CENSUS OF INDIA 1961
VOLUl\1E xv
UTT AR PRADESH
PART VI
VILLAGE SURVEY MONOGRAPH No. 13
General Editor P. P. BHATNAGAR of the Indian Administrative Serv-ice Superintendent of Census Operations, Uttar Pradesh
VILLAGE SADHARANSAR TAHSIL DEOBAND, DISTRICT SAHARANPUR)
BY R. I. VERMA 0/ the Uttar Pradesh Civil Servia Deputy Superintendent 0/ Cen.ru.r Operlltitml , ~ C' e81 erl ell 83'1 8 ..° 1 arl nr!OESH~<;'.
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l'sU'P-A.p.-13 (;[NSus.-1964. (OmET) (C) GOWRNJ>m(TOFINDlA COPYRIGK"I' 1963. Bas.o upon Surlle)' of India Map with the permission of Ihe SIIYVe)'Dr GerJerol of Indio. CENSUS OF INDIA, 1961 Central Government Publications Census Report, Volume XV-Uttar Pradesh is published in the following parts: I-A(i-ii) General Report I-B Report on Vital Statistics I-CCi-vi) Subsidiary Tables (in 6 books) II-A General Population Tables II-B(i-vi) General Economic Tables (in 6 books) II-C(i-vi) Cultural and Migration Tables (in 6 books) III-A Household Economic Tables III-B Household Economic Tables (concluded) IV-A Report on Housing and Establishments and Housing and Establishment Tables (E-series Tables-except E-III) IV-B Housing ~nd Establishment Tables (E-III) V-A Special Tables for Scheduled Castes V-B Reprints from old Census Reports and Ethnographic Notes VI Village Survey Monographs (Monographs on selected Villages) VII-A Handicraft Survey Reports VII-B Fairs and Festivals in Uttar Pradesh VIU-A Administration Report-Enumeration (for official use only) VIII-B Administration Report-Tabulation (for official use only) IX Census Atlas of Uttar Pradesh X Special Report on Kanpur
State Government Publications 54 Volumes of District Census Handbooks CONTENTS
Pages
POREWORD
PREFACE v
I TllE VILLAGE t
II TItE PEOPLE AND TltEIR MATERIAL EQUIPMENT 4
III ECONOMY 1S
IV SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE 25
V CONCLUSION 35
STATISTICAL TABLES .• 37
GLOSSARY 43
LIST OF VILLAGES 45 LIST OF TABLES . TABLE I Area, Houses and Population
TABLE II Population by Age-groups TABLE III .. Size and Composition of Households TABLE IV .. Caste and Nature of the Families TABLE V HO'lseholds Classified by Religion, Castes and Sub-castes
TABLE VI Age and Marital Status
TABLE VII Education
TABLE VIII Workers and Non-workers by Sex and broad Age groups
TABLE IX Households by Number of Rooms and by Number of Persons occupying
TABLE X Livestock
TABLE XI Agricultural Produce and its Disposal
TABLE XII Indebtedness
TABLE XIII Indebtedness by Causes MAPS PHOTOGRAPHS AND SKETCHES I. Maps 1. Map of Uttar Pradesh showing location of villages selected for survey Frontispiece 2. Map showing Habitation Pattern in village Sadharansar .. Pacing page 1 II. Photographs and Sketches Between pages 1. Shiva Temple 2-3 2. Primary School 2-3 3. Cattle at the village tank 2-3 4. Enjoying a smoke 2-3 5. A typical kachcha house 6-7 6, A pukka house 6-7 7. A hand pump in front of kachcha house 6-7 8. Usual dress of Muslim women 6-7 9, Hindu women and their dress 8-9 10. A group of men and children 8-9 11. Ornaments 8-9 12. Common utensils of Muslims 8--9 13. Utensils 10-11 14. Different types of ornaments 10-11 15. Agricultural implements . . 18-19 16. Modern Agricultural implements 18-19 17. Bullocks and ploughs 20-21 18. A tractor 20-21 19. Some other agricultural implements 20-21 20. Cutting the sugarcane 20-21 21. The Potter 22-23 22. The Potter 22-23 23. Carpenter at work 22-23 24. A group of men and children gossiping 32-33 25. Office bearers of Gaon Sabha and Nyaya Panchayat 32-33 III. Diagrams 1. Population by caste 4-5 2. Household by number of rooms 4-5 3. Occupational pattern 14-15 4. Non-workers by sex and age-groups 14-15 5. Indebtedness by causes 22-23 6. Indebtedness by income groups 22-23 7. Population by age-groups 26-27 8. Marital Status 26-27 9. Education by Sex 26-27 10. Nature of families 26-27
FOREWORD Apart from laying the foundations of quantitative terms on the basis of villages demography in this subcontinent, a hun selected statistically at random. The dred years of the Indian Census has also selection was avowedly purposive: the produced 'elaborate and scholarly accounts object being as much to find out what was of the variegated phenomena of Indian happening and how fast to those villages life-sometimes with no statistics attached, which had fewer reasons to choose change but usually with just enough statistics to and more to remain lodged in the past as give empirical underpinning to their con to discover how the more 'normal' types clusions'. In a country, largely illiterate, of villages were changing. They were to where statistical or numerical comprehen be primarily type studies which, by virtue sion of even such a simple thing as age was of their number and distributi.on, would liable to be inaccurate, an understanding of also give the reader a 'feel' of what was the social structure was essential. It was going on and some kind of a map of the more necessary to attain a broad under country. standing of what was happening around oneself than to wrap oneself up in 'statisti A brief account of the tests of selection cal ingenuity' or 'mathematical manipula will help to explain. A minimum of tion'. This explains why the Indian Census thirty-five villages was to be chosen with came to be interested in 'many by-paths' great care to represent adequately geog and 'nearly every branch of scholarship, raphical, occupational and even ethnic from anthropology and sociology to geo diversity. Of this minimum of thirty-five graphy and religion.' the distribution was to be as follows: In the last few decades the Census has (a) At least eight villages were to increasingly turned its efforts to the presen be so selected that each of them would tatio.n of village statistics. This suits the contain one dominant community temper of the times as well as our political with one predominating occupa and economic structure. For even as we tion, e.g. fishermen, forest workers, have a great deal of centralization on the jhum cultivators, potters, weavers, one hand and decentralisation on the other, salt-makers, quarry workers, etc. A my colleagues thought it would be a wel village should have a minimum popu come continuation of the Census tradition lation of 400, the optimum being to try to invest the dry bones of village between 500 and '. "(). statistics 'with flesh-and-blood accounts of (b) At least seven villages were to social structure and social change. It was be of numerically prominent Schedul accordingly decided to select a few villages ed Tribes of the State. Each village in every State for special study, where could represent a particular tribe. The personal observation would be brought to minimum p.opulation should be 400, hear on the interpretation of statistics to the optimum being between 500 find out how much of a village was static and 700. and yet changing and how fast the winds (c) The third group of villages of change were blowing and from where. should each be .of fair size, of an old Randomness of selection was, therefore, and settled character and contain eschewed. There was no intention to variegated occupations and be, if build By fair size was meant a population terns of the village; house types; diet; of 500-700 persons or more. The dress; ornaments and footwear; furniture village should mainly depend on agri and storing vessels; common means of culture and be sufficiently away from transport of goods and passengers; domes the major sources of modern commu tication of animals and birds; market~ nication such as the district adminis attended; WOl'ship of deities, festivals and u·ative headquarters and business fairs. There were to be recordings, of centres. It should be roughly a day's course, of cultural and social traits and journey from the above places. The occupational mobility. This was followed villages were to be selected with an up in March 1960 by two specimen eye to variation in terms of size, schedules, one for each household, the proximity to city and other means of other for the village as a whole, which modern communication, nearness to apart trom spelling out the mode of hills, jungles and major rivers. Thus inquiry suggested in the September 1959 there was to be a regional distribu conference, introduced groups of questions tion throughout the State of this aimed at sensing changes in attitude and. category of villages. If, however, a behaviour in such fields as marriage, in particular district contained signifi heritance, moveable and immoveable pro cant ecological variatici.1s within its perty, industry, indebtedness, education, area, more than one village in the community life and collective activity, district might be selected to study the social disabilities, forums of appeal over special adjustments to them. disputes, village leadership and organisa tion of cultural life. It was now plainly It is a unique feature of these village the intention to provide adequate statisti surveys that they rapidly outgrew their cal support to empirical 'feel', to approach origina) terms of reference, as my collea qualitative change through statistical gues warmed up to their work. This quantities. It had been difficult to give proved for them an absorbing voyage of thought to the importance of 'just enough discovery and their infectious enthusiasm statistics to give empirical underpinning compelled me to enlarge the inquiry's to condusion', at a time when my scope again and again. It was just as well colleagues were straining themselves to the cautiously to feel one's way about at first utmost for the success of the main Census and then venture further afield, and al operations, but once the census count itself though it accounts to some extent for a was left behind in March, 1961, a series of certain unevenness in the quality and three regional seminars in Trivandrum , coverage of the monographs, it served to (May 1961), Darjeeling and Srinagar compensate the purely honorary and (J une 1961) restored their attention to extra-mural rigours of the task. For the this field and the importance of tracing Survey, along with its many ancillaries social change through a number of weIl like the survey of fairs and festivals, of devised statistical tables was once again small and rural industry and others, was recognised. This itself presupposed a an 'extra', over and above the crushing fresh survey of villages already done; but load of the 1961 Census. it was worth the trouble in view of the It might be of interest to recount briefly possibilities that a close analysis of satistics the stages by which the Survey enlarged its offered, and also because the 'consanguini scope. At the first Census Conference in ty' schedule remained to be canvassed. September 1959 the Survey set itself the By November 1961, however, more was _ task of what might be called a record in expected of these surveys than ever before. situ oE material traits, like settlement pat- There was dissatisfaction on the one hand __ iii 'with too many general statements and a adopting as many villages as they had ori growing desire on the other to draw con ginally intended to. But I believe that clusions from statistics, to regard social and what may have been lost in quantity has economic data as interrelated processes, and been more than made up for in quality. finally to examine the social and economic This is, perhaps, for the first time that such processes set in motion through land re a Survey has been conducted in any forms and other laws, legislative and admi country, and that purely as a labour of nistrative measures, technological and love. It has succeeded in attaining what cultural change. Finally, a study camp it set out to achieve: to construct a map was organised in the last week of Decem of village India's social structure. One ber 1961 when the whole field was care hopes that the volumes of this Survey will fully gone through over again and a pro help to retain for the Indian Census its gramme worked out closely knitting the title to 'the most fruitful single source of various aims of the Survey together. The information about the country'. Apart Social Studies Section of the Census Com from other features, it will perhaps be mission rendered assistance to State conceded that the Survey has set up a new Superintendents by way of scrutiny and Census standard in pictorial and graphic technical comments on the frame of Survey documentation. The schedules finally and presentation of results. adopted for this monograph have been printed in an appendix to the monograph This gradual unfolding of the aims of on village Thapli, district Garhwal. the Survey prevented my colleagues from NEW DELHI: A. MITRA, July 30, 1964. Registrar General, India. PREFACE In Uttar Pradesh, the Census Organisa ed because it has an old and settled charac tion ,selected a number of villages for spe ter and is inhabited by Hindus of various cial study of the dynamics of change in Castes and Muslims as -well whose main the social, cultural and economic life of , occupation is agriculture. Other occupa the rural community. An analysis of the tions too are followed by the people. The structure and functioning of the village village has 1,009 persons and is thus of a economy is expected to reveal the forces fairly big size. The economy of the which promote or retard the processes of village is being affected by a number of change coming into play, either in the factors of change. natural course or as a result of various legislative measures such as the establish 4. The research methods employed ment of Panchayats, the abolition of in this study have consisted of the use of Zamindari, the extension of Planning, schedules and questionnaires, case studies, Development activities and the enforce village records, census data, interviews ment of various social laws. The and group discussions. The local investi knowledge thus gained can be utilised for gation was carried out by the field staff of reorientation of the policies of rural this Organisation, having a well trained development and village uplift. pair of eyes. There was some difficulty in the initial stages because the investigator 2. The selection of villages for study was viewed with suspicion but after he was made in accordance with certain gained the confidence of villagers and principles and criteria laid down by the established rapport with them, the work Registrar General. Of the selected of investigation became easy and simple. villages, some contain one dominant The data were collected in the month of community with one predominating February 1962. The study was, of course, occupation, some are populated by subject to time pressure. backward aboriginal people and others have an old and settled character with a multi 5. Field investigation in the village ethnic composition and diverse occupa was carried out by Shri G. S· Saxena, tions. Minor deviations from the stan Socio-Economic Inspector, who had been dards prescribed for selection were inevi borrowed from the National Sample table because of the non-availability of the Survey Organization. Shri R. I. Verma, requisite number of villages having all the Deputy Census Superintendent, of the prescribed variables. This purposive Uttar Pradesh Civil Service, is responsible sruection has made it possible to study the for marshalling the statistical evidence, village of various factors of change upon analysing the data and drafting the report. the culture and economy okrillages situat ed in the interior where outside influences 6. Opinions expressed and conclusions are slow to penetrate and slower to act as reached by the writer of this monograph also the normal types which are exposed are based on the results of the investiga to a greater degree to the winds of change tion. They are his own and do not reflect from various directions. the views of the Government in any way. 3. Sadharansar, a village in tahsil P. P. BHATNAGAR, Deoband of district Saharanpur was select LUCKNOW: Superintendent of Census Operations, The 5th January, 1963. Uttar Pradesh. !- :;:! .Q.. ," .:: " E: <::: ..s::: ~ .... <.J ,~....,_ .~ ~ ,,' Sl ~ ~ <::: ..s::: ~ C;S " . " " ...... oe~ ~ i: .;: E ~ ~ :~ ;: ._Q .~ .., .c OJ Q ::r.:: 'oj I..j ...... 3 . ~ ."" aYO ,,;:=pr?~nst .. 