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Spring 2007

Otterbein Aegis Spring 2007

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essays andbookreviewsthatadvancethepresencevaluesofhumanitiesoncampusbeyond. A journal designed to catalyze a deeper critical appreciation of the humanities at Otterbein College, contact Dr. Andrew [email protected]. on Students interested in serving Aegis’ Editorial Board for the 2007-2008school year should essay. All essaysacceptedforpublication willneedeventuallytobesubmittedonharddisketteinMicrosoft Word. the of title the and address, author’sname, the appear which on sheet, cover a by accompanied be should submissions include a self-addressed envelope withplease returned, be sufficientto submission your postage.of copy one for wish and Mail Authors’U.S. the through submitting are you namesIf 43081. should not appear on submitted essays; instead, Faculty Advisor,Mills, to Andrew addressed and duplicate the to either according prepared Submissions, final yearofhis/herstudyatOtterbein. the in is writer the if edition—even year’s following the for considered be will date this after received reviews book on a rolling basis. The deadline for the coming year’s edition shall be the second Friday of Winter Quarter. Essays and Aegis Aegis pages—in twelvepointtype,double-spaced,in Times NewRomanfontwithstandardone-inchmargins. one-inch margins. This includes pages devoted to notes and/or works cited pages. Book reviews should be between 1-4 Essays should be between 10-30 pages—in twelve point type, double-spaced, and in Times New Roman font with standard assess scienceandtechnology. Aegis in publication for eligible be also humanities—will the in traditionally criticism involve or interpretation that of approach—or questions in philosophical or historical are that sciences social the in books of reviews and Essays archeology; jurisprudence;thehistory, theory, andcriticism ofthearts;ethics;andcomparativereligion. literature; linguistics; languages; philosophy; history; disciplines: following the in reviews book and essays scholarly humanities, the of definition Humanities’(NEH) the for Endowment National the with accord In will appear annually each calendar year toward the end of spring quarter. Essays and book reviews will be received iscommittedtononsexistlanguageandwordingfreeofhostileovertones. or analyze, interpret, to humanities the of disciplines the use that books of reviews and essays consider also will Aegis: The Otterbein College Humanities Journal Aegis: TheOtterbeinCollegeHumanities Advisor: Cover Art: Cassi Smith Jennifer Scarbrough Jennifer Roberts Larsa Ramsini Megan Hatfield Shannon Bauchert Board Members: Editors: Statement of EditorialStatement of Policy Aegis

Jason CraigandMeghanJohnson Dr. Andrew Mills 2007Editorial Board MLA Style Manual Style MLA Stephen Goldmeier

Aegis , Towers Hall, Otterbein College, Westerville,College, Ohio, Otterbein Towers, Hall, or The Chicago Manual of Style of Manual Chicago The Aegis Aegis , should be sent in sent be should , seeks scholarly will consider will Aegis .

 aegis 2007 contents 5 Editor’s Introduction 7 Interview with Dr. Henry Abelove 13 Articles

13 Facebook.com: Preparing Future Leaders with Ignorance—Colleen Deel 29 Jesus: Apocalyptic Mesiah or Counter Apocalyptic Social Prophet? An Alternate View of Jesus and Why the Church is Called to Serve the Oppressed—Nick Kiger 36 The Rise of Marxist Thought in Twentieth Century Vietnam—Halle Neiderman 48 Resurrecting Judith: Edith Summers Kelly, Weeds, and the Politics of Gender— Christi Amato 64 Social Movements and the Politics of Place: Transnational and Local Change—Sarah Prindle 76 The Drama and the Comedy of the Commons: Rethinking “The Tragedy of the Commons”—Sarah Prindle 84 The Material Language of Beuys and Antoni - Emily Starr 94 Is Trope Theory Viable?—Jason Thomas Craig 109 The Origins of Republican Womanhood—Shannon Bauchert 121 Leonard Bernstein: I Hate Music! A Cycle of Five Kid Songs and its Cultural Con- text—Danielle Hickey 136 Discovering Knoxville: A Biography, Analysis, and Study of Cultural Context— Alison Brooks

150 Book Reviews

150 America at the Crossroads: Democracy, Power, and the Neoconservative Legacy— Cassi Smith 152 Gender Matters: Civil War, Reconstruction, and the Making of the New South—Me- gan Hatfield 154 The Last American Man—Meghan Johnson 156 March—Larsa Ramsini 160 Memories of My Melancholy Whores—Shannon Bauchert 162 The Road—Jason Thomas Craig 164 The World is Flat—Jennifer Scarbrough

165 Contributors Editors’ Introduction there is,asalways, adangerofbothcounter-arguments againsttheconservation-environmen placing emphasis ontheissueofconservation, andhumankind’s relationto itsexternalworld, the worldinaneffort tosavetheonethingthatweallrely onandvalue. to giveupthemodernconveniences weenjoy, butwecanreduceourconsumptionandjoin food andmaterialsthatwepurchase couldreducethestrainonenvironment.Noone wants take forminwhatwedecide to purchase.Examiningtheenvironmentalconsequencesof the began acampus-widerecycling program. Also, simpleand easy independentchoicescould easily bereducediftheoneplaceweallhaveincommon, the campusofOtterbeinCollege, independently makeourownchangestobeginaddressthese concerns. ning toaddress.Bylookingattheeconomyandbeingmindful ofourownlifestyles,wecan we areatthistimegenerallynotexperiencingtheproblems thattherestofworldisbegin America, atthispoint,isisolatedwhenitcomestoenvironmental concernsbecause,luckily, will befacedwiththeconsequencesofindulgenceand consumptionweenjoypresently. lifestyle somany Americans valueisputtingastrainontheenvironment andeventuallywe address them.Growingdemandsforresourcesandincreased landusetomeetthecomfortable examine theirlifestylesandlevelofconsumption,theconcernislegitimate. Last American Man individual standpoint(likethemanofwildernessinonefeaturedbookreviews, standpoint withsolutionssurroundinggovernmentinterventionandregulations,oramore the readersof addressed intwoofouressaysandtherelevancethisconcernisbroughttoattention land developmenttakesforminthetheoryof“tragedycommons.” This topicis more andurgent andinneedofconsideration. ting wellintothe21 year isthatofbeingconsciousone’s lifestyleandtheworldaroundoneself. As weareget Last year, theissueofintellectual honestywasdealtwithatlength.Oneprevalentthemethis times takenonoutsideissuesthatdirectlyreflectthehumanitiesandscholarshipingeneral. ued growthanddiversityisanexponentialtrend.Inthepast,theseintroductionshavesome at OtterbeinCollege.ItisthesincerehopeofthoseinvolvedwithJournalthatitscontin we generalizeas“thehumanities”wellareflectionofthedepthresearchtakingplace issues andpolitics. This diversityisitselfareflectionofboththeastoundingbreadthwhat will readontopicsasdiversemetaphysics,music,the Vietnam War andMarxism,gender plines, andfacetsofresearchwithinthosedisciplines.Forinstance,inthisyear’s editionyou ties Journal. With everyeditiontheJournalgrows, encompassing bothmorehumanitiesdisci While Otterbein andmanyothercities,towns andcollegeshavemadegreat stridesin An easyplacetostartwouldbeourowndaypractices. Ourdailyimpactcould Globalization isquicklyspreading,theworldbecoming more andconnected,yet The 21 Land isbecomingamorepreciousresourceasincreasingtalkaboutconsumptionand It is an honor to present to you the fourth edition of st centuryhasbroughtonmanyeventsandchangeswe must nowconsciously Aegis Jason Craig andMeghanJohnson . Whether theenvironmentalsituationisviewedfromamorebureaucratic ) wheresolutionsareassimplepeopletakingituponthemselvesto st century, concernsover theenvironmentandeconomyarebecoming Aegis , the Otterbein College Humani The ------

 aegis 2006 - s first —“why fer, or fer, Aegis field of research that in and of itself can raise, question and in and of itself can raise, question and field of research that necessary , we claim that it is an answer to the question raised by the journal’ an answer to the question raised by the , we claim that it is Aegis exists not only to put on display the finest minds Otterbein has to of on display the finest minds Otterbein exists not only to put Aegis ?” While the issue of conservation and the environment is by no means the only “theme” of and the environment is by While the issue of conservation to display the vitality and urgency of the study of the humanities, it exists to show that the of the humanities, it exists to show of the study and urgency to display the vitality a humanities exists as in the real world. In this way the thoughts and plans for applicable action promote problems, an desire for knowledge. It is itself ever persistent fulfills humankind’s humanities not only most pressing issues. the world’s immediate way to address can be implemented to cause action and permanent shifts in the ego-centric anti-environmen shifts in the ego-centric action and permanent to cause can be implemented of many people. tal mindset this edition of editors introduction of Moore—in the first Teresa and editors—Ashar Foley Aegis talist position (as seen with the recent publishing of many books that supposedly “debunk” “debunk” that supposedly books of many publishing the recent seen with position (as talist or complacent becoming the movement in those involved and of climate shift) global extreme with combat these claims such as this to directly for a journal While it is impossible apathetic. all face this issue with in the humanities to important for those data, it is no less quantitative humanities and science, combination of the is only through a at their disposal. It of the tools change enough pressure and interpretation, that of examination and lenses divergent with their

aegis 2007  An Interview withDr.An Interview HenryAbelove ety—defines it, seemsverydespicabletome.” Howdoyouassessthisstatement incontempo over repressed…sexually vapid,flavorless”andthat “[s]exualmoralityas…American soci treatment inthepracticeofpsychoanalysis istheresult of Americans being“extraordinarily appears, believed that the reason for the distinctly American focus on ethical goals, and moral tion ofFreud’s viewscontrawhatcouldbelabeledthe“westernMoralists.” Freud himself,it AEGIS: perhaps in American life. valuable, it’s becauseIthinktheirvalueisunderestimated,ordis-acknowledged, particularly phasize thevalueof“funny”emotions,itisn’t becauseIthinktheyareinvariablyoruniquely Can itbe“negative?”Ofcourse. A regardforpleasureonlymightbeirresponsible. IfIem Abelove: “Funny,” Isaythere,meansfirstofallpleasure-giving.Surelypleasure isvaluable. valuable tous?Canthere benegativesidestothesetypesofdiscourse? curious ifyoucouldexpandonthisthought.Whyare “funnyemotions”and“deepgossip”so ny emotionsleadthewaytodeepgossip,andgossip fosters funnyemotions.”We were valued, anddeepgossipshouldbegenuinelyshared,” andthatthethemeofbookis“Fun AEGIS: Abelove: Itisbothacommitmenttoparticulargroup,andanopen-endedcommitment,too. thing foreveryonewithinthatspecificgroup… AEGIS: also thosewhoidentifywiththemandwanttoshareintheirlivesstrugglescultures. as yousay, includedisempowered peopleeverywhere—marginalized, threatenedpeople—and missing ‘we’ wouldbequeer. ButGinsberg suggestsalarger ‘we’ aswell—a‘we’ thatwould, Abelove: You’re askingmeaboutthemissing“we”inGinsberg poem.Mostevidentlythe maintain the knowledge and purpose of groups in danger of tyranny and oppression? for collection, elucidation, and remembrance to both subvert the narratives of the majority and aspect of all disempowered humans everywhere? Is it, in this way, a kind of universal condition that makesuptheantecedentof“our”—canyouexpandonthis?Is“ourdeepgossip”an that gossipis“illicitspeculation,information,knowledge wrote, “forourdeepgossip.”Inyourreflection onthephrase“ourdeepgossip,”youstate as a“curatoroffunnyemotions”anddrew attentiontohis“ear.” Itwasa“commonear,” he the poetFrankO’Harathatinyourwords are “resonant still.”Ginsberg describesO’Hara introduction, youbreak downtheaspectsofaphraseusedby Allen Ginsberg inhiselegyfor AEGIS:

