions of the Dutch Trading Marshall Plan, 73, 262, 263, 272 Company, 283 Martial arts, 129 May Day Rally, 100 Martial law, 213, 335, 356 Mayer, Peter, 273 Marxian Paradigm, 39, 43, 49 Mayflower Compact, 11 Marxism, viii, 45, 78, 85, 113, 117, Mayhew, David, 192, 197 121, 127, 128, 345 McCain, John, 215 Marx, Karl, 13, 15, 22, 34, 38–40, 45, McCarthyism, 45, 62 64, 162, 229, 238, 254, 303, McCarthy, Senator Joseph, viii, 43 306, 320, 322, 324 McClure’s magazine, 176 Masses, vii, 2, 3, 7, 11, 14, 25, 27, 28, McLean, Scott, 54, 169 33, 35–44, 46–48, 53, 57–59, Mead, Walter Russell, 146 61–64, 75, 98, 100, 103, 108, Meatpacking, 177 116, 124, 133, 138, 149, 155, Media, 3, 6, 13, 14, 28, 32, 33, 36, 157, 163, 168, 169, 204, 226, 44, 49, 56, 57, 60, 64, 75, 85, 227, 229–231, 233, 238, 240, 98, 110, 111, 113–116, 128, 241, 243, 244, 247, 248, 250, 138, 140, 148, 155, 158, 161, 255–257, 261, 263, 273, 274, 163, 166, 169, 176–184, 191, 277, 279–282, 289, 298, 300, 204–207, 209, 210, 215, 218, 301, 303, 308, 310, 311, 313, 224, 226, 240, 241, 247–251, 318, 322, 327, 333 253, 277, 286, 297, 302, 322, entertainment, 33 324, 336, 356, 368n2, 369n5, media, 44, 183, 247 369n9 movements, 60, 327 control, 110 Mass Society Paradigm, vii, viii, ix, 2, “Mediated worldliness,” 249 3, 6, 31–65, 67, 75–76, 97, 103, Mediation, 338, 345, 349 151–154, 163, 164, 169, 170, Medical insurance, 150 200, 204, 207, 224, 299, 312, Medina, Arabia, 9, 322 331, 368n3 Mediterranean countries, 275 496 INDEX

Mendès-France, Pierre, 80, 82, 89, 95 Ministerial reshuffle, 76 Mennonite Central Committee, 283 Minorities, 1, 22, 25–28, 58, 63, 64, Mercedes Benz, 133 80, 93, 101, 104, 106, 135, 136, Merchants, 12, 177, 238, 240, 142, 145, 150, 154, 159, 160, 245, 281 164, 167, 182, 183, 187, 189, Merchant ships, 238 192, 195, 207, 209, 226, 239, Mergers, 111, 225, 282, 310 242, 293, 295, 296, 306, 318, Meritocracy, 118, 135 320, 324, 328, 329, 338, 339, Merkel, Angela, 214 345, 354, 370n12 Merriam, Charles, 43, 296 parliaments, 106, 136, 324 Mesopotamia, 5, 11 population, 345 Message dramatization, 301 powers, 255, 258, 271, 279 Metatheory, see Paradigms rights, 25, 28, 135, 295, 329 Methodists, 141, 142 veto, 318 Mexicans, 150, 182, 184, 205–207, Minsk Agreement, 214 210, 216, 224, 265 Misery, 39, 40, 124, 311 México, 150, 196, 216, 237, 247, Missionaries, 249 263, 265, 270, 328 Miss Universe competition, 216 Michels, Roberto, 25, 36, 40, 44, 166 Mitrany, David, 299, 300, 313 Micro-appeals, 207 Mobilization, 48, 57–60, 126, 182, Middle Ages, 10, 319 250, 251, 303, 306 Middle class, 8, 45, 47, 58, 59, 72, ethnic, 58 77, 82, 83, 86, 87, 94, 117, 123, out-groups, 59 151, 152, 162, 174, 175, 180, voter, 57, 156, 159 243, 262, 328 , 25 Middle East, 1, 64, 210, 219, 243, 289 Modernization, 59 “Middlemen,” 284 Mohammed, 9, 322 Middle powers, 63, 242, 273 Moldova, 353 Migrant workers, 278 corruption, 353 Military aircraft, 265 Gagauzia, 353 Military control, 98, 124 independence, 353 Military industrial complex, 45, 50 Transnistria, 353 Militias, 333 unrest, 353 Millionaires, 39, 50, 158, 175, 193, Monaco, 353 205, 217, 218, 362 foreign relations, 353 Mill, John Stuart, 8 independence, 353 Mills, C. Wright, 44–48, 50–52, 57, tax havens, 353 63, 64, 161, 169, 261 Monarchs, see specific kings Milner, Henry, 33, 156, 251, 296 Money laundering, 126 Minchin, James, 107, 108, 116, 131 Mongol Empire, 244 Minimum sentences, 123 Monopoly, economic, 308 Minimum winning coalition, 26, 318 Monsanto Corporation, 162 INDEX 497

Montesquieu, Baron de, 10, 36 N Moody’s Investors Service, 281 Nagy, Imre, 325 Moral Basis of Democracy, The, 329 Namecalling, 106, 181, 209 Moral decay, 26 Nasser, Gamal Abdel, 350 Morales, Evo, 335 Nationalism, 8, 41, 42, 77, 81, 82, 89, Morality, 9, 37, 115, 149, 301 97, 147, 246, 300, 346 Morgan, J. Pierpont, 22, 34, 39, radical, 300 306, 325 See also Hypernationalism Morocco, 318 Nationalists, 2, 81, 90, 97, 147, 215, Morsi, Mohammed, 340 219, 239, 286, 361 Moses, 9 Nationalization of industries, Mossadegh, Mohammad, 347 79, 87 “Mother” country, 38, 132, 246 National language, 132 Mother Jones, 183 National Review, 144 Mouffe, Chantal, 327 National security, 120, 208, 220 Mr. Calm and Effective: Evaluating the Nation-state, 14, 230, 232, 233, Presidency of President Barack 235, 237–240, 242–244, 246, Obama, ix 250–252, 255, 259, 277, 310 Mubarak, Hosni, 340 Natural gas, 335 Mueller, Robert, 221 Nature Conservancy, 251 Multilateral Investment Guarantee Nauru, 325 Agency (MIGA), 262, 271 Navarra, 12 Multilingual population, 132 Nazism, see Germany Multi-member districts, 15 Nechayev, Sergia, 64 Multinational corporations, see Negative campaigns, see Campaigns Corporations, Transnational Negativism, 209, 213 Multiparty system, 77, 173, Neighborhood councils, 317 334, 361 Nemawashi, 318 Multiracial society, 136 Neocolonialism, 246 Multistakeholder initiatives, 237 Neoconservatism, 144 Munich Agreement, 339 Neoliberalism, 247 Munich Conference, 239 Neo-Marxism, 43, 52 Munitions, 42 Nepal, 6, 69, 353 Murder, 121, 122, 130, 219, earthquake, 6, 353 355, 356 judiciary, 353 Muslims, 10, 61, 100, 154, 173, 205, monarchy, 353 206, 209, 219, 226, 243, 245, political parties, 6, 69, 353 328, 340, 349, 350 Nestlé, 253 Mussolini, Benito, 348, 358 Netherlands, 18, 268, 283, 300, 334, Myanmar, 319, 353 347, 353 elections, 319, 353 coup attempt, 353 military, 318, 353 empire, 353 498 INDEX

Netherlands (cont.) military, 354 German occupation, 353 political parties, 354 The Hague, 234, 246, 268 Nigeria, 216, 354 political parties, 353 elections, 354 See also Dutch Republic independence, 354 “Network of committees,” 281 Lagos, 271 Networks, 45, 46, 53, 57, 161, military, 354 175, 210, 231, 236, 237, Nihilism, 57 241–243, 249, 251, 252, Niue, 325 278, 281, 283, 324 Nixon, Richard, 62, 171, 196, 197, power, 161 210, 221, 276, 370n12 private, 237 Nkrumah, Kwame, 344 social, 46, 251 Nobel Peace Prize, 252, 253 transnational, 236, 241 Nobility, 11, 12, 15, 296 Network theory, 57 Nolan, Patrick, 55 Neuhaus, Richard John, 15, 54 Nomads, 232 Neumann, Sigmund, 43, 95, 275 Nondecisions, 22, 51, 192 Neustadt, Richard, 198 Nongovernmental organizations Neutralism, 246 (NGO), 231, 234, 235, 259, New Cold War, 1 270, 271, 287, 299 New Democracy, 324, 325, 336, 360 See also specific organizations New Development Bank, 240, 277 Noninterference principle, 246 “New global rules,” 242 Nonparticipation in politics, 60 New International Economic Order, Nonpolitical life, 34 246, 286 Non-state entities in the global New International Information and system, 232 Communications Order, 286 See also specific entities News leaks, 113 Nonvoting, 60, 72, 75, 85, 157 Newspapers, 43, 111–116, 120, Normative goals, 301 176–178, 180–182, 184, 249 Normative speculation, 44 News saturation, 180 Norm convergence, 238 News spin, 180 Normlessness, 41 New World Order, 247 North American colonies, 10 New Zealand, 17, 256, 263, 265, North American Commission for 270, 272 Environmental Cooperation, 271 Nguesso, Denis Sassou, 338 North American Free Trade Nicaragua, 266 Agreement, 150, 247, 271 Nichols, Tom, 148, 155, 214 North Atlantic, 271 Niger, 354 North Korea, 126, 219, 220, 248, constitutions, 354 257, 258 coups, 354 North, Lord Frederick, 15 independence, 354 North Sea, 12 INDEX 499

