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Carnap E Vasubandhu: Esperienza E Coscienza

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Carnap E Vasubandhu: Esperienza E Coscienza Annali del Dipartimento di Filosofia (Nuova Serie), XVIII (2012), pp. 175-195 Carnap e Vasubandhu: esperienza e coscienza MARZIA MICHELIZZA In philosophy of mind, the arguments about phenomenal ex- perience are related to ontological points of view in which the alternatives are physicalist monism and dualism. Both involve problems and the choice is difficult in order to describe the experience into scientific knowledge. I accost Carnap and Vasu- bandhu philosophies to show an epistemic position, that involves an ontological deconstruction, from the phenomenal experience starting point. In this view, the way to address the psico-physical problem changes: it is not concerned any problem about a dual- ism of substances (or objects). Experience and evidence are two points of convergence, and lead to the question of subjectivity: the consciousness it is not an object however it keeps its relevance. Keywords: phenomenal experience, consciousness, ontology, Bud- dhist philosophy, philosophy of mind. 1. Introduzione In questo saggio intendo mostrare il filo conduttore che unisce La costruzione logica del mondo1 di Carnap (Aufbau), letta in chiave feno- menista, con il pensiero di Vasubandhu,2 filosofo dell’India medievale. L’interesse non è meramente comparatistico, ma filosofico. Le simmetrie che rileverò nelle opere, infatti, individuano come identico punto di partenza per l’indagine epistemica l’esperienza vissuta, alla quale è accor- data ogni priorità. In un progressivo allontanamento dal senso comune 1 R. Carnap, Der Logische Aufbau Der Welt, Felix Meiner, Hamburg 1961, trad. it. La costruzione logica del mondo, ed. Fratelli Fabbri Editori, Milano 1966. 2 Vasubandhu, vissuto probabilmente nel IV secolo (secondo qualche studioso nel VII), è un esponente del pensiero buddhista, tra i fondatori della corrente Yogacāra (Via dello Yoga, detta anche Cittamatra, Della sola coscienza). Gli studiosi sono in disaccordo sull’attribuzione delle opere alla stessa figura storica, a causa dell’incoerenza della prima opera con successivi trattati. Alcuni infatti sostengono che si tratti di omonimia, ma non è stata presa alcuna decisione definitiva in merito. http://www.fupress.com/adf ISSN 0394-5073 (print) ISSN 1824-3770 (online) © 2013 Firenze University Press 176 Marzia Michelizza e dall’immagine scientifica del mondo verrà così evidenziata la struttura del vissuto e il suo rapporto con la conoscenza. L’indubitabilità della base viene mostrata attraverso una discussione sul concetto di evidenza, strettamente legato al punto di vista in prima persona e alla conoscenza inferenziale, che cambia radicalmente il modo di affrontare lo spinoso problema psico-fisico. Risulterà un quadro epistemico completamente cambiato, non appoggiato sulla dualità né epistemica né ontologica tra soggetto e oggetto, e in cui la coscienza avrà un ruolo primario. Nel primo paragrafo esporrò le intenzioni e i metodi dei due autori, nel secondo e nel terzo chiarirò la questione psico-fisica; nel quarto paragrafo, infine, mostrerò il ruolo epistemico del vissuto, per conclu- dere affrontando l’argomento della soggettività e la sua relazione con l’evidenza fenomenica di base. 2. Differenze e simmetrie di scopo Le opere che metteremo a confronto hanno finalità apparentemen- te molto diverse. Uno degli imperativi dell’empirismo logico, corrente formatasi dagli studi del Circolo di Vienna cui Carnap è tra i fondatori, è l’esclusione della metafisica dalla teoria della conoscenza, in quanto considerata priva di senso. A tale scopo le analisi filosofiche, al pari di quelle scientifiche, devono svolgersi logicamente ed essere verificate empiricamente, con il supporto di una corretta analisi del linguaggio. Lo scopo dell’Aufbau è l’ordinamento delle conoscenze intersoggettive. Esso viene dichiarato all’inizio del primo paragrafo: «Il fine delle presenti ricerche è la costruzione di un sistema logico-conoscitivo degli oggetti o dei concetti: ‘il sistema di costituzione’»,3 dove «l’espressione ‘oggetto’ sarà qui sempre usata nel significato più ampio, ossia per tutto ciò in- torno a cui si può formulare un asserto».4 Gli oggetti da ordinare sono quindi oggetti logici, senza che di essi sia data alcuna categorizzazione metafisica; essi comprendono infatti il reale e l’irreale, le proprietà e i rapporti. L’intero sistema viene così definito neutrale: La teoria della costituzione usa un linguaggio neutrale; secondo essa, le formazioni non sono né prodotte, né riconosciute bensì costituite; e già sin d’ora è ben chiaro che questa parola ‘costituire’ viene qui costantemente intesa secondo un’accezione puramente neutrale. Dal punto di vista della teoria della costituzione, la contesa se le formazioni siano prodotte o riconosciute è pertanto una oziosa questione di parole.5 3 Carnap, La costruzione logica del mondo, cit., p. 83. 