Let’s beginbydiscussingthetitleofyourcollectionessays“DeepGossip.”In In youressay“Freud, Male Homosexuality, andthe Americans” yougiveanexposi At theendofintroduction, youscribe that“funnyemotionsshouldbegenuinely I thoughtitwasaninteresting waytophraseit,leaveit[deepgossip]open,some Meghan JohnsonandJason Thomas Craig .” You question,however, the“we” ------

 aegis 2007 ------obvi too and early th And could we talk about Besides the question of morality in American psychoanalysis, there are undertones of are psychoanalysis, there American Besides the question of morality in century there was a very open eugenics movement in this country, one that has since been, in this country, was a very open eugenics movement century there th known to me has a persuasive and rigorous account of what “homosexual” is and isn’t, what account of what “homosexual” is and isn’t, known to me has a persuasive and rigorous That’s how good could their account of its origins be? the category includes and excludes. So part of your just the beginning of a critique; I could expand it. But let me turn to the second A question. Is our society still aligned with an early twentieth-century view of homosexuality? at the height be the mid-twentieth century, sharper point of comparison would probably better, comparison would be difficult, because in this matter Even on that basis, the War. of the Cold differ City, York in Salt Lake City than in New different our society is enormously varied. It’s by the term “homosexual.” Is a homosexual someone who has lots of sexual experiences by the term “homosexual.” Is a homosexual definition. Is it also someone who desires to have such That would be one with other men? them? Is it also someone who desires to, tries it once, but in fact have experiences but doesn’t has five children with her? never does it again, marries a woman and clothes; he has crushes on he dresses up in girl’s a homosexual child? I mean, suppose that high heels. Is that homosexual? None of the studies little boys at school, and wears his mom’s and continued through religious “re-indoctrination” camps, and, perhaps most importantly, importantly, most camps, and, perhaps “re-indoctrination” religious and continued through align with the early twentieth century view of homo does our society as a whole still basically sexuality? know if I can handle them all in one short There are a lot of questions here; I don’t Abelove: work that I’ve seen on the eti I put no credence in any biological or quasi-biological answer. mean clear what those who write on this topic For one thing, it isn’t ology of homosexuality. a basic schism in thought about homosexuality in general; namely, the debate on the impor in general; namely, a basic schism in thought about homosexuality in one being a homosexual. In the late 19 tance of biology as a determining factor 20 to the question of biology as a determining factor stopped. Can you speak at least ostensibly, of ever stopped, even with the dropping really Also, has the moralist trend sexuality? in one’s Have these thoughts been subverted APA? by the the pathologized definition of homosexuality mid-Atlantic and Southern colonies were overwhelmingly religious and their religiosity has colonies were overwhelmingly mid-Atlantic and Southern obvious point, almost an American culture. It’s of the development deeply affected but we are in various ways the embarrassed to make such a point, ous of a point, I’m almost secularist, Jewish, Moslem, the matter if we’re Christian, still. It doesn’t heirs of these settlers of our destiny. outlook of the settlers is a powerful shaper moralistic religious AEGIS: versal sexual experience! Freud was right to note an American tendency to moralism, but he tendency to moralism, American an was right to note experience! Freud versal sexual of On the subject produced the tendency. explanation of what been mistaken in his may have moralism comes impressive. I doubt that our abiding especially wasn’t American history he may influence it, of That lifestyle a commercialized consumer lifestyle. only or chiefly from I’d moralism—which, by the way, American for an explanation of course. I’d look elsewhere England, the the European settlers of New As you know, from morality. distinguish sharply rary America? Are we sexually vapid? We do, after all have perhaps the world’s largest legal legal largest the world’s all have perhaps do, after We sexually vapid? we Are America? rary in our supposedly inherent moralism” “lack of decry the and many markets, sexual and illicit that our moralist, religious give to the thought do you credence any, What, if secular country. consumer life? our commodified, from bent comes uni say; I haven’t I can’t comparatively? (Laughs) sexually vapid, Americans Are Abelove:

aegis 2007  AEGIS: in the1950’s. ent inManhattanthanStatenIsland.Onthewhole,yes,viewisnotunlikewhatitwas nally calledThoreau “eccentric” forbeing“non-domestic”in hisapproach tolife? tic, anymore opentothethemesofsimplicityand alternativelifestylethanthosewhoorigi reaction beifitwere published forthefirsttimeinmodern America? Are we,asabodypoli family” isthereal intentofthebook,despiteefforts tocanonizeitotherwise,whatwouldthe the typicaldiscoursesof“domesticity, romantic love,and marriage,andthewhitebourgeois AEGIS: kind ofsex(sexualintercourseso-called)primarily. Itseemsobvious.Ornatural. Abelove: something thattheoryingeneralsubverts. discipline? Peopleseemtobeveryguarded abouttheirarea ofexpertise,andthisseemstobe the part of one discipline [demographers] to accept conclusions from someone outside of their AEGIS: same, justdifferent aspectsofasingledevelopment. but ratherasrelatedtotheother. And intheendIsuggestthattheymaybe asensethe concurrent riseofamodernindustrialeconomy. Idon’t seetheoneasdependentonother, Abelove: I’minterestedinhowtheriseuseofsexualintercourseso-calledrelatesto into amodeofproduction (reproduction)? That theemphasisonproduction incapitalismtranscendedmaterialthingsandmorphedsex expression inexchangeformaterialistwealth,etc.are reflected byalossofsexualfreedom? ing thatthewaysinwhichcapitalismimpactedcommodificationoftime,lossfr is dependentupon(orperhaps coevalto)theriseofindustry—ofcapitalism. Are yousuggest AEGIS: eighteenth centuryinEngland. human practice.IliketothinkthatI’veshownitbecameincreasinglypopularduringthe is mutable,andwhatusuallytendentiouslycalled“sexualintercourse”justanother be interesting. This isadiscomfitingdualfeeling.It’s alsoadefense.….Allhuman practice haps feelthatthedemonstrationistoobizarretobecogentyetatsametimeobvious are eternal,thenanycontrarydemonstrationoftheirmutabilitywillconfuseus. We willper tional reactionbasedonthedevoutlyheldsuperstitionthatsexualpracticesareeternal.Ifthey Abelove: What Iwastalkingaboutwhensaid“discomfitingdualfeeling”isacommonemo us bothashistoriansandpoliticalbeings.”Canyouelaborateonthislineofthought? we givewaytoitandallowgovernusreinforce thatessentialismso disempowers al behavior. You remark thatthefeelingisideologicallydetermined, andthatinthemeasure call a “discomfiting dual feeling” in regards to drawing conclusions about the history of sexu

You speculatethatthemarkedriseinpopulationlateeighteenth-centuryEngland On page24,inyouressay“HistoryofSexualIntercourse,” youbringupwhat If thereading ofWalden asan“antinovel,”oneinwhich there isatotalrejection of

Do youthinkthistakeonsexualityissocontroversial becauseofunwillingnesson Right, andmostpeopleseemtobelievethatwehumanbeings havealwayshadthis ee ------

 aegis 2007 - ] … that’s hard to imagine hard to imagine ] … that’s Walden These are very interesting questions. I’m flattered that you all have been reading my reading have been you all that I’m flattered questions. interesting are very These In the same essay, you write that “Thoreau represents himself as despising the himself as despising represents you write that “Thoreau In the same essay, People appear to be profoundly unsettled by being alone. unsettled by People appear to be profoundly 50.2% households are not headed by a married couple. not 50.2% households are

In your essay “The Queering of Lesbian/Gay History” you make a statement about In your essay “The Queering of Lesbian/Gay History” you make a statement Even if you’re not married, you’re emulating it. you’re not married, Even if you’re Yes, sophomore year, parts of it—being one with nature, simplifying your life—it does your life—it does simplifying nature, one with parts of it—being year, sophomore Yes, ethic and transgressivilty in politics…. ethic and transgressivilty in politics…. AEGIS: of past gay and lesbian students approach the margins” the disconnect between the “from the from and authors that shows how contemporary “queer” students have moved away for this is that “These queer that part of the reason elaborate You of marginalization. trope and in students, the self is a myth, a delusion, a sham, a part of the ideology of humanism, the bulk of those within the state, the body politic, have similar problems with the kind of life with the kind politic, have similar problems the bulk of those within the state, the body do you think that “actions,” as you call them, was advocating. In light of this, that Thoreau within this country (and the world)? potential to subvert dominant narratives have the real to unsettle. I don’t I do think that the book has the potential The potential? Certainly, Abelove: Thoreauvian like Queer Nation, I see a kind of know that I’d say “subvert.” In a movement person. But Walden is a beautiful book about just that misconception. Thoreau’s argument is argument Thoreau’s is a beautiful book about just that misconception. Walden person. But lonely in com quite as likely to feel You’re being solo that makes you feel lonely. that it isn’t What that something else feel lonely is something else. What makes you pany or in a couple. or not is quite irrelevant…. And whether you’re with someone else is, is his topic. AEGIS: In many ways, it appears that American nation.” the American state as much as he requires Abelove: Right, and that’s true for gay people too, mostly ……Americans seem to believe true for gay people Abelove: Right, and that’s in a stable, loving couple . that you’re only grown-up when you’re AEGIS: supposed to be with another they think they are. because they believe they’re Well, Abelove: AEGIS: love, is still culturally combined with romantic sort of domesticity, Abelove: But a certain today. governs acceptable behavior that largely That is the discourse dominant. AEGIS: not go into the areas of the book that we read about in your essay. about we read of the book that the areas not go into less about nature, about being initially helpful to think of it as a book Abelove: It might be headlines concerning the 2005 being inside ….. Did you see the recent outside, than about census? Abelove: least at too seldom, it happens to—and be responded author wants—to every what It’s work. now [ … If it were published authors like me. to academic still read it in high school? it? Do people isn’t AEGIS:

aegis 2007 10 post-modern theoryonyourstudents’ conceptof“self”and“action.”Whatdoyouthinkthey inner depth.”We were wonderingifyoucouldelaborateontheinfluenceanddevelopment of with theself,theyalsoresist asmisleadinganddestructivetheconceptsoforiginality their eyeshumanismhaslongsincebeenfundamentallyandirrevocably discredited…along as anauthentic gender. gests thattheywouldwishto continue saying—if they wereasked—thatthereisnosuchthing sug trans-genderism in interest Their embraced. been has authenticity that mean doesn’t that but aside, set been has authenticity of critique their that think I so. think don’t I No, Abelove: AEGIS: Abelove: do theyadvocate? humanism does not work. that What, assumption if anything, there’spervasive has students this replaced your that of attitude with many your with students? What like seems It it. achieve to requireto seems person order in “self,” definite a to one’s motivate to goal, that recognize self AEGIS: sensitivity totheuseofpronounsinclassroom. tionary. A groupofthemhassentamessagetoallfaculty members,askingforanewsenseof only twogenders.Sowhatwefoundtobeprogressiveinthe60’s manynowthinkofasreac My studentsnowdon’t muchlikethatusagebecauseitseemstothemsuggestthereare all learnednottousethepronoun“he”foreveryone. We learnedtouse“heorshe”instead. the usualmale/femalebinary. When Iwasyoung,andsecond-wavefeminismstarting,we noun “zie,”aninventedpronounthatrepresentedallthepotentialvarietiesofgenderbeyond genders, thatgenderwasathingmultiple,theywantedtobedesignatedbythepro to becalled“he.” And thensomeotherssaidthattheythoughtsincetherewerealotof each claimapronoun. And someofthosewhomighthavebeenthoughttobewomenwanted course inqueertheorylastyear, mystudentsaskedmeiftheycouldgoaroundtheroom,and students, too. This interestoftheirsisverynew, Ihaven’t seenitbefore. And atthestartofmy interested inthewholetransgenderphenomenon,queerstudentsespecially, butlotsofother dents—you. Rightnowat Wesleyan, studentsareconcernedwithtransgender. They’re deeply ers lastnight…weweretalkingaboutthedifferences betweenmystudents andtheirstu That wasawhileago. Talking about Wesleyan studentsnow, whichIalsodidwithyourteach coherent accountofwhytheythoughtthe“self”wasanillusion,butthat’s whattheythought. something thattheyhadabsorbed.So,Idon’t knowiftheycouldalwayshavegivenavery ern viewtheyhadthen,wasn’t onewhichtheyhadaltogetherdevelopedideasabout.Itwas Abelove: Fromgaytoqueer? interested inthestoryasawhole,shiftfrom yourgenerationtothepresent day tives) besubverted?Maybeyoucanspeaktohowit’s changedfrom thewriting?We are just then howcannarratives(suchasanti-queernarratives,genderidentity, orhistoricalnarra advocate inplaceofthese“outdated”tropes ofhumanism?Iforiginalactionisnotpossible Or evennow. Are theycomingbacktohumanism? What are your views on “authenticity?” on views your are What

Well, thiswas10 ormoreyearsago.

