of the Sherpa Buddhist pilgrimage 10 HaIase, focussing primarily on Iwo questions:
I. The Subjecl of Ihis Paper The Sherpas are an ethnically Tibetan group in northeast Nepal, the majority of whom live al high altiludes in the valleys of Solukhumbu region. Nowadays il seems 10 be a well established facl within the scientific They trace their origin 10 a group of clans who had moved from Kharn in communily thaI Buddhist- as well as Hindu - pilgrimages may be studied as an northeastern Tibel due 10 conflicts with Mongolian invaders. This movement ancicnlsociorcligiolls institution sustaining asystcm of interrelated holy centers. carne to a hall when the Sherpas seuled in Khumbu, Pharak, and Solu in the lale In the case of Buddhism this system helps 10 bind IOgether diverse peoples of fIfteenth and the early sixteenth centuries] South and Central Asia. According 10 the resullS of the last decade of empirical research as well as in theoretical discourse, pilgrimages, represenl a distinct kind The distinctiveness of Sherpas in relation 10 other ethnic groups of of ritual performance with a broad range of conesponding processes of social Tibetan slOCkis well established4 Cullurally, however, the Sherpas are Tibetan. interaction. Their way of life is in most respeclS Tibetan; they speak a Tibetan dialect; and as adherenlS 10 the unreformed Nyingmapa order their whole lives are deeply Halase in Eastern Nepal is a popular pilgrimage quest for Hindus and embedded in Tibetan Buddhism. Sherpa pilgrimage can only be understood in Buddhistalike. 11is charncteri7.Cd by an almostcomplele lack of instilutionalized the contexI of the Buddhist texlual tradition and the Nyingmapa in particular5 formal religious structures. That specific condition endows this sacred center This implies thaI existing knowledge as 10 how 10 encounter the gods and wiLh iLSvery distinctiveness. Apart from thcsecircumstances it is worth mentioning goddesses associated with a holy center and whallO expecl from a pilgrimage to thaI slill loday there seems 10 be very liltle known concerning Halase and the this site, which kind of rituals to be performed in a distinct sequence and which diverse pilgrimages eonnected with this holy locale. 2 prayers 10 be recited there is, alleast basically, guided by specific texts. The ordinary laypeople whom I w""" mainly travelling IOgether with revealed a In Ihis paper I am nOltrying 10 find a means of generalizing on thealmosl varying degree of 'previous' knwoledge aboul HaJasc and the mythology worldwide phenomenon of pilgrimage by invesligating a specific case. Rather, connected with this place of pilgrimage; in other words they were informed I am 'exploring the various aspeclS of a specific case of pilgrimage in order 10 somehow,either byconversation with those who hadbeen there beforeor by own illuminate iL' particularity: the Sherpa pilgrimage 10 Halase on occasion of experienceancVor by the books themselves usually medialed by a lama or a monk. '[asar', Ihe Tibetan New Ycar Festival.
Thus this paper is an examinalion of the diverse ways Sherpa Buddhist pilgrims united within one single religious tradition approach and 'appropriate' ID. Why the Buddhist Sherpas Use 10 Go on Pilgrimage a holy place which they share nO\ only with each other bUI also WIth dIverse 'To gain' or 'toaecumulale merit' was the usual answer 10 all my questions groupings of Hindu devotees. Accordingly, il aims al exploring various aspects relating 10 the central problem of what makes the Sherpa individual decide upon
124 125 OccasiooaJ Papers in Soc;ology and Anlhropology, Volume 4 (1994) going on a pilgrimage6 This seems to be the key metaphor not only in Sherpa clearly add more inner-worldly ones easily summarized as the wish for health, Buddhist society which morally guides the individual's acting7 Thus without a wealth. and progeny. Yet there is also a wholly differentaspect involved lending clear ideaof this concept of 'merit' which among the Sherpas - as well as among its distinct flavour to the individual's pilgrimageexperience. During thepilgrimage other Buddhist peoples - also represents the crucial motivation for going on process there is much to be seen on the way, many people to be mel, and there pilgrimage an adequate understanding of this particular form of socioreligious are many teastalls by the roadoffering alsorakshiand ·chang'. Andon the margin process cannot be reached. of the holy center there is usually a bazaar with a range of goods, however limited, coming from as far as India and/or Tibet. And there can be found The acquisition of 'merit' (Sherpa 'sanam', meaning 'good karma) at an numerous teastalls, representing an important 'profane' social arena in elose individual level is a constant theme of Sherpa life, as it is with Tibetans and also association with the realm ofsacred space. Atthose teastalls manyofthe pilgrims with Theravada Buddhists in Burma and Thailand. According to Buddhist present, especially the younger people, like to spend the whole night drinking. tradition the accumulation of 'merit' through performing good actions such as singing. and dancing. Thus. in most cases pilgrimage seems to constiWle a financial donations to monasteries and lamas, becoming a monk, giving food to particular space of time which usually is experienced by the laypilgrim both as lamas and monks and avoiding bad actions is the primary religious duty specified 'holy day' and as 'holiday'. Accordingly,the motifoftheavcrage Sherpafor going for the laypeople. The building up of merit is thought to counteract the efffects on a pilgrimage usually is of dual character though when being questioned the of sinful deeds committed and to ensure a happier rebirth8 According to my answer usually omits the fascination of this very this social aspect of the informations the practice of certain religious activities among the Sherpas like pilgrimage process. going on pilgrimage aim at both accumulating merit for the future life as well as gaining benefits in this world; in other words it comprises inner-worldly motives IV. The Setting of the Holy Place of Halase and those transcending the constraints of this world. Halase is a holy place in Eastern Nepal visited by Hindu and Buddhist Lamas, monks, and nuns as well as Iaypcoplc can acquire merit by devotces alike. This important place ofpilgrimage is situated in Kholang District prayers. by recitation of scriptures, by putting up prayer flags, by moving the in the hills south-east ofOkhaldhunga at about one long day's walking distance. prayer wheels, by offering buuer lamps and burning incense before the temple Not unimportantly its exact location is just alongside the main trade-route images, by prostrations, by making repeated circumambulations of religious connecting Kalari Bazaar in the south with Bhojpur via Diktel village. buildingsand by many other ritual performances. Laypcoplccan alsoaccumulate merit by giving alms to the poor. Highly valued arc such acts as building bridges It is the dramatic natural setting - a hill covered