4 Ibidem. 5 Ivi, p. 88. Carnap e Vasubandhu: esperienza e coscienza 177 Gli asserti intorno agli oggetti del sistema andranno derivati dagli oggetti fondamentali, o elementi di base. Si tratta dunque, come rilevato da Benoist,6 di un’operazione di traduzione da un asserto relativo a un oggetto ad altro asserto relativo a un oggetto fondamentale. I mezzi utiliz- zati per lo scopo sono la base del sistema, cioè gli elementi fondamentali e le regole del sistema, che devono crearne la struttura. Lo scopo dei due trattati di Vasubandhu è invece quello di mostrare l’infondatezza delle tesi dei suoi avversari, con cui immagina di instaurare un dialogo. I principali avversari sono i buddhisti sostenitori di una teoria realista della conoscenza, appartenenti alla scuola Vaibhasika,7 i quali sostengono l’esistenza di oggetti esterni reali conosciuti direttamente. In Vijñaptimatratasiddhih,8 si vuole dimostrare, contro le tesi Vaibhasika, che “tutto è solo fenomeno” e solo nella coscienza si svolge la dualità soggetto- oggetto. Il titolo è stato tradotto nell’edizione italiana con Dimostrazione in venti strofe che tutto è rappresentazione mentale, dove vijñapti è reso con ‘rappresentazione mentale’. Questo termine nell’Abhidharmakoṣa è tradotto da La Vallée-Poussin come “atto corporale e vocale”, ‘ciò che informa altri’.9 Da questo punto di vista vijñapti è un comportamento, un’azione (karman) informativa: vijñapti va quindi avvicinato al concetto di ‘informazione’. La scelta di tradurre con rappresentazione mentale porta quindi a accentuare il carattere che la coscienza ha di ‘essere in- formata’. In questo modo, tuttavia, si tralascia il punto importante della 6 J. Benoist, L’Aufbau comme phénoménologie, in Carnap et la construction logique du monde, ed. by S. Laugier, Vrin, Paris 2001, p. 197. 7 Alla morte del Buddha, intorno al 478 a.C., vengono indetti dei concili per stabilire la dottrina. Iniziano quindi divergenze che porteranno a scismi e, dopo il 245 a.C., alla redazione del canone in lingua pali, tradizione fissata dalla scuola Theravada (Buddhismo antico), detta successivamente anche Hinayana (Piccolo Veicolo). In seguito al terzo con- cilio intorno al 245 a.C., secondo la letteratura Theravada è sorta la scuola Vaibhasika (o Servastivada). Il canone pali consiste in un nucleo principale dato dal Suttapitaka (discorsi del Buddha), dal Vinayapitaka (regole monastiche), e dall’Abhidharmapitaka, la sezione dottrinale più tarda dove si trovano non tanto le parole attribuite al Buddha stesso ma ai discepoli delle grandi scuole, la scolastica dell’Abhidharma è quindi probabilmente più tarda e non assimilabile al buddhismo antico. La scuola Yogacāra cui appartiene Vasubandhu, ‘dello Yoga’ o ‘della sola coscienza’, appartiene invece alla corrente Ma- hayana (Grande Veicolo), dopo lo scisma in seguito al concilio Vaisilai (383 o 367 a.C.). 8 Vasubandhu, Vijñaptimatrasiddhi, trad. it. F. Sferra, in R. Gnoli, La rivelazione del Buddha, vol. II, Mondadori, Milano 2004. 9 Vasubandhu, Abhidharmakoṣa, trad. fr. La Vallée Poussin, L’Abhidharmakoṣa de Vasubandhu, ed. Paul Gethner, Paris 1923, p. 21. Vi è una tesi relativa alla disidentità, e sola omonimia, del Vasubandhu che scrisse il commento all’Abhidharma e l’autore dei testi appartenenti alla scuola Yogacāra. Gli elementi a favore di entrambe le tesi non permettono una decisione tra le due, come indicato da Gnoli, La rivelazione del Buddha, cit., p. CXXXI. 178 Marzia Michelizza dottrina che Vasubandhu andava esponendo, cioè l’inesistenza di un oggetto esterno di cui la coscienza abbia informazione. Meglio sarebbe, quindi, ribadire la relazione del termine con la fenomenicità dell’espe- rienza, mantenendo il carattere informativo del termine senza d’altra parte tradire l’intenzione dell’autore. In Triṃśikā,10 Il trattato delle trenta stanze, l’insegnamento è rivolto a coloro che non hanno conoscenza, o sono in errore, relativamente all’as- senza di Sé riferito alla persona e al mondo11. Oggetto del trattato sono infatti le trasformazioni della coscienza, che devono essere descritte per mostrare come «l’uso metaforico di espressioni come ‘ātman’ e ‘dharma’, che è molteplice sia nel mondo sia nei trattati filosofici, si svolge nella trasformazione della coscienza».12 Ātman e dharma stanno qui a indicare, come sottolinea Kochumuttom,13 le due categorie da cui si derivano gli oggetti e i soggetti, i quali non hanno alcuna esistenza reale perché l’uso dei due termini è meramente limitato a una metafora.14 Se, dunque, Carnap si mantiene distante da quelle posizioni me- tafisiche su cui realismo e idealismo si scontrano, Vasubandhu sembra propendere per l’idealismo. Idealista, infatti, viene spesso etichettata la sua scuola.
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