0• l' ,; III • v t- Z ~ ~ Ii ,.. :::> cr ct .;( .J t. i ~ 1t () THE VILLAGE Sadharansar is a big village situated in tahsil Barhai, Kumhar, Lohar, Rorh and Kahar. The Deoband of district Saharanpur. It is on the Scheduled Castes are divided into Dhobi, Chamar roadside at a distance of 17 miles in the east and lVfehtar. Among the Hindus, the Rajputs of Saharanpur, the district headquarters. The are in brge number (240) and constitute 23.8 village is conveniently connected with Saharan per cent of total population. The Muslims who pur by rail and metalIed road on which private are all sunnis are 24 per cent of the population. buses ply in all weathers. The distance is The number of houses in Sadharansar is 193. generally covered by a private bus or bicycle. The number of households (200) is more than Villagers also travel by rail. The nearest the number of residential houses. Some times a railway station is NagaI, at a distance of house is shared by more than one household. one mile from the village. Deoband is the tahsil I~xcept four pucca houses the rest are kachcha headquarters at a distance of about 10 miles in and have been built contiguous to each other. the north-west of the village on the metalled road. They are all single-storeyed. The houses of the Rajputs, the dominant caste, are clustered to Sadharansar is bounded in the north by village gether in the centre of the village. Some of Nasirpur Digoli, on the south by village Basera, them are found scattered in other parts also. on the east by village Paniali Qasimpur while its The houses of the Mehtars and the Chamars western boundary is formed by villages Mirpur are on the outskirts of the village..in the north. Mohanpur and Bradeli Koli. The river Kali The Muslims and other Castes have built their flows at a distance of about two miles in the east houses in groups contiguous to each other in the of the village. abadl. There is, therefore, grouping of houses The village lies within the jurisdiction of on the basis of caste 3S a whole. police station Nagai on the pucca road. The Physical Features police organises regular patrols of the village at night and keeps strict watch on all doubtful The physical features of Sadharansar are truely characters. The National Extension Block also characteristic of the villages in the Gangetic has its headquarters there. The N ayaya plain. It is situated on a level plain and can be Panchayat holds its meetings at village Paharpur divided into two natural divisions : where the Sarpanch also lives. The Village (a) The level plain has uniform slope Level Worker and the Panchayat Secretary live from north to south. During the rainy in the village while the Lekhpal lives in village season the rain water flows through the Paharpur. The Supervisor Kanungo stays at slope into the tanks. It is fertile and gene NagaI and occasionally visits it. The nearest rally yields good crops every year. The tract centre of commerce and industry is also in the is suitable for the cultivation of wheat. adjoining village NagaI. gram and pulses in rabi and paddy, maize and bajra in kharif. Size and Residential Pattern (b) The low-lying part is in the south of Sadharansar is a compact revenue village. Its the village. During the rainy season the area is ] ,306 acres or 2.04 square miles divided water accumulates in the tanks and often into 200 households with a population of 1,009 overflows. The soil is suitable .for growing perS0tl5 of whom 764 are Hindus and 245 paddy in kharif. The tract is not very fer Muslims. Hindus are divided into 9 castes, tile and the rabi crops are not generally namely, Brahmin, Rajput, Khattri, Gadaria. sown. 2 SADHA:RANSAR Climate kachcha but is open to traffic in all weathers. Of late, some villagers have started using bicycles The three seasons-the rainy, the cold and the because they are easy to handle. hot-are well marked. The summer is very taxing particularly from April to June. The The nearest railway station is at Nagai on dry westerly winds blow across the area in May the Northern Railway at a distance of about one and June and Ifill the air with sand and dust. mile from the village. The road from the rail The heat is unbearable during the period and way station to the village is of kankar. It is an the sun is scorching. The monsoon breaks either all weather road and is easily negotiable in the· in the last week of June or in the beginning of rainy season. The bus stop is also at NagaI. July. It does not rain for more than a day or Postal Facilities two at a stretch and the highest number of rainy days is in the months of July and August. More There is no post-office or letter box in the than half the average rainfall of the year comes village. The nearest branch post-office is at during these months. The rains cease at the village NagaI and the telegraph office is at Deo end of September. The climate is delightful in band. Telegrams received at the telegraph winter and the days are warm and sunny but office are sent by ordinary post to the recipients the nights are very cold and uncomfortable from living in the village. The postman visits the November to February. The temperature begins village on the prescribed days for delivery of to rise in the month of March. mail, money-orders, etc. Most of the villagers are illiterate and show very little appreciation Flora and Fauna of postal service. The rich soil of the village helps in the growth Important Public Places and Institutions of all kinds of trees and grasses which are com· monly found in the area. The principal trees The statutory Gram Sabha of the village func tions in the baithak (sitting-room) of the house are banyan, pipalJ mango, jam un, etc. Other of Shri Raja Ram, the village Pradhan. The trees commonly found there are neemJ shi,sham} guava and babul. building of the panchayatghar is under construc tion. The office of the Gram Sabha will be Birds which are commonly found in the plains shifted when it is complete. of the State are also found in the village. The common birds are the house crow and tbe spar A primary school run by the Zila row. Koyal (cuckoo) is seen in summer months Parishad is functioning in the village since and peacock is commonly met with. 1953. The school is housed in a building which is under construction. The land has been given A large number of harmless snakes as well as to the school by the Gram Sabha and the N. E. S. deadly Cobra and Krate are found in the village. Block has provided funds for the construction Wild animals who sometimes find their way to of the building. It is at present functioning in the village are fox, jackal, wolf, hyaena, etc. The two rooms and draws children from all sections larger carnivora like tigers. leopard and bears of people. are conspicuously absent. There is a mUlti-purpose co-operative society Communication in the village. It is functioning for the last 27 years having been registered on May 15, 1935. There is no difficulty in reaching the village The membership of the society is open to agri from Saharan pur. The seventeen mile stretch culturists and non-agriculturists alike. It is a is metalled and is generally covered on a private flourishing society with 156 members of whom. bus. The distance from the metalled road to 67 are cultivators and the remaining are engaged the village is about three furlong~ and is in other occupations.- PLATE No. I Shiva Temple PLATE No. II Prim my School PLATE No. HI Cattle (Ii llit: Dil1o,[!,c tonk PrxlI-: l-\().]\1 Enjoying a sl1wke 3 THE VILLAGE History There is a small temple in the village in which It is not known when the village in its present the image of Lord Shiv a is installed. The shape was actually formed as no definite histori temple was built about 100 years ago by the cal records relating to its actual forming are Brahmins of the adjoining village Paharpur. available. The village cannot claim to be of Sri Had Ram Sharma is the priest of the temple. any great age. There is no legend, tradition or He annually raises subscription from the local folklore to account for its origin. Attempts residents for its repairs and upkeep. Villagers were, therefore, made to elicit information gather at the temple in Phalguna (February regarding its past history from the elderly March) on the occasion of Shivaratri to worship persons of the village but they too ~ could not and offer water to the deity. throw any light on its origin and history. It is There is no Idgah or mosque in the village. said that Jats were the original settlers but The Muslims go to village Pandauli to offer gradually persons of other castes and communi prayers on ld and other festivals in the mosque ties came there and settled down. In course of there. time, the village grew in population and influ The Hindus cremate their dead in the east of ence. the village at a distance of about two furlongs General from the abadi. The land measuring about 0.5 acre was set apart for the purpose at the time The village has not grown according to any of consolidation of holdings. The Mehtars definite plan. It is a cluster of mud houses cremate the dead-bodies at another place at a punctuated here and there by pucca houses. distance of about four furlongs in the east of the The village is partially visible from the metalled abadi. The dead-bodies of children and those road as it is surrounded by fields and mango Who die of small-pox, cholera, snake-bite and groves. Inside the village there are narrow burns are buried near the cremation grounds. alleys and lanes which are not wide enough to accommodate a bullock-cart. The mud houses There is a graveyard in the west of the village are on either side of narrow lanes. There are where the Muslims bury the dead. An area- of a few permanent shops but there is no market. 0.75 acre was set apart for the purpose at the The common landmarks in the village are mango time of consolidation of holdings. groves, ponds and wells which are owned by the Source of Water village or individual families. There is no scarcity of water in the village. Sadharansar was selected for socio-economic A number of pucca wells and - hand-pumps study because it has an old and settled character supply water for drinking and bathing, and is inhabited by people of both the communi etc. The pucca wells are five in number of ties. It is a village of fair-size with a popula which four are for general use and the remain tion of 1,009 persons who mainly depend on ing one belongs to the Chamars. A number of agriculture. It contains variegated occupations households have their own hand-pumps. They and is sufficiently away from the administrative i are 43 in number--13 are owned by the Muslim headquarters and business centres. A study of households, 4 by Mehtars and 25' belong to other the ways of life of the people living in th~. village castes. There is a hand-pump in the would afford a factual assessment of their socio primary school which supplies water to school economic conditions and would also show the children. The cattle are taken to tanks to way for their uplift in future. Since the village quench their thirst. There is no scarcity of is representative of the varied ways of life hence water in summer months. it was picked up for study. - CHAPTER II THE PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL EQUIPMENT Ethnic Composition of Caste The aRjputs are well-built, tall and have a fair complexion with well chiselled features. The population of village Sadharansar is 1,009 They are mainly engaged in agriculture. Out of of whom 554 are males and 455 females. The 67 workers, 64 (95' per cent) are engaged in it. Hindus and the Muslims constitute two distinct More than half of the total cultivated land in sections of village population. The Hindus who the village is owned by them-520 acres (66.8 are in majority are 76 per cent of its population. per cent). They are big cultivators but get the The Dhobis, the Chamars and the Mehtars are cultivation done by labourers. Of the remain the only Scheduled Castes in the village and are ing three workers one is in the legal professjon a little over one-third of the population (34.9 and two are working as teachers in the primary per cent). schools. The following Table gives the distribution of The Brahmin priest officiates in the religious village population community and castewise and other ceremonies at their houses. Among with households and sex breakdown: them, 77 persons (32 per cent) are literate of TABLE No. 2.1 whom two males are matriculates and one is a law graduate. The female education has not Number of Persons been neglected by them. Out of 9 female lite Religion Caste House- r--~ -. holds Total Males Females rates, 8 have completed basic primary education and only one has not passed any educational Hindu Brahmin 7 38 22 16 Rajput 41 240 132 108 standard. Khattri 2 9 6 3 The Rajputs constitute a powerful group in the Rorh 1 3 1 2 village and command influence and respect. Gadaria 7 35 18 17 Barhai 8 37 23 14 The members of other castes seek their help inj Lohar 1 5 2 3 the settlement of their disputes. The members;l Kumhar 5 25 13 12 of Dhobi, Chamar, and Mehtar communities, Kahar 5 19 11 8 look to them as arbitrators in cases of conflict Dhobi (Sehe- 2 9 5 4 among themselves. duled Caste) Chamar 63 290 159 131 The Brahmins are at the top of the caste Mehtar " 11 54 21 33 hierarchy. They are 38 in number, divided into " Muslim Ansari 1 2 1 1 7 households and represent 3.7 per cent of the Teli 38 197 112 85 village population. All of them belong to Gaur Nai 2 10 5 5 sub-caste. They are known for their orthodoxY' Mirasi 3 16 9 7 and do 110t accept kachcha food (unfried) ~ Firai 3 20 14 6 other castes of the village. Total .. 200 1,009 554 455 In complexion and built, they are very much Among the Hindus, the Rajputs are in large like the Rajputs. Out of the total workers, number-240 persons divided into 41 households among them, 10 are in agriculture and two in representing 23.8 per cent of the village popula- service. They are not good cultivators and tion. The number of males and females is engage labourers at the time of sowing and 1~2 and 108 respectively. They form a sizeable harvesting. Two male workers are devoted to community and are an. influential g,roup. priestly avocation in a subsidiary capacity. POPULATION BY CASTE I HOUSEHOLDS BY NUMBER OF ROOMS eo • 70 V) 0 60 ..J 50 0 :r 40 UJ CI) 30 ::> 0 20 J: 10 0 ~ ~ I~SS'J 2 3 4 5 6+ R 0 0 M S THE PEOPLE AND THDll Ji4TERIAL EQUIPMENT The percentage of literacy among them is 42.1. matriculation. Sar\fashri Chandra Kiran and The female education is negligible as they consi Ghasi Ram who are matriculates are in Govern der it neither important nor worthwhile. ment service. Shri Chandra Kiran is working as tube-well operator and Shri Ghasi Ram is a The population of the Khattris is divided into Village Level Worker. 