with trees consisting of and rest-houses, mediating as peace-maker. Even more respected ways of two uninterrelated limestone caves - which gives this pilgrimage locale its very gaining merit consist in giving gifts to lamas, monks. and nuns. It is particularly distinctive character. There is only one formal (Hindu) shrine but no statues meritorious, however, to give donations for the support of a monastery and for within a setting ofwondcrous anden igmatic natural formations lending themselves the construction or repair of religious buildings such as temples, shrines, 'mani to impose arious meaningson them. walls' and 'chonen' (Sherpa 'SIUPO'; circular edifices containing religious relics). The bulk of the numerous Hindu pilgrims visiting Halasc is made up of All those acts arc regarded as meritorious because of their benefit to the caste-groups such as Brahmin and Chhelri as well as ethnic hills-people such as community as a whole. One of the foremost important modes to gain merit in Rai, Lumbu, and Magar. According to my informations this place of pilgrimage Sherpa society. however, consists in going on a pilgrimage. But even this way is visited four times a year by Hindus (at Bala Chalurdasi, atRamNavami, at Tij of gaining merit individually produces some sort of 'benefit' to the whole of the and at Sivara/ri9 - which I witnessed twice on March 2nd 1992 and on February 19th. 1993. And it is interesting that Halase is regarded by the Hindu villagers local community. of the area (predominantly Rai, others are Brahmin and Chhetri) as their most lO As will be shown, however, the act of going on a pilgrimage does not popular site of pilgrimage to be visited on occasion of the big jalras. As to represent a wholly religious affair. To the Buddhist motifof accumulating merit Hindu pilgrims the catchment area of Halase seems to consist of a wide area
126 127 including !he foothiUs as well as the lowlands of !he Terai. geological nature. Of central importance here is a specific combination of the geological characteristics of an enormous stalactite cave and selected 11le same place is the holy center ofa pilgrimage by Tibetans as well as mythologemes which are interpreted by the informed pilgrim according 10 the by Tamang and Sherpa Buddhists from Solukhumbu who use 10 ga!her there oral and written - traditions legitimating, encouraging, necessitating the socio oncea year - usually in February - on the occasion ofLosar, the Tibetan as well religious practice of a pilgrimage. as !he Sherpa New Year. The Tibetan population of !he Dingri area just north of Khumbu and Sagannalila traditionally have had close economic ties wi!h According 10 the differing religious traditions concerning the holy center Solukhumbu, Ka!hmandu Valley, and the sou!hern lowlands. Apart from regular of Halase Hindus and Buddhists hold true different versions considering the uading ventures !he population of Dingri and the Sherpas of Solukhumbu used mythological origin of the holy place in question. In each religious system this 10share particular pilgrimages like !hat 10 Halase in !he sou!h or north 10TSibn pilgrimage site is associated with a specific mainfestation of the divine. Those in !he Dongn regIon. II enigmatic and wonderous geological creations 10 be found in HaIase are regarded in mythology as manifestations of gods and - in !he caseof Buddhists On the margin of !his sacred space !here is located a bazaar of regional - of goddesses having spent some of their time !here for meditation in retreat importance being held not only on occasion of a pilgrimage but also weekly on every monday. Apart from food and drinks such as tea and locally brewed For Hindus Halese is an important place of pilgrimage because of the alcohol - but nei!her imported beer nor 'coke' and !he like - !his market olfers a famous shrine of Mahadev 13 which is situated at the botlOm of the cave. variety of goods especially from !he Terai and northern India 10pilgrims and to Mahadev is said to have manifested himself here in the form ofa natural 'lingo' the local population. Due 10!hese various aspects, !he pilgrimages 10Halase four being nowadays enshrined. It must be mentioned !hat in the spatialcontestof the times a year give!his holy place a distinct and very complex social organization. sacred cave this shrine represents !he only man-made religious structure.
It must be mentioned in !hiscontex!, however,!ha!, unlike !hose holy sites Among Buddhists !he sacred center ofHaIase is known as Maratikacave. in remote areas connected wi!h mountain peaks and glacier lakes regarded as !he Most of the Buddhist pilgrims questioned concerning the mythic origin of this seat as well as the physical representation of !he regional proleCtive deities, sacred locale refer 10 Maratika cave as the site where the famous tantric sage Halase is not difficult 10reach. For Hindus coming from !he Terai and the whole Guru Padmasarnbhava once had stayed at for retreat before making his way up sou!heastern part of Nepal and for Buddhist pilgrims from Solukhumbu the to Tibet14 in his pursuit to introduce Buddhism there. Its distinct sacredness, uavellOthis holy place involvesajourneyon fOOlofbetween four and eightdays however, is due 10the following legend which seems 10transcend the knowledge 10 reach there and return home. Khumbu Sherpas on pilgrimage to Maratikacave ofthe average la~ple.Buddhist tradition holds true lilat Guru Padmasarnbhava usually follow theaxisofthe Dudh Kosi valley rcmaining on its east sidc for most and Mandarava, S!he Indian princess from Mandi and one ofhis main consorts, of the journey. Solu Shcrpas and Tibetans from the Chalsa refugee settlement, had practiced and mastered !helong life practicecalled 'cedrub gondus'('the union on the other hand, reach this sacred locale via Okhaldhunga. of primordial essence') IOgether at this unique cave site. 16 Thus, this holy site is important to the adherents ofNyingrnapa Buddhists in !hat it is illustrative of Still today there seems 10be known only very little concerning Halase and a crucial part in the life of Guru Padmasarnbhava and his famous consort !hedifferent pilgrimagesconnecterl with this pilgrimagecenter. As the pilgrimage Mandarava. The aura of holiness which emanated from the legendary presence 10 Halase as well as !he holy place itself have until now been almost completely ofthe mythical culture hero and this dakini and the specifIC practices performed ignored by seientific researches, there eXIst.Ion y r'lew wntten comments.12 there has been transmuted into a spatial sacredness anchored in this place and sanctified by their presence. V. Mythic Origins of Maratika Cave at Halase Those deities are to be revered according 10a specific time-schedule by Apart from the my!hical stories connected with a holy place and its origin presentingofferings, prayers, performingpoojas, and - in the caseofthe Buddhist an important fealUre of a sacred center usually is represented by Its specIfic pilgrims - by circumambulating this holy inner center as well as the whole hill.