Norway, 11, 17, 18, 212, 216, 219, Opposition to democracy, 23–28, 102 270, 354 Optimizing, 55 German occupation, 354 Optional Protocol to the Vienna independence, 354 Convention on Consular Novels, 40, 50, 253, 283, 324 Relations, 265 Nuamah, Sally, x O’Reilly, Bill, 182 Nuclear proliferation, 274 Organization for Economic Nuclear war, 219, 308 Cooperation and Development Nuclear weapons, 240, 243, 265, (OECD), 263 266, 274 Organization for European Economic Nudges theory, 144, 183 Cooperation (OEEC), 263 Nuremberg Trials, 266 Organization for Security and Nyasaland, see Malawi Cooperation in Europe, 235 Organization of African Union, see African Union O Organization of American States, Obama, Barack, ix, 153, 163, 173, 235, 272 179, 185, 188–190, 192, 195, Organization theory, 37 197, 199, 203, 204, 206, 212, Ornstein, Norman, 139, 171, 183, 214–216, 223, 307, 311 293–297 Obstruction of justice, 223 Orwell, George, 319 Oceans Regime, 238 Ostracism, 333 Oil pollution, 159 Ottoman Empire, 11, 239, 344 Oligarchy, 7, 8, 23, 40, 57, 96, 166, See also Turkey 255, 291, 333, 354, 357 Our Global Neighborhood, 230 Oligopoly, 162, 176 Our Kids: The American Dream in Oliver Twist, 40 Crisis, 56 Olson, Mancur, 163, 164, 169, 241 Out-migration, 135, 138, 150, 184 Olympic Games, 254 Outputs, 49, 50, 70, 74, 84, 93, 139, Oman, 325 226, 329 Once a Jolly Hangman: Singapore Overeating, 151 Justice in the Dock, 116 Overlapping cleavages, 326 One Nation Under Lee, 115 Overlapping group memberships, 74 One-party rule, 103, 349 Overloading, 60 Ong Eng Guan, 105 Oxfam, 108, 250, 262, 283 Ontario, Canada, 18 Oxford University, 132 Open primary, 51, 296 Open society, 60 Open Society Foundations, 241 P Opiods, 234 Pacific Ocean, 265 Opium trade, 234 Packard, Vance, 44, 182 Opportunism, 87 Pagans, 10 Opportunistic decision-making, 198 Page, Benjamin, 169 500 INDEX

Pahlavi, Mohammad Reza, 347 coups, 355 Paine, Thomas, 305 election, 355 Pakistan, 265, 268, 270, 272, 322, impeachment, 355 333, 354 independence, 355 coups, 354 judiciary, 355 elections, 354 rural lands, 355 independence, 354 Yaguarete Porá, 279 military, 265, 354 Pardons, 179, 197, 221, 223, 342 minorities, 354 Parenti, Michael, 51, 52, 161, 167, Palau, 325 183, 294, 297 Palestine Pareto, Vilfredo, 41, 45 Gaza Strip, 348 Paris Climate Agreement, 252 insurgencies, 347 Paris Conference of 1865, 239 protests, 350 Parkinson, Robert, 141 State of, 258 Park, Robert Ezra, 52, 300 West Bank, 258, 348 Parliamentary Palestine Authority, 258, 350 dissolution, 76, 93, 341 Panamá, 270, 354 privilege, 105 coups, 354 republic, 16, 74, 76, 77, 98, 301, economy, 354 323, 342 independence, 354 Parliaments, see Legislatures military, 354 Parsons, Talcott, 19, 62 relations with the United States, 270 Participation revolution, 166 Panic of 1890s, 40 Participatory budgeting, 324 Paoli, Filippo Antonio Pasquale di, 15 Partisanship, ix, 93, 154, 160, 169, Papacy, 245 176, 181–183, 191, 201, 225, Papal decree (bulls), 245 227, 297, 303, 305, 350 Papal nuncio, 232 Paulus, Andreas, 240 Papua New Guinea, 355 Payoffs, 60, 279, 282, 362 Bougainville, 355 “Payoff structure,” 280 Chinese, 355 Peace, 10, 35, 45, 78, 93, 109, 220, independence, 355 232, 234, 239, 245, 246, 252, judiciary, 355 253, 266, 271, 307, 335, 336, Port Moresby, 355 338, 345, 347, 350, 351 terrorism, 355 Peacekeeping, 258, 268, 359 Paradigms, vii, viii, ix, 2, 3, 6, 29, Peace of God (Pax Dei), 245 31–65, 74–76, 97, 103, 151–154, Peace of Westphalia, 35, 232, 239, 246 163, 164, 169, 170, 200, 204, Peasants, 72, 73, 76, 78, 80–83, 207, 290, 299–301, 312, 331, 85–91, 94, 96, 245, 261, 324 368n4 Pedophilia, 178 Paraguay, 279, 355 Penn, William, 12 ayoreo Indians, 279 Pensions, 94, 212, 335 Chamber of Deputies, 355 Pentagon Papers, The, 179 INDEX 501

People Power, 60, 340, 356 Philosophy, 10, 35, 113, 117, 119, Peoples’ Global Action, 247 144, 174, 191, 227, 245, 247, Perjury, 221 303–308, 310, 325, 365 Perlstein, Richard, 146 Pilfering, 36 Permanent Central Opium Board, 256 Pilsudski, Jozef, 356 Permanent Court of Arbitration Pinay, Antoine, 95, 102, 128, 137 (PCA), 266, 268, 269 Pinochet, Augusto, 337 Permanent Court of Justice, 265 Pirates, 113, 232 Perón, Juan, 332 Pitcairn Island, 16 Persia, see Iran Plaintiffs, 188, 202, 203 Persian empire, 232 Planetary ecosystem, 230 Personality voting, 25, 27 Planning commissions, 294, 317 Perú, 355 Plato, 7–8, 18, 23, 25, 205, 321, 325 border wars, 355 Plea bargain, 129, 203 Community Party, 324, 351 Plebiscite, 18, 256 coups, 355 Pluralism, 45, 47, 169, 251, 320, 326 guerrilla war, 355 Pluralist Commonwealth, 320 military, 355 Plurality, 13, 24, 52, 73, 195, 294 Sendero Luminoso, 355 Plutocracy, 22, 51, 163 Petitions, 33, 59, 93, 108, 118, 133, Plutocratic generosity, 297 160, 162, 189, 202. 212, 227, Plutocrats, 21, 297 234, 253, 254, 281, 282, 297 Poland, 15, 219, 239, 252 Petty bourgeoisie, 324 corruption, 356 Pew Global Research Attitudes coup, 356 Project, 243 ethnic conflict, 356 Philanthropy, 13 judiciary, 356 Philip IV, 12 media, 356 Philippines, 24, 107, 117, 137, 266, political parties, 15, 356 269, 270, 324, 356 wars, 15, 239, 356 constitutions, 356 Polarization, 51, 52, 62, 70, 72, 152, corruption, 356 154, 171, 177, 180–184, 189, coup attempts, 356 296, 297, 303, 305 economy, 269, 356 attitudinal, 51, 52, 70, 154 elections, 356 Police, 41, 109, 115, 116, 118, 119, independence, 356 128, 130–132, 137, 179, 206, martial law, 356 235, 297, 360 military, 356 Police state, 118 People Power demonstrations, 356 Policy issue-areas, 50 violent unrest, 324, 356 Polifact.com, 183 Phillips, Kevin, 169, 335, 366 Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Philosopher-king, 7, 28 10, 12 502 INDEX