2 households and accounts tor about one per cent of the population. They are well-built and The Chamars are subject to certain social dis have fair complexion. Their principal occupa abilities. The Brahmin priest does not officiate 'tion is cultivation. There is no literate male or on religious ceremonies in their houses. They female among them. are not admitted to the places of worship and The Brahmin priest visits their houses. They religious congregations. They cannot draw water from the village wells except their own. are not very orthodox but do not marry outside their caste. They do not dine with Kahar, Gada Dhobis who are 9 i.n numbet are roughly one ria, Kumhu and Barhai. per cent of the population. Their primary The Intermediate tier of the village social occupation is washing of clothes. They wash structure is represented by Barhai. Gadaria, clothes of all castes except of Mehtars. They Kumhar, Kahar, Lahar and Rorh who together get payment in kind twice a year from the constitute 12.3 per cent of the village popula regular customers but from the casual customers tion. They do not stand on equal footing with they get from 6 to 12 paise per piece. one another. Gadaria are regarded superior to They are illiterate and are quite low in the Lohar. Barhai, Kumhar and KahaT. The Rorh rung of social ladder. The clothes of the occupy a higher status than Gadaria. Lohar. mother and the child from birth to the last nahan Barhai and Kumhar form the artisan group in (bath) are washed by them. They do not suffer the village. from the stigma of untouchability but like The population of the Chamars is consider Chamars suffer from certain social disabilities. able-290 persons divided into 63 households They are not allowed to visit temples but are constituting 29 per cent of village population. permitted to draw water from the village wells. They belong to a very low level in the caste The Mehtars are at the lowest rung of caste hierarchy and are inferior in status to all other hierarchy. They have nothing to do with agri castes in the village except the Mehtar. They culture but are engaged as labourers at the time are short-statured, of an average built and of sowing and harvesting. The well-to-do culti the colour of the skin is dark-brown, verging on vators employ them for cleaning the cattle-&heda the black. and are paid at the harvests for the work. i-hey do all sorts of work as labourers such They are untouchables and are not permi~ted as cutting wood for fuel and repairin~ houses, to draw water from village wells. They live on etc. Some of them have also taken to agriculture the outskirts of the abadi and have their own (29) cultivating their own land or doing it on' hand-pumps for water. The literacy among the batai. The number of agricultural labourers is Mehtars is negligible for only one male could :76. They are mostly engaged at the time of complete the primary education. sowing and }Iaryesting getting about 75 paise a day, if on monthly basis about Rs.15 a month. The Muslims constitute 24 per cent of the In the slack season they earn their livelihood by population. They are in minority but have not working as day laboUFers geuing about a rupee allowed their culture and tradition to be influ a day.. enced by others. They are a distinct part of the village population. They are mostly illiterate and their economic condition is also not stable. Among them only The Muslims of the village are divided into 23 males are literate uf whom 3 have completed Ansari, Teli, Nai, Mirasi and Firai. They mainly 6 work on the fields as agricultural labourers. with cow-dung and liquid mud. The mud walls Some are also engaged in cultivation and trade. are also given cow-dung wash. The well-to-do Out of the total workers, 9 are in cultivation, 35 engage labourers but the poor build it with the work on the fields as agricultural labourers, 25 help of family members and friends. The are engaged in trade and commerce, 3 are construction of a kachcha house having four weavers aud the remaining 14 are in other occu rooms, a front verandah and an enclosed spacious pations. They are poor and have not enough courtyard costs about Rs.I,500. The poor live resources to purchase land or make other useful in one-roomed mud house which is cheap to investments. construct. The relations between the Hindus and Muslims The mud houses are uncomfortable and un are cordial. They mix freely and share each safe during the rainy season. They leak and are other's joys and sorrows. The old orthodoxy full of Hies and mosquitoes., Most of the houses is slowly disappearing giving place to under are without urinals, latrines and bath-rooms. standing and tolerance. Men, women and children go to nearby fields House Type to answer the cal]:, of nature. Young girls and women use a cot covered with a bed-sheet or any Most of the houses in the village are of kachcha other cloth as a screen for taking bath. Some type generally consisting of one room only. times they take bath in a kothri. The rooms The houses of some of the Rajputs and Khattris are dark with no window or ventilator. All the are more elaborate with three to four rooms, a house drains come out into the lanes, sometimes kitchen, a grain store, a commodious cattle shed making trespass difficult. The walls are often and an extensive courtyard. Kachcha houses decorated with the figures of deities, animals, are made of mud. The roofs are of mud spread etc. Occasionally one may see red hand prints over logs of wood over a sloping structure at the on the walls made at the time of a wedding or top of the walls. They are single-storeyed, com when a son is born. pact and shapeless. An average house has an enclosed courtyard The four pucca houses in the village belong to along the sides of which are built one or two Rajputs and the Khattris. The wooden doors kothries. There is a verandah in front of the and windows are simple without any ornamenta house through which lies the main entrance. tion. The double-storeyed houses are preferred. The well-to-do have separate enclosures for Only two pucca houses are double-storeyed. A keeping cattle with a covered space where they brick house having four rooms, a verandah and are kept at night or in inclement weather. a courtyard costs about Rs.4,OOO in construction. Others keep them in one of the kothries inside the house. The Table given below shows the number of rooms and persons occupying them: Construction of a kachcha house is simple and economical. The materials used in their cons TABLE No. 2.2 truction are clay, bamboo, wood and unbaked bricks which are available locally throughout Number of Number of Classification of Households accord house- members the year except the rainy season. Over the roofs ing to Number of Rooms holds living dry stalks of arhar plants are spread with mud. With no regular room 1 5 There are slanting thatches in front of kothries One-roomed 78 330 both inner and outer. Timber used for 77 400 making doors, etc. is obtained locally. Those Two-roomed . who have neem or mango tree in their houses uti- Three-roomed 27 147 lise its timber for the purpose. The. floor is Four-roomed ,9 62 levelled by earth-filling add is finally plastered Five-roomed and above a 6S PLATE No. V A i'YiJical kachcha house PLATE No. VI A pukka house PLATE No. VII A hand pump in front of a kachcha house PLATE No. VIII Usual dress of Muslim women THE PEOPLE AND TImIll MATElUAL EQUIPMENT , Out of 200 households; only one household i. Among the Hindus, the males usually wear living in a structure which has no regular room, shirt or kurta- and the dhoti. During winter, 78 households have one room each, 77 two rooms woollen coats, sweaters and caps are worn. each, 27 three rooms each, 9 four rooms each and They also use blankets for protection in cold only 8 households live in five or more than five nights. School-going boys use half pants and rooms each. In a single-roomed structure, the shirts. Young boys studying in schools and room is small measuring 10'x8' used as a bed colleges wear shirts or bush-shirts and pants. cum-store room where married and unmarried Dhoti is worn by Hindu women with the sleep together. The poor mostly live in one shirt or blouse. The blouse is usually made of roomed or two-roomed structures_ There is over coarse cloth while the dhoti is mill-made with ~owding as the number of persons living in a a floral border or a border of artistic design room is three or more. about three or four inches wide. Red-coloured border is popular. Sometimes the women wear Customs Relating to Foundation of HOUJf1 salwar, shirt and dupatta. The use of lehanga Among the Hindus, the Brahmin priest is is restricted to the women of Chamar community. consulted for laying the foundation-stone of the house. The head of the household lays the Villagers wash their own clothes, sometimes foundation-stone on the date and time fixed for with soap. The Rajputs, the Brahmins and the Khattris get them washed by village washermen. the ceremony. Thereafter gUT .is distributed among those present and cereals are given to the The washerman does not generally press the priest and the mason. When the house is ready clothes he washes. for use an auspicious date and time is again The villagers are usually bare-footed but they fixed in consultation with the pandit. The katha wear indigenous shoes, chappals and sandals on of Satyanarain is held and relations and friends festive occasions or when they go out. In well are invited to a feast. The ceremony is locally to-do families, new-cut shoes and sandals are known as Grih-pTavesh. preferred. The main entrance of the hQuse facing south is avoided as it is considered inauspicious. The Ornaments Muslims, the Dhobis, the Chamars and the Mehtars do not observe any' ceremony in con Women 'are fond of heavy ornaments for nection with the con&truction and occu.pation of personal decoration. The ornaments are made a house. of gold and silver. The financial condition of the family' determines the number of ornaments Dress which the· womenfolk possess. A few of the The villagers generally use. cloths of cheap popular ornaments are ment.ioned below: and coarse variety. In poor families the use of clothes is restricted almost to bare necessity: Local name of Ornaments Metal Use Children remain naked among the lower castes up to 5 years. The Hindus and the Muslims Bunda and lhumki Gold worn on the ear dress differently. The usual dress of a 2 Bali .. Silver.. worn by Muslim Muslim male is shirt or kurta and 'lungi or' women on the white pyjamas. Colourful shirts, pyjamas and ear cotton caps are worn on Id and other festive occasions. A tight pyjamas usually of red 3 Laung Gold worn on the nose colour, shirt and a dupatta are generally worn by their womenfolk. Young girls wear salway, 4 Nathni Gold worn on the nose kurta and coloured dupatta. There is no special S Hansuli Gold or worn on the neck dress for festive or ceremonial occasions. silver Local name of Ornaments Metal Usc Household Equipment.. 6 Dastband .. Gold .• worn on tho wrist The need for owning and using furniture is 7 Paizeb Silve '.. wornonthcanklcs linked with the economic condition, education c .. 8 Peti .J HI .. worn on the waist and standard of living of the villagers. Some 9 Bichhya .. Silver worn on the foot of the Rajput families are well-to-do and possess fingers chairs, tables. benches, stools, chowkis (low 10 Anguthi .. Gold worn on the fingers wooden table) and wall shelves. The Hindu married women wear glass bangles Every household possesses a khatia or charpoy and bichhya. They are not taken out during woven with moon; strings. Even these are not the life-time of the husband. The males do available for' all the family members. The not wear ornaments except the ring. Rajput. Rorh, Brahmin, Gadaria and the Chamar households possess chairs and tables. Benches The use of ornaments in day-to-day life is and stools are available in some of the Rajput decreasing but every woman uses all her jwellery llnd Brahmin families while wall shelves are on ceremonial occasions as it keeps up the pres owned by the Brahmins, Rajputs and the tige of the family. There is no goldsmith in the Chamars. The Table given below shows the village. The ornaments are purchased from items of furniture owned by different castes and Saharan pur. communities: TABLE No. 2.~ Caste or No. of Wall- Community house- Bedstead Kbatia Chair Table Bench Stool Chowki shelf holds Brahmin 7 7 2 Rajput 41 2 41 I 3 3 3 19 Khattri 2 2 Rorh 1 1 Gadaria 7 7 Barbai • 8 Lahar 1 Kumbar S s Kabar S S Dhobi 2 2 Chamar 63 63 Mehtar 11 11 Ansari 1 Tell 38 38 Nai 2 2 Mirasi 3 3 l'Iirai 3 3 Total 200 2 200 13 s 3 30 . PLATE No. IX Hindu women and their dress PLATE No. X A group 0/ men and children o nlllill CIIts PLATE ;\(1. XI I COII/IIIOIl utensils o f J[lIs1i/ll .1 THE PEOPLE AND 'l'HEnt MATEltIAL EQUIPMENT 9 The following Table shows the posseS&ion of consumer goods community wise : TABLE No. 2.4 Caste or No. ·of Hurricane R.adio- Community House- lantern Patromax Torch light Bicycle set holds Brahmin 1 7 l Rajput " 41 34 1 18 a 3 Khattri _ 2 1 1 Rorh 1 1 1 Gadaria 7 1 Barhai' .. 8 6 Lohar .• Kumhar S 2 Kahar •• 5 2 Dhobi .. 2 Chamar .• 63 16 5 3 Mehtar •. 11 5 Ansari .. 1 Teli 38 14 2 6 Nai 2 .. Mirasi 3 2 Firai 3 1 Total 200 88 2 29 19 3 Three Rajput families own a radio·set each. and bell-metal utensils. Some of them are made The Planning Department has given a radio-set of iron and wood. They are almost the same as to the Gram Sabha for the benefit of the villa~rs. in other parts of the State but there is a marked Out of 200 households, 88 possess hurricane difference in the utensils of Hindu and Muslim lanterns and only two families, (one Rajput households. In Muslim households, earthen pots and the other Khattri) possess patromax. The are used for cooking and for storing water villagers realise the utility of dry-cell torches and and grains. They also use utensils made of to many of them they are an item of necessity. aluminium and copper for taking meals. 29 households-IS of Rajputs. 5 of Chamars. 2 of The common type of utensils used in a Hindu Telis and I each of Brahmin, Rorh, Muslim household are Iota, katori, parat and chatn(;M (Firai), and Lohar-possess them. made of brass. Tawa, chimta and karhai are Use of mosquito curtain is unknown in the made of iron. Chakla and· belan are made of village. The use of bicycle has become popular wood. Earthen gharas are used for storing because it is convenient and easy to handle. water. They keep drinking water cool; A few Eight households of Rajputs, 6 of TeIis, 3 of of the popular utensils are mentioned below : Chamars and one each of Rorh and Muslim Local name of the Utensils· Metal Use (Firai) possess them. 1 Batua brass cooking Utensils 2 Patilil brass cookin, The general practice in Hindu households· is 3 Para~ .. brass for kneadin, to take meals in metal utensils. Almost every flour house] lold possesses one or mote items of brass 4' Chamcha cooking 10 Local DllIDeohhc Utensils Metal Use fish whenever available. Fish is not available .s Lota bell-metal for keeping drink- except some small variety in the village tanks. ing water Among the Muslims, domestic fowls are occasion " ThaIi brass or for servin, foocS ally cooked and served for food. bell-metal 1 Kat(.ri brass .. for serving vege Milk and ghee are greatly valued and are tables, etc. largely consumed. The villagers eat fruits when & Gilu bell-metal used for drink- ever they are available. During summer, melons ing water and water-melons are consumed and cheap vari 9 Xarhai ., iron cooking eties of mangoes are eaten by them in the rainy ro KarchhuU .. iron used for frying season. Sweets do not form part of diet and are purpose prepared on festiv~ls or cen~monial occasions. U Tawa gUT " iron for prepaling Sugar and are in common use. breads 12 "Chimta " iron for picking fire The use of tea is confined" to Mehtar house and breads holds. It is habitually takert by them. Forty 13 Pat. and Delan .. wood .. used for making households, 27 of Rajputs, 3 of Brahmins, one breadll of Rorh, 7 of Chamars and 2 of Telis take tea 14 Balti . . iron and used for storing in winter. brass water n Ghara .. .. clay for 5toring water No one in the village is a regular addict to liquor. Its use is confined to Kahar, Chama~' The metal utensils are purchased from Deo and Mehtar families. They take it on festivals band or Saharanpur as they are not available and on social occasions. The other castes abstain in the village. The earthen pots are locally from taking liquor. The use of bidi which is available. cheap and locally available is heavy. The Muslims are fond of betels and generally take Food and Drinh them after the meals. There is not much difference in the food habits of the villagers. Fifty per cent of households Those who can afford eat three times, others (100) eat coarse grains-bajra from November eat only twice daily. Out of the total households, to March and bejhar (mixture of barley and 30 (15 per cent) take two meals a day and the gram) from April to October. They supple remaining 170 (85 per cent) take food in some ment it with dal (pulse) and vegetables. The form or the other three times daily, e.g. in the use of wheat is confined to Rajput, Brahmin, morning, midday and early in the evening. Khattri, Teli, Barhai and Chamar families. The frequency of meals depends on the economic Rice is not generally consumed. The villagers status of the household. Every family takes a are fond of dal of uTd (pulse) and is generally breakfast in the morning. The poor take stale taken with the principal meals. Spices are taken chapa tis cooked the previous night with a pinch in sufficient quantity by all sections of people. of salt while others get the chapa tis prepared in The medium of cooking is oil. Vegetable ghee the morning. The well-to-do take milk or or Dalda is seldom used. Special dishes are matha with chapa tis. The midday meals consists prepared in the deshi ghee. of chapatisJ dal and vegetable curry, which is repeated in the evening. The number of vegetarian and non-vegetarian households is 101 and 99 respectively. The Fats, milk and its products and green vege Brahmin, Barhai, Kumhar and Lohar are vege tables constitute items of food for the vegetarians. tarians. The Muslims take meat throughout The non-vege'tarians, in addition, eat fish, meat the year. The non-vegetarians relish meat and and eggs. The diet of the villagers is well P .. \I) \1). \:111 tl----;.....- 1(! , if I"" \ Uiciisils: l. f.I,{lw. (i. !':'I il), i. II, I:himia. Q 1~. l'aia awl Belll.'l. ~. Balti. I. (; illl" l Bld/gallllll. Ii. I "/il. I ~l. Uwmc/w. 1,1. t hl/iahi. 'I. Pl/Jof. Kardlllli. 15. Tlm/i, 5. Butua. lH. T(t~I'I[. ,• ,• f I I I I I , I• I 6A\.1 JHUMkA NAT ... "''' I " I I I I r I ,J I I , I, ,., , ANGOOTI-II Different types of Ornaments THE P.tOPLJ!: AN!