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Women in Diplomacy in Late Eighteenth-Century Istanbul

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Women in Diplomacy in Late Eighteenth-Century Istanbul The Historical Journal (2021), 1–23 doi:10.1017/S0018246X21000479 ARTICLE Women in Diplomacy in Late Eighteenth-Century Istanbul David Do Paço Department of History, Columbia University, New York, USA, and Centre d’Histoire de Sciences Po, Sciences Po, Paris, France Email: [email protected] Abstract This article identifies the different roles played by women in the diplomatic corps of the Pera embassies of Christian-ruled states. It focuses on women operating in and from the Habsburg embassy during the last two decades of the eighteenth century, a period marked by the revolutionary wars and the beginning of the ‘Eastern Question’. Using a microhistorical approach, this article analyses how women facilitated the embedding of individual members of the diplomatic corps in Pera’s diplomatic social scene, the social integration of young diplomats, and the development of the trans-imperial networks of influence upon which diplomats heavily depended. It shifts the focus from states to actors and invites a more systematic development of a diplomatic history based on networks of non-official agents, thus enabling an improved understanding of the family, social, and urban dynamics that led to the development of political elites. This article draws on a set of private sources and parish sources in order to emphasize the role of households in the diplomacy of empires, the agenda of women in the man- agement of patronage and power networks, and the diversity of their social affiliation. I When he paid a visit to Malta in 1809 as part of his Grand Tour, Lord Byron was spellbound by a twenty-seven-year-old woman whose portrait he painted for his mother. Born in Istanbul in 1782, Constance Spencer Smith was the daugh- ter of Baron Peter Herbert von Rathkeal, the imperial and royal Internuncio (title held by the representative of the emperor in Istanbul). She grew up in Istanbul, moving in diplomatic and commercial circles. Due to the different socio-cultural legacies that Constance embodied, she belonged not only to the nobility of the Holy Roman Empire, but also to that of the Habsburg empire, as well as the British nobility. In addition, she had origins in both the Jacobite and Albanian diasporas. Prior to becoming the object of Byron’s fascination, Constance was already a highly sought-after young woman. © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press. This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution licence (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted re-use, distribution and reproduction, provided the original article is properly cited. Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 170.106.33.42, on 28 Sep 2021 at 08:41:12, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0018246X21000479 2 David Do Paço Initially promised to a wealthy Levantine family in Santorini, aged sixteen and just a few weeks after Napoleon Bonaparte’s invasion of Egypt, she married John Spencer Smith, the British chargé d’affaires to the Ottoman empire. This alliance embodied the reconfiguration of the geopolitical balance in the east- ern Mediterranean, which had been disrupted by the French Revolution and the ambitions of the Romanov empire in the Black Sea and the Middle East. Women played an active role in this process of reconfiguration. During the war, Constance pooled the diplomatic resources of the Habsburg and British embassies in Istanbul, negotiating the liberation of prisoners of war, and took over the patronage offered by her father to orientalist scholars such as Thomas Chabert and Joseph Hammer von Purgstall (Hammer), whom he con- sidered to be his protégés. From 1802 onwards, Constance accompanied her husband in the various diplomatic positions he obtained, her involvement being so extensive that Napoleon I accused her of espionage and proclaimed her an enemy. Constance was arrested, and her eventual release generated sig- nificant diplomatic tensions, which resulted in her taking refuge in Vienna in the 1810s. She continued to operate within Vienna’s business, diplomatic, and literary spheres, and pursued the promotion of her father’s former protégés, in particular Hammer, with whom she had been friends as a teenager in Istanbul. Constance’s life path invites us to re-examine the place of women in Istanbul’s diplomatic circles at the beginning of the ‘Eastern Question’. Her life exempli- fies the behind-the-scenes contribution that women from Pera made to diplo- macy at the cusp of the nineteenth century. By exploring the social and political life of women in Pera in the last two decades of the eighteenth cen- tury, this