Polish minorities, 239 Political Science Revitalized: Filling the Political Jigsaw Puzzle with Metatheory, ix annexation, 333 Political socialization, 49, 95, 165 campaigns, 1, 139, 158, 159, 165, Political survival, ix 168, 169, 171, 172, 176, 178, Politicians, 8, 14, 18, 24, 26, 33, 45, 180, 191, 194, 203–205, 226, 64, 113–115, 146, 148, 149, 227, 326 155, 161, 162, 175, 176, 178, civility, 139, 297 180, 181, 183, 200, 204, 205, decay, 59, 159 240, 291, 298, 312, 324 development, 49, 59, 185 Politics by Aristotle, 7 flexibility, 88 Politics of mass society, The, 6, 28, 31, intimidation, 336 39, 40, 43, 47, 58–64, 99, 124, legitimacy 159, 161, 175, 204, 290, 291, (see Legitimacy, political) 299, 312, 313 mobilization, 182 Polity, 7, 8, 264, 290, 299, 327 participation, 15, 28, 55, 60, 61, dataset, 327 296, 321 Polls pyramid, 50, 73 public opinion, 223, 319 rallies, 100, 206 taxes, 17 recruitment, 49 Polluting industry, 159, 165 rights, 18, 19, 21, 28, 185, 278, Polsby, Nelson, 49 295, 306, 310, 320, 323, 326 Polyarchy, 22, 50, 51, 326 rules of the game, 72 Popular Front, 318 science, ix, 51, 119, 180, 299 Populism, 33, 40, 204, 205, 207, 209, socialization, 49, 95, 165 215, 217, 223–225, 243, 311, survival, ix, 280 326, 354 Political efficacy Poroshenko, Pedro, 364 external, 61 Portugal, 60, 232, 245, 357 internal, 61 Carnation Revolution, 60 Political Parties Their Organization constitution, 357 and Activity in the Modern State, x coup, 357 Political party (s) empire, 232, 245 caucus based, 94, 192 Positionalism, 46 discipline within, 14, 90, 95 Positive psychology, 182 loyalty to, 157, 176 Post-democratic world, 23 machines, 74, 157 Postmodernism, 43, 52 mass based, 104 Post-revolutionary government, 327 party orientation voting, 73–98, Potsdam Conference, 239 103–107, 144, 156–158, Poujade, Pierre, 86 170–173 See also France, Union for the platforms, 91, 93 Defense of Shopkeepers and responsible, 75 Artisans INDEX 503

Poverty, 56, 305, 320, 329, 356 Pressure groups, 3, 13, 14, 28, 32, 33, line, 133 39, 43, 49, 50, 53, 54, 57, 69, Power, 3, 5, 8–18, 21, 23, 24, 27, 28, 70, 72, 74–77, 91, 93–98, 108, 32, 34–36, 40, 44–50, 52, 55, 140, 156, 158, 163–170, 175, 57–61, 63, 72, 77, 82, 90, 91, 176, 193, 199, 201, 204, 286, 94, 96, 98, 105, 109, 111, 114, 297, 324, 326, 334, 359, 368n6, 120, 128–131, 135, 138, 140, 369n5 143, 161–165, 167, 169, 179, anomic, 72, 164 183, 184, 186, 188, 194, associational, 95, 164, 165, 196–198, 201, 209, 211, 215, 201, 326 219, 223–225, 229–235, institutional, 13, 164 239–244, 246–248, 251, 252, nonassociational, 164 254, 255, 257–259, 261, 264, Pretrial discovery, 202 266, 270, 271, 273, 274, 277, Preventive detention, 126, 127 279, 281, 285, 286, 290, 293, Price regulation, 81 295, 296, 299, 305, 308–310, Price, Tom, 211, 252 313, 319–323, 325–328, 331, Primary producers, 283, 284 332, 334, 338, 340, 341, Prime ministers, 15, 16, 70, 76, 84, 343–344, 346, 348–351, 95, 102, 107, 110, 112, 114, 354–359, 363, 364, 370n12 115, 121, 125, 129, 132, 134, elite, 45, 46, 50, 52, 63, 161, 293 136, 139, 216, 334–336, 341, invisible, 35, 161 343, 344, 347–349, 355, projection, 143 357–360, 362 redistribution, 327 Prince John, 12 specialization, 34 Prince Shōtoku, 9 structure, vii, 49, 139–244, 247, Prisons, 109, 200 248, 251, 270, 285, 299, Privateering, 238 308, 313 Private opulence, 37 Power Elite, The, 44 Privatization, 133, 200, 204, 261, 306 Power networks, see Networks, power Pro bono attorneys, 202, 306 Power-sharing arrangements, 343, 349 Producer cooperatives, 283 Pragmatism, 304, 305 Production alliances, 280 Prats, Carlos, 337 Professionals, 23, 45, 87, 88, 90, 91, Precedent, 194, 267 117, 127, 128, 138, 155, 161, A Preface to Economic Democracy, 166, 207, 231, 236, 241, 297, 51, 322, 331 306, 337 Prejudice, 38, 144, 183, 209, Profit, 45, 62, 96, 112, 134, 162, 215, 218 163, 165, 183, 200, 212, 223, Presidential Power and the Modern 229, 263, 282, 284, 311 Presidents, 198 Progress, 1, 59, 67, 86, 101, 102, Press Freedom Index, 114 116, 117, 145, 197, 250, Pressure Group Paradigm, 50, 368n6 285, 301 504 INDEX

Progressivism, 145 Public squalor, 37 Proletarianization, 15, 22, 39, 72, “Pulse of democracy” 1, 151 131, 308, 324, 327 Puppet rulers, 25 Proletariat, 229, 322 Putin, Vladimir, 24, 138, 209, 211, Propertied class, 8, 16 218, 220, 358 Property, 12, 13, 17, 22, 35, 125, 211, Putnam, Robert, 15, 26, 53–57, 147, 212, 219, 223, 233, 327, 349 157, 165, 166, 225, 295–297 Prosecutorial discretion, 202 Proselytization, 87 Prosperity, 37, 58, 59, 100, 103, 118, Q 124, 138, 225, 242, 247, 282, Quality control, 56 289, 298 Quality of life, 23, 143, 148, 247 Protestantism, 245 Quid pro quo agreement, 221 Protest demonstrations, 218, 254 Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph, 322 Prussia, 239 R Pseudo-democracy, 3, 6, 11, 23, 31, Rabuka, Sitiveni, 341 33, 75, 98, 329 Race riots, 51, 58, 135, 224, 352 Psychiatrists, 121, 213 Racism, 37, 135, 136, 142, 144, 151, Psychology, 41, 44, 45, 124, 126, 215, 300 182, 208, 212, 213, 345 Rahman, Ziaur, 334 See also Positive psychology Rajaratnam, Sinnathamby, 134 Psychopaths, 121 Ramadier, Paul, 82, 84 Public Ramos, Fidel, 356 activism, 53 Ramphal, Shridath, 230 defenders, 202, 203 Rank-and-file membership, 93, 96, financing, 294 166, 297 housing, 108, 110, 130, 132 Rape, viii, 128, 137, 182 humiliation, 129 Rapid social change, 41, 46–48, 59, integrity commissions, 324 62, 64, 117, 119 interest litigation, 324 Rational Choice Paradigm, 37, 55 interest organizations, 164, 169 Rationality international unions, 238, 255 instrumental-subjective, 43 naïveté, 26 objective, 44 policy, 37, 38, 54, 148, 167, 180, pragmatic, 43 198, 213, 296, 328 Rational voter theory, 159 Publicity campaigns, see Campaigns Rationing, 86 Public opinion, 9, 35, 63, 76, 81, Rauch, Jonathan, 139, 167, 168, 293 151–156, 171, 177, 198, 223, Rawls, John, 22, 37, 53, 323 225, 243–244, 250, 319 Reagan, Ronald, 146, 149, 196, 197, See also Polls 200, 233, 240, 306 Public-private planning and Realpolitik (realism), 246 implementation, 294 Recidivism, 200 INDEX 505