128 129 By journeying to this powerful sacred center, by offering gifts to these deities, make the two and a half days' travel to Maratika cave on horseback. His nicely and by performing ceruin ritual practices there pilgrims oblain the realization of decorated horse had to be led all the way by one of the his male relatives. Without their very individual goal. any doubt travelling in this area under these eireumslance must be a very uncomfonable IaSk. What can they expect from going on pilgrimage to Maratika cave? According to the texts it seems to guarantee fairly much to the devote pilgrim. Ifthey can manage, Sherpa pilgrims to Halase spend a night ata relative's Alexander MacDonald (p.9) cites a guide-book copied, translated and presented house. But due to the fact that one has to spend at least two nights outside by Barbara Aziz specifying the panieular merit to be gained at halase. There she Solukhumbu before rcaching the pilgrim's goal most of the groups encountered writes: "As soon as one visits this sacred place Ha-la-shes, one is assured of not on the road Slayed out over night They preferred sites suilable to the needs of being reborn in one of the bad rcalms. As soon as one hears (of its vinues), one being on the road where they could camp, cook their own food carried all theway, is purified from the five sinful acts and pollutions." - Apan from this it should and Slay for themselves WIthout disturbances arising from 'outside'. It seemed to be kept in mind that the framework of the investigation presented here focussing be a remarkable feature ofall Sherpa pilgrimage groupings I encountered in this upon Sherpa Buddhist ritual practices during a specific pilgrimage has to deal context that they were very well organized for those purposes. Thusdeliberately with the fact that the 'setting' of Halase as a holy place of pilgrimage comprises aVOIding the overly spending ofmoney Sherpa pilgrimage to Maratika cavedoes two - Buddhist and Hindu - realities. not seem lO necessitate any considerable financial resources nor does it involve any minutious preparations beforehand of any sort. The specific way of their VI. Sherpa Pilgrims on Ihe Road 10 Maralika Cave acting as pIlgrIms on the road, however, resulted also in a social effectofanother son: communication with people ofdiverse origin other than Sherpa meton their The majority of the Sherpas on pilgrimage to Halase I encountered were way.to the holy center like poners, traders, local villagers etc. seemed to be travelling in fairly large groupings. In most cases wimessed, these groupings restncted to astriking minimum. Apan from teastalls there did not appear much consisted of both sexes and members of the three generations. They comprised realm for SOCIalinteraction with other people on the way, and even these shon betwecn eight and twentyone people. Usually the pilgrims ofonegrouping were moments of trying to relate to others seemed to be diclated predominantly by not only bound together by a shared purpose but also by affinal relations and by necessIty. By contrast, Intra-group communication seemed to be all the more the same locality. Sometimes a group of pilgrims included also an individual's lively. It was generally characterized by a continuous flux of merry Ialking personal friend. Sherpas slaning out as singles very often join a group in the among the diverse sub-groupings usually emerging on the road either by course of their peregrination. Another striking aspect was that very often these conscious acting or just accidentally. groupings were lacking Sherpamen of the middle generation. Usually those Sherpa men of middle age were hindered from laking pan in this social event due The track from Solukhumbu to Halase neither provides a great menial nor to their diverse obligations in the trekking business. a great physical challenge to Sherpa pilgrims. Neither are there dangerousgorges and difficult high passes nor arc there any religious buildings like temples or Occasionally a group of Sherpa pilgrims was accompanied by a monk monasteries to be visited by the road. Coming from Solu there is only one pass and/or a nun who were also relatives. Without any doubt their presence in the of about 2,800 m height to be traversed. To mounlain people whose life-style group provided some spiritual touch. But in no case I wi messed any kind of since several centuries has been well-adapted to high altitude areas this small spiritual leadership of a Sherpa pilgrimage grouping. pass docs not pose any serious problem. Apan from these circumslances the fair weather around '{osar' makes the pilgrimage to Halasc an enjoyable journey, Sometimessick people travel amidst their relatives to a holy place hoping for being cured by this venture. This seems to represent another albeit only The only situation where for a shon period a serious individual 'crisis' occasional fcature ofa pilgrimage. For example, on my firstjoumcy to Halase beeame manifest arose while crossing the Dudh Kosi by a small canoe. This onoccasion of '{osar'I992, I met a big group ofsixteen pcoplefrom Goli in Solu. shaky means of transponation across unknown waters and tricky currents could One of the male members was a very old man who due to some sickness had to only lake up to six people including luggage at the time. While waiting for one's
130 131 own term to come and watching their fellow pilgrims handling this seemingly caves. Theone caveof about 120 m.length situated at the bouom of the hill does unknown and dangerous crossing by boat the usual way of laughing and merry not seem 10 be of much imporUlnce neither 10 Buddhists nor 10 the Hindus UlIlcing became tinged with a slight nervous overtone. For the duration of this prescnt Only at three minor siles in the dark few burning candles. bullet lamps, undertaking especially oldpeopleboth men and women used 10praycontinuously and incense testified that poojas must be held here. I personally wilnesssed and 10 snap drops of water with their ring-finger over the head as if they were mostly visilOrli curiously discovering the site like visitors of a museum do. Irying10 appease the unknown powers of this river. This seemed to represent an Beforeentering this cave one has to blow inlO a small hole in the rock on the left encounter characterized by an obvious breakdown of the routine guiding the side which results in a deep sound resembling, for example, that of a conch-shell individual's acting in everyday-life. used in Buddhist gompa rituals. At its end there is a platform which looking upwards gives way 10 the sight of the blue sky through an enormous hole in the Yet the crossing of the Dudh Kosi by means of a small shaky canoe 'ceiling' of this cave. One its one side there are a few 'om mani padme hum' represents the only obsUlcle on the way 10 Halase which to overcome Sherpas including a stupa engraved in the rock. lraditionally do not seem 10be accustomed 10. And apr! from this the movement of tI!eSherpa pilgrims across the landscape to Halase docs not seem 10 evolve From the bottom of the hill the pilgrim proceeds by way of a within a symbolically charged realm. By comparison with, for example, the circumambulation of the holy center spirally upwaros 10 its very lOp decorated pilgrimages within the Dolpoarca, as reported by CorncilleJcs~1 7 the movement by many coloured Buddhist prayer nags. of the Sherpa pilgrim groupings encountered on the way from Solu to Halase does not sccm 10 be strongly ritualized. On this hili-lOP there is a small gompa. According 10 various information gathered at the localilyl8 this gompa is only about 13 years old (and its VB. Approaching the Holy Site construction had seemingly caused strong connicts within the - Hindu - village community leading even