> Tm:1ll MATERIAL EQUIPMEN'l' 11 balanced. The absence of protective foods is diet. There is a special ceremony on the sixth hot noticeable. day of the birth known as chhati. The mother and the child are given bath on that day and Birth, Marriage and Death Customs a short puja is also performed. The family is ritually impure for nine days after the child birth. Birth The Dasattun ceremony is fixed on the ninth day of the birth in consultation with a Brahmin priest. The customs relating to birth are simple in The women sing songs locally called sohar on the all the communities and castes living in the occasion and the mother and the child are given village. When a woman conceives, there is no bath. The house is cleaned and the old earthen change in the routine of her life nor there is gharas, etc. are replaced by new ones. A short change in her diet. She remains engaged in puja is performed by a Brahmin priest who the household work throughout the period of recites holy verses and also prepares the horos pregnancy without any rest. The only relaxa cope of the infant. The ceremony ends with a tion in her favour is that she is not allowed to feast given to friends and relatives. The nain lift articles of heavy weight. and the dai are given 5 seers of grains and Rs.5 each on the birth of a male cllild and half of The morning sickness and missing the monthly the above is given on the birth of a femal~ child. menstruation are indications of pregnancy The Dasattun ceremony is not observed among which is established if the woman misses the the Dhobis, Chamars and the Mehtars. menstruation in the second month. No special ceremony is performed in any caste or community Among the Muslims, the child birth is followed of the village after conception and before the by prayers and feast. Prayers are offered after child birth. The expectant mothers are not the birth by the grandfath.er of the new born permitted to go in dark or to see the moon. or an elderly relation. The child is bathed They are also prohibited from going out during and clothed and a few drops of honey are put the solar or lunar eclipse because of the fear that into his mouth. The chhati ceremony is per child will be deformed. formed on the sixth day of the birth. The mother is ritually impure for forty days. She is Birth normally takes place in the main living given a bath on that day and a feast is also room. When the labour pains start, the local given to relations and friends on the occasion. riai is called for delivery. After delivery the umbilical cord is cut by the dai and is buried underground. The child is. washed in luke The normal period of suckling is about two warm water and is given a small feed of goat's years or till the next conception whichever is uilk. The birth of a male child is heralded earlier. The child gets into the habit of suck with joy. The women sing songs (sohar) appro ling and with difficulty is weaned. He is priate to the occasion. given cow's milk in the process of weaning. There are no restrictions on the diet and activi. ties of the mother during the lactation period. The mother is subjected to certain restrictions for nine days after the child birth. She is not allowed to come out during the period or mix As a rule contraceptives are not used. Abor with others. One of the elderly women of the tion is not ordinarily resorted to but in case of house helps the mother after delivery. She illegitimate conception, it is sometimes favoured is given nutritious diet according to one's means by using indigenous methods like administering for recouping health. She is given liquid pre vinegar, etc. Barrenness in women is ascribed paration of gur and spices cooked in ghee locally to sins of past life. The methods adopted to called harira. She is not given non-vegetarian overcome it are charity. fasting and feasting the 12 Brahmins. They also consult the village dai. A fortnight before marriage, the girl's father sends the Tewa to the boy's house which Marriage is a sort of reminder about the wedding. It consists of the details of wedding including the Marriage is a common feature of the social number of persons invited, the type of conve life ot the village. Members of one caste yance to be used by the wedding party and the generally form one endogamous group and do number of ceremonial oil baths to be taken by not marry outside it. Inter-caste marriages are the bridegroom and the bride. Presents are also not known. Widow remarriage is permissible sent to the boy's family consisting of a sari for the boy's mother, two long pieces of cloth dyed among the Gadaria, Kahar, Barhai, Lohar, Dhobi, Chamar and Mehtar families. It is yellow at the corners, a coconut and a pair of shoes for his mother. A ceremony is observed permitted among the Muslims. at the house of the boy where Tewa is delivered. The women sing songs on the occasion. The Marriages are arranged by the parents of the boy sits in front of the chauk and the presents boy and the girl. The marriage negotiations sent by the girl's fat~r are given to him. A ~e started by a middleman who may be a friend feast to relatives and friends is given on the or a relative. The general financial conditions, occasion. the social status of the family of the girl and the amount of dowry are important considerations A number of ceremonies precede at the house in the settlement of a marriage. The system of of the bride and the bridegroom before the dowry is prevalent in the village. If negotia marriage. The bride and the bridegroom are tions proceed favourably, then elderly'male given ceremonial oil baths in their respective members of the girl's family visit the parents of houses. The number of oil baths is determined the boy for final settlement. After the marriage by the Brahmin priest of the: bride's family and has been settled, the father of the girl gives some are specified in the Tewa. They are massaged money to the boy and a few rupees are also given with ubtan, a lubricant paste which gives smooth to his family members. It is called the sagai ness to the skin. After this they are bathed. ceremony and is observed among the Brahmins, The ceremonial oil baths are called bans. The the Rajputs and the Khattris. Among the day of the first ban is called haladhat. After ~adaria, Barhai, Lohar, Kumhar, Kahar and the haladhat ceremony, the bride and the bride the Rorh, the father of the girl visits the parents groom do not serve food to anyone till marriage of the boy and gives him a few rupees. It is a is over. brief and a simple ceremony and signifies the final settlement of marriage. The boy is given The next ceremony is that of mandha or a rupee among the DhQbis, the Chamars and the mandap. A structure known as mandap is Mehtars on the occasion. made in the girl's house by seven married persons, It consists of upright bamboo poles covered A Brahmin pandit is consulted by the girl's by a sheet. The same thing is done at the family for selecting a date for LUarriage. The boy's house but there a bamboo pole only is dates for various ceremonies connected with placed in a small enclosure without any over marriage are written by the pandit on a piece head covering. The mandap in the bride's house of paper which is tied with a yellow thread and is decorated with leaves, buntings and flowers .. is given to a nai for delivery to the boy's family. The bridegroom, on the wedding day, dressed The boy's father normally accepts the dates set in in his wedding clothes goes round the village the letter and sends his formal acceptance on a horse back stopping at shrines to offer through the nai who is given a rupee before he' worship. It is called ghur-chari ceremony. returns. Usually this takes place about two After the ceremony, he goes with the wedding monl]u before the date fixed for marriage. party composed solely of males to the bride', TIll: PEOPLE AND THEIR MATElUAL EQUIPMENT 13. village. They are received on the outskirts by The bride is taken into the house by her the bride's father and other relations and are maternal uncle. The bride and the bridegroom conducted to the place of their stay. make some hand prints on the wall (thapa lena). Various other customary ceremonies are An hour or so later, some member of the gone through. The last ceremony is the bida or bride's family accompanied by a nai and a the going away of the bride with the party. pandit go to the janwasa for the ceremony of The bride goes in a palanquin and the women barat lena. The priest of the girl's family puts sing songs as it is lifted by the palanquin bearers. a tika of turmeric and rice on the forehead of The bride is welcomed by her mother-in-law the bridegroom and gives some sweets to him. and other women on reaching the village. As the couple approaches the house, the bride The bridegroom mounts a mare, if one is groom's sister blocks the way and will not allow available, with the crown made of sola pith on the bride inside until some money is given to his head. His face is veiled by silvery threads her. A feast is given to the relations and friend. hanging from the head dress. He goes with the to celebrate the occasion. baratis to the bride's house accompanied by one Among the poorer sections of Dhobi, Chamar or more musical bands engaged for the occasion. and Mehtar communities, the marriage is solem~ The womenfolk of the girl's family stand sing nised on a simple scale but there is no departure ing songs on the main door of the house. The from the established customs. barat is received at the main entrance of the house by the bride's father and other relations. Among the Muslims the marriage rituals pres The bridegroom is conducted to the ceremonial cribed by Islam are strictly adhered to. The sitting board before the door. The bride's marriage negotiations are initiated by the parents mother performs the arti of the groom and other of the boy. Mter the successful conclusion of women throw rice at him. The bridegroom is marriage negotiations, mangni ceremony is per· given some money and thereafter the party formed and includes the giving of some money by returns back to the place of their stay. the father of the girl to the boy. A Muslim priest called qazi is consulted for fixing the date and The marriage ceremony takes place at night time for the nikah (rites of marriage). On the under the mandap set up for the purpose. date of marriage, the bridegroom goes to the There is a fire hole (havan) on one side of which bride's house with the marriage party in accom are two ceremonial sitting-boards. The bride paniment of country music. The qazi presides groom sits on one of the boards. The priests of over the nikah ceremony. Since the girl observes both the sides light the fire. After reciting a purdah and does not come out, her consent to few mantras they request that the girl be brought marriage is obtained through a vakil who is in. The bride, heavily veiled and dressed in the usually the father of the bride. The consent is clothes and ornaments given by the boy's family announced to those present and rnehar (alimony) is conducted to her seat in the mandap by her which the bridegroom will have to pay if he maternal uncle. The ceremony of phera is there leaves his wife is also settled. The signature of after gone through. The bride and the bride the bridegroom is obtained on a document groom go round the sacred fire seven times, in the which embodies the terms of marriage contract first three the bride leads and in the last four the and includes the amount of mehar. The docu bridegroom. The ceremony of Kanyadan is ment is also signed by the father of the bride then performed. The girl's father hands over his and two witnesses from each side. The qazi recites daughter to the groom with the words, I give my verses from the Holy Quran and thereafter the daughter to you. Phera and Kanyadan are marriage ceremony is complete. The bride necessary and form an essential part of marriage groom and the members of the marriage party rituals. are feasted on ghee, sugar, rice and mutton curry. 14 SADHARANSAR The bridegroom is introduced to the relations Cow-dung cakes are kept burning at the place of the bride and family friends. The last cere where the person died. The person who lit the llWny is that of ·rukhsat. The bride goes in a pyre sleeps on the ground, keeps a piece of iron palanquin and the bridegroom rides back, on a under 'the pillow and eats once a day. His food horse. A feast is given to the community on is cooked on a separate choolha or is sent by the occasion. relations or friends. The family is ritually im Divorce is permitted by law but there is no pure for ten days. The sudhi ceremony called divorced female among the Muslims of the the daswan is performed on the tenth day. The village. house is cleaned, the earthen pots are replaced Death Customs by new ones and the nearest male relations of the deceased get the head, beard and moustache Among the Hindus the dead are cremated. shaved on the occasion. The teThavin ceremony The dead bodies of persons dying of small-pox, is observed on the thirteenth day of the death. cholera and leprosy are immersed in the river On this occasion, the house is again cleaned and water but those who die of snake-bite are havan is performed. The ceremony ends with generally buried. The dead-bodies of young a feast to which the Brahmins (not less than children are also buried near the cremation ,five), relations and family friends are invited. &'founds. The ceremony is not observed among the Dhobis. When a person is about to die, he is taken On the compl~tion of the eleventh month of the out to an open place where a few drops of ganga death, baTsi or death anniversary is observed. jaZ (Ganges water) and a few leaves of Tulsi On this occasion also the BFahmins, relations plant are put into his mouth. He is laid on and friends are invited to a feast. the ground before he breathes his last. After the death, the dead body is bathed in water Among the Muslims the death customs are and is wrapped in: a white unwashed cloth. The different. After the death, th<,: dead body of a dead body of a married woman is wrapped in female is wrapped in 20 yards of cloth and of a coloured cloth. It is carried to the cremation male in 18 yards. The dead body is carried on ground on a bier by four persons on their shoul a chaTpoy (cot) by four persons. The relations ders. The relations and friends follow it. Three and friends go to the burial ground with the pinds of barley flour are carried with the corpse. dead body. The grave is dug and before the A pyre of wooden logs is set on the cremation body is lowered into it, prayers are offered for ground. The body is taken out of the bier and the pe~ce of the departed soul. The grave is is put on the pyre with legs facing south. filled up with earth and all those present put The pandit who goes with the funeral procession earth into it. The tija ceremony is observed on chants a few mantras and thereafter the pyre the third day. of the death and alms are given to is lit by the eldest son or in his absence by the poor and the needy. All those who parti the youngest son of the deceased. The ashes cipated in the funeral assemble at the grave on are subsequently immersed in the Ganges at the fortieth day and offer prayers. Flowers are Hardwar. Those who go with the dead body also put on it. Grain is distributed to the take bath and return to the house of the deceased poor and the ceremony ends with a feast given to where they sit for sometime, chew the neem leaves th~ community. The Muslims of the village do and then go back to their houses. not observe the death anniversary of the deceased. J~======~~======~====-======~ OCCUPATIONAL PATTERN NON-WORKERS BY SEX AND AGE-GROUPS MAL E 5 'F E ~ALES ...... I'. ' ..... _,_ ...... '0· .. • ..... • ...... ~ ...... , ...... ' ...... • ...... oo...... ,.. ..••••• ...... ,.. .. .. 0'" ...... 0 •• • ...... ~ ...... 0 ' ...... ·0 .... •• ...... 0 ...... 0 ...... , e···· " ., ...... , ...... 