What Iwantedtosuggestistheviewtheyhad,post-mod

I mean “authentic” insofar as an authentic an as insofar “authentic” mean I

. ------

11 aegis 2007 - - - Undoing creature. I did my PhD in History, but I’m an English professor and have but I’m an English in History, creature. I did my PhD Could Could you elaborate more on why there are more queer/post-modern theory courses Thank you for your time. Do you think as theory grows it will foster more interdisciplinary mixtures? As the As the mixtures? interdisciplinary it will foster more grows Do you think as theory

—what are your thoughts —what on in are these the rigid disciplines, demarcations and the future undisciplined think! It isn’t theory I think that does that, saliently and exclusively for us, not at all. What What and exclusively for us, not at all. theory I think that does that, saliently think! It isn’t We to resist that too. not so much the un-theoretical, well, we have we have to resist is rather, have to resist the guildish, the merely professional…. AEGIS: plines. The disciplines are good ways to learn things, but they aren’t necessarily good ways but they aren’t The disciplines are good ways to learn things, plines. learn how to scan a poem; it is true that we It is true that we have to to practice intellectually. of the revolutionary movement in France. I mean, need to learn something about the history in a History course, and then we know them. But we learn one in an English course, the other or even as an alert citizen, you’re going to have to if you want to practice as an intellectual, together in a coherent way in your head, and then put what you’ve learned and your ideas me to be anti-intellectual. I don’t know how to be interested in literature without being inter to be interested in literature without being know how I don’t me to be anti-intellectual. politics and philosophy and more. ested in history and AEGIS: seem so rigid. disciplines stand, they use as a way of transcending the disci know that theory is what we would Abelove: I don’t of Theory? or maybe I should I’m a multi-disciplinary, view. that would be her [Butler’s] Yes, Abelove: an say, that I write about philosophy Since you’ve read my book, you’ll know been for many years. discipline would seem to be confined to a singular To and politics. and literature and history AEGIS: in English departments than history departments? perhaps Or, you could speak to the divide between the disciplines and theory? is There a seemingly rigid alienation of theory of in “main chapter last the in this to speaks Butler circles. historical and philosophical stream” Gender

aegis 2007 12 Leaders withIgnorance PreparingFacebook.com: Future a majorityofthe studentsthatarecurrently in schoolarepartofthecommunity. Although students. Otterbein College membersofFacebook.com fromacollegethatonlyhas around3,100 I currentlyattend,in2005the responsewasoverwhelming. Today, thereare around2,500 For example,whentheweb-based communitywasopenedtoOtterbeinCollege,theschool includes different things,thenormsthatcampusaccepts areseeminglystilladheredto. type—partying, friendsandeven schoolwork. Although eachseparateFacebook.compage the profilesnotonlyinclude interests, butalsolifestyles. Theselifestylesareofthecollege what theyshouldsharewiththepublic.Generally, thethingsthatarebeingshownthrough set standardsforthestudentsloggingoneachdayinwhat they shouldputintheirprofilesand the guiseofsite. The connectionsthatoccur throughout eachcollegeinFacebook.com members, mostcommonlycollegestudents,whopresenttheir livesandpersonalitiesthrough view ofsexualityandbeing. The onlineFacebook.com communityiscenteredaroundthe the memberstoworkwithandoptionsthatareoffered areonesfocusedonaverynarrow find theirhomeintheheterosexualbinary. Thesiteoffers a minimal amountofcreativityfor gendered ideas. The communityisbasedarounddatingandafewsexualinnuendoesthat all gendered normsthatinturnshapethecollegestudent’s mindwhenthinkingaboutparticular applied toFacebook.comhelpunderstandtheproblems with thissocialwebcommunity. of Facebook.comanditsfeatureswillalsobepresentinthepaper. Finally, thetheorywillbe show howheterosexualitybecameevenmoremainstreamedduringthistime. An overview twentieth centuryandtherootsofcorruptioninviewssexualitythatexisttoday. Iwillalso com. IwillthenlayoutashorthistoryofsexualityintheUnitedStatesstartingwithmid- provide anoverviewofthetheorythatwillbeusedtoformargument againstFacebook. intentionally orunintentionallydoingtostudentsandmembersofthecommunity. Iwill to knowtheactualmotivationbehindZuckerberg’s invention,onlywhatFacebook.com is in theFacebook.comcommunityandthatanyqueerlifestyleisignored.Idonotprofess showing that.Iwillargue thatthereisanobviousacceptanceofheterosexualityasalifestyle also abreedinggroundforviewsongenderandnormativity. and photographs. their ownwebpagetocreateaprofilethatreflectsinterests,friends,schoolinformation This site,rankedasthe7 important websitesontheinternetreaching2,100collegescampusesand7millionusers. academia hasmovedfrombeingaHarvardonlinestudentdirectorytooneofthemost started thewebsiteandrevolutionFacebook.com. The exclusivesocial networkbasedin Introduction 3 Facebook.com, aswillbeshown,bindsmembersintoconforming toparticular Facebook.com isasitethathasitsrootsintheheterosexualbinaryandIplanson In February2004MarkZuckerberg, aHarvardUniversityundergraduate student, Although someofthesemembers maybealumniofOtterbein, itisstillclearthat Colleen Deel 2 Although thiscommunityisagoodwayforstudentstostayconnected,it th mosttraffickedontheweb,isaplacewherestudentsincollegeget 1

13 aegis 2007 -

- - 8 - - ,” clarification is ,” clarification Derrida is concerned The definition is cultur 6 The language that is used 4 Because language is so important in 7 It is clear that many of those inside the heterosexual matrix do not even know It is clear that many of those inside the heterosexual matrix do not even know 9 The Facebook.com community is involved in some way with the heterosexual The Facebook.com community is involved Because language plays a massive part in gender in society, the language does not in gender in society, Because language plays a massive part As stated above, I am arguing that there is a major problem with the gender terms problem with that there is a major above, I am arguing As stated One of the main problems in language in Western culture, Derrida believed, is that lan culture, Western in language in One of the main problems 5 Because of this naiveté, heterosexuals also believe that sex is a natural thing, which leads Because of this naiveté, heterosexuals also (in other words that there is an obvious binary to their assumption that sexes are different of The matrix is built around the heterosexual desire and a differentiation present for them). problems for the sexes. Because the matrix is one that everyone is forced to live in, it creates of only the anyone who wants to live outside of this close-minded language and knowledge heterosexual. it exists although they are playing into it every day. for or against have a livable life. In order to argue matrix, gender norms and the ability to Theorist Judith Butler has defined the are. these ideas, first I must explain what they the wrongdoings of those inside the matrix want to heterosexual matrix in a way that makes by heterosexuals who do not have the This matrix is created mostly search for a way out. heterosexual world to comprehend homosexuality. knowledge or the language outside of the actually constitutes gender. This is what is referred to as the gender binary. The binary leaves is referred to as the gender binary. This is what actually constitutes gender. the in considered are femininity/female and masculinity/male only because desired be to much These restrictions ignore anyone else who dares try to realms of gender on a consistent basis. its boundaries. enter the binary and does not fall within even though Derrida does not think it is efficient, it will have to do in explaining this paper, the problems with Facebook.com. Life Norms and the Livable Matrix, Gender The Heterosexual with the truth, as he sees it, that there is not a “realness” in language. Instead, something like with the truth, as he sees it, that there is may believe it to mean. the word “gender” only means what a person changing and therefore so is language itself, including ally specific and culture is constantly the word gender. what view of term. It goes on to restrict society’s just stop with restricting those into the Derrida’s theory of language is a prime example of how language is used, especially with a example of how language is used, theory of language is a prime Derrida’s system of meanings, it He wrote that language is only a complex tricky word like gender. that can be visually represented. believed, a concrete set of words is not, what is commonly idea of understanding from same is only a naming game that favors the Instead, all language ness. the words that do exist He theorized this because concerns intentionality.” guage “exclusively what one is actually saying. are not fully able to explain or understand posing viewpoints in the United States when it comes to the word “gender States when it comes in the United posing viewpoints is, definition implied is used, the When the word “gender” to what I actually mean. needed as the rules, privileges, and punish of meanings and symbols, along with “a language, a system strength and femininity, their use—for power and sexuality (masculinity ments pertaining to and weakness).” dominance action and passivity, and vulnerability, may be cutting and harsh. Jaques is one that, as the definition implies, when gender is asserted Facebook.com is not technically affiliated with Otterbein College, the high number of number the high College, with Otterbein affiliated is not technically Facebook.com to students for Otterbein as a way to be seen lends itself members Facebook.com Otterbein desk chair. to leave one’s friends without having make new By Gender? What Do I Mean First, are op There subject. gender is a tricky Facebook.com. But (and not used) in that are used

aegis 2007 14 encapsulate society?NormsareeasilyexplainedbylawprofessorRichardEpsteinas: this idea,afewquestionsfirstneedtobeasked,including,whatisnormandhowdoesit has notgonethrough thetraumaofbeingconsidered impossibleuntilone hasbeenthere.It ing tobecome possible, possibilityisanecessity.” live his/herlifewithoutanyone questioninghis/herliving,but“forthosewhoarestilllook by themajority(oratleastthose producingthegendernorms). able tolivealifethanhave ittakenawayjustbecausethelifeoneislivingnotaccepted which isatsomepointsavalid argument. Yet overall,Iwouldclaim,itisstill bettertobe not worthlivinginthis“natural” worldbecauseitiscenteredaroundtheheterosexualmatrix, of peoplethatessentiallydonotexistintheactualworld. Although somemayargue thatitis else beforeIcanbegintoimaginemyself.” Butler says,“thesenseofpossibilitypertainingtomemust firstbeimaginedfromsomewhere nizing thatsheexists. This recognitiononlyhappens ifsheisessentiallynormal.Overall,as harder tochange.Butlerusestheexamplethatshecannot existwithoutsomeoneelserecog every generation,insteadthesethingsarethereforusand that makesthenormalitieseven laying thegroundworkforus.” ognize that,“We comeintotheworldonconditionthatsocial worldisalreadythere, tionally, commonlythroughachild’s ownexamination ofsociety. Butlerhascometorec one generationtothenext.Instead,thesenormsaretaught atayoungage,perhapsuninten harsh formanyinthequeercommunity, theyarenotnormsthatabletobechangedfrom norms (whichleadtoviolence)thattheymustendure.Notonlyaretheseones around therealnessofqueercommunity(asseenbythoseoutsidethisrealm)and undone arenotwithintheacceptednormsofsociety. they arenotabletolivelifeinawaythatthosearoundthemcanrecognizebecausethe world, ahuman’s actualpersonhoodcanbeundonethroughnorms. When apersonisundone resistance because,asButlerbelieves,thereisa“normativeconceptionofgender”inthe efforts tounderminethesegenderednormsthateffect society, buttheyaremetwithafierce that operatethroughthenaturalizationandreificationofheterosexistnorms.” have takenastheirmainenemythosenormativeframeworksofcompulsoryheterosexuality Butler states in her book the UnitedStatestodaybecausethosenormsarelimitedtoonlyacceptingheterosexuality. As example ofthegenderednorm. These problemsarisefromthegendernormsthatexistaround appease society. Yet, thereareproblemssurrounding thisidea,especiallyifoneisusingthe When onlyexaminingthisdefinition,normsseemtobeworthwhileideasfollowinorder These unlivablelivesareones thatmayseemtrivialtooneisalreadyable Butler’s conceptofthelivablelifeisonenottobetakenlightlybecauseitrevolves Within thismatrixthereisthenotionofnormsthatworkwithpeople’s lives. With norm compliance. acceptable wayofdistributingfairlythecooperativesurplusgeneratedby solution, andmostlikelywill(probablybyothernorms)findsome with theapplicablenorm,groupisabletoachieveitsidealcooperative individuals livingandworkingingroups. When allindividualscomply The normsinquestionsetthestandardsofcooperativebehaviorfor Bodies That Matter 13 We arenotallable tocreateanewsocietyandnorms 10

14 , “The efforts to denaturalize sexuality and gender This imaginationclausecreatesanentireworld 15 Itisalmostincomprehensible toonethat 12

11 So,thereare - - - -

15 aegis 2007 - - - - then the doing, without be

The actual unlivable life is one that, “ to The actual unlivable life is one 16 17 It is more than oppression, it is incomprehen is it oppression, than more is It 18

19 Therefore, the categories are so prevalent because of their ability to Therefore, 20 upon my being able to do something with what is done with me…The “I” upon my being able to do something with by norms and dependent on them that I am finds itself at once constitute maintain critical and transformative but also endeavors to live in ways that relations to them indeed, the capacity to develop a critical relation to these norms indeed, the capacity to develop a critical to suspend or defer the need presupposes a distance from them, an ability The that might let one live. for them, even as there is a desire for norms collective, to invariably critical relation depends as well on a capacity, of sustaining norms or ideals that articulate an alternative, minority version cannot enable me to act. If I am someone who conditions of my existence. If my conditions of my doing are, in part, the the ways in which I rather, or, doing is dependent on what is done to me of my persistence as an “I” depends am done by norms, then the possibility The online community of Facebook.com has much of its content centered upon the The online community of Facebook.com It seems that the best way to get outside of this heterosexual matrix (in order for way to get outside of this heterosexual It seems that the best It is also important to mention the difference between what one may think is unliv what one may think between the difference to mention It is also important male/female binary. Actually, one of the first pieces of information that a member is asked to one Actually, male/female binary. But these categories did not start on Facebook.com, they put up on his/her site is “gender.” it seems, had been emphasized many years before this site came into existence. In actuality states, “Masculine/Feminine, male/female are the categories which Wittig as theorist Monique always belong to an economic, political, serve to conceal the fact that social differences ideological disorder.” So it seems that there is little one can do in this search for a way to undermine the norms that So it seems that there is little one can do the matrix and still But it is possible, although difficult, to live in are hurting so many today. remain a critic. The Dualism of M/F that your language is hollow, that no recognition is forthcoming because the norms by which which by norms the because forthcoming is recognition no that hollow, is language your that favor.” your in not are place takes recognition sion. and live a more true life, to live a livable life) is to ignore said matrix everyone to be able is so prevalent in the United impossible while the heterosexual matrix but this is also nearly that: States. Butler argues able and what is actually an unlivable life. It seems that many like to say that they are “op that many like to life. It seems is actually an unlivable able and what means “to be oppressed this is not the case, unlivable life. But therefore have an pressed” and as a subject of some kind.” that you already exist laws of culture and of language find unintelligible (indeed, the find that you are fundamentally access to human to find yourself is that you have not yet achieved you to be an impossibility) the sense that you are not, to find as if you were human, but with speaking only and always seems as if this is an obvious societal norm that needs to be changed immediately, but it is not but it is immediately, to be changed that needs norm societal is an obvious as if this seems and and pathologized” times “criminalized are often are transgendered Subjects that that easy. impossi This may seem and imprisonment.” “risk internment actually cross gender those that the state that is inflicting in, but it is actually state is not stepping may ask why the ble and one from the problem. not saving those such violence,