Rectitude, 44, 367n3 Representative legislatures, 8, 11, 36 Red Cross, International Committee Repression, 41, 101, 111, 149, of the, 236 277, 360 Reef survival, 274 Republic of China (Taiwan), 233, 325 Referendum, 18, 21, 33, 40, 70, 326, Republics, 13, 16, 35, 242, 323 341, 343, 346, 348, 351, 352, See also specific entries 358, 362, 364, 365 Republic, The, 7, 11, 15, 17, 118, Reform 121, 338 economic, 172, 298 Reserve currency, 275 political, 43, 172, 299 Respect, 25, 26, 44, 46, 56, 61, 104, social, 88, 94 142, 201, 213, 221, 246, 249, Refugees, 216, 248, 249, 280, 283 277, 297, 300, 353, 359, 369n10 Regimentation, 41 Retired persons, 42, 87, 88 Regimes Retirement, 151 consumer-oriented, 280 Revolutionary government, 327 effective, 274, 279, 280 Revolutions, vii, 27, 36, 38–41, formal, 273 61, 137, 145, 207, 297, 307, imposed, 273 328, 338, 344, 347, 348, 357, macro, 278 358, 363 micro, 274 Revolving-door government, 107 negotiated, 273 Rhine River Commission, 273 private, 280 Rhodesia private-public (semiformal), Bush War, 357 273–280 independence, 357 self-generating (spontaneous), 273 out-migration, 357 Regimes of global governance, see racial groups, 357 specific regimes Ricardo, David, 37, 39 Regional intergovernmental Rice, 284 organizations (IGOs), 272, 273 Rightists, 78, 82, 88, 91, 96, 181 Relative deprivation, 59 “Right of conquest,” 232 Religion, 35, 61, 100, 117, 136, 142, “Right of reply,” 112, 113 147, 318, 322, 328, 334 Rights, individual, 37 Religious Right to a speedy trial, 201, 267 fundamentalism, 61 Right to join unions, 284 observance, 55 Right to justice, 35 politicization, 172 Right to liberty, 35, 112 Renault corporation, 94 Right to life, 35 Renewable energy, 243 Right to live in a healthy Renshon, Stanley, 141, 147, 197 environment, 268 Rent, housing, 131 Right to property, 35 Rent-seeking, 242 Right to run for office, 326 Reparations, 42, 108, 265, 342 Right to security, 35 506 INDEX

Right to strike, 108 Rosenbluth, Frances, 8 Right to vote, 16, 17, 19, 36, 142, Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 13, 21, 159, 160, 328, 331, 364 35, 319 Rio Conference on the Environment Rove, Karl, 181 and Development, 252 Rule adjudication, 49 Riots, 36, 40, 51, 58, 61, 76, 111, Rule application, 49 122, 131, 135, 164, 224, 261, Rule making, 49, 231, 253, 280 308, 312, 332, 352, 355, 359, Rule of law, 21, 24, 120, 121, 129, 365, 366 141, 247, 278, 323, 329 Riots of 1848, 38 “Ruler of the world,” 240 Rittberger, Volker, 273 Ruling class, 45 Robotization, 226 Rumsfeld, Donald, 178 Robots, 320 Runs on banks, 40 Rochet, Waldeck, 94 Rural residents, 41, 362 Rockefeller, John D., 39 Russia, 59, 86, 87, 138, 219, 239, Rodnick, David, 77, 85 240, 257, 268, 273, 277, 341, Role specialization, 34 351, 358, 364 Roma, 241 elections, 199, 208, 211, 214, Roman Codex, 9 220, 226 Roman Empire, 9, 232 Kremlin, 250 Romania, 239 Moscow, 220, 221, 242, coup, 358 276, 343 elections, 358 Provisional government, 64 impeachment, 358 revolutions, 14, 60 judiciary, 358 St. Petersburg, 312 referendum, 358 See also Soviet Union Soviet era, 358 “Russian confession,” 121, 128, 137 Roman Republic, 328 Russian language, 221, 249, 364 Assembly of Plebeians, 357, 358 Rwanda, 258, 284 elections, 357 Ryan, William, 57, 61, 135, 185 factions, 357 oligarchs, 357 patricians, 357 S rule by law, 357 Sabotage, 36, 82, 173 separation of powers, 357 Sahrawi, 233 Roosevelt, Eleanor, 22, 329 Salariat, 87, 89 Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 142, Salazar, António de Oliveira, 357 145, 146, 173, 196–199, 306, Salisbury, Robert, 164 307, 309 Sanctions, economic, 221 Roosevelt, Theodore, 142, 176, Sanders, Bernie, ix, viii, 145, 174, 177, 197 205–207, 307 Rosenau, James, 162, 230, 231, 251 San Francisco Conference, 234 INDEX 507

San Marino, 10, 11 Security Regime, Global, 240, 257 fascist party, 358 See, Martyn, 115 relations with the United States Segregation, 46, 131, 300 (USA), 358 Selection by lot, 15, 34, 319 San Martín, Ramón Grau, 338 Self-correcting economic systems, 50 Sao Tomé and Príncipe Self-determination, 8, 42, 239, 256 corruption, 359 Self-interest, 1, 24, 26, 27, 44, 55, coups, 359 148, 158, 171, 172, 180, 248 economy, 359 Semi-democracy, 23, 329, 331, 332, independence, 359 335, 362 military, 359 Sénégal, 343, 352 Sardinia, 10, 239 independence, 352, 359 SARS disease, 259 separatism, 359 Satellite dishes, 249 Senegambia, see Gambia Satisficing, 55 Sen, Hun, 336 Saudi Arabia, 325 Seow, Francis, 101, 111–113, 120–123, Medina, 322 125, 127, 128, 134, 136 Save the Children International Separation of church and state, 142 Union, 254 Separation of powers, 3, 10, 16, 77, Saving Capitalism, 162 197, 323, 357 Saxon nobility, 11 Serbia, 9, 239 Scandals, 62, 151, 249, 254, 337, 348 Sexism, 37, 38, 136, 142, 144, 215 Scandinavia, 12 Sexual harassment, 137, 218 Scapegoating, 62, 286 Sexual predator, 175 Schadenfreude, 209, 369n8 Sex workers, 241 Schmitz, Hans Peter, 311 Shadrake, Alan, 116 Scholarships, 114, 119, 120, 284 Shaming, 136, 253, 277 Schools, see Education “Shared resource,” 265 Schultz, David A., 54, 56 Shareholders, 263, 322 Schumann, Maurice, 95 Sharia law, 245, 322 , 12 Sharp, Granville, 237, 251 Sea level, rise in, 242 Shaw, Tamsin, 182 Second International, 238 Shinawatra, Thaksin, 125, 362 Second Lateran Council, 245 Shopkeepers, 79, 82, 83, 86 Second World, 246 See also Small businesses , 18, 103, 104, 292 Shopping malls, 130, 289 Secret funding, 158, 203–204 Sierra Leone, 258 Secular, 245, 318, 328, 341, 363 civil war, 359 Secular values, 24 constitutions, 359 Security, economic, 244 corruption, 359 Security, environmental, 244 coups, 359 Security, ethnoreligious, 244 foreign relations, 359 508 INDEX

Sierra Leone (cont.) deregistration of groups, 108–109 independence, 359 Eastern Sun, 111 military, 359 educational control, 132 opposition, 359 elections, 99–138 political parties, 359 Employment Act, 108 provincial chiefs, 359 English-language schools, 132 riots, 359 Essential Information (Control of student uprising, 359 Publications and Safeguarding Sievers, Bruce, 13 of Information) Regulations Sihanouk, Norodom, 336 Act, 113 Silver, 275 Filipinas, viii, 102, 128, 137 Simmel, Georg, 52 Films Act, 115 Sin, 142 forced resettlement, 131 Sinclair, Upton, 177 foreign press, 112, 113 Singapore gays, 110 Academy of Law, 109 government, viii, 100, 103, airport, 113, 130 113–116, 129 “Asian Values” movement, government-linked corporations, 125 114, 118, 119 Green Paper on National Attorney general, 115, 116, 122 Ideology, 118 bengs, 130 Group Representation Board of Film Censors, 115 Constituency, 106 British colony, 16 hospitals, 124 Business Times, 113 housing control, 130 Central Provident Fund, 116 Indians (Tamils), 132 Chief Justice, 109, 123 Industrial Relations Act, 108 Chinese, 100, 102, 134–136, 352 Internal Security Act, 116, 120, civil cases, 120 121, 127 college control, 119 International Film Festival, 115 Community Centers, 108, 109 Internet Code of Practice, 114 compulsory religious education, 117 Judges’ Remuneration Act, 123 constitution, 120, 121 Judicial Commissioners, 123 contract judges, 123 judiciary, 114, 116, 121, 123, 210 “core values,” 119 Justice and Peace Commission, 109 corruption, 125–126 kindergartens, 109 Country People’s Association, 108 Law Society, 109, 122 court fees, 123 Lee & Lee, 126 courts of appeal, 123 Legislative Assembly, 106 criminal justice, 120, 127, 129 Maintenance of Religious Criminal Law Act, 121 Harmony Act, 109 Department of Internal Security, Malays, 108, 130, 134–136 112, 126–128 marriage policy, 123 INDEX 509 mass transit, 134 Residents’ Committees, 110 military service, 124 Rural Residents Association, 108 Minister Mentor, 136 Sedition Act, 116 Ministry of Communication “Shared Values” movement, and the Arts, 115 118, 119 Ministry of Community Singapore Airlines, 110 Development, 109 Singapore Broadcasting Ministry of Finance, 123 Corporation, 114 Ministry of Home Affairs, 108, 109 Singapore Herald, 111 Ministry of National Development, Singapore Internet Community, 114 105, 107, 126 Singapore Telcom, 125 moderate-wage policy, 133 Societies Act, 108 morals education, 117 Solicitor-General, 120 Nanyang Siang Pau, 111, 128 specialist judges, 123 National Kidney Foundation, 126 sport clubs, 109 National Trades Union Congress, 108 statutory boards, 108, 125 National University of Singapore, Stock Exchange, 125 114, 116, 120, 137 Straits Times, 102, 107, 111–113, Newspaper and Printing 115, 117, 121, 124, Presses Act, 111 126–129, 132 newspapers, 111–116, 120 television, viii, 111, 116, 117 Nominated Member Temasek Holdings, 125 of Parliament, 106 Thais, 102, 125 Non-Constituency Member of Total Defense Doctrine, 126 Parliament, 106 Town Councils, 110 Official Secrets Act, 116 Trades Union Congress, 108 opposition parties, 104, 106, 117, traditional values, 118 138, 292, 302 Undesirable Publications Act, parliament, 100, 104, 111, 120, 109, 115 122, 352 walkabouts, 109 People Like Us, 110 Worker’s Party, 105 People’s Action Party, 100, 101, youth clubs, 109 103, 132, 138 Singapore-American relations, People’s Association, 108 128, 303 police, 109, 115, 116, 118, 119, “Singapore model,” 67 128, 130–132, 137 Singapore Puzzle, The, viii, 100, 115 police permit, 119 Singapore Rebel, 115 postsecondary education Singer, J. David, viii, requirements, 119, 133 Singh, Jamit, 121, 122 radio, 111 Single-member district, 106, 170 Reform Party, 105 Single-member plurality-wins election religious organizations, 109, 110 system, 73 510 INDEX