to an attempllO demolish it). Nowadays the lama is the The way to Halasc I was travelling IOgether with a Sherpa pilgrimage owncrofthe whole hill. He has prohibited hunting and thecuuing of trees on this grouping from Ringmo in Solu. Their group consisted of seven women, four of terrain. Currently he intends among other projects 10 build a new and bigger whom of old age, three of them young, Iwo of which married including a small gompa including a pilgrim's gucsthouse with the financial supportboth of widely kid each and four men, thrcc old and one only young man married with one of respected high TibeUlO lamas and of Westerners. Thus the recenl Buddhist the young women. activities at HaIasc initiated by Tshopel Lama provide an illuminating example of the significant processes of Buddhist revitalization 10be witnessed currently The hills around Hala.. are steep. This notwithSUlOding the lerrain docs nOl only within the realm of Nepal but also in Sri Lanka, Thailand, Taiwan, notposeany serious problems 10 people whoare accuslOmed 10 travel extensively Japan, and in some Western countries. on foot. However, the sight of the impoverished red and ochre soil and, due 10 its barrenness, the peor vegeUltion of Ihe whole region was striking nOl only 10 We arrived at this hill-top shortly before sun-set on the night before me. Shivaralri. OrienUltion al the place was not difficult even 10 those who had arrived for the first time. A steady now of several hundreds of Hindu devotees The final approach 10 the sacred cenler of Halase is signalled 10 the back and forth through the gate right next 10 the gompa strung with bronze bells pilgrim by a hill densely covered by trccs. Already al some disUlOce lhe gazing clearly indicated the pilgrims' goal albeit hitherto still being invisible. eye recognizes that this hill is one of lhe very few forested hills in Ihe whole region. This landmark is the more obvious as many of the trees covering the hill A perlional impression may suffice 10 convey an idea of the specific top are decorated by countless coloured prayer-nags heralding Maratikacave to atmosphere reigning down there among the (Hindu-) pilgrims gathered in pilgrims as well as 10 travellerli already from afar. combination with the impressive size of Maratika cave. After ringing the numerous bells we passed through this gate. At the threshold the conSUlnt sound The holy center is represented by this hill eonsisling of two un interrelated of these bells met with thick clouds of incense in combination with a loud mix
132 133 of human voices andofthe high-pitched screaming of thousands ofbats coming reminding of the huge gathering of Hindu pilgrims in the night before Now it up in waves from a dark pit was urne for those Buddhist pilgrims already present to discover the in;";orof the h~lycave. ThIs was usually done not individually but in those ial From here one has to proceed on fairly newly built greyish stepS made of ~=~;=ousparticipants had formed when leaving for a pilgrima: In cernenton the way down, the goal being still invisible (formerly these steps were . .. thosesocial groupmgs consisLCdofparts ofan extended famil black stone slCpScarved into the hillside, some experienced pilgrims told me). and/or of IndIviduals belonging \0 the same locality. Y Continuing the downward climb it becomes increasingly dark. This creaLeSthe impression of descending inlOa well but the goal remains still out of sight. All Those.diverse social groupings kepton dropping in to Halasein thecourse of a sudden, as if by shere magic, one is able to realize that one has reached ofthe followmg two days. The number of participanls over the days of festival something like a platform which constitutes the noor of an enormous cave. In was m constant nux.. This phenomenon seems to be a central feature of pllgrunage events makmg any 'exact' counting of those pl'lgrun' size this cave equals a huge hall or audilOrium. .fi . .. s present at one specl ICSiteor of all the pllgnms during a specifIC pilgrimage a difficult if not As mentioned before I visiLCdthis site on the night of Shiyaratri in the an ImpossIble task. Some participanls had several days to spend there, whereas company of the group of Sherpa pilgrims from Ringmo. Some hundreds of othersonly came for the length ofone or two nights beforerewming home ain festively dressed Hindu pilgrims had assembled there for the night in order 10be Their malO 31m was to visit the holy site and to spend some time th~f~ in closest contact with the veneraLCddeity. ObYiously seyeral groups had come rehglOus purposes: To this of course, add some seemingly quite profane 10 Halase in the company of their own 'pujari'. The bouom of the caye was purposes hke enJoy109the vanous mundane offers in the local ba d . urnes of pilgrimage. zaarrun unng completely packed by the numerous and diyerse groupings chanting hymns, reciting prayers, burning incense, etc. There was hardly any room to move, but . .. Excessive drinking of rabhi and chang by men and women alike often nevertheless there was a constant coming and going of happily smiling and mVlung Sherpas from other groupings was a common lheme. Old people talking pilgrims. Many candles and fires were burning the names of which were especl3lly, both women and men appeared to be tough, happy, and controlled wowingnickering Bahun-<:hhetris, Limbusand Rais take part in this pilgrimage. drinkers. Usually they stuck to chang which traditionally is regarded as drink But in this situation the observing eye just being overwhelmed by the sight ofan only bemg consumed 10 the context of religious festivities. NOIinfrequently one immense mass ofgaily interacting - within their group, at least - and very nicely could encounter an aged person who probably had gOlimport3llCe for a while dressed pilgrims was not capable of making out the many differences (ethnic, bemg led by a young kId to the nexI place of importance for the grou in he linguistic, gender and age) which set them apart from each other in normal she belonged to. p g or everyday life. Apart from circumambulating the whole mounlain, the interior ofMaratika It lOOkus quite a while to make our way as curious visilOrs down 10the cav~seems to be ofspecial interest to the Sherpa pilgrims observed on the spot. bouom ofthe cave. But due to the mass congregation ofHindu pilgrims inclosest It IS dISCOvered'on one of the days before wsw' in order 10perform paojas, 10 proximity of the veneraLCddeitywe finally had to rewrn up again. -This and the recIte sacred formulas, and to direel prayers individually \0 the deities connecLCd following two nights we slept in the courtyard of the house ofa widely respecLCd ":Ith the holy locale. Through the sacred realm the pilgrims move accoding 10an old Brahmin widow in the vicinity of Maratikacave. Other places where Sherpa runecary arranged to reneet upon the power of Buddhism and the venerated pilgrims use 10spend the night during their stay at Halase are in or around the derues, the surmount obstacles, and to test and 10prove he strength of their faith. gompa or on a small strip of terraced field on the other side of the bazaar on the Down there il is black and damp and il takes a while until in this dimly IiI bouom of the hill which was used as camping ground. place the eye ISable to provide usual visual orientation. The intense smell of On the morning of the following day all the Hindu pilgrims who had waves of mcense and the ~ueaki~gsounds of thousands of bals high above gathered at the bouom of this cave for thaI one night had left the holy site. Apart underneath the Impressive ceilIng of this site add more specifIC navor to the from several big heaps of garbage already piled up there were no remnants Important gathering.