aegis 2007 16 centered aroundthesexthatoppresses,maleandisoppressed,female. oppresses.” It isclear, as Wittig believes,“thereisnosex. There isbutsexthatoppressedand connect one’s thoughtfrommaleandfemaletosuccessfulunsuccessfulorrichpoor. of themoreimportant revolutionspertaining tothistopicintheUnitedStates occurredin in general,that promptedtheoverlyheterosexuality ofFacebook.com.It seemsthatone that occurredbeforetheriseof Facebook,orforthatmattertheriseofwebcommunities The RiseofaNew Age this circlewouldbetochange themediaandidealstheyportray. normal womanisquitesimilar inlookstoHeidiKlum. by menandtheytooarefedthe samefood.Menarealsobeingenticedbytheideathat a aesthetics ofthemedia.”Butitdoesnotendthere. The imagesthatwomenseearealsoseen where ‘normal’ isbeingradicallyredefinedbythesurgeons, theactresses,andofcourse the in herbook or anideal,thatisnowbecomingwhatshouldbe“normal.” As SusanBordotheorized telling themwhattheyshouldlikeordislike.Fromthismedia societyisbeingfedanidea, mostly comesfromthemediawhichhasawayofgettinginside themindsofmenandwomen cities, constituteadiscourse…itsignifiesthatwomenare dominated.” that “pornographicimages,films,magazinesphotos,publicity postersonthewallsof within thedualityofsexesthatissocommonlypreached intheUnitedStates.Itisclear in thequeercommunity)thatdonotunderstandextentoftheiroppression. most damningof Wittig’s entirestatementbecausetherearemanylesbians(andothers agree, toexplaintheplightoflesbians. The phrase“whethertheyknow itornot”maybethe (politically) beyondthecategoriesofsex.” of lesbianshereandnowinsociety, whethertheyknowitornot,islocatedphilosophically woman touseinorderexpresshowshefeels. Wittig firmlystatedthat,“Thesituation should thiswomansaysheisaandalsolikeswomen. There isnolanguageforthis this womantellpeoplehergenderisamanandthatsheenjoysthecompanyofwomenor sexually attractedtowomen,butthereisaproblemthatoccurswhenthishappens.Should perceives amantobe. This womanmaybelieveherselftobealesbianbecausesheis this questionisasked.Forexample,abiologicalwomanmaydressandactaswhatsociety are alsoproblemsthatsocietygivestothoseoutsideoftheseoptionsjustbecause therefore, lessofabeing. can betransferredintothesexualdualismandagainfemalesareconsideredlessersex is that“good”wouldbegodlikewhilenon-beingbeinganythingelse. many wouldbeconsidered“bad.” Wittig’s conclusionofthis Aristotelian wayofthinking the terms,male,straight,one,etc. To furtherreasoning,itwouldseemthatfemale,gayand “bad.” Underthislineofreasoning,itseemsthatwhatwouldbeconsidered“good” (dualism) setofreasoning.Inthis,themaincategorieswereessentiallylabeled“good”and in ordertoweighconsequencesandoptions. Aristotle, forexample,decidedonatwoseries reasoning. The dualisminthoughtwasawaytoexaminehowonewouldbeablereason Because Facebook.comonly started afewyearsagothereisclearlysomething Along withthisdualism,aspreviouslymentioned,isthedegradation ofthefemale Not onlyarethereproblems,asstatedabove,ofthedualityingeneral,but Dualisms seemedtobeginwhenphilosopherstheorizeaboutaprocessof 21 The MaleBody Obviously, intheUnitedStatestoday, theperceptionofsexualityandgenderis , “Most(women)merelywanttolook‘normal’ inaculture 23 There isnolanguage,asDerrida,Ithink,would 25 Perhaps,theonlywaytoget outof 24 The domination 22 The dualismthen

17 aegis 2007

28 Not only only Not 27 became a Playboy also offered a new twist on the type a new twist on the also offered The wholesomeness of the playmates The birth control pill was a revolution a revolution pill was birth control The 30 26 Playboy

29 created an opening for women everywhere in America to have in created an opening for women everywhere Playboy I can only underline the oppressive character that the straight mind is clothed in its tendency to immediately universalize its production of concepts into general laws which claim to hold true for all societies, all (and now the many other pornographic magazines) are advertised towards towards advertised are magazines) pornographic other many the now (and Although the birth control pill and the rise in the acceptance of “men’s magazines” by by magazines” “men’s of acceptance the in rise the and pill control birth the Although This massive overhaul in the way that women and men could live had the obvious in the way that women and men could This massive overhaul Playboy men did not have to worry about pregnancy. Any queer lives were pushed out of normality normality of out pushed were lives queer Any pregnancy. about worry to have not did men the on wrote Wittig before. ever than accessible more much so was sexuality straight because stated: She society. this in evolved has that mind straight the of problems rise in sexually crazed males for females posing in a magazine opened the door for a heightened heightened a for door the opened magazine a in posing females for males crazed sexually in rise include not did beginning stated the from present were that norms The community. heterosexual the in lifestyles queer those against closed were minds therefore and lifestyles alternative any future. also control Birth themselves. delude to which with men for fantasies female include and men and women because States United the in more even prosper to relations heterosexual allowed posing nude in a magazine or something a little more subtle, is a good thing that men enjoy posing nude in a magazine or something and women should too. important and forward sexually extremely some, by considered as both, are public general the types the to implications extreme also are they history, century Twentieth American in moments have to women for ability The times. later in prevalent and accepted became that sexuality of the and pill, control birth the before than consequences fewer with men with relations sexual depicted women that had morals and were ethically sound. These women were also written These women were also written ethically sound. depicted women that had morals and were family ties. to be humanitarians and to have strong that were shown in Although it may not have been a dream of most 18-year- aspirations to be a playmate too. opened the door for any woman to see value in a old girls, the innocence that was portrayed be it by their sexuality, that showing off This could lead to women believing playmate career. the birth control pill was introduced into American culture, the magazine American was introduced into the birth control pill mainstream. was introduced in 1953 and made pornography The magazine household name. and the national consciousness made pornography a more accepted idea The magazine itself in the public that featured full the concept of the “men magazine” was expanded to accept pictures of nude women. length, unapologetic given next The biographies that were posing for magazines of this type. of women that were The biographies of the proverbial “girl next door.” to the nude pictures of women were those women to work during their twenties, thirties and forties instead of caring for a baby. a for caring of instead forties and thirties twenties, their during work to women partner, sexual and wife woman, (heterosexual) of type new a for way make revolution this did and liberating sexually more was rise took that culture The culture. of type new a created also it culture. open sexually more a and consequences) without (sex love” “free more lot a allowed liberation. Not long before and also a more general culture sexually liberating consequences May of 1960. The approval from the Food and Drug Administration of one pill changed the pill changed of one Administration and Drug the Food from The approval of 1960. May in society. and women men between relationships a take a tiny pill once pregnancy was to to do to prevent all a woman needed in a pack and an the 1960s soon became of sorts began and a revolution the pill was approved, When day. came this revolution Within lifestyles. women and their for (heterosexual) era of liberation for ability the and marriage of outside intercourse sexual more marriages, fewer even and later,

aegis 2007 18 only connected totheotherstudentsthatattend. This createsan atmosphereofintimacywith thestudentsintheiruniversity becausetheyare specific mini-networkthatonly studentsfromthatcollegeoruniversityareabletobe on. a consequence,everycollege anduniversityintheFacebook.comnetworkhastheirown can initiallyonlyseeFacebook.com pagesofotherstudentsthatattendUniversity. As automatically putintotheOSU Facebook.comnetwork. This meansthatthestudentatOSU if astudentattends The OhioStateUniversityandprovidesanOSUemailaddress, theyare particular schoolthisautomatically becomesthenetworkthatmemberisin.Forexample, about themselvesontheirownpage.Becauseeachmember’s emailaddresslinksthemto a has thepossibilityofmakingthoseinsocialnetworkfeel saferaboutgivinginformation This keepstabsonwhoisabletogetinsideofacollegecommunity onFacebook,which reply toaconformationemailthatissentthevalidcampus emailaddresstobeactivated. an account.Inorderforapersontobecomememberof a collegecommunity, theymust working collegeoruniversityemailaddress,astheloginname foreachstudentwhogets member ofeachparticularcollegeFacebook.comcommunity tofirstprovetheyhavea them oncampus,classes,dormitoriesanddininghalls. also theotherpeopleintheirnetworkthatnotonlyseethem onlinebutalsopresumablysee option onFacebook.com. The membersofFacebook.comhavethemselvestoanswerand that isallowedforpeople’s identityinotheronlinecommunitynetworksisnotasmuchan through thedesignofsitetobewhohe/sheactuallyis,acollegestudent. these peoplewillnormallybe18to24yearolds. The membersofFacebook.com areforced who aregenerallygoingtocomeacrossinhis/her pose asanyonetheywanttobe. The studentswhologontoFacebook.comeverydayknow there islittletonoaccountabilitybecauseanyonewhohasaccesstheInternetcanjoinand social communityasopposedtootherpopularonlinecommunitieslikeMyspace.comwhere email addresstojoinacollegenetwork. This validitygivesthesitemore concretenessinits uniqueness behindthisparticularsiteisthatitonlyallowsthosewhohaveavalidcollege be explainedbelow)isdifferent thanothercommunitiesthatpermeatetheInternet. The of eachnetwork(andthechecksystemthatexistsinordertogetintoanetwork,whichwill location, workandhighschool)theyareallindividualnetworks. The closedatmosphere students. Although thereareothernetworksoutsideofcollege(including Facebook.com—the Revolution using birthcontrolwhilehavingsexisamustforeverywoman. by amantoviewwomenandeverytimewomandisregardsqueerrelationshipsthinkingthat heterosexual movementinsocietyisperpetuatedeverytimeamen’s magazineispurchased that perpetuatetheheteronormativityinUnitedStates.Justasmeaningsofthis As Wittig explainedhere,themeaningofwordsdifference areusedeveryday

Another securitydevicethatFacebook.comutilizesistherequirement ofevery The conceptofFacebook.comistocreateanonlinesocialnetworkamongcollege philosophical dogma. thought whichproducesthedifferences betweenthesexesasapoliticaland concepts whentheyareonlycategoriesfoundeduponheterosexuality, or the epochs, allindividuals. Thus onespeaksof differences betweenthesexes…giving anabsolutemeaningtothese 31

32 ownnetwork(theirparticularcollege)and the exchange ofwomen, The fluidity

19 aegis 2007 ’s ’s The This emphasis on relationships is one of the most obvious parts of Facebook. This emphasis on relationships is one of The second line of information on one’s Facebook.com page states the secondary Facebook.com on one’s The second line of information The page that each member of the online community can create has a variety of has a variety can create online community of the member that each The page the terms “male” or “female” to tell the viewer of the web site what they actually believe the terms “male” or “female” to tell the more fluid than just two boxes and two themselves to be. Identity should be considered to reaffirm choices. Now it seems that with the second and third line Facebook.com begins because any member could input that they are interested in, and even itself as queer-friendly The problem that occurs is the in a relationship with, someone of the same or opposite sex. but being fact that Facebook.com already deterred a student from choosing anything else a part of these first The heterosexual matrix is largely predominately “male” or “female.” say they are “in a relationship” (or any of the other four choices) with anyone that concurs. say they are “in a relationship” (or any It seems that facebook.com is not only trying to com that is open for theory application. to each other in order to discuss classes and be a community that connects college students community that is centered on relationships. First interests, it also is clearly an online social for a member whom does not identify with and foremost Facebook.com does not allow those that say they are “interested in” the same sex only to be ironic or for only platonic those that say they are “interested in” the queer community is lacking recognition on Facebook. reasons. Overall, it still seems as if the line the In this relationship status of the member. The third line is also centered around the from the options of “single,” “in a relationship,” “in member can tell their relationship status complicated.” Not only do they have and “it’s an open relationship,” “engaged,” “married” they can also assign a person that is also a member these choices, but in the latter five options, This leaves the field open for a student to of Facebook, with whom they are in a relationship. people list themselves as being “interested in” their same gender I searched on the Otterbein people list themselves as being “interested everyone that chose to say they were a “woman” and College network of Facebook.com for At Otterbein College 23 women came up as being that they were “interested in” women. for men “interested in” men. In this search 30 “interested in” women. I then did the same say they are Although it seems that a decent amount of people men matched the inquiry. not take into account the unknown, which includes “interested in” their same sex this does information about a person that is not mandatory to fill-in in order to have an account. person that is not mandatory to fill-in information about a two options are male and female; The info” is the sex of the member. first line in this “basic to type in another sex that one “transgender” to choose from or a box there is no “other” or The the person is “interested in.” The second line is devoted to whom may identify with. They in “men” or “women.” to check that they are either interested member has the option many how examine to order In choose. so they if neither or both check to ability the have also they are planning to graduate. In this primary field there is also the place for the member there is also the In this primary field to graduate. they are planning other truthfulness than is based more on stated, Facebook.com as previously name. Because, actual name of student instead of, the name that is entered is usually the online communities, (this is even semi-regulated may have, a nickname or a quote as other online communities member must be approved before because the name of the by Facebook.com administrators, changed). options for each particular student’s interests. With this being said, each member can decide can decide member said, each this being With interests. student’s particular for each options an After signing up for individual page. to put on their or how little they want how much to fill in or to that they can choose a variety of fields new member is given account, the social that states which is a mandatory field of information The first category leave blank. what year goes to and what college the member This includes person is in. network that