Skill, 15, 44 Social Exchange Paradigm, 55, 368n7 Sklair, Leslie, 240, 241 Social integration, 41 Skocpol, Theda, 164, 166, 169 Socialism, 78–81, 97, 145, 246, Skulls, The, 45 324, 332 Skype, 119 See also Democratic socialism Slavery, 141–143, 170, 207, 237, 239, Social isolation, 48 246, 256 Socialist state, 327 Slawson, David, 203 Social liberalism, 145 Slovakia, 219, 265, 320, 339 Social malaise, 63 Slovenia, 359 Social market capitalism, 305, 311 corruption, 359 Social media, 56, 60, 64, 161, 166, independence, 359 182, 207, 250, 251, 253, Slums, 46 302, 322 See also Ghettoes Social mobility, 73 Small businesses, 162, 242, 282, Social networks, see Networks 286, 337 Social policy, 40 See also Shopkeepers Social prestige, 72, 86, 87 Smallpox, 259 Social responsibility, 281 Smartphones, 56 Social rights, 144, 145, 278 Smelser, Neil, 52, 59, 61, 62 Social sciences, 44, 63, 263, 290 Smith, Adam, 37, 39 Social security, 134, 157 Smooha, Sammy, 320 Social stability, 151 Smouts, Marie-Claude, 248, 284, 285 Social strain, 62 Smuggling, 126 Social stress, 56 Snowden, Edward, 179 Social unrest, 62, 117, 360 Snyder, Timothy, 56, 211, 311, 329 Social workers, see Workers Social capital, 54–57, 147, 364n7 Society for the Abolition of the Slave Social Capital: Critical Perspectives Trade, 237 on Community and Bowling Society for the Prevention of World Alone, 54 War III, 309 Social change, 41, 46–48, 59, 62, 64, Sociocultural problems, vii 117, 119 Sociology, 44, 119, 299, 300 See also Rapid social change Soldiers, 34, 42, 252, 333, 359 Social communication, 300, 307 Solomon Islands, 360 Social connectedness, 56 ethnic violence, 360 Social contract, 11, 35, 155, 227 foreign relations, 360 Social Darwinism, 37, 38, 51, 61, independence, 360 123, 142–145, 215, 218, 225, settlers, 360 304, 307 Solon, 7, 9, 325 Social disorganization theory, 46 Somalia, 258, 360 Social disorientation, 102 civil war, 360 Social engineering, 135 constitutions, 360 INDEX 511

coups, 360 economy, 232 independence, 360 empire, 232 terrorists, 360 Galicia, 361 Somaliland, 233 Indignados Movement, 361 Soros, George, 241, 311 military, 360, 361 Sound bites, 180 monarchs, 360 Sound records, 115 political parties, 360 South Africa, 240, 252, 253, 256, trade unions, 360 272, 277, 285, 292, 303, 321, Sparta, 7, 9, 11, 333 350, 360 Speech, The: A Historic Filibuster on apartheid, 252, 253, 272, 292, 303, Corporate Greed and the Decline of 320, 360 Our Middle Class, 145 economy, 240, 252, 292, 360 Speier, Hans, 62 ethnic violence, 360 Spencer, Herbert, 37, 142 Johannesburg, 284 Sports, 109, 148, 172, 247, 254, 284 South Asian Association for Regional Sri Lanka, 272, 361 Cooperation, 272 civil war, 361 South-east Asia Treaty independence, 361 Organization, 271 Tamil separatism, 361 South Korea, 24, 107, 117, 118, 130, Staël, Germaine de, 35, 36 135, 257, 263 Stalin, Joseph, 128 South Ossetia, 233, 343 Standard of living, 77, 241 South Pacific, 242, 272, 325, 360 Standard & Poors, 281 South Pacific Commission, 272 Standard setting, 230 South Pacific Forum, 272 Statelessness, 135 South Vietnam, see Vietnam, State religion, 142, 328 Republic of State secrets, 113 Sovereignty Statutes, see Law(s) national, 309 Staycations, 150 popular, 329 Steel industry, 269, 322 Soviet satellites, 356, 358 Steger, Manfred B., 54, 56, 226, 252 Soviet Union, 43, 83, 112, 128, 229, Stephens, Siaka, 359 239, 247, 257, 325, 327, 333, Stevens, John Paul, 293 341, 343, 347, 349, 356, 358 Stock exchanges, 125, 280 See also Russia Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 253 Spain Strange, Susan, 280, 282 anticlericalism, 87 Stratification, 73 Basque province, 361 Strauss, Leo, 144 Catalonia, 10, 12, 361 Street Corner Society, 159 Civil War, 319 Strikes, 72, 82, 94, 100, 108, 137, constitutions, 361 154, 165, 218, 254, 302, 335, corruption, 361 337, 338, 352, 360, 365 coups, 360 Structural adjustments, 263 512 INDEX

Structural-Functional Paradigm, Surveys, see Polls 49, 53 Survival International, 279 Subalternism, 247 Sweatshops, 229, 233, 282, 283 Subcontractors, 200, 211, 295 Sweden, 10, 12, 146, 232, 318, 354 See also Contractors Switzerland, 11, 17, 179, 232, 318 Subcultures, 47, 77, 80 Graubünden, 18 Submarine cables, 234 Synod of Charroux, 245 Subsidies, 80, 89, 227, 242, 334 Syria, 64, 350 Substance abuse, 56 Suburbanization, 172 Suburbs, 304 T Subversion, 138 T-20, 276 Suffrage, see Voting Taiwan, 24, 107, 233 Suffragette Movement, 17 Taliban, see Afghanistan; Pakistan Sugar, 284, 345 Talkathon, 279 Suharto, 347 Talk-show radio, 177 Suicide, 41, 59, 63, 84, 124, 126, Tamil language, 132, 361 130, 151, 207, 304 Tan, Freddy, 110, 114, 121, 122 Sukarno, 321, 347 Tang Liang Hong, 118, 128 Summit conferences, 240, 276 Tan Wah Piow, 127, 128 Sunglasses, 162 Taoists, 100 Sunstein, Cass, 144, 183, 199, 203 Tariffs, 196, 242, 261, 269, 346 Supercapitalists, 242 Taxes, 12, 14, 17, 24, 26, 27, 36, 42, “Superclass,” 63, 162, 241, 242, 253 46, 125, 143, 152, 154, 161, Superelites, 242 164, 174, 175, 180, 190, 191, Superheroes, 149 202, 212, 217–219, 225–227, Superimperialism, 42 229, 237, 244, 263, 298, 305, Supermajorities, 27, 191, 193, 335, 353, 370n12 294, 305 collection, 263 Superman, 149 havens, 229, 263, 298, 353 Supermarket chains, 253 records, 212, 226 Superpersons, 123 revenue, 229 Superpowers, 240, 246, 273 Technical assistance, 262, 263, 270 Superstition, 38, 148 Technology, 141, 182, 323 Supranational organizations, 247, 309 digital, 141 Supreme Leader, see Ayatollah Teh Cheang Wan, 126 Suriname, 361 Tehran Conference, 239, 271, 347 civil war, 362 Telephone bugging, 55, 56, 300 constitution, 361 Television, 43, 54, 55, 111, 116, coup, 362 117, 169, 177–182, 184, 195, elections, 362 249, 250 independence, 361 Television age, dawn of, 43 INDEX 513