134 135 Inthiscontextorientation in the process ofpersonal discovery isexuemely through this sacred space and interpret the meaning of Maratika cave thus difficult On the one hand one rarely gets a clear overview over the whole controllmgthe.performance of the diverse riUJals held there. In consequ"';cc of strueture of the holy cave because of its various specific geological formations this lack of InsUlUUonahzed religIOUSpower the pilgrims are largely free to w' ld • if one tries to takepholos one object usually hides many others. On the other therr own power to . uaI . Ie . pursue nt pracuces according to theirown designs (which hand while discovering this only dimly lit site there are so many instances to were,ofcourse, mformed by the official discourseand its prescribed procedures): distraet thegaze of theobserving eye. As everything was new to the wholegroup of Sherpas I was travelling with - but not to me -I observed that everyone for a In most cases wimessed onecould see individuals standing in front ofone short but interesting moment seemed to encounter the same difficulties in of the vanous rock formatIons who were deeply involved in the.ir own prayers exploring this wholly unknown terrain. Finding ourselves finally down tllere in and prostrations. While praying and prostrating the touching of those natural our group of pilgrimage among several other sherpa groups everyone of us formauons WIth the... body repeatedly, especially with hands and head see ed seemed to sense just a very short moment of insecurity as to what to do now, to be an essential feature of the rituals performed here individually. M~w~ile where to start the innercircumambulation, in which sequential order the various the other members of tlle pilgrim's group stood waiting for their own term to important places are to be visited etc. - This individually felt disorientation begIn WIth. Pi,l8Oms could be observed chatting gaily and watching curiously occured for a short time until the eye got adapted to the dim light. It seems to be otherpll8Oms ways of handling theobsl8c1ecourses to come. Butone couldalso noteworthy in that itrepresents an essential feature of what in tlle realm of current observe IndIVIduals In deep contemplation. theoretical discourse drawing considerably on tlle worle of the Belgian folkloirst Arnold van Gennep isconsidered as a ',ite de passage': According tovan Gennep Some of the young Sherpani seem to be very keen upon getting hold of the whole of the socia-religious process of pilgrimage represents one of the oneof the sparsely water-drops falling onto the '/inga'. We made our various foremost important examples of a ',ite de passage'. ObeisanCes and proceeded to explore and identify important points of the Halase cave. Each rock seemed to enjoy a distinctive identity and to all of them was That short momentof individually felt insecurity did not last long. Many aunbuted some degree of sanctity. The Hindu sadhu as well as pilgrims of other corners of the cavern were dark and obscured. The central area and most of tlle groups kIndly InVIted us to test thestrengt!l ofour faith by auempting tlleobsl8c1e sacredspots, however, were fairly well illuminated by tlle countless butter lamps courses - another central characteristic of not only this pilgrimage place _in this and was candles being offered by pilgrims. Looking around one's gaze met witll arena. Thus we had to squeeze our bodies on two occasions between two the same disoriented gaze of fellow pilgrims, and in doing so everyone of us staJagmlleplllars only about ten inches apan; on two other occasions we had to immediately realized other groupings present already being in tlle midst of tlle dIsappear Into a small hole in the ground and to creep tllrough this in order to practice of circumambulating tlle site. This finally provided the orientation reappear In another hole in the ground just a few meters aPart; and each of us had necessary as to know where to start from, whattodowhere,and where to end tllis to ascenda narrow ledge on the wall of the cave in order to enjoy the blessing of ritual practice. At this moment there were present only tllree groups of Sherpa the rehqUlary lodged there In the wall above. Ofsuch a kind were the various tests pilgrims, one Hindu family, one Hindu sadhu, and some playing children. The concernIng the pilgrim's strength of faith. sadhu seemed to enjoy fulfilling something like the role of a pilgrim's guide around the various sites on the bottom of the cave. He informed those present According to a learned monk sl8ying at the gompa all these different tests from a Hindu pointof view - on the history of the many strange stone formations result in creating an obvious division between heaven and hells, good and bad which make up the distinctive feature of this sacred center. andrehglOus and non-religious persons. It has to be mentioned, though, that the decISIon upon testing the strengt!l of one's faith by trying to squeeze oneself The groups clustered in several parts of theplatform. Each group engaged through the numerous obstacles at this site seems to bereached by the individual in performing their own rituals sticking to the prescribed sequence of pIl80m alone. Having been occupied in thiscontextpredominantly by participating circumambulation of the interior holy site in clockwise direction. It must be In those dIfferent tests thus representing a cause for permanent laughter among emphasized here that most of those rituals are not performedcollectively within the fellow plignms my capacity for observing at the same time was quite one's group. And there are no shrine officials who would guide the devotees restricted. Anyhow Idid not wimessany kind of'moral force' exercised either by
136 137
specific specific
willing willing
exception exception
seemed seemed
does does
of of
witnessing witnessing access access
integral integral
Here Here
dressed dressed
for for
the the
being being
corresponds corresponds
high high
something something
various various
only only
comes comes
one one
the the drinks drinks
opposing opposing selfish selfish
status status
of of
gompa. gompa.