0 .... t o .. - ...... · .. ·0· .. ··· ...... ··0 .. \ 200 100 0 100 200 N U M B E R S CHAPTER III EOONOMY Economic Resources Spinning and weaving 04 1 3 1.2 The basis of economy in Sadharansar Basketry 1 0.2 is agriculture. A large number of workers in Midwife 1 0.2 Tailorin, 1 1 0.2 the village are farmers engaged in the produc Lawyer 1 1 0.2 tion of food. They work either on their own Mason 1 0.2 land or on the land of others for payment. Singer 2 2 0.5 Other main occupations practised in the village are barhaigiri (carpentry), lohari (blacksmithy), Total 376 331 45 100.0 kumhari (pot making), washing of clothes, trade and commerce. The Table given below It will be observed that out of 376 workers, gives a break-down of occupations showing the number of persons engaged therein 132 (35.1%) are engaged in cultivation, 126 persons (33.5%) work on the fields as labourers, TABLE No. 3.1 31 persons (8.2%) are in trade, 21 persons are in carpentry and an equal number is engaged Number of Persons engaged Percen- Occupations -"-----""' tage as sweepers and the remaining 45 persons (12%) Persons Males Females are in other occupations shown in the Table. Cultivation 132 127 5 35.1 Cultivation is the main or subsidiary occupation Agriculturallabour " 126 122 4 33.5 of almost all the castes and communities living Retail Trade 31 21 10 8.2 in: the village. Agricultural labourers are mainly Carpentry 21 21 5.6 Sweeper 21 4 17 5.6 Chamars.The retail business is largely confined Pottery 10 8 2 2.7 to members of Teli community. Service 11 11 2.9 The Table given below shows the number of Washing of clothes 5 2 3 1.5 persons engaged in various occupations, caste Blacksmithy 2 2 0.5 Barber 6 6 1.7 and community-wise TABLE No. 3.2 .S t'$ ...oS Occupation ·c .; ...... 'r;] 1;1 oS ;0 oS .~ Total 8. :g ..s:: 0 oS '(i l oS ~ 'OJ .~ ~ 'iii' ~ ~ .g ..s:: ..s:: ~ I:: ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ cS ~ ....:l ! ~ 0 U :::a « E-< Z ~ Ii: Cultivation 10 64 3 8 4 29 13 .. 132 Agricultural Labour 5 4 77 5 22 , . 4 8 126 Retail Trade 6 24 .. 31 Carpentry 10 ., 11 .. 21 21 SWeeper 21 " Pottery 10 10 Service 2 2 3 2 " 11 Washing of clothes 5 ~ 15 16 SADHA'R.AN&AR .S oS ~ ...ett .;:: Occupation g_ ·5 ] .....s ;c Total .;- oS 0 ~ .OJ ·a ~ 0 11 t;l .d ~ i ~ :~ .!::l ... i ..c ~ Il; !:Xl ~ ~ ~ 0 ~ ~ 1 l::o!: Cl u ~ -<: ~ z Blacksmithy 2 2 Barber 5 .. Spinning and weaving 1 3 .. 4 Basketry .. 1 1 Midwife 1 . . 1 .. Tailoring LaWYer 1 .. 1 Mason 1 .. Singer 2 2 Total .. 12 67 3 1 13 14 2 11 9 6 11627 1 74 5 6 9 376 Changes in the Traditional Occupations tional occupation of Chamars is shoe·making, but majority of them are agricultural labourers (64.9 The change of time and circumstances has per cent). brought about changes in the traditional occupa tions of some of the castes. The Brahmins are Non-workers mostly engaged in cultivation instead of priestly The number of workers and non-workers in avocation. The traditional occupation of Te1is the village is 376 and 633 respectively. Roughly is crushing of oil seeds, but they rear cows and a worker has two dependents. The following sell milk. The Dhobis still follow their age-old Table shows non-workers by sex, age-groups and occupation of washing of clothes. The tradi- nature of activity: TABLE No. 3.3 Non-workers Total Age group r-__---_--_ .. __..A- __-_____ --} 0-14 15-34 35--59 60 and over r-__..A- __-._r- __.A._"""""I ___ r-__.A. ___ """""I_r- __..A- __"""""I_r- __.A. __ """""I PM F PM F PM F PM F P MF Total Non-workers 633 223 410 387 205 182 141 8 133 83 10 73 22 22 Full-time students 89 85 4 81 77 4 8 8 Household duties 203 203 133 133 70 70 Dependents 340 137 203 305 127 178 13 10 3 22 22 Lunatic I 1 1 The non-workers comprise 223 males and housewives. There is no beggar or a retired 410 females. It is largely constituted of person in the village. Only one person has been infants, housewives and dependents. Full permanently disabled on account of lunacy. time students are 89 majority of whom Cultivated Area are below 15 years of age. The number Land is owned by most of the castes and of persons engaged in unpaid household duties communities. The Rajputs own more than half is limited to 203 women most of whom . are of the agricultural land (66.8 per cent). ltCONOl\(Y 17 The Table given below gives the area of culti- Cultivators and agricultural labourers are in vated land caste and community-wise: good number in two age-groups viz., 15-34 years and 35-59 years. Boys and girls below the age TABLE No. 3.4 of 15 are in small number. The female cultiva tors and agricultural labourers are only few in Area Percen- number. Name of the Caste under tage Cultivation Soil Brahmin 53 6.' There are four types of soil in the village, Rajput 520 66.8 the best being in the north-west being most suited for growing wheat and sugarcane. Khattri 36 4.6 Its fertility is enhanced by a good supply of water and manure. To the east and south of Gadaria 3 1.0 the village lies an area called Magrehar, which Barhai 13 1.6 is equally suitable for growing kharif and rabi crops. The third type of soil is found in the 1 0.3 Kahar eastern part of the village called Dandahar. The Chamar 110 14.1 soil is hard and ploughing is difficult but is good for growing paddy. The soil in the west of the Tell 37 4.8 village is called Daharhar and is suitable for paddy cultivation. Total 778 100.0 Manure Agriculture The cultivators mostly use cow-dung manure . but the dung of sheep, goats and other refuge Agriculture is the main occupation of the are also used. The dung is collected in a pit villagers. Out of 376 workers, 132 persons- into which is thrown all the rubbish and 127 males and 5 females-are in cultivation and dirt swept out of houses. After a time, 126 persons are engaged as agricultural labourers. the decomposed contents of the pit are taken The number of female cultivators is negligible. out and used as manure. The farmers also The farmers are assisted on the fields by the use chemical fertilisers for growing paddy, wheat womenfolk in their spare time. The following and sugarcane. They used 200 maunds of chemi Table gives the classification of workers engaged cal fertilisers in 1959-60, 410 maunds in 1960-61 in cultivation by sex and age-group : and 323 maunds in 1961-62. The dung manure and chemical fertilisers cannot be used at the same time. Chemical fertilisers are used TABLE No. 3.5 in the fields where there is an abundant supply of water. Cultivator Agricultural labourer Age·group r--_..A.._--.. r- P M F P M F Green manuring is one of the many ways to enrich the soil. Some of the farmers use 0-14 6 6 18 18 Dhaincha, Sanai, Lobia and Gowal' as green manures on their fields. They were sown in 15-34 59 56 3 66 64 2 five acres in 1960-61 and in 42 acres in 1961-62. 35-59 46 44 2 32 30 2 Seed 60 and 21 21 10 10 The farmers follow different methods for ov~r Total 132 127 5 126 122 4 obtaining seeds. They select the best seed at the 18 time of harvesting and preserve it till the next projecting in front of it by which it is drawn. sowing. Others obtain seeds from the seed The plough is fixed to the maachi or the frame store, NagaI. The cane growers obtain it from work to which the bullocks are tied. It is locally the seed store, Mirpur-Mohanpur. The culti made and costs about Rs.IO. vators are always keen to use improved seeds for better yield. Bullock drawn Cultivators used for weed-eradi cation are owned by six farmers. In potato Irrigation and sugarcane crops, they can be used for The means of irrigation in the village are tube earthing up with extra attachments. An ad wens and wells which irrigate 927 acres of land. justable wheel is provided in its front to regu Of the five tube-wells, four are owned by late the depth and is so designed and built that farmers and only one belongs to the State Irriga ,the width operation can be varied. It can tion Department. Irrigation by tube-wells is easily be drawn by a pair of small bullocks. popular and simple. The water is taken to the Green manure trampler is owned by Shri fields by means of drains. The cultivators Harpal Singh of the village. The trampler con pay Rs.2.50 for supply of water from a tube sists of four steel dishes each of 10 inch diameter well for an hour. with cast iron holes rigidly mounted on a hori Persian wheel is also used for lifting water zontal pipe shaft. It is light in weight and can from the wells to irrigate the fields. It consists of easily be drawn by a pair of bullocks. With its steel shaft for driving the bucket wheel and help, an area of about 3 acres can be effectively there is a bucket chain with a number of buckets trampled in a day. attached to it. It is driven by a bullock attached The other improved implements used by the to a wooden beam and is capable of lifting water farmers are rice land weeder, single hand hoe and from about a depth of 30 feet. The water is dibbler. Rice land weeder is used for weeding emptied into the drains which lead to the fields. rice lands. It is operated manually and is easy The charges for irrigating an acre of land to work. The dibbler is used for sowing wheat are Rs.5. in rows and the single hand hoe is used for weed Agricultural Implements ing. The improved implements used by village The other implements used by the cultivators farmers are tractor, Meston plough, green are spade, sickle, khurpi, gandasa, etc. Khurpi manure trampler, rice land weeder, etc. They (small spade) is used for weeding after the seed also use deshi wooden plough, clod-crusher, lings have come up and the sickle or the hansia khurpi, sickle, gandasa, spade, etc. for reaping the crop. Gandasa is used for cut There is only one tractor in the village owned ting the stalks into small pieces. It has a wooden by Shri Phool Singh who is a well-to-do farmer. handle with a blade about four inches broad It is lent to other cultivators on payment. and six to eight inches long. The spade or the pharua has a wooden handle with a working Meston plough is in common use. It is light edge six to eight inches long. It is used for in weight and is manufactured in different sizes digging purposes, ranging between six to eight inches in width. The six inches width plough is commonly used The village farmers are not conservative and in the village. The depth of ploughing obtained have quickly taken to improved implements. is between four to six inches. It has a total They realise their utility and effectiveness in weight of 40 pounds and can be worked by a agricultural ?perations. pair of bullocks. The average cost of plough Livestock is Rs.l7. The deshi wooden plough is also used. It is a block of hard wood with an iron The drought cattle play an important part sole and is guided by a handle. There is a beam in agricultural economy. They plough the fields PLATE No. XV Agricultural lmprements PLATE No. XVI .' .. _..r Modem Agricultrfral Implements 1. Deshi Wooden Plough. 2. Green Manure Tramj)Zer. 3. Meston Plough. BOONOKY and are used in other agricultural operations. namely, the bhumidhars} the ,Jirdars and the The number of bullocks in the village is 216 asamls. The cultivators are free to bring owned by 74 households. They are of improved about any improvement on their land. The breed and are purchased from the cattle markets fixed rent, the simple living and the rising prices of Delhi and Punjab. Two bullocks are able to of agricultural produce leave them enough to plough about an acre of land in a day. The live in comfort and security and inspire them strain on them is not heavy. They are given to work harder. bhusa, gram soaked in water and oil-cakes. Another ~asure of far reaching consequence The milch cattle are owned by members of affecting the economic life of cultivators is almost all castes and communities in the village. consolidation of holdings. The village lies in There are 199 cows and buffaloes most of whom tahsil Deoband where the scheme of consolidation have been purchased from the cattle markets. of land holdings has been given effect to. The They are of good breed and are kept mainly for villagers have been benefited by the consolidation milk. A cow on an average gives four seers of of holdings and have reacted favourably to the milk a day and a buffalo gives milk between scheme. The scattered holdings have been con 8 to 9 seers. The milch cattle get adequate solidated and land has been set apart in the attention and are given straw and oil-cakes three village for pastures, grave-yard, compost pits times in a day. and for abadi and roads. The villagers realise that the scheme has paved the way for their The animals suffer from a number of diseases economic prosperity and well being. of which pOka (dysentery), galaghont and khur paka are common. The villagers try local reme The following Table shows the area of land dies but in serious illness take them to the veteri under various land tenures in the village nary hospital at NagaI for treatment. There is TABLE No. 3.6 no arrangement for artificial insemination in Area Percen- the village for improving the cattle breed. Tenure in taae acre Factors influencing Economic Life Bhumidhari 949 72.6 The abolition of zamindari in the State in Sirdari 230 11.6 July 1952 has brought about important changes Gram Samaj land 104 8.0 in the economic life of cultivators. The Uttar Pradesh Zamindari Abolition and Land Reforms Government land 23 1.8 Act, 1950 provided for the acquisition of inter Total 1,306 100.0 mediaries rights on payment of compensation at Land Utilisation 8 times of the net land revenue paid by zamin dars. It also gave bhumidhari rights to the The area of the village is 1,306 acres of which tenants on contribution of ten times of rent -l,136 acres are under cultivation and the remain of their holdings. The bhumidhars are ing 170 acres are occupied by abadi and other entitled to transferable rights in their places of public utility, ponds, mango groves and holdings and to the reduction of land the barren land. revenue by 50 per cent of the rent. With the Principal Crops abolition of zamindari, the cultivators have been saved from the arbitrary exactions of the zamin There are two principal crops in the village, dars. They pay the rent directly to the State. the rfJIbi sown in October and harvested in They no longer suffer from the fear of ejectment March-April and the kharif sown in July and and occupy a position of prestige in society. reaped in September-October. The zaid or the The system of land tenure has been simplified hot weather crop is of no importance to the for there are only three classes of tenants, villaiers. The main kharit crops are paddy. 20 SADHARANS-U. sugarcane, bajra, jowar, etc. In rabi, wheat, paddy in the village is between 10-12 maundl gram, barley and peas are sown. per acre. Early paddy is harvested in early Kartika (October) and the late paddy in Agraha In 1369 F. the area under kharif and rabi was yana (November). Dried plants are cut and are 5'83 and 584 acres respectively. There is, there carried to the thrashing floor in bundles where a negligible increase in the area covered by fore~ thrashing and winnowing are done. It is stored rab, compared to kharil. The double cropped in bags or big earthen pots. The chaff known in 1369 F. was 248 acres. The plots on are~ as purhi is used as fodder and for sleeping. whIch early or late paddy is sown are used for sowing gram and peas. Jowar is the staple crop in the village. The field is ploughed a number of times and seed is Kharil scattered all over it. It is generally sown alune . Among the kharif crops, the most important but sometimes mixed with arhar. It is harvest IS the Sugarcane which was sown in 148 acres in ed in October. The excess of rain is harmful to 1369 F. The field ploughed, manured and to the crop. The fields are watched when the irrigated before SOWing in March. The seed is ears come up for they are eaten up by birds and obtained from the Seed Store, Mirpur-Mohan are also liable to be stolen. pur. The field is irrigated in summer months Other Kharil crops particularly Baisakh (April) and Jeth (May June). Gur is distributed to relations and Cotton, bajra, maize, moong and urd (pulse) friends at the time of sowing. Sugarcane occu were sown in 99 acres in 1369 F. pies the field for almost the whole year and is not cut before the Deothan festival which falls in Rabi October. The cost of cultivation is high because ?f intensive manuring, weeding and (lressing. It Wheat is an important rabi crop and is often IS a cash crop and the average profit per maund is grown mixed with gram or mustard. It is sown quite attractive. It is sold to the Sugar Mill, in the later part of October but the preparation Deoband which has set up a weighing centre at of the field starts in September. It is ploughed at NagaI. It is taken there by the cultivators in regular intervals and clod-crusher is used for bullock carts. breaking the clods and levelling the field. Seed is dropped into furrows made by the plough Paddy is grown in the low-lying fields so that but some farmers scatter it all over the field. they may hold rain water. The selected fields Dibbler is also used for sowing the seed in rows. are ploughed in the month of June before and The average requirements of seed, if it is sown after the rains. Early paddy is sown in the first in line, is 25 seers an acre. The requirement week of July and the late paddy a month there will substantially increase