Ten Commandments, 9, 35 Time to Get Tough: Make America #1 Term limits, 293 Again, 206 Terrorism, 1, 35, 61, 64, 152, 178, Timor-Leste, 268 205, 219 Tobacco industry, 165 Terrorist groups, 61, 232, 275, 278 To Catch a Tartar, 128 Thailand, 6, 55, 69, 125, 132, 147, Tocqueville, Alexis de, 10, 13, 14, 27, 270, 336, 362 39, 53, 164, 297 constitutions, 362 To Empower People, 54 corruption, 362 Toffler, Alvin, 317 coups, 362 Tolerance, 13, 147, 148 elections, 362 Tönnies, Ferdinand, 58 judiciary, 362 Top-down reforms, 172 military, 362, 363 Torts, 268 political parties, 24 Torture, 126–128, 178, 182, 201, referendum, 362 206, 210, 278 rural residents, 362 Torture City, see Singapore street demonstrations, 363 Totalitarianism, viii, 47, 225 Thatcher, Margaret, 216 Totalitarianization, 103, 210 Theology, 117 Trade, 12, 15, 35, 40, 41, 43, 46, 56, Theriault, Sean, 173 85, 87, 93, 100, 132, 145, 151, Think tanks, 165, 167, 178, 192, 165, 192, 200, 202, 205, 218, 276, 324 226, 230, 232, 234, 244, 247, Third Estate, 12, 36, 342 253, 261, 264, 268–270, 275, Third International, 238 277, 278, 282–285, 287 Third World, 153, 246, 262, 281 barriers, 261, 264 Thought control, 116 disputes, 247, 264, 268 Thrasher, Frederic, 46 international, 100 Throne claimants, 35 jurisprudence, 270 Thucydides, 25 Trade-off theory, 101 Tibet, 115 Trade unions, 15, 40, 41, 43, 46, 56, Tilly, Charles, 41, 300, 311 85, 87, 93, 100, 145, 151, 165, Time, 2, 7, 11, 13, 14, 16, 26, 36, 44, 192, 200, 202, 226, 360 46, 53, 54, 57, 61, 62, 70, 77, Tragedy of the commons, 26 86, 94, 101, 111–114, 117, 120, Transaction costs, 273, 281 122, 125, 133, 140, 142, 160, Transatlantic Trade and Investment 162, 163, 165, 171–173, 177, Partnership, 214 179–181, 186, 191, 193, 195, Transnational advocacy networks 196, 199, 202, 215, 218, (TAN), 236, 238 222–225, 233, 246, 248, 268, Transnational managerial class, 240 270, 294, 295, 297, 298, 304, Transnational media executives, 241 307, 313, 334, 337, 342, 343, Transnational professional 345, 347, 357, 363, 365 standards, 241 514 INDEX

Transnational regimes, 234, 237, 252 coup attempts, 363 Transnistria, see Moldova, Transnistria Istanbul, 245 Transparency Kurds, 363 economic, 263, 365 Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, political, 302, 365 233, 338 Transparency International, 253 Turner, Mat, 60, 307 Treason, 182 Tuvalu, 325 Treaties, 239, 246, 256, 264, 265, “Tweets,” 56, 204, 209, 210, 215, 267–269, 277, 278 219, 220, 224 violation, 268 Twelve Tables of Rome, 9 Treaty of Versailles, 18, 42, 356 Two-party system, 107, 170 Trial by jury, 121, 202 Tyranny, 7, 139 “Triangle of power,” 45 , 27 Tribal loyalty, 158 Trikoupis, Charilaos, 344 Trilingualism, 132 U Trillionaire, 212 Uganda, 270, 363 Triumphalism, 143 Basoga tribe, 270 Truce of God (Truenga Dei), 245 constitutions, 363 Trujillo, Rafael, 339 coups, 363 Truman, David, 50, 74, 164 elections, 363 Truman, Harry, 200, 345 independence, 363 Trump, Donald, ix, vii, 50, 52, 138, war, 363 139, 144, 153, 154, 160, 163, Ukraine, 10, 214, 219, 221, 364 175, 181, 182, 189, 191, 194, corruption, 364 195, 197, 199, 204–224, 226, Crimea, 221, 364 240, 248, 293, 295, 298, 303, elections, 364 307, 308, 365, 367n1, 367n2, independence, 364 369n8–369n10 Orange Revolution, 364 Trump, Fred, 224, 226 Russian minority, 214, 219, Trump, Ivanka, 211 221, 364 Trumpocracy, 204–224, 307 Ultrarich, 241 Trumpocrats, 206 Ultrastability, 103 Truth and reconciliation Uncle Tom, 106 commissions, 324 Unemployment, 40, 42, 43, 62, 217, Tsuyoshi, Inukai, 348 218, 261, 344, 361 Tunisia, 60, 64, 318, 363 Unger, Roberto, 320 independence, 363 Unification, political, 300 terrorism, 64, 363 Unified elite, 326 Turkey, 18, 138, 263, 318, 328, Unitaid, 237 338, 363 Unitary systems, 295 Constantinople, 11 United Arab Emirates, 325 constitutions, 363 United Arab Republic, 350 INDEX 515

United Fruit Company, 345 United Nations High Commission for United Nations (UN), 81, 230–235, Refugees, 256 237, 241, 246, 249, 250, 252–254, United Nations Human Rights 256–262, 265, 268, 271–275, 277, Council, 261 278, 286, 299, 308–312, 336, 343, United Nations Indigenous Peoples 346, 349, 359 Partnership (UNIPP), 260 blue-helmeted troops, 258 United Nations International United Nations Charter, 234, 246, 257 Children’s Fund (UNICEF), 259 United Nations Commission on United Nations, International Civil International Trade Law Aviation Organization, 259 (UNCITRAL), 271 United Nations International Law United Nations, Conference of NGOs Commission, 273 with Consultative Relations with United Nations, International the United Nations, 257 Maritime Organization, 259 United Nations, Conference of United Nations Millennium Nongovernmental Development Goals, 262 Organizations, 257 United Nations Nongovernmental United Nations, Consultative Liaison Service (UN-NGLS), 257 Status, 257 United Nations, Observer United Nations Convention Against countries, 258 Corruption, 253 United Nations, Office of the High United Nations Declaration on the Commissioner for Human Rights of Indigenous Peoples, 260 Rights, 277 United Nations, Department of Public United Nations Office on Drugs and Information, 257 Crime (UNDOC), 256 United Nations, Economic and Social United Nations, Permanent Forum on Council, 252, 256, 257 Indigenous Issues, 260 United Nations Educational, Scientific, United Nations, permanent members and Cultural Organization of the Security Council, 309 (UNESCO), 256, 259 United Nations Secretariat, 258, 259 United Nations Environmental United Nations Secretariat, Economic Program, 241 and Social Affairs Department, 259 United Nations, Executive Committee United Nations Secretariat, Office for of Non-Governmental the Coordination of Organizations Associated with the Humanitarian Affairs, 258 United Nations, Department of United Nations Secretary-General, Public Information, 257 230, 258, 311, 349 United Nations General Assembly United Nations Security Council (UNGA), 254, 258, 260, 266, (UNSC), 230, 257, 265, 268, 271, 286 274, 275, 343 United Nations Global Compact United Nations Specialized (UNGC), 274, 278, 279 Agencies, 256 516 INDEX