aegis 2007 20 Facebook.com webpagetobeginwith.Languageitselfdoesnothavetheabilityallowfor back tothelanguagetheoryofDerrida,gendershouldnotevenbeanissueoneachmember’s are alsoclearproblemswiththewordingthatFacebook.comallowsformembers.Going few questionsthatmembersaregiventofillin.Puttingtheheterosexualmatrixasidethere the pagewithany bandormovietheyhave even slightlyheardofforthe “favorite”section the memberis able toputasmuchorlittle informationastheycare.Some studentsfillup television, andstudentsareeven abletoputintheirfavoritequotes.Inthisportionofthe site portion ofthepageincludespolitical views,interests,favoritemusic,films,booksand surface informationonemight givewhilegettingtoknowsomeoneforthefirsttime. promoting thecyclicnatureof theheterosexualvictimandaggressorrelationship. victimhood outsideofonline relationships), theuseofgenderwithinFacebook.comis because thewomanismorelikelytobecomevictimthan theman(consideringcommon of visitors. This isplayingwithintherealmofcommonheterosexualrelationships,and to alsotickthe“randomplay”boxpairedwithadormaddress maynotleadtothehappiest example, awomanisalreadydegradedinthemedia,and societalrealm.Giventheoption this, onecouldeasilybecomeavictimonFacebook.com(and intherealmofreality).For multiple waysfromfriends,classmatesandevenstrangers inthesamenetwork.Inallof information thatisallowedinthissectionopensthedoorfor memberstobecontactedin from emailaddress, AOL screennamestoeventelephonenumberandstreetaddress. The that onegivesisthe“contactinfo.” The informationthatstudentsareabletofillinranges are chosenbythepageowner, literally. Especiallybecausethenextportionofinformation other onlinecommunities)anymemberwouldhavetheabilitytotaketheseoptions,that Because theseoptionsarestatedonapagethatworkswithintherealityoftruth(moresothan categories eachmemberisabletotellpageviewerwhattheywantintheirrelationship. “whatever Icanget,”“dating”and“randomplay.” With theabilitytocheckthese different area thememberhasseveralboxesthatcanbechecked,“friendship,”“arelationship,” Facebook.com page,thequestionofwhatamemberis“lookingfor”thenasked.Inthis (and embracing)shouldtakeplaceaboutdifferent culturesandsexualities. Instead oftheFacebook.comarenathatleadsstudentsintoafalseconsciousness,learning being heldbackbecauseofFacebook.cominsteadallowedtoflourishintonewideas. because thecollegeyearsareusuallyconsideredformingofalife. These livesare life (thequeercommunity). The siteingeneralisunhealthyforstudents atcolleges. This is true arealso,quitepossiblyonaccident,hurtingthosethatnotallowedtolivethis“real” Students thatsignupforthissitewithoutknowledgeoutsideofthenaturetheyperceiveas may notknowtheilleffects ofbuyingintothisnorm-demandingsociety, theeffects arethere. members arelivingwithintheheterosexualmatrix,andjustascreatorofFacebook.com also beingfed(andfeeding)falseanddamninginformationtoothermembers.Forexample, of themembersFacebook.comcommunityarenotonlyaddictedtositebut com communitypresentsitsmembersaslimitedtoasmallamountof“real”living.Many in asocietyiftheheterosexualmatrixdidnotexist. also be a disregard for this area of information in general because it certainly would not matter everyone tobeablesaywhatonebelievesthemselvesonacertainday. There should After thisareais asectionthatislabeled“personalinfo”whichincludesthe entire After thefirstfewlinesofbasicinformationthatcanbeprovidedon The outcomeoflivingintheheterosexualmatrixisthat,forexample,Facebook. This

21 aegis 2007 To break it down, the To just by clicking the link on the profile page. In order for me to see how often just by clicking the link on the profile 1984 Perhaps Facebook.com would be a well traveled site with only those options for Perhaps Facebook.com would be a well One of the most recent additions to Facebook.com is the “mini-feed.” On each additions to Facebook.com is the “mini-feed.” One of the most recent categories at Otterbein College or only seven people were not too scared to place those words categories at Otterbein College or only might not even realize that the oppression is happening, in their profile. In fact, many people place, and the person being “scared” might there is oppression taking but subconsciously, interested in only be after the realization of the overbearing matrix. Many students may be but the option is not even available, in his or her eyes, because it is not allowed rights, GLBT This is one example of how there is quite possibly a within the matrix in the first place. a “livable” cluster of queer people who are being pushed, from an outside source, into living queer ideas actually get presented on Facebook.com as interests, I searched multiple words queer ideas actually get presented on Facebook.com Otterbein College Facebook.com network. I searched to see how often there was a hit on the Within and transsexual. intersex, GLBT queer, bisexual, lesbian, gay, the words: transgender, to include these words. all these searches only seven profiles appeared lesbian received one, the rest came up with nothing. word queer received six hits and the word people (including me) are interested in those This means one of two things, either seven members, but there is actually more that a member can do just with the information given in members, but there is actually more that about a person is posted each item becomes a link. After the information the interests section. to anyone else, in his/her network, and friends list When one clicks this link one can be lead When this feature is utilized the social connections that also put this interest in his/her profile. likes his/her favorite band Hawthorn Heights or begin. Members are able to see who else the book Facebook.com “friends” have done to their sites at all times. In addition to the mini-feed Facebook.com “friends” have done to their member to update their status for his/her friends to there is also now a “status” option for any people within her network that she is shopping until see. For example, if Patty wants to tell know she can put that in her status bar so other members and friends can she drops that day, to the general information that Patty provides that is what Patty is currently doing, in addition updated less regularly. member’s home page, there is a list of things that this member’s friends recently did to friends page, there is a list of things that this member’s home member’s at any moment, I could find page. For example, on my home page, his/her Facebook.com her “about me” or that one friend his picture, that another changed out that a friend updated fire from the Facebook.com This new option has come under some wall. wrote on another’s down quickly but this heat died it seemed to be a way to “stalk” friend’s, community because thought of as) benefits on constantly knowing what after members saw the (what was quickly a viewer the member’s educational information. The college that the student is attending that the student is attending The college information. educational member’s a viewer the to add more, there if a member wants site in this area. But put up on the is automatically of that student in their when the student will graduate, the concentration are places open for the options of posting his/her work school they attended. He/she also has school and the high job) and the courses he/she is and amount of time at particular information (job, company, currently enrolled in. while other members leave the entire section blank. At the end of the bulk of the page, the page, the bulk of the of the At the end blank. section the entire leave other members while in the themselves about information put more option to have the members section, interest else about themselves to write anything members are able column. In this area “about me” an open just writing “I’m from a member This section can range included above. that is not reader more about telling the writing full paragraphs ask!” to another member book, just that gives is a new block of information section, there Following the interest themselves.

aegis 2007 22 The membercan“friend”theotherorevensendamessagetellinghowinteresting conforming tosomethingtheyarenot. life. Although inthiscase,thelifeisstillnot(maybe evenlessso)“livable”becausetheyare simple, theinterpretations ofwhata“poke” actuallymeansareendless. “Poking” seemslike essentially throws thatmessageaway)or“poking” member A back. Although the conceptis sent apoke.MemberBhasthe optionofignoringthepoke“hiding”itfromview(which a messageonhis/herfrontpage thenexttimehe/shelogsontositethatmember A has more abstractwayofcommunication. When member A “pokes”memberB,Bgets been discussed,(messagingand writingonthewallofamember’s page)butthethirdisa another member’s Facebook.com pagethereareseveraloptionsgiven. Two havealready feature hasbeenanoptionfrom thebeginning. Facebook.com boastsoftodayarearelativelynewphenomenon onthesite,butpoking many membersmayusequiteinnocentlyisthe“poke”feature. Manyofthefeaturesthat members thatareenamoredwithsexualinnuendo.Oneof themoreobviousonesthat that mayviewtheFacebook.compage. that occurinhis/hercollegesettingbecausehe/shehaveto inevitablyanswertothosepeers what Iamarguing ismorelikelythecase,thatmanymembersaretooafraidofbending norms basis inthesocialandacademicrealmsoftheircollege. Therefore, itisalsopossible,and pages inacollegenetwork,alternatively, havetoseetheirsocialnetworkinpersonon adaily could evenhavebothpageswithlittledifficulty). ThepeoplethatarecreatingFacebook.com information aboutmylife,butIcouldjustaseasilyposea14yearoldboyfromSweden(I I amonlyfriendswithpeopleknowfromthe“realworld”inwhichinputallcorrect the checksystemisnotinplaceasitFacebook.IcouldhaveaMyspacepagewhich (another onlinesocialnetwork).Myspace.compromotesthevalidityofeachmember, but Facebook.com couldbeconsideredmoretruthfulthanthoseof,say, aMyspace.compage would putonapagethatpeopletheydidnotknowsee. This means thatthepageson networks maybe,whateachpersonputsontheirpersonalpagediffer fromwhatthey social networkingwebsites.Becauseeachnetworkismoretightlyboundthanother around locationalnetworksinsteadofanentireworldnetworkthatisusuallythecaseonother and acquaintancesmeetingoutsideofacyberchatroom,becauseFacebook.comiscentered word andaprofilemaycomeupwhichopensthedoorforhatecrimestooccur people aroundthemthatarequeeriseasierthanever. All onehastodoistypeina“queer” there canalsobeadarksidetothesearch.Now, theabilityforheterosexisttofind a wideningofperson’s network. Although thisfeatureisonethatpromotesfriend-making, “friend” theoldhighschoolfriendsinordertokeeptouchafterschool. This leadsto see theirhighschoolclassmates’ pagesunlesstheyarewithineachothersnetworkscan else withinFacebook.comthatalsoattendedhighschool. Although thememberscannot chooses tolettheirhighschoolbeknownonhis/herpagethisalsobecomesalinkeveryone Facebook.com pagealsoincludethepossibilityforconnections.Forexample,ifamember only aremembersabletoclickontheirinterestsviewsimilarpeople,otherareasofeach of meetingonoraroundcampusbecausetheybothsupposedlygotothesameschool.Not the foundmemberis. When theseconnectionsareforged, membershaveahighlikelihood As previouslymentioned,Facebook.comisguiltyofhaving afewoptionsfor Often timesthesocialnetworkingthatisdoneonFacebook.comleadstonewfriends After amemberfindsoutwhoelsehassimilarinterests,connectionscanbemade. 33 When amemberwantstoconnectedwith .