article also highlights the role of informal actors in the foreign policy of empires. It underlines the urban dimension of ancien régime diplomacy and focuses on the local resources used by women in Pera’s diplomatic society to develop their influence, to promote their clients, and to support or challenge official agents. It also contributes to the study of trans-imperial agents through research on the history of the family, an approach that has brought to light the role of women in the development of powerful intercultural regional networks. Besides, this article is the history of domestic life, sexuality, and the politics of the intimate. It reveals the sexual and emotional liberty of the young women in the Habsburg and Ottoman empires and explores the different dimensions of their polyamorous and pansexual life, a history of libertinism from the perspective of women in a cross-cultural context.1 Women’s history has been making a significant contribution to the development of the new diplomatic history that reassesses the contribution of non-official agents.2 Non-official agents circulated between courts, cities, 1 Guillaume-Stanislas Trébutien, Notice necrologigue sur Madame Constance Spencer Smith, née Baronne de Herbert Rathkeal (Caen, 1829). See also Revue encyclopédique, ou Analyse raisonnée des pro- ductions les plus remarquables, XLI (Paris, 1829), pp. 816–19; Friedrich Edler von Kraelitz-Greifenhorst, ‘Rathkeal, Peter Philipp Herbert, Freiherr von’, in Historischen Kommission bei der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, ed., Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (56 vols. Leipzig, 1907), LIII, pp. 210–15. 2 Among the essential contributions in early modern history: Christian Windler, ‘Diplomatic his- tory as a field for cultural analysis: Muslim–Christian relations in Tunis, 1700–1840’, Historical Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 170.106.33.42, on 28 Sep 2021 at 08:41:12, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0018246X21000479 The Historical Journal 3 and empires and were mobilized occasionally or continuously by diplomatic delegations, ruling houses, and princes.3 Their activities question the given idea of a professionalization of diplomacy in the eighteenth century. Numerous studies have, over the last decades, brought to light and analysed the private networks on which official diplomats (ambassadors, ministers, plenipotentiaries, or envoys) relied to establish their influence and carry out negotiations. Within these networks, women have emerged as essential to the maintenance of daily political sociability, the production and circulation of information, the economic management of embassies, and even to political negotiation. As Florian Kühnel recently pointed out, ‘early modern diplomacy clearly depended to a large extent on the participation of women’.4 It is no longer possible today to define the women moving in diplomatic circles only in relation to the men around them.5 This article explores the involvement of three generations of women in diplomacy in the Habsburg, British, and Ottoman empires. Such inquiry allows a better understanding of the deep pro- cess of pacification of relations between Vienna and Istanbul and the inter- dependence of the two empires that was gradually established from 1699. The women of the Palais d’Allemagne – the name given to the Habsburg embassy in Pera – helped to increase the influence of the Habsburgs in the eastern Mediterranean. In Istanbul, from the 1780s onwards, they contributed to the Journal, 44 (2001), pp. 79–106; Hillard von Thiesse, ‘Diplomatie vom type ancien: Überlegungen zu einem Idealtypus des frühneuzeitlichen Gesandschaftswesens’, in Hillard von Thiessen and Christian Windler, eds., Akteure der Außenbeziehungen: Netwerke und Interkulturalität im historischen Wandel (Cologne, Vienna, and Weimar, 2010), pp. 471–504; Eva Dade, Madame de Pompadour: Die Mätresse und die Diplomatie (Cologne, Vienna, and Weimar, 2010); Journal of Early Modern History, 19 (2015/1–2); Jan Hennings and Tracey Sowerby, eds., Practices of diplomacy in the early modern world (London and New York, NY, 2018). See also Karl W. Schweizer and Matt J. Schumann, ‘The revitalization of diplomatic history: renewed reflections’, International History Review, 19 (2008), pp. 149–86; Lucien Bély, La société des princes: XVIe–XVIIIe siècle (Paris, 1999); and Lucien Bély, Espions et ambassadeurs au temps de Louis XIV (Paris, 1990). 3 Karin Aggestam and Ann Towns, ‘The gender turn in diplomacy: a new research agenda’, International Feminist Journal of Politics, 21 (2019), pp. 9–28; Dorothea Nolde, ‘Was ist Diplomatie und wenn ja, wie viele? Herausforderungen und Perspektiven einer Geschlechtergeschichte der frühneuzeitlichen
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