United Nations Working Group on Beltway of Washington, DC, 166 Slavery, 256 Bill of Rights, 19, 145, 185, 210 United Nations, World Health Black Lives Matter, 179, 307 Organization, 256 Black Lives Matter movement, 179 United States Blacks (see United States, African abortion law, 146, 188 Americans) “access-to-justice clinics,” 203 blue slip veto, 188 Administrative Procedure Act, blue states, 307 157, 199 Boston, Massachusetts, x, 36, 46, advice and consent to presidential 47, 154 nominations, 145 Boston Tea Party, 36 Affordable Care Act “bound to lead,” 247 (Obamacare), 188 Brennan Center for Justice, 160 African Americans, 50, 58, 141, Bretton Woods, , 160, 166, 179, 202, 261, 262, 275, 276 306–308, 321 budget deficits, 153 Aid to Families with Dependent “bully pulpit,” 197 Children, 157 Cable Act, 177 Alabama, 175, 207 California, 143, 147, 174, 180, 194, Alaska, 54, 295 202, 212, 224, 293, 296, allies, 205, 218, 219 370n2 American Association of Retired California Democratic Party, 180 Persons, 164 campaign financing, 169 American Civil Liberties Union, 202 campaign spending, 158 American Creed, 147 candidate slates, 276 American culture, 140, 147, Cape Cod, Massachusetts, 124 148, 244 Capitol Hill, 193, 197 American Dream, 148 Carnegie Endowment for American power abroad, 143 International Peace, 218 “American Rule,” 203 Caucasians (Whites), ix, 150, 151, Antiterrorism and Effective Death 345, 346 Penalty Act, 202 census, 186 anti-trust legislation, 144, 167 Central Intelligence Agency, 197 Appalachia, 151 charter schools, 200 Arkansas, 224 Chevron USA v Natural Resources Articles of Confederation, 10 Defense Council, 203 Asian Americans, 141, 150 Chinese Americans, 17 Atlanta, Georgia, 46, 49 Citizens United v Federal Election AT&T Mobility LCC Commission, 158, 203 v Conception, 203 civil rights legislation, 171, 307 Bar Associations, 201–203, 210, 306 Civil Rights Movement, 22, 145, battleground states, 194, 195, 294 146, 164, 166, 307 INDEX 517

Civil War, 141, 166, 196, 214, 307, Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and 338, 345, 346, 364 Consumer Protection Act, 188 cloture, 189 “Dreamers,” 215 colleges and universities, x, viii, 43, Duke University, x 47, 215 East Coast, 308 Colorado, 195 Elaine, Arkansas, 224 Columbia University, 44, 45 Electoral College, 184, 185, 194, Confederate States, 171 226, 293, 294, 364 Congress, ix, 6, 140, 161, 323 Emancipation Proclamation, 198 Congressional budget “emoluments clause,” 212 reconciliation, 189 Emory University, x Congressional committees, 220 Engel v Vitale, 146 Congressional elections, 139, 207 Environmental Protection Agency, , 10, 22, 174, 295 186, 217 Conservative Party, 173 environmental regulations, 159 constitution, 10, 17–19, 21, 141, “equal time” rule, 297 142, 184, 185 era of good feelings, 170 constitutional amendments, 186, exceptionalism, 247 293, 364 executive orders, 153, 185, 189, Continental Congress, 36 198, 209, 210, 365 Cook Political Report, 186 fairness doctrine, 177 corruption, 151, 152, 168, 179, federal budget deficits, 153 200, 206, 212, 365 Federal Bureau of Investigation, 199 courts and the judiciary, 146, 160, Federal Communications 163, 189, 197, 200–204, 210, Commission Act, 177 221, 293 Federalist papers, 14, 309 cultural revolution, 207 Federalist Party, 16, 170 culture war, 147, 304 federal system, 185 Dark money, 158 filibuster, 189, 210, 222, 295 Declaration of Independence, 141 Florida, 195, 216 , 174 foreign relations, 309 Democratic Party, 139, 144, 146, Fort Lauderdale, Florida, 154 150, 171, 172, 174 fraternities, 45 Democratic-Republican Party, 14, 16 general elections, 159, 195, 207 demographics, ix, 150 geographic areas, 166 Department of Defense, 212 German Americans, 224, 369n8 Department of Health and Human gerrymandering, 186, 204, 226 Services, 211 G.I. Bill, 157 Department of Justice, 168, 203, government and politics, 156–227 204, 209 government debt ceiling, 189 Detroit, Michigan, 167 government shutdowns, 139, 140, disparate effects principle, 204 174, 188, 223, 365 divided government, 197 “gun control,” 154, 178, 199 518 INDEX

United States (cont.) majority control of Congress, 139 Hastert Rule, 190, 305 March on Washington, 307 Hawaiʻi, 16, 22, 34, 54, 151, 157, Maryland, 364 269, 300, 306, 311, 318, 345, Massachusetts, 46, 368n2 346, 370n2 Mat Turner Rebellion, 141 health care legislation, 219 Meat Inspection Act, 177 House Congressional Rule XXI, 190 media, 6, 36, 60, 138 House of Representatives, 144, Media Matters, 182 184–188, 190, 192, 195, 196, Medicaid, 145 219, 220, 222, 223 Medicare, 145 Hurricane Harvey, 190 #MeToo movement, 307 Hurricane Sandy, 190 Mexican Americans, 150 hyperpartisanship, 139 mid-Atlantic states, 147, 190 , 174 Midwest, 147, 207 illegal (undocumented) aliens, 223 military, 25, 151, 218, 292 Illinois, 46 military spending, 153 immigrants, 140, 150, 215, 216 military strikes, 218 Immigration Act of 1965, 150 , Wisconsin, 160 Import-Export Bank, 189 minimum wage, 153, 162, 166 incarceration rates, 160 , 174 income levels, 298 Morris, Illinois, 46 independent voters, 172 Muncie, Indiana, 46 Indiana, 46 nationalism, 147 Iowa, 195 National Labor Relations Board, Italian Americans, 224 189 Ivy League, 44, 45 National Popular Vote Interstate Jacksonianism, 146, 323 Compact, 294 Jeffersonianism, 146, 323 National Republican Party, 170 Jim Crow era, 321 National Security Adviser, 208, 220 Kansas, 295 National Security Council, 197 Ku Klux Klan, 54, 224 Native Americans, 141 Latinos, 141 Native Hawaiians, 17 Lawyers Committee for Human Nevada, 195 Rights, 103, 129 Newburyport, Massachusetts, 46 legislative riders, 190, 191 New Deal, 43, 146, 199 Liberal Party, 340 New England, 147 Libertarian Party, 143 New Hampshire, 195, 261 lobbying, 165, 167, 169 New Haven, Connecticut, 21, 50, local school boards, 185 51, 161 Los Angeles, California, 296, 325 New Orleans, Louisiana, 319 Louisiana, 159 , 47, 143, 154, 174, Magnitsky Act, 209 205, 213, 281, 312, 370n10 INDEX 519

New York State, 173 prisons, 203 New York Times, 178 Progressive Movement, 18, 40, NLRB v Canning, 189 142, 324 No Child Left Behind Act, 185 progressives, 40, 324 North Carolina, 195 Public Broadcasting System, 181 Oberlin, Ohio, 49 public colleges and universities, 150 Office of Technology Assessment, 192 public opinion, 151–156, 225 Ohio, 49, 195 public service announcements, 177 Oklahoma, 186 Puerto Rico, 216 Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, 224 racial gerrymandering, 204 omnibus bills, 190 Radio Act, 177 , 174 railroads, 176 Orlando, Florida, 154 recall, 18, 40, 326, 365 overridden vetoes, 274 red scare of 1919, 62 Pacific Northwest, 147 red states, 307 Parent-Teacher Associations, 165 regulatory agencies, 167, 203 part-time legislators, 162, 219 Republican Party, ix, 16, 139, 144, Pennsylvania, 12, 195, 207 150, 151, 170, 205, 207, 208, Pentagon, 179, 308 214, 222, 298 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 46 Resistance movement, 307 political culture, 140 right-to-work laws, 165 political participation, 61 Rowe v Wade, 146 political parties, 6, 14, 39, 170, 189, rural areas, 53, 61, 151, 154, 204, 205, 324, 325, 337 158–159, 208, 304 political party conventions rural residents, 41, 108, 362 pork barrel legislation, 191 rust belt, 195 power structure, 161, 163, 164 safe Congressional districts, 180, prayer in schools, 146 186 presidential action, 196 San Bernardino, California, 154 presidential appointments, 140 savings-and-loan crisis, 203 presidential candidates, school closures, 185 206, 298, 337 Seattle, Washington, 216, 250 presidential commitment (red lines) Second Civil War, 141 presidential coordination with Secretary of State, 211, 214, 220 Congress, 197–198 Secretary of the Treasury, 217 presidential preferential Senate, 189, 196, 201, 210, primaries, 195 221–224, 309, 334, presidential selection, 194 357, 358 presidents, 176, 194, 196, 197, Senate Foreign Relations 199, 212, 323 Committee, 309 pressure groups, 14, 50, 54 Shelby County v Holder, 186, 204 primary elections, 159, 190, slavery, 141–143, 170, 207 205, 207 Social Security, 134, 157 520 INDEX