Buddhist Buddhist
was was
to to
groupings. groupings.
women women
'communitas' 'communitas'
the the
take take
the the
social social
the the
diverse diverse
side side
status status
not not
no no
social social
Sherpas, Sherpas,
carried carried
religious religious
performance performance
The The
to to
at at
This This
Tibetan Tibetan
close close by by
social social
in in place place
The The
lama lama
to to
person person
interests. interests.
persons persons
part part
seem seem
But But
the the
space space
of of
of of
of of their their
pilgrimage pilgrimage
the the
oilforees forees social social
be be
wealthy wealthy
on on
for for
certain certain
interSpace interSpace
space space
pilgrims pilgrims
Usually Usually
paved paved
the the
climax climax
the the lO lO
gate gate
all all
the the
10 10 in in
to to
occasions occasions
of of
seemingly seemingly
eager"lo eager"lo
this this
their their
same same
especially especially
10 10
best best
can can
existing existing
for for
preside preside
consequence consequence
rituals rituals what what
the the
old old
undergo undergo
New New
or or
coin. coin.
the the
be be
occeasion occeasion
diverse diverse
within within
down down
By By
the the
practices practices
own own
by by
emerge emerge
yard yard
festive festive
way way
Sherpas Sherpas
of of
clearly clearly
people people
time. time.
this this
pilgrimage pilgrimage
present present
on on
V. V.
of of
doing doing
Year Year
certain certain
the the
wealthy wealthy
On On
do do
between between
performed performed
over over
I I
self·enactment self·enactment
down down
social social
like like
10 10 occasion occasion
in in
Turner Turner
witnessed witnessed
never never the the
the the
old old
is is
group group
those those
so. so.
clothes clothes
the the
groupings groupings
In In
the the
front front
connected connected
all- all-
delimited delimited for for
are are
usually usually
and and
realm realm
to to
solidarity solidarity
of of
so so
and and
ritual ritual
create create
'social' 'social'
of of
performances performances
to to
cave cave
other other
norms norms
todistributc todistributc
ending ending
the the
a a
the the
carefully carefully
the the
younger· younger·
the the
categori7.ed categori7.ed
of of
10 10
his his
this this
as as
tests tests
limited limited
young young
process. process.
of of
and and
at at
of of
in in
perform perform public public
the the
Sherpa Sherpa
a a
processes processes
realm realm
distributor distributor
as as
absence absence
'Iosar' 'Iosar'
for for
performed performed place place
rituals rituals hand hand
different different
whole whole
Maratika Maratika
the the
perform perform
in in
in in
in in
well well gay gay
of of
present. present.
with with gate gate
and and
138 138
but but
Sherpanis Sherpanis
reality reality
public. public.
this this
sacred sacred
selected. selected.
time time
on on individual individual
of of
members members
of of
the the
talks talks seems seems
The The
pilgrims. pilgrims.
food, food,
that that self-interest. self-interest.
of of
and and as as
a a
much much
in in
pilgrimage pilgrimage
due due
of of
context.ll context.ll
the the as as
festive festive
short short
contexts contexts
importanCe importanCe
to to
but but
their their
order order
taking taking
distribution distribution
cave cave
gains gains
final final
center center
those those
the the
'communi/as'. 'communi/as'.
among among
rectangular rectangular
that that This This
by by
'chang' 'chang' the the
'sacred' 'sacred'
10 10 10 10
This This
drinking drinking
that that
of of
dances dances
while while
gompa gompa
be be
the the
grave grave
of of
'r 'r
gompa gompa
pooja. pooja.
but but
Those Those
occasions occasions
kind kind
various various
merit merit
individuals individuals
place place
.dith. .dith.
which which
is is
the the
seems seems
whereon whereon
a a is is
the the
1= 1=
can can to to
and and
group group
they they
'communiw' 'communiw'
restricted restricted
and and
another another
bigpooja bigpooja
.ke .ke
a a
to to
illness illness
me me
at at
there there
as as
various various
of of social social offered offered
do do
After After
seems seems
only only
Sherpa Sherpa and and
home-brewed home-brewed
at at
are are
However, However,
night. night.
paved paved
lO lO
a a
groups groups
that that
well well are are
of of
public. public.
food food
But But
not not
hesitating hesitating
of of
constitute constitute
Halasc. Halasc.
represents represents
used used
special special
enacts enacts
seem seem
the the
be be
that that
in in
nevertheless nevertheless
Shepa Shepa
who who
of of
situation situation
seems seems Silu.ltion Silu.ltion
constitute constitute
10 10 And And
Sherpa Sherpa
this this
on on
only only
by by
communi communi
and and this this
space space
sensed sensed
small small
the the
join join
by by
Whereas Whereas
be be
there there
the the
some some
are are
10 10
during during and and
is is
this this
occasions occasions
Sherpas Sherpas
his his
with with
year year
'profane' 'profane'
the the
alcoholic alcoholic
pilgrims pilgrims
one one
to to
to to
together together
or or
only only
morning morning
co·exist co·exist
',akshi' ',akshi'
offered offered
giving giving
pilgrim pilgrim
wholly wholly
happen happen
Halase Halase Sherpa Sherpa
is is
status. status.
when when
which which
be be
or or
stage stage
non non
of of
of of
when when
there there
part part
ties. ties.
also also
the the
this this
her her
the the
the the the the
an an
the the
the the
of of
practices, practices,
onglns, onglns,
eXIstence eXIstence
~s ~s
:,~:s,on :,~:s,on
~~rates ~~rates
re re
d,~erse d,~erse
stu stu
aiming aiming
oc oc
presenting presenting
manifestation manifestation Sherpa Sherpa
VIII. VIII.
and and
the the
thiS thiS
thai thai
~:.:.se ~:.:.se
rlehmarkable rlehmarkable
. .
ruig seemed seemed groupings groupings
them, them, .. ..
center center
back back
between between
pilgrims pilgrims
. .
~~ss< ~~ss<
IglOuS IglOuS
d d
erent erent
ave ave
presence presence
y. y.
was was
eage eage
the the
y y
ed ed
are are
Striking Striking
The The .ounded .ounded
home. home.