if it is scattered all after. Sowing is generally completed before over the field. The crop requires intensive heavy rains set in. Seedlings are grown on seed manuring and an abundant supply of water. beds elsewhere and are transplanted in rows in The fields are irrigated for the first time in the fields. This method is known as the Japanese Agrahayana (October-November) when the method of paddy cultivation and is popular. plants are nearly a foot high. If there is no rain Seed is also sown by scattering it in the field. fall in December-January, they are again irriga Generally 30 to 35 seers of seed is required for ted. Wheat was sown in 290 acres in 1369 F. The sowing by broadcast and only 6 to 7 seers crop ripens in March and is harvested either of it is needed for sowing by the transplan in the last week of the month or in the beginning ting method. of April. It is taken in bundles to the Khalian (thrashing floor) and is trodden by bullocks in Gurda and Lalmati varieties of paddy are order to separate the grain from husk. The grown in the village. The average production of bhusa obtained after winnowing is used as fodder. PLATE. No. XVII Bullocks (Iud 1Jlolfgh PLATE ~o. XVIII A tractor PLATE No. XIX Some other agricllltllYrll imj)lemclIls PLATE No. XX Cutting the s'lIga-rcallc ECONOMY 21 Next in importance to wheat is gram. It is Rites and Legends sometimes sown with wheat with an occasional mixing of mustard. Soon' after the paddy Rabi is an' important crop as some of the harvest, the fields are ploughed a number of important cereals are grown. The cultivators' times for the sowing of gram. The sowing is take a lot of care of this crop and a number ~i generally over by the end of October. The rituals precede and follow its sowing and harvest winter rains are sufficient for the crop to flourish. ing. The crop is sown in October and by Diwali It is harvested in March-April. The average (the festival of lights) the seeds germinate. On yield of gram per acre is about 9 maunds. the morning following the Diwali night, a special puja of cow-dung is performed which indicates Barley is sown in the same way as wheat but its importance as a complete manure. The crops with less expense and labour. It is sometimes ripen after Holi and it is customary to offer sown mixed with wheat, gram and peas and is wheat and barley ears to Holi bonfire. harvested in April. It was sown in 11 acres in 1369 Fasli. Utilisation and Marketing of produce Peas and arhar were sown in 78 acres in 1369 Sugarcane is the only cash er .. The polter PLATE No. XXII The potter PLATE ~ O . :\..X1H Ca'fpen ler at work INDEBTEDNESS BY CAUSES ER RE.ASONS INDEBTEDNESS BY INCOME GROUPS All Groups en Q. ::> Rs. 101 + , o ~ Rs.76 -100 ~ Rs.SI- 75 ~ Rs.26 - 50 z - Rs.2S &Below ~ ~~~~~~~~~~ o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 PER CENT HOUSEHOLDS IN DEBT ECONOMY 23 pillage I'ndustries Incqme Difficulty was experienced in ascertammg the The villagers are mostly engaged in cultiva income of the villagers. They are generally un tion, trade and service. It is unfortunate that willing to disclose the correct amount of their :no cottage industry has developed in the village. monthly income. The Field Inspector made The potters make good earthen pots ror local use. every effort to win their confidence and to obtain Oil expelling industry has not developed in the figures of income as accurately as possible. spite of good yield of oilseeds. The females The following Table shows the disrtibution of do not utilise the spare time in making toys, households by occupation, income and number baskets, etc. of members: TABLE No. 3.11 Number of "lumber of Monthly Income of Household Occupation House Members • ______.1-- ______holds Rs.25 and Rs.26-50 Rs.51- 75 Rs.76-100 Rs.IOl below and over Cllitivation .. 78 430 6 9 22 41 Agricultural labour 63 Trade 16 carpentry 11 Service 6 Midwife Barber 3 Blacksmithy Washing of Clothes 2 Weaver 2 Pottery 5 Sweeper 12 Total 200 1,009 6 77 29 36 52 According to the above classification six house Shri Sultan Singh belongs to the Rajput com holds are in the income-group of Rs.25 and munity and is a well-to-do farmer. His family below, 77 households are in the group of Rs.26- includes his wife, two sons and two daughters 50, 29, 36 and 52 households are in the third, ami a marrieu brother having two daughters fourth and fifth income-groups respectively shown and a son. The main occupation of the family in the Table. Some of the cultivators and is cultivation which yields an average monthly businessmen are in the income-group of Rs.IOl income of Rs.250. The expenditure of the and above. The lowest income-group comprises household on different items is as follows : agricultural labourers, carpenters, etc. Items Expenditulc Rs. Expenditure Cereals and pulses 165.00 Milk, ghee and oil The family bUdgets of 30 households were 30.00 Other food items 10.00 taken up for study in order to determine the Fuel and light 10.00 pattern of expenditure. Four budgets have been Tobacco for smoking 6.00 discussed below. The budgets are of representa Clothing and footwear .. 15.00 tive character and throw light on the pattern of Miscella.neous 8.00 expenditure in the village. Total 244.00 SADHARANSAll The expenditure on food is 84 per cent which Fuel and light 2.31 is high for there are eleven members in the Tobacco for smoking 0.50 family. The expenditure on the education of two boys is Rs.5 a month shown under the head Clothing and footwear 3.00 miscellaneous. The budget shows a monthly Total 29.81 saving of Rs.6. Food costs 81 per cent of the total expenditure. Shri Nanak's family consists of his wife, his The expenditure on other items is nominal. married daughter whose husband Harkesh also The saving is almost negligible. lives with him and his grandson aged 7 years. He belongs to the Chamar community. The Shrimati Ram Piari belongs to the Mehtar main occupation of the family is cultivation community. Her husband is employed as a which yields an average monthly income of sweeper in the Northern Railway at Saharanpur Rs.l50. The expenditure of the household IS and sends her Rs.30 a month. Her family con given below : sists of three sons and a daughter. She also works as sweepress in the village and thereby earns it) n; Expenditure Rs.20 a month. The average monthly income Rs. of the family is Rs.50 which is spent as follows : Cereals and pulses 73.00 Milk, ghee and oil 26.00 Items Expenditure Other food items 11.00 Rs. Fuel and light 7.00 Cereals and pulses 33.00 Clothing and footwear 8.00 Milk and oil Tobacco for smoking 4.00 3.00 Litigation 9.00 Othel food items 4.38 Miscellaneous 12.00 Fuel and light 4.62 Total 150.00 Betel and chewing tobacco 2.00 The expenditure on food items is 67 per cent. Clothing and footwear 3.00 N anak is involved in civil litigation and on an Total average spents Rs.9 on it. He borrowed Rs.100 50.00 for purchasing bullocks. He has still to pay The expenditure on food items is 80 per cent Rs.50 to liquidate the debt. The family does of the total expenditure. The budget shows not make any saving. that there is no saving. Shri Har Nand has to support his wife and a The budgets reveal that the main item 01 son aged 12 years. He is the sale earning mem expenditure is food. Expenditure on milk, ber of the family. He is an agricultural labou ghee and oil is low. In higher income-groups, rer earning Rs.30 a month. The expenditure expenditure on other items is comparatively more pattern is as follows : than the expenditure on food. A higher pro portion of expenditure on items of food and Items Expenditure clothing is an index of backward economic Rs. condition. It is difficult for most of the Cereals and pulses 21.50 villagers to have the necessities of life Milk, ghee and oil 1.50 and, therefore, it is natural that they cannot afford to spend on items of comforts and luxuries. Other food items 1.00 CHAPTER IV SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE Population and Density percentage of unmarried persons is 49. A breaL The population of village Sadharansar is down of unmarried persons according to age 1,009 spread over on area of 2.04 square miles group is given below: (1306 acres). The density of population is 495 TABLE No. 4.2 persons per square mile. The village is not densely populated. Unmarried Age Group ,-_____...Jt.... ____ ~ Households Persons Males Females The following Table shows the distribution of households in the village by their size: 0-4 154 73 81 TABLE No. 4.1 5-9 227 75 52 Single 2-3 4-6 7-9 10 Member Members Members Members Members 10-14 121 80 41 and over .... r--A -, r----"-----. ,_A---.., ,---"--, ,_,A.-, 15-19 27 23 4 0", '" ''1:) '1:) 20-24 7 7 0_ ..... ::!'" :g'" ::!'" ::!'" Zoo 0 0 '"O)..d 0 '"Q} ..d0 ..d ..d 0) 11. Widowhood is confined to the age-group Gram Sabhas as prescribed under the U. P. 20-59 years and over. Out of 37 widows, 16 Panchayat Raj Act, 1947. It is the duty of the are over 5!} years in age. villagers to report births and deaths but some of them are not recorded on account of negli Births and Deaths gence. Some omissions, therefore, occur in the record. The record of births and deaths was main tained at the police station through the village The Birth and Death Register of village c:howkidar up to 1947. The practice was given Saclharansar was consulteu. The following up in that year and the duty of maintaining the Table gives the number of births and deaths m record of births and deaths was entrusted to the the village during 1958-60 : TABLE No. 4.3 No. of Persons r------'------____ Net Increase Year 30rn Dead r------A.. --~ ,...... __----A.. __ -----, r- ___ ----A.. ---__. PM F PM FP M F 1958 36 22 14 6 3 3 30 19 11 1959 22 13 9 8 6 2 14 7 7 1960 31 10 21 9 5 4 22 5 17 ------~ Iotal 89 45 44 23 14 9 66 31 35 During 1958-60, births exceeded deaths in Medical Aid the village. The population of the village is following the general trend and is steadily in Medical facilities are not available in the creasing. There has been an increase of 7 per village. There is, however, a qualified vaidya cent in the village population during the period whose clientele is not extensive. The nearest 1958-60. dispensary is at village Mirpur-Mohanpur. In Fever alone accounted for 39 per cent (9) illness, the villagers allow it to drag on till it deaths in the village during this period. A automatically subsides or go to the dispensary number of deaths also occurred on account of for treatment. Some elderly villagers who have pneumonia, asthama and tuberculosis. Small knowledge of diseases and of ayurvedic medicines pox and cholera were effectively checked as no render assistance in the initial stages of illness. death occurred due to them. During 1950, 45 During 1960-61, 16 villagers were treated at the children were vaccinated against small-pox by dispensary and in 24 cases private doctors were the Village Level Worker and 225 villagers were consulted. Treatment by private doctor is vaccinated in the previous years. The follow expensive and in serious cases only they are ing Table gives the general causes of deaths in called for treatment the village : There is no maternity centre in the village. TABLE No. 4.4 Maternity cases are ordinarily conducted by the Cause of Death Year,...... --- ______.A.. ______"""\ dais (midwife) belonging to the Chamar Fever Tuber- A~thama Pneu- Other Total and Teli communities. They are unqualified, culosis monia Cau"es Deaths untrained and are also ill-equipped. They 1958 5 1 6 1959 2 2 2 2 8 handled 63 maternity cases in the village in 1960- 1960 2 1 6 9 61. Qualified midwives were called for delivery Total 9 3 3 2 6 23 in 13 cases. POPULATION BY AGE GROUPS. MALES FEMALES · ...... , , , 'I 45-59 Q. 35-44 o 30-34 : 2~-29 I 20 -24.1 4: 1(; -14 5 - 9 0-4 • .. • • • • • • • • • • • .. I .. • • • • 90 80 70 60 SO 40 30 2'0 10 0 10 20 30 40 SO 60 70 80 ~O NUMBERS NUMBERS MARITAL STATUS M A L E S AGE-GROUPS F E M A L E S 60 + 55-59 50-54 45-49 40-44 35-39 30-34 20-24 15 -19 10-14 5 - 9.1--______-----~ I 0-4 ,Loo 90 eo 70 60 SO 40 30 20 10 0 o I 90100 .I PER CENT C E N T r; D NEVER MARRIED ~ MARRIED ~WIDOWED _DIVORCED EDUCATION BY SEX NATURE OF FAMILIES SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE 21 Sanitation The percentage of literacy among the female. Sadharansar is not a clean village. The rain is negligible. Among them 9 have completed pri water flows through the slopes into the tanks in mary education and only 1 is literate without pass its south. The tanks often overflow and cause ing any educational standard. The main reason water-logging. for poor female literacy is the absence of girls' school in the village. Girls are admitted in the There is no proper arrangement for cleaning primary school where they study with boys. lanes and streets. They are full of garbage and The people are old-fashioned and believe that animal waste. All the house drains come out education of females is neither important nor into the streets, sometimes making tresspass worthwhile. Moreover. female education is difficult. The drains are kachcha and often not always seen as an asset. overflow in the rainy season. The lanes and the bye-lanes are under knee-deep water during the The percentage of literacy among the males rainy season and are not easily negotiable. is by no means encouraging. Among them. 56 Most of the houses are without latrines. Men, are literate without educational standard. 55 women and children go to answer the call of have basic primary qualification. 21 have passed nature in the nearby fields. The village is free the 8th standard. 7 have completed matricula from malaria on account of occasional D. D. T. tion and only one is a law graduate. spray. The villagers are not always keen to send their Literacy and Education children for higher education. They think that it makes the individual unsuited to farm work The percentage of literacy in the village is 15. and does not necessarily prepare him for other The number of literate males and females is occupations. Since the struggle for livelihood is 140 and 10 respectively. The Table given below difficult and serious. the cultivators and men in gives the literacy figures according to age-groups other occupations engage the children in their and sex: work and find it hard to spare them for studies. TABLE No. 4.5 Those who are well-to·do and associate educa .... ca 0 tion with high status and prestige send them ..... g." 2 > . -- ~--- The Table given below shows literacy, caste Total 56 55 9 21 7 1 .. and community-wise by sex: TABLE No. 4.6 Literate without Caste educational Primary Middle Matriculation Graduate standard r-__.A..__ -. P M F Brahmin 4 4 9 9 2 2 Rajput 28 27 32 24 8 14 14 2 2 ROTh 28 SADHARANSAR Literate without Casto educational Primary Middle MatriculatIOn Graduate standard ,__.A..__ ----. r---...A.