United States (cont.) Vietnam War, 84, 151, 166, 307 Social Security Disability Virginia, 12, 195, 215 Insurance, 157 Virginia House of Burgesses, 12 sororities, 45 , 159 , 174 voter turnout, 17, 51, 77, 104, 140, Southern states, 141, 147, 186, 156–161, 295, 296 190, 196, 364 voting barriers, 159 Speaker of the House of Voting Rights Act of 1965, 186, Representatives, 144, 220 204, 331, 364 special prosecutor, 221 Wall Street, 42 split- voting, 158 Walter Reed National Medical Stanford University, viii Center, 213 state’s rights, 185, 295 War on Drugs, 160, 237 sunset clauses, 190 Washington, DC, 166, 178 Supreme Court, 293 Washington Post, 183 swing states, 195, 294 Watergate scandal, 62, 151 tax reform, 161, 174, 217, 219 Whig Party, 170 Tea Party Republicans, White House, 139, 176, 198, 204, 149, 174, 190 206, 208, 210–214, 219, 224 terrorist attacks, 154 White House Chief of Staff, 208 Texas, 160, 190, 216, 217 White House communication Texas v Inclusive Communities directors, 208 Project, 204 White House czars, 208 third (minor) parties, 158, 170, 268 White House Press Secretary, 208 Trump Hotel, Washington, White nationalists, 215, 219 DC, 212 Whites, 59, 142, 143, 151, 154, trust in government, 62, 151, 183, 186, 208, 357, 364 156, 227 Wisconsin, 160, 195, 207, 369n8 Union Army, 198 Women’s Marches, 307 unitary presidency theory, 199 Yale University, viii, 45, 211 University of California, Berkeley, 47 Universal suffrage, 50, 323, 345, University of Hawaiʻi, x, viii 348, 363 University of Maryland, x Universal truth, 44 University of Massachusetts Universal Postal Union, 234, 255, 299 (Boston), x Unlearning, 183 University of Southern California, x Unpopularity of democracy, 64 University of Virginia, 215 Unrepresented Nations and Peoples unlimited Senate debate, 189 Organization, 260 Veasey v Abbott, 160 Unsanitary conditions, 177 Vermont, 174, 364 Upper class, 45, 46, 49, 57, 58, vice presidents, 1, 94, 185, 196, 77, 289 206, 211, 366 “Uprising of stupidity,” 206 INDEX 521

Uprooted, 48, 63, 102 Violence, 14, 26, 35, 41, 58, 60, 93, Urban blight, 130 178, 206, 213, 230, 275, 313, Urbanization, 56 335, 336, 339, 349–351, Urban renewal, 50, 51 357–360, 362 Urgenda Foundation v The threats of, 35, 178 Netherlands, 267–268 Volden, Craig, 192, 193, 198, Uruguay, 365 296, 298 Communist threat, 365 Volokh, Eugene, 57 military, 365 Voluntary associations, see Pressure Utopian solutions, 56, 287, 298, 308 groups Vonnegut, Kurt, 305 Voter fraud, 160, 208, 332 V Voter turnout, 17, 51, 77, 104, 140, Valencia, 12 156–161, 295, 296 Vandalism, 128 Voting Van den Berghe, Pierre, 22, 321 age, 17, 143, 352 Vanderbilt, Cornelius, 39 inclusive, 204 Vanguard, 41, 251, 327 ranked-choice, 296 Vanilla, 284 swing, 158, 172, 294 Vatican, 245 Voting on Saturday, 295 Venezuela Voting on Tuesday, 159, 295 corruption, 365 coups, 365 economy, 365 W guerrillas, 365 Wage independence, 365 freeze, 84 judiciary, 33, 365 growth, 162 military, 365 inequality, 51, 59, 270 Venice, 232, 268 minimum, 1, 66, 153, 162 Verbal campaigns, see Campaigns stagnation, 152 Versailles Conference, 234 Wallas, Graham, 41 Veto, 17, 22, 184, 186, 188, 197, Wall Street Journal, 113, 114, 249 198, 219, 224, 235, 257, 268, Walzer, Michael, 57 306, 318 War, vii, 2, 3, 5, 42, 62–64, 67, 82, Victorian Values, 118 89, 246, 275, 332, 333, 339, Vidal, Gore, 305 344, 346–348, 355 Vienna Convention on Consular absolute, 62 Relations, 265 agonistic, 62 Vietnam, 84, 151, 166, 233, 240, crimes, 178, 179, 201, 234, 236, 272, 275, 307, 336 239, 247, 266, 278 Vietnam, Republic of (South), 336 for independence, 36 Vietnam War, 166, 307, 336 instrumental, 62 Vikings, 11, 232 reconstruction, 77 522 INDEX

Warburg, James, 309 William the Conqueror, 11 Warlike governments, 27 Wilson, Woodrow, 187 Warner, W. Lloyd, 46 Wine industry, 275 War on Drugs, 160, 237 Win-win solutions, 298, 308 Washington Consensus, 244 Wirth, Louis, 52 Washington, George, 1, 15, 42, “Witch hunt,” 221 139–227, 240, 244, 247, 269, Withinputs, 49 276, 297, 307, 308, 324, 338 Women in politics, 37 Washington Naval Conference, 234 “Women’s jobs,” 137 Water boards, 11 Women’s movements, 252, 263 Watercourses Convention, 273 Women’s suffrage, 254 Waxman, Henry, 180, 187 Wonderful World of Oz, The, 40 Wayne, John, 149 Wong Yip Chong, 121 Wealth, 14, 22, 23, 34, 39, 45, 46, Workers 124, 142, 149, 162, 213, 225, blue collar, 91 227, 241, 244, 250, 286, 298, councils, 322 327, 333, 334 part-time, 162, 200 redistribution, 286 rights, 100, 108 We Are the World, 307 safety, 167 Weather, 36, 40 self-management, 320 Weber, Max, 45 social, 297 Welfare for the rich, 167 unskilled, 150 Welfare state, 1, 22, 37, 42, 52, 56, white collar, 79, 82, 83, 87, 88, 91, 72, 78, 79, 87, 145, 146, 151, 92, 171 153, 199, 207, 304, 306, 329 Working class, 8, 40, 72, 78, 85, 86, Well-being, 44 93, 123, 124, 138, 145, 159, We Shall Overcome, 307 161, 166, 175, 289, 304 Western African Economic and Working conditions, 130, 142, 280, 284 Monetary Union: Court of Workplace tribunals, 324 Justice, 267 World Bank, 135, 240, 242, 250, Westernization, 118, 134, 247 261–263, 269, 275, 277, 285 Western Values, 118 World Bank, Civil Society Policy What Is Property?, 322 Forum, 263 Wheat, 40 World Bank Group, 262, 271 Whistleblowers, 179 World Bank Group, Compliance Who Governs?, 50 Adviser/Ombudsman, 271 Who Really Rules?, 51 World Bank Group, Inspection Whyte, William Foote, 46, 159 Panel, 270 Wickman, Kurt, 101, 113, 125 World Commission on Dams, 237 Widening income gap, 162, 163 World Conference on Indigenous Wikileaks, 179 Peoples, 260 Wildavsky, Aaron, 49 World Earth Catalog, 283 INDEX 523

World Environmental Organization, Worldwide anarchy, 63 273, 310, 312 World Wildlife Fund, 285 World Fair Trade Organization Wright, Gordon, 85, 88, 89, 94 (WFTO), 283 World federalism, 231, 287, 310 World government, 63, 230, 299, X 300, 308–310, 370n1 Xenophobia, 243 “World heritage of mankind,” 248 Xi Jinping, 35 World Justice Project’s Rule of Law Index, 120 World parliament, 309 Y WorldShop, 283 Y-20, 276 World Social Forum, 247 Yahoo, 250 World Standards Cooperation, 281 Yalta Conference, 239 World Summit for Children, 259 Yanukovych, Viktor, 364 World Summit on Sustainable Yawning Bread blog, 116 Development, 284 Yeltsin, Boris, 358 World Summit on the Information Yemen Society, 250 civil war, 64, 366 World summits, 252, 259 North, 366 World Trade Organization, 218, 235, South, 366 247, 264, 309 unification, 366 World Trade Organization, Appellate Younger generation, 89, 118, 293, Body, 266 369n10 World Trade Organization, Dispute Young, Kevin, 230 Resolution Body, 269 Young, Oran, 238, 273, 279, 280 World Trade Organization, Dispute YouTube, 115 Settlement Body, 269 Yugoslavia, 258, 322, 335, 359 World Trade Organization: General Yushchenko, Victor, 364 Council, 266 World War I, 18, 27, 41, 224, 234, 333, 339, 342, 348, 358, Z 370n11 Zaïre, see Congo, Democratic World War II, 6, 27, 43, 48, 55, 56, Republic of 67, 69, 72, 88, 94, 100, 103, Zakaria, Fareed, 21, 321 120, 128, 232, 239, 246, 256, Zapatista movement, 247 259, 261–263, 266, 283, 299, Zen, 307 305, 318, 321, 329, 333, 339, Zero-sum, 27, 171, 225, 294, 298, 341, 342, 344, 347, 348, 315, 304, 318 353, 356, 358 Zika virus, 260 World War III, 47, 309 Zoning, 55, 297, 325