23 aegis 2007 With the addition of the photo album a new cornerstone of Facebook.com came into the With When Facebook.com was first created there was only the ability for each member to When Facebook.com was first created One of the more outlandish but commonly constructed ideas behind the “poke” is but commonly constructed ideas One of the more outlandish being. Not only are the members of Facebook.com able to tell viewers of their site about being. Not only are the members of Facebook.com photography themselves, these members can now show viewers about themselves through Although Facebook.com does not have too. Here again the heterosexual matrix is kept intact. in nature,” a box to tick that says “I affirm that I the pictures I am uploading are heterosexual life would it is implied that putting up pictures that are outside of the matrix and the livable This is true because every member within a college Facebook. be negative for any member. are clearly taken in Otterbein College housing. Although Otterbein College is a dry campus are clearly taken in Otterbein College housing. or on campus would be punished by school officials; and anyone who has alcohol in a dorm put these incriminating photographs up on his/her Otterbein College members still seem to members are putting out about themselves on their site. It is clear that the image that these possible punishment that may go along with the page is more important to them than any photographs. is not only another way for members to represent themselves to his/her network but it is is not only another way for members to can upload seem actually to be endless, The amount of photos one also extremely popular. 32 photo albums on her page (and counting). Each I have personally one “friend” that has has approximately 1920 photos on her site than any photo album can hold 60 pictures so she photo albums I look through the When access. can circle allows in her friend she that member amount of photos taken at bars and parties. Some of my Facebook.com “friends” I see a large on Facebook.com have alcohol in the pictures and of these parties that have picture albums show one picture of themselves (presumably their face) on the main page. This has changed This has changed their face) on the main page. show one picture of themselves (presumably This feature allows each Facebook. photo album. with the addition of the Facebook.com of photos onto the main page in the form of photo com member to upload an infinite amount each Facebook.com page range from pictures The photo albums that members put on albums. This option break trip to the island of Bora Bora. of a favorite horse to pictures of a spring ability of that interpretation. The consequence of the virtual “poke” can be interpreted in of the virtual “poke” can be interpreted The consequence ability of that interpretation. the sexual nature of the word poke itself is considered, but because as many ways as the head while giving or sexuality is often conjured in a member’s and the idea of the action, outside of the society that does not show or discuss much the help of a With receiving pokes. the meaning of the poke for most (especially not homosexual relations) heterosexual matrix heterosexual sex, and therefore to reinforce the heterosexual matrix, people is possibly going sex). heterosexual during receives woman the and gives man the (as man the of dominance the member logs on, a new “poke message” appears. These are just a few possibilities to show a few possibilities to These are just message” appears. on, a new “poke member logs is. the poke truly how ambiguous to alluding literal sexual way, to poke another member in a strictly the option for a member image for those imagining This brings about a heterosexual “poked.” wanting to be sexually sexually there is still the sense. Even if the language is not interpreted the word in a sexual a pointless gesture but to many members it considered much more. A member may “poke” may “poke” member A much more. it considered many members but to gesture a pointless simple may be a “poke” or the other member to that an attraction there is because another this C has poked you” that says “Member appears for a member when a message “hello.” But or acknowledgement gesture of greeting might just be a cyber so much more. It could mean still others use the “poke” Yet in person. more physical poking be an invitation for or it might a so that every time or everyone, cyber “poke” someone, and continually as an annoyance

aegis 2007 24 girlfriend andthelovetheyshareforoppositesex.Forexample,onefemalememberin members thatconsiderthemselvesheterosexualuploadphotographswiththeirboyfriendor the photographsthatmembersputupareonesreaffirmtheir(hetero)sexuality com networkisbeing,aspreviouslystated,judgedbyotherswithinthenetwork.Manyof preferences. There isagreatdealofauthority thattheFacebook.comcreators havesomehow of information thatmembersgiveoutontheir siteincludetheirrelationship statusand its rootsinwhatwouldbeconsidered anonlinedatingwebsite. Conclusion ready toinjurethequeercommunity. not asharsh,butbecausegroups like“Heterosexual”exist,thescaretacticsarethereand themselves notheterosexual. Obviously, manyofthegroupsthatOtterbeinCollegehasare network thatisconcernedwiththismatter, butitisthemostdegradingtothosethatconsider to thoseoutsideofthematrix.“Heterosexual”isnotonly groupinOtterbeinCollege’s these thoughts)aretryingtokeeptheirheterosexuallifeapparent tothepointofdegradation gatekeepers toheterosexualityandlivability. These members(alongwithanyonewhohas members fromtheOtterbeinCollegenetwork. Those whoalreadyhavealivablelifearethe scare thoseoutsidebackinside.Itisalsoappropriatetonote that“Heterosexual”claims51 to blindlybythesocietywithin,butalsoabilityforthose intheheterosexualmatrixto with itsdescriptionandnewsistheepitomeofhow, notonlyaheterosexualmatrixisadhered stop havingthoseparades.Don’t seeushavingstraightparades??” straight! (sic)Ifyouaren’t orhaveaproblem,then leave. We wouldleaveyoubeifyou’d “Heterosexual” alsoincludesa“recentnews”sectionwhichreads,“Congratualtions,your hope youfeelthesameway, onlyopposite...lol…opentostraightguysandgirlsalike.” as simplethat.Idon’t thinkIneedtotellyouwhatagirldoesforme. And girls, Iknow/ if anyonejoins)members.“Heterosexual’s” descriptionreads,“We liketheoppositesex, “Heterosexual”). EachFacebook.comgroupincludesadescription,founderand(presumably, hand isthegroupnamed,“I’mCompletelyHeterosexual101%”(itwillnowbereferredtoas fun innature.OnegrouptheOtterbeinCollegenetworkthatisinterestingtotopicat might alsohaveaFacebook.comgrouptokeepmembersinformedonline),othersaremore groups thatmeetatthecollegeregularly(forexampleacookinggroupmeetsoncampus he/she wants. Although somegroupsineachnetworkarejustonlineextensionsofphysical spans allnetworks,collegeandotherwise)anyonecanjoin(orcreate)asmanygroups network oruniversalgroupsforanyonewithintheentireFacebook.comcommunity(which create andjoin“groups.”Memberscangroupsthatarecreatedeitherinhis/herown order toattractsomemendate. interested in“men”and“dating”themsheispresumablyplacingthosephotosonhersite in awettee-shirtcontestPanamaCity. Becausethismemberstatesthatsheissolely and itincludespicturesofthefemalethatuploadedherfriendsparticipating from themalesex.Onealbuminquestionistitled“MOREofPANAMA CITY BIATCH!!” wearing revealingclothingoractinginasexualwaypresumablyordertoattainattention are createdbyfemalesthatinclude,whatmanywouldsayare,derogatorypictureswhile pictures ofherboyfriend,Dave,andcuddling.Italsoisapparentthatmanyphotoalbums the OtterbeinCollegenetworkhasanentirealbumthatisnamed“Dave”whichfilledwith In conclusion,itisclearthatthe webcommunityofFacebook.comhasmany The finalinterestingaspectofthewebcommunityisabilityforallmembersto 34

The firstseveralpieces 35 The groupname,along . Many

25 aegis 2007 . fects, http://www.

s . (Los Angeles: Alyson Books. 2004), 35. 2004), Books. Alyson Angeles: (Los . . (Malden: Blackwell Publishers Inc. 2001), 205. 2001), Inc. Publishers Blackwell (Malden: . p Descartes to Derrida to Descartes Queer Theory, Gender Theory Gender Theory, Queer Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (Thinking Gender) Feminism Gender Trouble:

The Facebook.com community creates an environment that is not queer-friendly. is not queer-friendly. community creates an environment that The Facebook.com http://otterbein.facebook.com/editaccount.php?network Otterbein College Front Page [Available Online] Accessed on 29, May 2006 from Online] Otterbein College Front Page [Available otterbein.edu/default.as Wilchins, 4 Riki 5 Ibid, 35-36. Sedgwick, 6 Peter Butler, Judith 7 Routledge. 1989), 13-15. York: (New 1 Mark Zuckerberg, “About Facebook” [Available Online] Accessed on 14 May 2006 from Accessed Online] “About Facebook” [Available 1 Mark Zuckerberg, http://facebook.com/about.php. 2 ibid Accessed on 29, May 2006 Online] “Facebook.com Edit” [Available 3 Mark Zuckerberg, from being that is lacking for the queer community and therefore an acceptance or even realization being that is lacking for the queer community outside of the matrix. If small changes are made to of a livable life would be made for those might lead to a less ignorant class of humans being the language and arena of Facebook, it college years. sent out into society after those formative Notes their queer sexuality onto their page. Perhaps if Facebook.com changed some of its language, their queer sexuality onto their page. Perhaps that profess their hatred and policed those groups and members allowing for more creativity, matrix this generation of Facebook.com users would be for anyone outside of the heterosexual those that these simple changes perhaps With ideas. opened up to a new set of languages and will realize the problems that are continued within consider themselves “101% heterosexual” would come into Along with this more open site, a language the Facebook.com community. especially if gender norms are concerned. This country has seen its hate crimes against the This country has seen its hate crimes against norms are concerned. especially if gender for a few ignorant college students and this community is a perfect way queer community, of promoted as one examines the layout This type of thinking is what is find their next victim. page. each Facebook.com (and maybe even heterosexist) are that consider themselves heterosexual Therefore, students searches to find members that allow the knowledge of being fed the ability through links and them because of the ability to view each other’s Facebook.com page. If a Facebook.com page. If a Facebook.com Facebook.com view each other’s of the ability to them because in, are interested that they potentially they see around campus not know a person user does the Facebook.com search engine to do is type the name of the student in all the member has knowledge is the type that This appear. page will not that student’s and more likely than fun and games. Being may boast about, but it is not all simply Facebook.com members computer can have its dire ef about a person from just a click on the able to find out all acquired because of the web site’s popularity. Zuckerberg, and his employees, have changed changed have his employees, and Zuckerberg, popularity. site’s of the web because acquired today students College community. online with this of youth a generation of the language “I’m looking for random and the phrase “poke” and “friended,” use the words like are able to is not seems that language it Yet peers. of meaning from a general consensus play” with of Facebook. and popularity through the conception that has been shaped the only thing that go to school with and the students about peers have more knowledge College students

aegis 2007 26 and donotbelieveinit,thisdoesmatter. Therefore, theheterosexualmatrixisonethat only livewithinthismatrixbutagreewithit. Although theymaybebutperformingthisact, this isnotentirelytrue. There aremanytimeswhenIhaveseensomeonethatisqueernot 8 Although Isaythatheterosexualsaretheonly onestoperpetuatetheheterosexualmatrix, later inthispaper. the worldoffacebook.com inthepastfewmonths. This interesting featurewillbediscussed 33 Forexampletheabilityfor eachmembertopostunlimitedphotoalbumsjustoccurred in me touseanythingelseinconjuncture withagroupofpeople. English languagethatallowfor thoseoutsideofthebinarytolive,andsoitisimpossible for themselves outsideofthosetwo choices.But,asstatedbefore,therearenotwordswithin the for papers.Irealizethatusing thesetermsdoesnotallow, perhaps,forthosewhoconsider 32 Iamusing“he/she”and“his/her” inastrictlytostaywithincorrectEnglishgrammar Beacon Press.1992),27. 31 Monique Wittig, “TheStraightMind,.” 30 Ibid.19. 29 Ibid.16. 28 Ibid.16. 27 Ibid.1-2. (Boston: Westview Press.2004),1. 26 RodgerStreitmatter, Farrar, StrausandGiroux.1999),283&285. 25 SusanBordo, Beacon Press.1992),25. 24 Monique Wittig, “TheStraightMind” 23 Ibid.47. Press. 1992),49-51. 22 Monique Wittig, “HomoSum.” 21 Ibid.2. Beacon Press.1992),2. 20 Monique Wittig, “TheCategoryofSex.”.” 19 Ibid.3 18 Ibid.30. 17 Ibid.30. 16 Ibid.30. 15 Ibid.31. 14 Ibid.32. 13 Ibid.32 12 JudithButler, 11 JudithButler, & LittlefieldPublishers,Inc.2004),81. Communitarian Reader:BeyondtheEssentials 10 Richard A. Epstein,“EnforcingNorms: When theLawgetsin Way.” (New York: Routledge.1989),69-70. 9 JudithButler, the queercommunitycanbeapartofeventhoughtheyarenotbeingtruetothemselves. Gender Trouble: FeminismandtheSubversionofIdentity(ThinkingGender) Bodies ThatMatter The MaleBody:NewLookatMeninPublicandPrivate Undoing Gender Sex Sells:TheMedia’s Journeyfrom Repression toObsession . (New York: Routledge.2004),1. The StraightMindandOtherEssays . (New York: Routledge.1993),93. The StraightMindandOtherEssays The StraightMindandOtherEssays The StraightMindandOtherEssays . Ed.Etzioni, Amitai etal.(Lanham:Rowman . (Boston:Beacon The . (New York: . (Boston: . (Boston: . (Boston: . .