The The
slgnl slgnl
at at
,~aglnlngs ,~aglnlngs
in in
0 0
backgrounds: backgrounds:
on on
to to If If
pllgnms pllgnms
same same
due due
'fi 'fi
and and
does does
textual. textual.
f' f'
an an
of of
r r shaped shaped
Conclusion: Conclusion:
vast vast
lseourses lseourses
of of
who who
th,s th,s
the the
fac~ fac~
emphaslZ emphaslZ
. . t t
the the
a a
h find' find' the the
organization organization
0 0
article article
IntnnSIC IntnnSIC
10 10
different different
a a
fcotureofthis fcotureofthis seemingly seemingly
fixed fixed
of of
lcance lcance
gain gain
In In
holds holds
diversltyof diversltyof groups groups
nOllead nOllead
of of
generalizations generalizations
pilgrims pilgrims
Buddhist Buddhist
to to
come come
Western Western
only only
indiVidual indiVidual
pllgnms pllgnms
I I
comparison comparison
traditions. traditions.
by by
the the
meas meas
from from
th th
date date
Ings Ings
of of
is is
true true
typical typical
religIOUS religIOUS
to to
e e e e
e e
and and
religIOUS religIOUS
divine divine
for for from from
finally finally
Halase Halase
concerned concerned
f'" f'"
th th
religious religious
At At
be be
to to
fUlts fUlts
'Plurality 'Plurality
who who
and and
a a
Solukhumbu Solukhumbu
free free
of of
gamed gamed
pilgrimage. pilgrimage.
of of
the the
of of participant participant
powers. powers. Western Western
any any
perceptions. perceptions.
play play
far far
different different d' d'
pilgrimage pilgrimage
the the
forms forms
. . . .
of of
another another
The The
just just
'StinCt 'StinCt
were were
is is
of of rituals rituals
from from
night night
comes comes
with with
and and
more more
illustrates illustrates clash clash
this this
. .
considered considered
Hindu Hindu slgnificanceof slgnificanceof
ala ala
Its Its
in in
In In
for for
holy holy
discourses discourses
above above
of of
political, political,
any any
place place
with with
this this
or or
thus thus promises promises
panicipantobserver panicipantobserver
the the
Turner Turner
aunosphere aunosphere
the the
"nee'balgen "nee'balgen
creed creed
of of
and and
the the
localities. localities.
139 139
both both
10 10
th th
It It
pilgrimage pilgrimage
Discourses', Discourses',
observer observer
center center
senous senous
experience experience
10 10
XI XI
conflicting conflicting
Hindu Hindu
It It course course
specific specific
can can
an an
all all
of of
the the
validating validating
len~ len~
the the
the the
is is
and and
'folk' 'folk'
pilgrimage. pilgrimage.
as as
e. e. ready ready
curious curious
and and
end end
achieved achieved
easily easily
regional regional
detailed detailed
complex complex
interaction interaction
to to
concerning concerning
imbued imbued provides provides
da da
its its
tensions. tensions.
at at
of of
When When
oro:::, oro:::,
his his
time time il' il'
faithful faithful
and and
reigning reigning
context context
is is
to to
of of
own own
threeda threeda
a a
investigating investigating
be be
from from aboutrI:e aboutrI:e
disciples disciples
perceptions. perceptions.
allowed allowed
be be
different different
'Status 'Status
particular particular
the the
orthodo orthodo
through through
has has
and and
summarized summarized
study study
this this
with with
interweavings interweavings
which which :'tlon :'tlon
impressed impressed
Maratikacaveapparentl Maratikacaveapparentl
a a
his his
pilgrims. pilgrims.
It It
diverse diverse
was was
corne corne
Y Y
are are of of
national national
religious religious
kind kind
at at
the the
must must
. . . .
and and
sbefore sbefore
persoto persoto
the the
and and
place place
pilgrim pilgrim
1 1 of of
Maratika Maratika
X X
the the
defi~itely defi~itely ritual ritual
is is
sets sets
91 91
sacred sacred
coming coming
'h' 'h'
of of
one one
pia pia
sacC:ed. sacC:ed. 10 10
illustrated illustrated
the the
be be
S:po'f~n S:po'f~n a a
In In
Ig Ig
Buddhist Buddhist fact fact
CommuniIDs' CommuniIDs'
am' am'
~~ ~~
g g . . . . b b
~t:~~=:~n ~t:~~=:~n
panicular panicular
of of
h h
as as
Y Y
performances performances ethnic ethnic
added added
consequence consequence
space space
night" night"
movement movement
' ' I I
re re
,ts ,ts
grou grou
In In
'a1 'a1
. .
peaceful peaceful
that that
devotional devotional
of of
w w
I I
I" I"
cave cave
OC~lts OC~lts
tee tee
to to
~nteracbon ~nteracbon
u. u.
'glon 'glon
~~re:: ~~re::
mystenes mystenes
h' h'
. . . .
not not
d;fferent d;fferent
e e
thlOe thlOe
aI aI
es es
the the
as as
this this
for for
by by
th th
JOIITIley JOIITIley
s s
h h
most most
pilgrim pilgrim
f f
ted· ted·
only only
oug, oug,
in in
well well
, ,
with with
view. view.
case case
. .
tw~ tw~
c0- c0-
most most
the the
. .