--~~ ,----"----. r----"'------.. r----"---.., P M F P M F P M F P M F P M F Gadaria 2 2 2 2 Barhai 3 3 1 Kumhar 2 2 3 3 Kahar 1 Dhobi Chamar 11 11 9 9 3 3 Mehtar Teli 3 3 4 4 Nai Mirasi 2 2 Total 57 56 64 55 9 21 21 7 7 Family Structure Sometimes there is clash of opinion between the parents and the children. The atmosphere fur Family plays an important role in the socio ther changes afrer the children have been married. economic life of the community. Joint family The trouble usually arises when the mother-jn system is still the basis of the village society. The law wants to be supreme in the management of members of the family live jointly so lo~g the family affairs and her authority is resisted by the parents are there. On the death of the father, daughter-in-law. The trouble is aggravated many families spilt up and generally the process of when the son sides his wife. The mother feels disintegration sets in which is mainly due to parti that her control over the son has weakened and tion of property, disproportionate earninp.;s and that his affection for her is also fading. She, expansion of the family. The spirit of indivi therefore, starts finding fault with every action dualism has also done much to break up the of the daughter-in-law and there is no end to family unity. quarrels between them. Out of 200 households, 51 are joint comprising a married couple with m;lrried sons, daughters It is customary for every woman to observe and married brothers/sisters, 43 are intermediate p1lrdah not only from the father· in-law and conslstmg of a married couple, unmarried other elderly male members of the family but brothers and sisters and one of the parents and also from other persons in the village. The 90 are simple hmily units compnsmg the relations between the wife and the husband are husband. wife ;Illtl unmarried children. There generalJ;' happy and in rare cases they fall apart. are Hi familie' ',\'" :ch defy classification and have The other relations who do not stay at home been classed as others. Looking at the large meet only on ceremonial occasions such as number of single fami1ie~ it can be said that the marriage, death, etc. Some family members trend is towards disintegration of joint family 'who are rio<;ely connected meet frequently. system. Their visit is keenly expected on important Inter Family Relationship festivah and ceremonial occasions. The relations within the family are generally Inheritance of Property cordial. The parents are respected and their words are heeded. As the children grow up a The inheritance of property among the Hindus spirit of adventure, disregard for old values is determined according to the provisions of the and a feeling of individualism ~ow<; in them. Hindu SUCfession Act. 1956, The villagers are SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE unable to reconcile to the share of daughter in the chabutra. The villagers worship the deity the property. The property is shared equally when small-pox strikes in an epidemic form. by the sons and the widow. In the absence of sons, it is inherited by the widow. Among the Muslims, There is. no idgah or mosque in ,the village. !he Mushms go to Pandauli to offer prayers succession to property is governed by the Muslim In the mosque on Id and other festivals. Law. The devolution of tenancy rights is in accordance with the provisions of the U. P. Festivals Zamindari Abolition and Land Reforms Act, Festivals provide a natural relief to the villa 1950. gers from the monotonous life. The Hindus and Leisure and Recreation the Muslims observe festivals with great enthusi asm. The festivals among the Hindus are The vi1lagers spend their free time mostly in spread evenly over the whole year. The gossip. Conversation is a favourite pastime with common festivals observed by them are Shiva them which is usually about the quarrels in Ratri, Ram Naumi, Holi, Shri Krishan Janam the village, success or failure of crops, visit of Ashtmi, Vijai Dashmi, Diwali and Kartika an official and scandals. Playing cards during Purnima. Tij, Raksha Bandhan, Karva Chauth, the slack season and gambling are also common. Basant Panchmi, etc. are also observed. The males smoke hookah which keeps them Holi busy specially on social meets or when they assemble in groups to gossip. The boys play Holi is an important festival and is observed Qutdoor games like volley-ball and kabaddi on on the full-moon day in the month of Phalguna the village fields. (February-March). It is a popular festival and has a strong appeal for the lower castes and The festival of Tij is celebrated in the month younger folks. The Holi bonfire is burnt of Sravana. Jhula (swing) provides a lot of sometime in the night at an auspicious time fun and is a favourite pastime of village girls fixed by the pandit. Wheat and barley ears are on this occasion. It is very common in the thrown in the fire. On the following morning rainy season to see the village girls going high the people throw coloured water on each other up in the swings, singing lustily all the while. and rub gulal (red-oxide) into each others face. Katha of Satya N arain is usually held in the There is a lot of merry-making and every one village on the full-moon day or after the marriage takes part in the celebrations without any consi of a daughter. The pandit recites the katha deration of wealth, caste or status. Special food and thereafter prasad and chamamrit (cm:d is prepared in the households. The people mixed with water, dry fruits and tulsi leaves) is wear new clothes on the occasion and 'Visit each distributed. Bha;ans (devotional songs) are other and offer greetings. The occasion is also also sung on the occasion to the accompaniment celebrated with enthusiasm by the females. of musical instruments. Janam Ashtm; Religious Institutions Janam Ashtmi celebrates the anniversary of There is a small temple in the abadi where the Lord Krishna's birth in prison. The festival is image of Lord Shiva is installed. It is an old observed on the 8th day of the dark fortnight of temple built about 100 years ago by the Brah Bhadra. The people keep fast which is broken mins of village Paharpur. Villagers gather to at midnight at the time of the birth of the Lord. worship the deity on the occasion of Shivratri Devotional songs are sung and parsad consisting which is observed in the month of Phalguna of sweets, etc., is distributed in some houses on (February-March) . the occasion. There is a small platform in the south of Raksha Bandhan village on which the image of goddess Shitla is This festival falls on the full-moon day in the installed. There is no enclosure or covering over month of Sravana (July-August). On this day SADHARANSAR a wrist band (rakht) of coloured thread is tied observed by the Scheduled Castes. The Dhobi. by the sister on the wrist of her brother symbolis of the village worship Shitla, the goddess of small ing his pledge to protect her in difficulty. The pox. brother also gives her some money in return. Festivals of Muslims 'Pijai Dashmi The main festivals of the Muslims are Mohar Vijai Dashmi or Dussehra is observed on the ram, Shab-e-barat, Ramzan and Id-uz-zuha. tenth day of the shukla paksha (Moon-lit fort Moharram is observed in memory of Hazrat night) of Asvina. It is an important festival and is Imam Hussain, the grandson of Prophet Moham celebrated to mark the victory of Lord Rama mad who gave his life fighting for the cause of Over the demon-king. Ravana (Victory of Truth his religion. He was put to death on the tenth over Evil). This is the final day of Ram Lila. day of the month of Moharram on the plains of Men, women and children assemble in the village Karbala. The moharram is a period of mourning to see the fair and the burning of the effigy of for ten days. Tazias or paper models of the Ravana. tomb of Imam Hussain are taken out in the Karva Chauth village and sweet drink of water and sugar is distributed. It ends with the burial of tazias on This festival falls nine days after Dussehra. the tenth day. The married women observe a fast throughout the day. It is broken after the appearance of Shab-e-barat is an occasion when the Muslims moon. They offer water from a karva (a small of the village visit the graves of their deceased earthen pot) to the moon. To a Hindu wife kin and offer prayers. Children celebrate the the fast has a special significance for it is observed occasion with great enthusiasm and explode for ensuring the safety and prosperity of the crackers, phuljha.rias> etc., on the occasion. husband. Ramzan is an important month in which; as Diwali far as possible, people keep fast for the whole Diwali or Deepawali is the festival of lights. month. Food is taken before dawn and after It is observed on the last day of the dark dusk and not even a drop of water is taken in fortnight of Kartika. It marks the end of the between. The month-long fasting ends on the rainy season. The houses are whitewashed. day of the new moon. Id-ul-fitar is observed on The poor also clean their dwellings and apply the day following the new moon. It is a day of the plaster of cow-dung to the walls and the rejoicings and festivities. The menfolk go to. fioor. The people worship goddess Laxmi and Pandauli to offer prayers. They go about in new Ganesh in the evening and thereafter the houses clothes meeting friends and rela.tives. Sweet are illuminated with a number of small earthen dishes specially Sewai are prepared on the occa lamps. There is rejoicing everywhere and special sion and are offered to those who visit the house. dishes are prepared on the occasion. It is custo Id-uz-zuha is celebrated in memory of Hazrat mary to leave a lamp burning all night at the Ibrahim Khalilullah who had offered to sacri place of Laxmi puja for the people believe that fice his son on the hidding of God. The Laxmi who is the Goddess of prosperity visits the Muslims of the village offer prayers in the morn houses on Diwali night. The villagers indulge in ing and thereafter sacrifice goats and rams. The gambling because of the belief that those who win meat of the sacrificed animals is sent to friends on the Diwali night remain prosperous through and relations. OUt the year. Basant Panchmi, Shiva Ratri, Nag Panchmi, Religious Beliefs and Practices Kartika Purnima, etc., are also observed in the Sadharansar is predominantly a Hindu village. village. The festival of Tij is observed in the The village Muslims belong to the Sunni sect month of Sravana and brings joy and cheer to and are orthodox. The rituals prescribed by girls and young women. These festivals are also Islam are rigidly followed by them on festivals SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE 31 and on ceremonies connected with birth, marri. The head of caste panchayat$ is called the age and death. chowdhry whose office is hereditary. After his The Hindus living in the village worship their death, he is normally succeeded by his eldest gods and goddesses and believe in avtaras which son. If the chowdhry has no male issue. he is are considered to be the manifestations of the succeeded by his nearest male relation. If he is Supreme Being on earth. The Ramayan, the minor, his duties are performed by some male Mahabharat and the Gita are their principal relation. He calls and presides over the pan religious books. They worship snakes on Nag chayat meetings. Panchmi and believe that monkeys are the The cases generally taken up by the caste associates of Lord Hanuman. panchayat deal with family quarrels, disputes The pipal tree is sacred to them. They over land affairs. illegal intimacy and such other have traditional reverence for the Tuls.i plant cases which would lower the reputation of the which is planted in the house on a raised plat caste. Those who are found guilty are outcasted. form. Water is offered after bath and a small The offenders can be readmitted by giving a wick is lighted in the evening. The villagers feast to the castemen. Those who defy the deci believe in ghosts and spirits and have a deep sion of the panchayat are ex-communicated and rooted faith in witchcraft and magic. Religion are not allowed to drink water from the lota and superstition generally dominate the life of or share the chilam. every Hindu in the village. The caste panchayat of the Chamars is power The Muslims are as superstitious as their ful and includes twelve villages under its juris Hindu neighbours. The Hindus believe in the diction. Lalla Chamar of village Paharpur is auspiciousness or otherwise of a particular time or the chowdhry and is assisted by three persons one period according to Hindus almanac. They con of whom belongs to the village. sult the village pandit before undertaking a The meetings of the panchayat are held in the journey or finalising negotiations or laying evenings. The parties to the dispute are called ioundation stone of a house. Journeys are and opportunity is given to the offenders to generally undertaken on auspicious days. While defend their actions. The panchayat meets in starting on a journey it is inauspicious if a person the village of the persons mainly involved in dis with empty vessels is met, a cat crosses from left to pute. The meetings of the panchayat are called right on the road, a one-eyed person comes across as and when necessary. No meeting of the pan or some one sneezes before leaving the house. chayat was held in 1960-61. The sight of a cow, a pitcher full of water, curd The caste panchayat of the Mehtars is headed or fish and the presence of a married woman are considered auspicious. It is also considered by Saktu. The panchayat deals with the' cases inauspicious if a snake is killed by the plough at of the village only. It has not met for the la~t several years. . the time of ploughing. They believe that the howls of the jackals coming from the eastern The establishment of the Gaon and Nayaya dir.ection predict a death in the village. The Panchayats has weakened their hold but they are villagers do not go to the burial or cremation still effective in enforcing good conduct and moral grounds at night on account of the fear of ghosts. discipline among the caste members. Village Organisation Gram Panchayat Caste Panchayat The Gaon Sabhas and N ayaya Panchayats were Before the establishment of Gram Sabhas, the established in the State under the U. P. Panchayat caste panchayats played an important and effec Raj Act, 1947. The idea behind the establish tive role in upholding the dignity of the caste ment of the Gaon Sabhas was to train the and in settling minor disputes. The caste villagers in the viJ!age administration and to in panchayats of the Chamars and Bhangis are culcate a spirit of self-reliance in them without powerful and similar in structure. depending too much on Government agenciei. 32 SADHARANSAR The Act lays down the following functions of The Pradhan is charged with the duty of main the Gaon Sabhas : taining the accounts of the Gaon Sabha. He convenes the meetings of the panchayat and 1. To construct, maintain and repair the presides over them. public streets and lanes and to make ade quate arrangements for their lighting The Sub-Divisional Officer exercises general 2. To take steps for village sanitation and supervision over the work of the Gaon Sabha. adopt all preventive measures against the He periodically inspects its work and initiates spread of an epidemic disciplinary proceedings against defaulting mem 3. To maintain the record of births and bers. deaths in the village, The Gaon Sabha in the village was establish 4. To take immediate steps for the dis ed in 1949. It consists of 13 members including posal of unclaimed dead bodies and car the Pradhan and the Up-pradhan who were elec casses ted at the elections held in January 1961. Sri 5. To construct, repair and maintain Raja Ram is the Pradhan of the Gaon Sabha public wells, tanks and ponds for the supply since 1955'. He is an influential, educated and of water for drinking, washing and bathing, a well·to-do man. The members of the Gaon etc. Panchayat belong to R,ajputs (6), Chamars (4), 6. To assist in the development of agri Brahmin (1), Gadaria (1), and Muslim (I) culture, commerce and industry communities. 