27 aegis 2007

7 sexuality. sexuality. http://otterbein.facebook.com/group.php?gid=220238444 hetero 34 I am not condoning the liberation of sexuality, I am simply showing that sexuality is sexuality showing that simply I am of sexuality, liberation the not condoning 34 I am but only rampant, on Accessed Online] [Available Heterosexual 101%” “I’m Completely 35 Mark Zuckerberg, from 31, May 2006

aegis 2007 28 Apocalyptic Social Prophet? An Jesus: Apocalyptic Messiah or Counter We mustdeterminewhatJesus’ messagewasinordertodetermine theapproachChurch message giveto theChurch. The first andsecondquestionsrely ontheanswertothird. being theChurch’s authorityandinspiration, Iamledtoask,whatinstructionsdoesJesus’ a certaingroupoftheoppressed? And last,ifmyearlierassumptionwasrightaboutJesus the Churchhaveresponsibility toassisttheoppressed?Second,isitacceptableignore Church shouldserve. This apparentconfusioncausesme toraiseafewquestions.First,does people, andhasrefusedservicetoanothergroupthatwould havebeenwithinthelaw. sions, theRomanCatholicChurchhasdecidedtobreakone lawtohelpagroupofoppressed to makeexceptionsduereligiousbeliefs(Johnson2006). Itseemsthatinthesetwodeci fuses tooffer adoptionservicesuntilthelawischangedtoallowRomanCatholicChurch from discriminatingagainstgayandlesbiancouplesinadoption cases. The Archdiocese re decided todiscontinueadoptionservicesbecauseaMassachusetts statelawprohibitsagencies priests todefythelaw(1).Onothersideofcountry, the Archdiocese ofBostonhas for services(Wantanabe 2006,1).CardinalRogerM.Mahoneystatedhewouldinstruct law, ifpassed,wouldrequirechurchesandothercharitiestodocumentation inreturn would notupholdalawprohibitingthemfromoffering assistancetoillegalimmigrants. The Roman CatholicChurchintheUnitedStates. The Archdiocese ofLos Angeles decidedthey who itshouldserve,andhowdoso. tics andanarrowinterpretationofscripture. The Churchisultimately havingtroubledefining defining thepurposeforitspresence,andatmanytimesisgettingprioritiestangledinpoli its authorityandinspiration.ItisunfortunatelyapparentthattheChurchhavingdifficulty tian Church(whichIuseall-inclusivelytodescribetheChristianmovement)seesJesusas ably allChristiansdefinethemselvesasfollowersofJesus. WhatImeanbythisistheChris Introduction will haveafeast.Congratulations,youwhoweepnow!You willlaugh. Congratulations, youpoor!God’s domainbelongstoyou.Congratulations,youhungry!You Luke 6:20-21 Proof Text: Church is Called to Serve the Oppressed Alternate View of Jesus and Why the These recentdecisionsmade by theChurchareladenwithconfusionaboutwho An exampleofthisconfusioncanbeseenintwodifferent decisionsmadebythe Christians aroundtheworlddonotseemtoagreeonmuchthesedays,butpresum Nick Kiger Nick 1

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29 aegis 2007 - - I have developed a list of criteria to use in categorizing I have developed a list of criteria to use 2 1. Jesus thought he was and was the messiah. This view is the one accepted This view is the one accepted was and was the messiah. 1. Jesus thought he by most Christians. was but was not the messiah. 2. Jesus thought he he was and was not the messiah 3. Jesus did not think (56). thought he was the messiah but was 4. Jesus may not have The saying directly speaks to, or, about an individual or group of oppressed about an individual or group of oppressed The saying directly speaks to, or, etc.). people (i.e. women, children, toll collectors of The saying points out corruption in the social, political and religious systems time. Jesus’ The saying gives instructions for good human relationships domain in terms not usually associated with the notion The saying defines God’s domain is like a mustard seed). (i.e. God’s domain of God’s • • • • I will attempt to defend my position by using a breakdown of the sayings in Luke. I will attempt to defend my position by Social-Prophet: It is important to establish Jesus’ messianic status because whether or not Jesus be messianic It is important to establish Jesus’ The second view, and the view I will argue for, is that Jesus was not concerned with is that Jesus for, and the view I will argue The second view, Since Jesus did and said many things, interpreting his message is no simple task. his message is no things, interpreting did and said many Since Jesus the sayings decided to be red or pink by the Jesus First, to be consistent, I have used only to be plausibly original to Jesus. No Red and pink designations indicate the saying Seminar. black or gray sayings are included. or “miscellaneous”: the saying as either “social-prophet,” “apocalyptic,” message was not motivated by his messianic status, whether he knew or considered himself to message was not motivated by his messianic the end of time, he would not have been focus was on bringing be the messiah or not. If Jesus’ Through looking at on serving the oppressed. able to focus his entire ministry and message the oppressed, gave preference words and actions, we can see that Jesus identified with Jesus’ oppressed, thus making service to the oppressed the to the oppressed, and was a servant to the motivation for his ministry. Status: of Luke in Defense of a Social Prophet Breakdown A ultimately determine his motivation. If Jesus believed lieved himself to be the messiah would would have been focused on his fulfillment of himself to be the messiah, then his message does as well, I place Jesus, as I believe Borg prophecy and other messianic characteristics. third), and not thinking being the messiah (Borg’s somewhere between not thinking and not Jesus’ because I believe in this category, fourth). I place Jesus and being the messiah (Borg’s All four views focus mostly on whether or not Jesus believed himself to be the messiah. I will mostly on whether or not Jesus believed All four views focus later. come back to this list prophet, and his message was the messiah, but rather he was a social the end of time, or being in fact counter-apocalyptic. his second coming and the end of time. Marcus Borg (1999) offers four ways to view Jesus’ Jesus’ four ways to view (1999) offers of time. Marcus Borg coming and the end his second status: messianic should take towards the people it serves. the take towards should Message Jesus’ For Searching The first Jesus. of the historical two contrasting views I will use of argument For the purpose mes an apocalyptic messiah, offering sees Jesus as the of Christians, held by a majority view, a message about messiah to deliver came to earth as the the historical Jesus view, sage. In this

aegis 2007 30 acted: thesick, taxcollectors,women,andchildren. Eachofthesegroups wasconsidered W. Funk(2002)defines fourgroupsofoppressed people withwhomJesuswould haveinter usually viewas oppressed,atleastnottothe extentthattheywereinthe first century would beseenasoppressed well,butaddedtothelistwouldbesomegroupsthatwe donot as thosewhoarepoor, orthosewhoareanabusedminority. Inthefirstcenturythesegroups derstanding oftheoppressed in afirstcenturycontext. Today weviewtheoppressedmainly on thisaspectofJesus’ message.BeforeIgofurther, Ithinkitisappropriatetodefinemyun the oppressed.Becausethispaper ismeanttobeappliedonapracticallevel,Iwillnow focus Defining theOppressed devoted tobeingasocialprophet. according tomycriteria. This breakdownofLukeshowsthatJesus’ messagewashugely Figure 1 Using the above criteria, I separated the red and pink sayings in Luke into one of the categories. A definingaspectofJesus’ socialprophetstatusishispreferencefor, andfocuson, As Figure1shows,theredandpinksayingsweremajority socialprophetsayings • • • Miscellaneous: • • • • Apocalyptic: • • • The sayingcouldnotbedefinitelyplacedinoneofthetwopreviouscategories. cize socialpracticesofJesus’ time. The sayingcontainscertaininstructionsforapostles,butdoesnotdirectlycriti social prophet,counter-apocalyptic, orapocalypticsayings The sayingshowswisdomofJesus,butdoesnotincludeanythecriteriafor The sayingincludeslanguageaboutafinaljudgment. The sayingincludesJesus’ self-identificationasthemessiah(i.e.Sonof Adam). The sayingreferstotheendoftime The saying defines God’s domain as coming in the future, or not currently present. The sayingemphasizesGod’s concernforhumanity. The sayingemphasizestheinclusionofoppressedinGod’s domain. The Saying defines God’s domain as being currently present (Counter-apocalyptic). . Robert - - -

31 aegis 2007 ------Politics were dominated by an obvious hierarchy. The Roman rulers and Jew Politics were dominated by an obvious hierarchy. ish leaders, usually controlled by the Romans, made most of the decisions. No Not only was Jesus’ society dominated by Roman rule, but it was governed by both society dominated by Roman rule, but it was Not only was Jesus’ 1. We must next establish why Jesus would have any reason to want to serve the op must next establish why Jesus would have any reason We Children in the first century had a contingent existence. Many factors determined Children in the first century had a contingent Throughout history women have been oppressed. There was no exception to this in Throughout history women have been oppressed. Tax collectors are quite different from the other groups of the oppressed. It seems from the other groups of the oppressed. collectors are quite different Tax Today we have pity on sick people because their illness is a burden to them physi is a burden to them because their illness pity on sick people we have Today Roman and Jewish law, Jesus being at odds with both in many instances. Borg (1999) ex (1999) Jesus being at odds with both in many instances. Borg Roman and Jewish law, gives three characteristics of plains the “domination system” in which Jesus functioned. Borg this system: carry on the family name, do work to help the family, and to take care of the parents when the family, carry on the family name, do work to help they reached old age. With the Oppressed Identification Jesus’ and how Jesus fit the political situation in the first century, do this, I will explain To pressed. into it. affairs. They were seen as unimportant in these matters. affairs. which was ultimately the father’s into the family, whether or not a child would be accepted or not the father wished to accept the child The first factor was simply whether decision (49). (49). Babies with deformities were often killed (49). as his. Most female babies were rejected the child it was abandoned, and even wealthy families to raise If the family could not afford to their estate (49). Children were only born to abandoned children who were threatening nonetheless socially isolated, and Jesus recognized this. nonetheless socially isolated, and Jesus were considered practically invisible outside of the home. During Women the first century. the same label of unclean as those who were sick. periods of menstruation, women were given for them to associate with men had separate social roles, and it was not customary Women allowed to be involved in social, religious, or political (48). Because of this, women were not gained They upon themselves. were responsible for bringing oppression many tax collectors of their reputation, tax collec liars, cheats and thieves (50). Because the reputation of being Although they had a height (51). with sinners, whores, and pagans tors were often grouped groups would have made being a system, being compared to these ened status in the political even This shows that Jesus bad as being a prostitute or even a murderer. tax collector just as political and economic status, tax collectors were identified with criminals. Despite their Leviticus is describing skin disease. The passage states that the priest shall examine a sore on shall examine states that the priest The passage is describing skin disease. Leviticus in a If the skin is “ceremonially unclean.” or not the person is determine whether the skin to for up to fourteen days. In the priest can place the infected in isolation certain condition, then but they were isolated from society, not only were the sick by Jewish law, a society governed denied religious observances if regular social relationships and were prohibited from having unclean” (50). pronounced to be “ceremonially oppressed in the first century (48-55). It is important to first understand how and why these why these how and understand to first important It is (48-55). first century in the oppressed them. with interaction Jesus’ understand order to in were oppressed groups but were op pity, these reasons for they not only had society In Jesus’ financially. cally and devastating to a person’s as “unclean” was Being labeled being labeled “unclean.” pressed in case sickness; in this law concerning discusses the Jewish Leviticus 13:3-4 social existence.

aegis 2007 32 this wasamessage tothoseincharge thatwomenwereacceptable inthesamesocialsitua accompany him inpublic,Jesuswasallowing themtodefyasocialnorm (Funk48).Perhaps a formofservice.Jesussurrounded himselfwithfemalefollowers.Inallowingwomen to to women,children,andtaxcollectors. IntheseinstancesJesussimplyusedinteraction as As Funk says, Jesus “restores [the man] to full standing in human society” (Funk 50). tional process. Instead the man is clean not because of a ceremony, but because Jesus said so. the process of becoming clean through means of the temple, which would have been the tradi and Jewish leaders very uncomfortable. Jesus pronouncing the man as clean allows him to skip in the act of healing him, Jesus touched the man. This would have made Jesus unclean himself, leprosy were considered unclean. Not only did Jesus allow the man to come close to him, but out his hand, touched him, and says, “Okay-you’re clean!” As mentioned before, people with to the ground and begged him, ‘Sir, if you want to, you can make me clean.’ Jesus stretched one of the towns, there was this man covered with leprosy. Seeing Jesus, he knelt with his face Luke 5:12-13 gives an example of one of Jesus’ healings: “And it so happened while he was in such as healing, would have still been of great social importance to certain groups of people. teacher and a prophet, simple interaction with the oppressed alone, without a secondary action acknowledged for their impact on society. Given the synoptics’ portrayal of Jesus’ status as a gospels where Jesus casts out demons, heals, and eats with many different people are often not evident in the synoptics’ description of his interaction with them. The familiar instances in the Jesus’ Interaction With theOppressed understanding iscorrect,hesacrificedhimselfforthemaswell. the oppressedultimatelyleadtohisdeath.NotonlythendidJesusservepoor, butifmy and theJewishhierarchy. Iunderstand,alongwithmanyscholarsthatJesus’ interactionwith the taxcollectors,women,andchildren.HedidallofthisinfaceRomanEmpire tion totheoppressed,asIwillshow. Heusedthesemeanstointeractwiththepoor, thesick, tire ministryinteractingwiththeoppressed.Jesushadmanymeansofexpressinghisconnec experience ofsocialoppression,Jesushadareasontomakeitthemotivationforhisministry. city wherehewouldhavebeenabletoexperiencesocialinjusticesfirsthand.Becauseofhis family inthiscategory. BeingfromNazareth,JesuslivednearthecityofSepphoris,amajor of thepeasantclass. That JosephwasacarpenterormasonwouldmostcertainlylandJesus’ a factorthatshapedJesusandhisministry(65). The gospelsclaimthatJesus’ familywaspart as well. As Borg points out, Jesus experienced injustice. This was not only an experience, but Jesus alsodisregardedsocial customs inservicetotheoppressed,especiallyregard As mentioned above, healing was one way in which Jesus chose to serve the oppressed. Jesus’ social prophet message greatly emphasized service to the oppressed and is Because ofthedominationsystemandbecausehisexperience,Jesusspenten Jesus wasnotonlyapartofthissystem,butgivenhisstatusheoppressedbyit 3. 2. The will of God was used to justify oppression and the power of the elite (71-72). upper class’ controloflandownership. ated themajorityofwealth,itwastakenfromthemthroughtaxationand The peasantclasswasexploitedforeconomicproduction. Although theygener voice wasgiventothecommoner. - - - - -