holy holy
and and
the the
o~ o~
In In of of
h h
of of
' ' of these crucial aspects the holy center of Halase seems 10 represent a socio another approach which might both add insight inlO the chosen field and 10 religious spacecapableof accomodating diverse ideas, concepts, meanings, and differentiate the chosen perspective. practices. FOOTNOTES The particular Sherpa pilgrimage 10 Maratika cave on occasion of "tosar' includes both an interesting field of social relations and a realm of co-existing I. This .investigation is pan of a larger r";earch project on Sherpa Buddhist discourses that seemingly do notcompete for supremacy. 11must beemphasized, pllgnmage sponsored by the Swiss National Science Foundation. however, that the research results gained in the context of the Sherpa pilgrimage The anicle is dedicated 10 Barbara N. Aziz, 10 whom lowe many valuable to Halase do not seem 10lend themselves 10any son ofgeneralillltion.lfone tries inspirations. 10 identify the specific features of this pilgrimage it is the seemingly easy co existeneeof solidarity and self-interest,ofcommuni/as and statusall of which arc 2. A. W. MacDonald was the first to remind the scientific community of this playedoutin itscourse. However,a particularaspect like 'communiras',dominating fact and 10 encourage adequate research into Halase as an imponant place the wholeof the pilgrimage process, cannOt be singled out in this framework. On of pilgrimage. K. Buffetrille-Daum mentions Halase in her 'Rapport de Mission au Nepal' (p.-2). - Recently Namkhai Norbu has published an this occasion existing social boundaries do not really seem 10 be transcended; anicle on 'The Pilgrimage to Maratika' in his anthology 'Dream Yoga and according 10 my informations the individual pilgrim's outlook onlO the world does not seem to have changed fundamentally in the course of a pilgrimage the Practice ofNaturallighl',ed. and inlrod. by M. Katz. Ithaca, N.Y.: Snow experience. On the contrary, one may safely assume that its experience rather Lion Public. 1992, p. 73-89. I am grateful 10 F. - K. Ehrhard, Nepal results in the maintenance andeven the reinforcement of socialdistinctions and Research Center, Kathmandu from whom I received this, but not only this, information! boundaries. It is this phenomenon that can be considered as the 'social function' of pilgrimage as an imponant socioreligious institution. 3. On the hisoory and religion of the Sherpas, see M. OppilZ 1968; F.W. Funke The picture outlined is based upon key metaphores such as 'plwality of 1968; D. B. Bista 1987; Sh. B. Ortner 1989. discourses'.'statusandCOf1'll1UUUla5'. 'crisis?-noserious'crisis!'.and'maintenance 4. Chr. v. FOrer-Haimcndorf 1964 and 1984. and reinforcement of ethnic distinctions and social boundaries'. Nevertheless, the presented results do not seem to be too illustrative as 10 the very panicularity 5. On the laller Dudjom Rinpoche. of the Buddhist pilgrimage 10 maratika cave. 6. Chr. v. FOrer-Haimendorf illuminates this context "The entire moral Due 10 the various continously elaborated theoretical concepts and the system (of the Sherpas) is dominaLed by the belief in merit and sin, as the ongoing refinementof methodological approaches recent research inoo the IOpos two clements shapping their ultimate fate. Like other Buddhists, the of pilgrimage has viewed this world-wide phenomenon from a variety of Sherpas believe thatevery acLof virtueadds 10an individual's storeof merit, perspectives. Accordingly in order 10 gain a representative insight inlO the wherea' evcry sinful aCLdiminishes this valuableslOre" (1984,p. 106). Sec complexityof thediverseaspects involved in constitutingtheparticularpilgrimage also 1964, pp. 272-5. process 10 and at Maratika cave different perspectives onlO the same topic have to be put inlO play. 7. On the imporllince of gaining merit in the gencral Tibellin cultural context R.A. Stein 1987, p. 115. Theseperspectives includequestions like'site, power,andadministration', 'diversegroupings forming thecuitic constituency ofthe holycenter', 'differences 8. In the context of gaining 'meriL' by way of religious activities Sh. Ortner in thepilgrims'perception ofthesacred locale usually basedon 'Iocalknowledge'. ignores 'sonam' but refers insteadto 'payin' seemingly meaning the same 'the complex and often ambivalent attitudes of locals towards Maratika cave and concepL (1978:36-41; 1989:76-81). R. Kunwar takes her lead. But he its cull' etc. Detailed comparisons with pilgrimages 10 other holy sites offer
140 141 specifies thepwpseof 'phay~n'which according to him does notdiffer from 17. C. Jest. see chapter 25. Ortner's understanding of 'payin' as 'piling merit for next life' (215). This concept implies the conscious transcending of inllet-worldly goals by 18. In the main I had a very infonnative talk with its founder Tshopel Lama, certain religious activities. well known as Maralika Lama, on occasion of 'Iosar' 1992; and with some monks - two of them being sons of Tshopel Lama - who had been sll\ying 9. See MacDonald, p. 8. there over wsw' 1993 due to the absence of the lama who had seriously fallen .11and had undergone treatment in Kathmandu at that time. 10. See P.H. Prindle 1983, p. 114. 19. In opposition to the innuential approach propagated by the Turners and On II. this see B.N. Aziz (pp. 17-19). However, she does nOlexplicitly name therrfollowmg I share the 'leitmotiv' for any research into the rcalm of HaIase in her book. pJlgnmage m diverse cultural contexts aniculated by the late MJ. Sallnow (p. 9):"... themost helpful, pre-analytic image to hold in mind is of a tangle 12. Due to this A.W. MacDonald has already pointed to the fact that more of contradIctIons, a cluster of coincident opposites." detailed observations in situ seem to be long overdue (see p. 5).
13. One of the numerous names of Lord Siva BIBLIOGRAPHY 14. This is only one of the many caves in the realm of the Himalayas of Nepal Aziz, 8. N. whete according to tradition Guru Padmasambhava has slayed at for 1987 medilation in retreat. Tibetan Frontier Families: Reflections of Three Generationsfrom D'ing rio New Delhi: Vikas. 15. D. Snellgrove gives an illuminating account of Mandarava's childhood as 8ista, D. 8. the daughter of the king of zahor. Moreover the specific circumSlance are 1987 People of Nepal. Kathmandu: Raina Pustak (orig. outlined which led Guru Padmasambhava realizing that 'she was a filling (967). See pp. 160-68. pupil' to come through the air, to manifest himself to her and to give het religious instructions. After some tragic episode, Padmasambhava Buffetrille-Daum, K. manifested himselfto her father and finally 'accepted the king's offerof his 1990 Rappon de Mission au Nepal. Unpubl. Ts. Paris: kingdom and Mandarava as his bride' (see p. 173). CNRS. Dudjom, Rimpoche 16. On the textualisation of'c~drubgondus' in theeighthcentury, on the specific circumstances of its preservation by Guru Padmasambhava as a 'hidden 1991 The Nyingma School of Tibetan Buddhism. Transl. treasure', and its rediscovery in thenineteenth centuryaftera period of more and cd. by M. Kapstein and Gyunne Dorje. Boston: than a thousand years see Namkhai Norbu (p. 89, Fn. 23). - L.A. Waddell Wisdom Publications. mentions 'HaIashi' in the context of the description of the 'Raksha' rosary Funke, F. W. formed of large brown wany seeds. Thisrosary is usedespecially by Nying 1969 ma-pa lamas in rituals worshipping the fierce deities and demons. Those Religiosesleben der Sherpa.lnnsbruckand Munich: Universitatsverlag Wagner. seemingly abnonnal seeds are said to be highly valued by Tibelans, "... who believe them to be the offspring of some seeds of Padmasambhava's Furer-Haimendorf, Chr. v. rosary, which, the legend states, brokeat his HaIashi Hnnilage in Nepal ... " 1964 The Sherpas of Nepal. London: J. Murray. (p.208).
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