7. To render "all possible assistance in extinguishing fire and protecting life and The Gram Panchayat organised shramdan property when fire breaks out (voluntary labour) for repair of roads on a 8. To render all possible assistance in number of occasions and undertook the construc development activities tion of panchayat-ghar. It has given land and 9. To fulfil any other obligation im money for construction of primary school build posed by the Act or any, other law on the ing and has also provided a hand pump in its Gaon Sabha premises. The sources of income of the Gaon Sabha are All adults residing within the village auto panchayat-tax, licence fees, contribution from matically become the members of the Gaon the Government and its share in the income of Sabha. A person who is not a citizen of India the Nayaya Panchayat on account of fines, etc. or is of unsound mind cannot become its mem The following Table gives the details of income ber. All Government servants, insolvents, and expenditure of the Gaon Sabha for the persons suffering from leprosy or those convicted period April 1, 1961 to March 31, 1962. of ,any offence involving moral turpitude are debarred from its membership. TABLE No. 4.7 The Gram Panchayat is the executive com -'Income Amount Expenditure Atnaunt mittee of the' Gaon Sabha elected for a period of Rs. Rs. Balance on 1-4-61 00.91 Secretary's allew- five years. Before a general election is held, the ance 72.00 Panchayat Secretary prepares a register of the Contribution from Stationery 13.28 the State Govern- members of the Gaon Sabha. The District ment 700.00 Magistrate, under directions from the State Panchayat Tax 207.48 Construction of Panchayat-ghar 1,436.00 Government, fixes the date, place and time for Licence fee 50.00 Deposit in the Post making nominations, scrutiny and the actual Income from Nayaya office 200.00 Panchayat 10.00 poll. After the elections. a date is fixed for the Withdrawal from Miscellaneous 165.28 formal inauguration of the Gram Panchayat. Saving's Bank Balance with the account ., 1,000,00 Pradhan 81.83 The Pradhan and the members take oath of their ----- Total 1.968.39 Total ----1,968.39 rC$pectiv~ otijces on ~h~ occ~sion, PLATE No. XXIV ..,.1 group of men and children gossiping PLATE No. XXV Office bearers of Gaon Sablia flud Nyaya Pancha)'at SOCIAL AND CULTURAL UFE ~ayaya Panchayat a stronger hold on the people in the rural Meas where its rigidity is particularly marked. The The village is under the jurisdiction of Naya Rajputs are a dominant group in the village. ya Panchayat, Paharpur. It comprises eight Th~~ are.influential, well-to-do and occupy a high Gram Sabhas, namely, Paharpur, Basera, Kha pOSItIOn III caste hierarchy. tauH, Mirpur, Paniali, Digauli, Ishaqpur and Sadharansar. When a birth takes place in a Rajput house hold, the Brahmin priest is called to prepare the The Nayaya Panchayat is purely a judicial horoscope of the infant. He also decides the body and consists of panches nominated from auspicious date of the Dasattun ceremony. In among the members of the Gram Panchayats. return he gets some money as the neg (payment). The District Magistrate, with the help of a com The Kumhar supplies earthen plates and pots mittee, nominates them to the Nayaya Panchayat. and the Nai and the Nain have a lot of work to There are twenty panches in it, two to three from each Gaon Sabha. The panches elect a sarpanch do on the occasion. The N ain attends to the and Sahayak-sarpanch. Sri Mukund Ram who mother while the Nai does the other household is an educated man was elected Sarpanch in 1961. work. They are given cereals and money. The dai who delivers the child also gets grain and - When a case is filed in the Nayaya Panchayat, some money. The Dhobi washes the clothes of it is recorded in the. register. The date the mother and the child from the birth to last o,f. hea.rin_g is noted ?own and the complai nahan (bath) and is given food and grain. nant IS mformed of It. The Panchayat issues summons to the people concerned. The Sar The village pandit officiates at various cere panch nominates the panch mandal from among monies at the time of marriage in a Rajput household. He accompanies the marriage party t~e panches to hear and decide the case. to perform the various religious ceremonies. The panch mandal which consists of five panches mayor may not include the Sarpanch. The The Barhai supplies the pata (sitting-board) proceedings of the case are recorded by a literate .and gets in return two to four rupees. The of panch and the parties must be present at Kumhar supplies the required number earthern pots. He gets cash and food in return the hearing. The presence of three panches is necessary at every hearing. The plaintiff is according to the number of earthen pots administered the oath but the defendent is not supplied. The Nain does the household bound to take it. The judgment of the case is work while the Nai accompanies the marriage recorded by the bench and is signed by the party and does all the work of the barati3. In panches. return he gets. nichhawar according to the means of the family. The Nain gets the neg for helping The Nayaya Panchayat is empowered to hear the family and the bride. The Nai and the Nain petty criminal cases under the Indian Penal Code together get about Rs.15 to Rs.20 in a marriage. and other Acts specified in the Panchayat Raj The Kabar washes utensils . and is paid for it. 'Act; 'It cannot award sentences of imprison The -Mehtar keeps the surroundings clean and is inent but can impose a -fine up to·1ts.l00on eon given food and- some money. viction. It also hears and decides civil and reve· nue cases. Revision applications against the When a Rajput dies, the Brahmin priest decisions of the N ayaya Panchayats lie, in the accompanies the bier and helps in the last rites. case of a civil suit, to the court of the Munsif The Nai accompanies the tikti and shaves and in revenue and criminal cases to the Sub the hair of the eldest son of the deceased. He Divisional Officer. The lawyers cannot appear does not get any payment for this work. The before the Nayaya Panchayat. Mehtar also goes with the funeral procession and Inter-caste Relations is given food during the period of mourning. The caste plays an important role in determin The relations between the various castes and ing the social relations. The caste system has comm.unities are cordial. They live like good SADHARANSAR neighbours and share each others joys and TABLE NO.,4.8 ~ows. Sometimes they quarrel but do not Number of faU apart.· households which Amount Per- 'lfeljorm Measures Name of the Caste gave of tentage dowrY in dowry Sadharansar is a road side village. The the marriage of villagers often go to Saharanpur and get an idea daughters Rs. of the city life. The villagers are ignorant of Brahmin 3 2,100 3.4 the s'ocial legislations. The Scheduled Castes Rajput 15 43,500 54.6 are not aware of various steps that have been taken to better their lot. Untouchability has Khattri 1 3,000 3.8 been abolished by the Constitution of India. It ROTh has been declared as an offence under the Gadaria 2 2,000 2.5 Untouchability (Offences) Act, 1955. Inspite 'of it, the Mehtars are treated as untouchables in Barhai 3 2,500 3.1 the village. The Chamars, the Dhobis and the Lohar 1 1,500 1.9 Mehtars suffer from social disabilities and are Kumhar 2 2,900 3.6 not allowed' to enter the temples and are also Kahar 2 1,000 I.! not admitted to religious congregations. The Brahmin priest does not officiate at the birth, Dhobi marri CONCLUSION Sadharansar is a prosperous village of Saharan The primary school provides educational pta district composed of 1.000 persons. about facilities to village children. Children. of all lOur furlongs from the metalled road. It is aD castes now attend the school'and there is no dis old village inhabited by the Hindus and the crimination in the seating arrangement. Viliilge Muslims. The Rajputs are dominant in the girls are also admitted to it. village and are feared and respected. The language spoken is a local dialect of Hindi. The Gaon Sabha is alive to its responsibilities It has given land and money for construction The main occupation of the people is agri of the school building. The panchayat-ghar culture. More than 85 per cent of the total area has been constructed where the meetings of the of the village is under cultivation. The number Gaon Sabha are held. It is the nucleus of social of persons directly engaged in agriculture is 132 and cultural, activities of the village. Villagers (35.1 per cent) mostly being the Rajputs. have been greatly benefited by the N. E. S. Block. It has given financial help to the Gaon The means of irrigation in the village are Sabha for development work. The occasional adequate. The irrigated area is 81.6 per cent demonstrations in the better methods of farming of the total cultivated area. The cultivators are have been of great use to the farmers. The plant not conservative. They have taken to improved protection agency of the Block has given timely implements used in different agIicultural opera help in eradicating pests and plant diseases. tions. They save time and labour and there is increase in yield also. As a resuh of urban contacts. the way of living of the villagers is changing. The Scheduled The well-ta-do farmers invest in purchasing Castes particularly Chamars have given up un cattle of better breed, better implements. im clean professions. They send their children to proved seeds and chemical fertilizers. The village school where they sit and. study with the better methods of cultivation have increased the children of other castes. A change is noticeable agricultural produce per acre. Agriculture is a in the attitude of other castes towards them. source of profit to most of them. The old orthodoxy is gradually disappearing. The other occupations like tailoring and retail There is definite change in the way of living business in household goods are carried on a res of the people. The women of Brahmin. Rajput tricted scale. The potters and carpenters earn and Khattri families use saris, bodices and enough for a comfortable living. Others are petticoats. The children wear pants or half elIso well off. It is unfortunate that females do pants and shirts. The males wear coats. shirts not utilise their spare time in profitable occupa and sweaters in winter. The Muslims wear tions with the result that no cottage industry has pyjamas and coats. New-cut shoes and sandals are developed in the village. ' popular. Radios. stoves. chairs and tables. are owned by a few families. Bicycles are possessed The mUlti-purpose co-operative credit society by some of them. is popular. The members of the society are both agriculturists and non-agriculturists. They Having seen three Assembly and Panchayat are advanced money on reasonable interest'. elections. the villagers ,have become increasingly Others borrow from money-lenders on a high conscious of their rights. They do not rate of interest. - know anything about politics or government affairs but they do realise the importance of elec opinion and casual clashes among them but on tions and know that they have the power to a the whole there is an atmosphere of goodwill certain extent of returning the correct persons and co·operation prevailing in the village. who are to be in authority. They do not sub mit meekly to authority but complain freely to The change lin the social, political and econo those in power to get their grievances redressed. miC life is coming though slowly. With their own The Hindus and the Muslims live in the village efforts and with the Government help the villagers like good neighbours. They share each others will be able to pave the way for their economie joys and sorrows. There may be differences of prosperity and well being. lll'oA.~~ !fABI.ar TABLE NO. I: Area, Houses tmd Population A~'in Population ~------~------~~ ~-~----~------~ Density Numborof Number of Acres Hec-tares Houses Households Persons . Males .. PetMlill 1,306 S2U 495 193 200 1,009 554 4S5J Persons per square mile TABLE NO. IT: Population by Age-group., .;, 60 Total of all ages 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20- 24 25- 29 30- 34 35-44 45-59 abdover ______.A.. ___ --_-, ~ r-"'--. ~ ~ ~ r-"-. ,...... _., ~ r-"'--. r-~ Persons Males Females M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F l,OOP S54 455 73 82 75 53 84 48 45 37 37 47 41 36 44 40 60 # 48 43 41 2S TABLE NO. III : Size and Composition of Households Si~ of Household, _,,___,.A:_,~~ ____ - ______------__...._ Total Number of 0' 2-3.Mem~ 4-6 Members· 7-9 o Jdembers 10' MenMers and Households over .".., ... ~ •••• ~ .. , • ...,A+I .. · .... r=....;&4~~...... _,-....~~"---'~--.---.-~-__ House- Males Fe- House- Males Fe- House- Males Fe- House- Males Fe- House- Males Fe h~ 0 • IIl,IIlcI h~lds ma.les. ~lds males ~lds 0 • IllIIles holds. males j. ) 48 14 55 94 260 204 . 45 . 186 • 163 5 29 30 SADHAllAN5AJl TABLE NO. IV: CQ.Jte muJ Naturt of Families Total' Typcs_'oi-Families liviD, in the Household Cast. Number of ____....~ 1l0ll5eholds ----Simple In~iate Joint Others""'" Brahmin 1 3 3 t '.. llajput .. 41 18 Ie It S Khattri 2 1 Rorh 1 Qadaria 7 3 :3 i Bathai , 3 ), 1 Lohar -l 1 Kumhar 5 :3 Z Kahar 5 J 1 1 Dhobi 2 Chamar .. 63 ~1 13 14 , Mehtal 11 7 It .- Ansari ... t Teli .; 38 Ii , 11 ') Nai 2 Mirasi 3 1 1 .. Filai 3 t 2 Total 200 90 43 SI J' Simple Family: Consists of housband. wife and unmarried children ,- '" >. -. -' Intermediate: ConsistS of married couple and'unmarried brother/sister and onl! ocitlc parents Joint: Consists cf. married couple with married sons/daughters and manie(i· brothen(sisters Other: Refers to single member ar unma1'l'ied brothers and sisters or one parent Ii vitt. with unmarriccl JODI or daughters. "D , .' ..". TABLE NO. V Httuseholds Clasllji,d by Religion, Caste IIIId Sub-caste - Number or Persons r- .A --, Number ItJIiJlOD . Caste Sub-castG PersonS Males Females of Hoosl;:holds lIi1l1uiJm BrahmlD Gaur 38 22 16 7 ItaJplll' Tomar 331 131 106 40 Pudi.r 3 1 .t Khattri '.' Tandoll 3 2 1 K.apoO{ 6 4 2 llorh 3 1 . ~ " Qadarla ., 35 18 17 1 Barbai .. 31 20 11 1 Dhimar 6 3 3 1 Lohllf ... '.' 5 2 3 I Itllmhar .. .. Mahar ,! • lS 13 12 5 Kabat 19 11 8 S Dh9bi 9 5 4 2 Chamar 285 156 129 62 Rabidasi .. 5 3 2 Mehtar '.' 12 5 7 2 Bahniki 42 16 26 9 Talam '•• •• Ansari ,._. 1 1 1 1 Till ...... 197 112 85 38 N!Ii~ .. 10 5 5 2 Mlrasi ,_'. , . 16 !) 7 3 Firai ~ 14 6 3' ------~------TOta} 1,009 554 455 200 '''l~· ~ :TJia'ii NO,' xt :' ::Ag"tUftilraf Pri;tlUct< airtf-lii DIsposal" Oil-seeds Paddy Wheat Bajra Pulse Barloy Suprcane Fodder Vegetable NllDle of }t{~lJCt . .' .(':~ ~t· ;;. _- r - Rg. Rs. Mds.' Mds. Mds.. . Mds. Mds. Rs. as. _,~ ----...-4------___ ----4------29, .. - 1,320 i~ 1. Annual quantity pro~ 1,495" 2,290 416 797 " 67,4~ 24,~~O t , .. 'duccd .. ' r,,' -~------~------~~----~~---~ 2~ . trotal annUal quantity:' C, 1,442 2,220' 41' 797 29 24,380 1,270 ' • UO consumed by the ,producin. househol~s. ____..r ______.___ _."._.... ___...... _' ____ ~_ - -.ot '---- , ------' . 1 .. Total annual quantit1. 70, " fj7,490 , so available1br sale ' :: TABLB NO. XII: IndebtedneSl . Ind~bt~dn~ss iiy Incom;',rouPs' --~r~----~--- I • ~~------~--- Tota.l Number of Perc~ntaie Averaic . Total Number of . Housohalc.as of Col. 3 to de_t iDCome-Jl'ou~ Indebtedness Househblds in Debt Col. 1 per,House- _. . . bold in Dd,)t --, (- . Rs. -2 300,00 Rs. 25 'and below 33.33 . ~7.51 296,00 15,3&9 .Rs.i~ to 51) 77 52 19 65.52 606.20 11,440 is.51 to 75 .. 29 ,'.... , - " 1&,010 Rs;76 to'lOO .: 36 24 66.66 750.41 77.0!) 1,547.12 61,&85 Rs.IOl and above 52 40 ._------~-_...... _~--- ...... 1,07,324 Total 200 131 68,50 785.57 TABU NO. XIII: Indebtedness by Causes Proportiou ofD~bt Amoullt. Number of to the: of Families Total Debt in .c~bt Amount' ofD;bt lQ.62 (R) Purcllase< of lmd 11,400.00 1 0.37 (b) Construction and repairs of houses '.. 400.00 -'12.14 (c) MarriaCC" 13,029.00 lS ~_5i Vi) Funeral S50.OO 2 1 U9 : (,) Liquidation of oVtstandina dellts 100.00 , i.13 ,(J) IIlnellS . .. ' l,210.OQ 14 ·1.9a (g) DODltstic wants 2,040.00 65.24 (h) Household cultivation" •. 70,010.00 59 3.94 0) Business run by the household 4,22~.00 1l 3.96 (J) LitiJlltion, etc_ 4,250.00 S T-otal 10,324.00 142 lOO~OO GLOSSARY Abadi . '. ." ' , ..'.Habi~tiol) Agrahayana .. The ninth month of .the. ,Hindu calepdar (Noyomber.D~" Asvina The fQurth ~th of ~e Hindu Calewar (June-l111y) BaIua SanQY:' Barat . . Marriage party Bejhar ,A~t.ure. of wheat,lll).d itam Bhusa .,_" ... , j. ':" ,,'~~ff Bidi An indigenous cigarette wrapped in leaf Churail Witch Dai Midwife Dupatta . . A kind of long scarf Ella A two-wheeled horse-drawn carriage Gangajal Water of the Ganges Ghara A pitcher . Girh-pravesh House warming ceremony Gulal Red-oxide Gur Jaggery Hakim A practitioner in Unani medicines Harira A preparation of gur and spices cooked in pee Hookah Hubble-bubble Jhula Swing Jowar A variety of millet (HoicUJ Sorghum) Kachcha road Unmetalled road Kapal-kriya Skull-breaking ceremony of the dead body Kartika Eighth month of the Hindu calendar (October-November) Karva A small earthen pot Katha A religious story Khatia A wooden cot Kolhu A bullock-driven oil expeller Kothri A small room Lehanga A voluminous pleated skirt extending up to the ankles Lathi Bamboo stick LlUlgi Loin cloth .. SADHAaANSAI. Mandap •• Canopy Mantras .. ."" Hymn Nahan - e.' •• Bath •• Phalguna ...... Twelfth month of the Hindu calendar (February-March) Puja .o. Worship in tM tra4tional Hindu way JwdaIl •• ..,. Veil Shramdan •• ~. •• Voluntary labour Shukul paksha •• • • Moon-lit fortnigllt Tikti .. ., Coffin Tulsi SWeet basil (OcyMum..sa1ltetum) Vaidya A practitioner in Ayvvcdic medic.bt.· LIST OF VILLAGES SELEOTED FOR SOClo-EcoNOMIC SURVEY District Tahsil Village 1. Uttarkashi Dunda Birpur 2. Pithoragarh Munsiari Ghorpatta Malla Darkot 3. Pilibhit Bisalpur Daulatpur Hira 4. Garhwal Pauri Thapli 5. Almora Ranikhet Bijepur 6. Bijnor Bijnor Rafiulnagar urf Raoli Mughalpura 7. Budaun Bisuali Mirzapur Behta Budaun Kachla Pukhta 8. Bareilly Nawabganj Adhkata Rabbani Begam Barkhan 9. Dehra Dun Chakrata Dhaura Chapnu Sarari 10. Saharanpur Deoband Sadharansar Bilaspur 11. Aligarh Atrauli Barauli 12. Mathura Sadabad Nagla Beru 13. Agra Kheragarh Beri Chahar Etmadpur Chawli Bah Pidhaura 14. Etah lalesar Baghai 15. Etawah Etawah Udi Auraiya Ayana 16. Kanpur Kanpur Ishuriganj 17. Allahabad Soraon Sarai Kesho urf Bagi Kalyanpur Phulpur Bhadkar Uparhar 18. Hamirpur Rath Qasba Khera 46 SAollARANSAR District Tahsil Village 19. Banda Naraini Akbarpur 20. Kheri Nighasan Belapersua Bankati Lodhuari Rakehti 21. Sitapur Biswan Kanduni 22. Gonda Balrampur Suganagar Domri Rajederwa Tharu 23. Bara Banki Nawabganj Gadia Dadra 24. Sultanpur Sultanpur Barasin 25. Azamgarh Phulpur Sumbhadih Surhan Ghosi Parki Buzurg 26. Ghazipur Ghazipur Para 27. Varanasi Varanasi Lohta Mehndiganj 28. Mirzapur Robertsganj Mitapur Gidhia Parsoi PSUP-AP. 12 Census-1965. 850. (M).