33 aegis 2007 - - - - His interaction with tax collectors 3 Some denominations of the Church have actually taken on the role of the oppres Some denominations of the Church have In light of all of this, I must wonder if Jesus would say that the Church has picked up In light of all of this, I must wonder if Jesus Being regulated by laws and social customs, the oppressed were likely to feel they they feel to likely were oppressed the customs, social and laws by regulated Being I have mentioned a few instances in which Jesus promises the oppressed God’s the oppressed God’s few instances in which Jesus promises I have mentioned a Matthew 9:10-11 gives another instance in which Jesus breaks a social code in order instance in which Jesus breaks a gives another Matthew 9:10-11 An instance in Mark 10:13-14, shows Jesus’ own disciples as the oppressors of a oppressors as the disciples own Jesus’ shows Mark 10:13-14, in An instance oppression of gays and lesbians. The Church views gays and lesbians as outsiders. A popular A gays and lesbians as outsiders. The Church views oppression of gays and lesbians. is a sin, and the Church should oppress it. My response to this claim is that homosexuality He served out response would be that Jesus made no such exceptions in the area of sexuality. siders (“sinners”) just as he served insiders (“the holy”). oppressor is and prostitutes are striking examples of such interaction. In Matthew 25:46, the not only condemned, but will “head for everlasting punishment.” the Church What it Means for of Jesus and View Alternate An Conclusion: In fact, I am sure he would find it unrecognizable. As the test case in the beginning shows, In fact, I am sure he would find it unrecognizable. of children who are in need of adoption services, the Church has decided to ignore the needs and lesbian couples to adopt. I do not think that and to refuse to respect the rights of gay choosing. Jesus would commend such picking and widespread denominations of the Church’s The best example is many sor in many instances. 10:13-14 Jesus promises God’s domain to children. In doing this, Jesus gives the message that that message the gives Jesus this, doing In children. to domain God’s promises Jesus 10:13-14 the refused and condemned, are them oppress who those and upper-hand, the have oppressed the on only not was anticipated being was that world perfect the Thus, domain. God’s of inheritance them. served who those and oppressed the for reserved was but present, and Earth Jesus Recognize the Church? Would would be particularly happy with the Church today. on his message. I do not think that Jesus Jesus’ promise to the oppressed when he says “Congratulations, you poor! God’s domain be you poor! God’s promise to the oppressed when he says “Congratulations, Jesus’ have been important to the oppressed. domain would The inheritance of God’s longs to you.” all, by attainable is domain God’s clear very it makes Jesus domain. God’s of part a be not could rule imperial “God’s says Jesus 17:21 Luke In Earth. on already is domain God’s fact in and Mark In statement. counter-apocalyptic a as describe I which presence,” your in there right is disciples: ‘Why does your teacher eat with toll collectors and sinners?’” At the end of this sinners?’” your teacher eat with toll collectors and disciples: ‘Why does actions. with Jesus’ apparent the Jewish leaders were uncomfortable passage it is clearly Domain Inheriting God’s imperial rule, as God’s domain is usually viewed of God.” God’s domain or the “kingdom This was a Jewish belief corruption. ending evil and the supreme ruler, when God becomes peace and freedom. Luke 6:20 is a prime example of that someday there would be a world of to him. These children, who were not really understood as complete persons, but only as a complete persons, really understood as who were not These children, to him. kingdom. of God’s to Jesus, were worthy income, according means for it so happened while he was din oppressed, this time tax collectors: “And to interact with the just then and dined toll collectors and sinners showed up house that many ing in [Matthew’s] question his whenever the Pharisees saw this, they would And, with Jesus and his disciples. tions as men were, and should be allowed to interact with men. men. interact with to be allowed and should as men were, tions but lay hands on them, to him so he could would bring children “And they group of children: them: this and said to indignant when he saw Then Jesus grew scolded them. the disciples domain belongs to After all, God’s try to stop them. me, don’t come up to ‘Let the children come the children to disciples, and allows irate with his that.’” Jesus is obviously people like

aegis 2007 34 than productivity. ItiseasyintheseconditionsforJesus’ messagetobedistorted.Itiseasyin pulpit onSunday, andtheydismissanyacademicinquiry. Churchesfocusmoreonnumbers to thenarrowinterpretationofscripture.ManyChristiansrelyonlyonwhatissaidfrom by theChurch,regardlessofwhetherornottheywerecommitting a“sin.” supporting here.IamsimplytryingtoexplainhowJesus served eventhosemadeoutsiders 3 Iwouldliketopointoutthe“hatesin,notsinner” mentalityisnotwhatIam with inthisstudy. 2 Although theworkofJesusSeminarhasbeendebated,issueistoolarge tocontend 1 All referencestoBiblicalscripturecomefrom The Scholars Version. Notes Watanabe, T. (2006March1).Los Angeles times. Johnson, G.(2006March13). The Associated Pressstate&localwire. Funk, R.W., Hoover, R.W., &J.S.(1993). Funk, R.W., &J.S.(1998). Funk, R.W. (2002). Borg, M.J.,&Castle, Wright N.T. (1999). Works Cited its roleinthecareforthoseisolatedbysociety. domain isnotadistantapocalypticthought,buthereinourpresence,itcanseemoreclearly to theoppressedjustasJesuswas.IfChurchwillrecognizethatpresenceofGod’s pact wouldbemadelongafterhisdeath. The Churchneedstorealize itsabilitytobeavoice impact ofJesus’ constantinteractionwiththeoppressed,andhisexpectationthatsameim sion. As ChristiansbegintoputJesus’ wordsandactionsintoperspective,theycanknowthe has beenplaguedbyaseasonofconfusion. these conditionsforpeopletoturnreligionthewrongreasons.ItseemsthatChurch Part A; pp.1 narrow billonchurch andgayadoption. New York: HarperCollinsPublishersInc. HarperCollins PublishersInc. HarperCollins PublishersInc. Today theChurchhasrooteditselfinpoliticaldebate.Fundamentalistshavetaken The alternateviewofJesusandhismessagemayhelptoclearupsomethisconfu A credible Jesus: Fragments of a vision. The actsofJesus:WhatdidJesusreally do? The fivegospels:WhatdidJesus really say? The meaningofJesus:Two visions. State andRegionalSection. Immigrants gaintheprofit. Santa Rosa CA: Polebridge Press. Romney seekingvery New York: Metro Desk; New York: - -

35 aegis 2007 ------, the Vietnamese at Vietnamese , the . The Vietnamese were not Vietnamese The . An elder on the council of notables did not necessarily gain power or An elder on the 1 Halle Neiderman Prior to French colonization and its attempt at the modernization of Vietnam, Viet Vietnam, at the modernization of Prior to French colonization and its attempt Vietnam was populated almost entirely with communal and sustenance farmers and was populated almost entirely with communal and sustenance farmers and Vietnam At the turn of the twentieth century, the French entered Vietnam with plans to mod Vietnam entered the French century, At the turn of the twentieth were inherently powerful, in pre-colonial Vietnam being on the council was more of a chore being on the council Vietnam were inherently powerful, in pre-colonial than a power position. This people. fortune from his post; he merely looked after the well-being of his village and Vietnam the socio-political role suggests that exploitation of power was not an issue within The “chores” of the council of notables demonstrate that those in power did not ese villages. focus on personal gain, but instead focused on the collective good of the villages. communism and Marxist revolutionary groups. communism and Marxist revolutionary socialist. Leadership in though never decisively nam was an inherently communal society, the deep rooted Chinese Confucian theology that villages and social customs stemmed from pre-colonial for centuries. Despite being a monarchical state, Vietnamese helped guide the top of this hierarchy was the At the had a hierarchy of power within each village. Vietnam Though these elders of elders within the village. “council of notables” which was consisted nance. This imperialist form of colonization was foreign to the Vietnamese, and though both Vietnamese, foreign to the This imperialist form of colonization was nance. the citizens had not faced such op country previously, the Chinese and Japanese occupied the altered their socio-cul The French completely country. pression until the French occupied the Vietnamese The and the elite class dominating. tural systems and kept the poor class begging with great leaders and promises of better economic may not have favored communism, but of farmers and workers began migrating toward situations, the majority of the ninety percent changes in Vietnam ultimately led to Vietnamese communism because the colonizers failed to Vietnamese ultimately led to Vietnam changes in reform movements spread throughout the country. change the process of modernization as the enforcement of their new laws and taxes country, as the French invaded and colonized the without resources to better their situation. Colonial left the communal farmers destitute and because the French had imposed such high oppression forced poor workers into starvation the rice patties that were their main form of suste taxes on rice that they could not afford work they were soon to endure. For the Vietnamese, this modernization would be a complete this modernization Vietnamese, to endure. For the work they were soon system, which they did not under and in its place would be a new breach of their old system century During the first half of the twentieth stand, want, or appreciate. When reform government. colonial laws to create a less oppressive tempted to reform French was the communists turned to revolutionary ideas, and it Vietnamese the ideas did not work, radical Thus, French colonization and its from the colonial oppressor. that advocated a revolt ernize the country. The western power argued that modernization of the country would be in that modernization of the western power argued The ernize the country. French forced their entry into the The Vietnamese. both the French and the best interests of a colony and military benefits of having country for the economic to the tenant farming or factory and favored their communal farming privy to modernization The Rise of Rise The Marxist in Thought Vietnam Century Twentieth

aegis 2007 36 men weregivenwastherighttoeatandspeak. These inalienablerightshelptoillustrate were givenrightstovoteandlanddistribution. The politicalrightsthatthe Vietnamese placing themaleattopandfemaleassubordinate.Inthisinstitutionnativemen the socio-economic elitetheabilitytooverpower thevillage,whereasbefore theywereonly to collecttaxes, controlpoliticaldissent,and implementcoloniallaws. as awaytoensurethevillage wasrunningproperly. Those onthe councilofnotablenowhad work wasdestroyed. The Frenchusedthecouncilofnotables asawaytoenforcepower, not redistributed land,andopened up Vietnamese markets. ership wereinplace. Vietnam’s economywasstablebeforetheFrenchentered country, able amountsoflandforthepeasantry. French occupied Vietnam andtheNguyendynastyhadconfiscatedredistributedconsider leading officials,soldiers,andthesoldiers’ families. Thistraditionwascarriedoutuntilthe any othervillagecoststhatmaybenecessary. The lastofthevillagelandwasgivento means forthecommunitytoraisemoneyvillageteacher, banquets,socialwelfare,or to attainbasicsustenance.Secondly, communallandwasrentedoutbythewealthyasa share” land,whichdistributedlandtoeachmaleinthevillage, providingthemwiththeability landownership. The mostwidelyusedformofcommunallandownershipwasthe“mouth- Within pre-colonial Vietnam therewerethreedifferent waysvillagesachievedcommunal lems astheyarose. economy ensuredlowtaxesandallowedforthecouncilofnotablestorecognizefixprob this equatedtoaneconomybasedonlocalconsumption,notinternationaltrade. of smalllandplotsalongsideunexploitedtaxpayingwasbestforthestabilityvillages; not exploitingpowerfromthecouncilofnotables.Itwasunderstoodthatpeasantownership meaning cultivationoflandsandtaxpayingfromthepeasantsoverseeingvillagesbut system, thewelfareofcommunitywascontingentoncooperationeveryindividual, they wouldprovidethecountrywithasolidfoundationandstabletaxrevenue. that large landownerswerethecauseofsocialanarchyandifpeasantshadaccesstoland from thewealthiereliteandgiveittopeasants. The pre-colonialimperialpowersbelieved were lookeddownuponforhavingland,andoften Vietnamese courtswouldconfiscateland residents ofthevillage,veryrarelywasanon-residentprivatelandowner. The wealthier of thelandwaspublicland,ownedbystate. Those thatdidprivately ownlandwere chal customs,theirdistributionoflandwasanobviouscommunalendeavor. Intheory, most meal togethertoinitiatetheirnewleaderwhoensureshispeoplefoodforlifetime. rights. prove tothevillagersthatelderwouldguaranteefoodduringhistermandlookaftertheir leadership oftheelderincouncilnotables. The feastitselfwasasymbolicdinnerto the village;however, thebanquetwasawaytobreaksocialbarriersandlegitimizefuture Since avillage-widebanquetwasexpensivethisage-oldcustomensuredonlytheeliteruled This power, however, couldnotbegivenuntiltheelderheldabanquetforentirevillage. were guaranteedbythecouncilofnotables,whograntedpowervillagemen. what the Vietnamese heldvaluableintheirculture:foodandvoicedopinions. These rights 2 The feastalsoillustratesthecommunalnatureofcountry, aseachpersonsharesa In pre-colonial Vietnam therewasalsoastrikinghierarchybetweenthegenders, When theFrenchoccupiedand colonized Vietnam, the villages’ communal frame The heartofthissystemwasensuringeachpeasantfamily ownedtheirplotofland. While thecommunalpersonaof Vietnam isexpressedthroughthevillages’ hierar 5 The localmarketeconomyandcommunallandown 6 This change gives 3 Within this 4 The local - - - - -

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- - 8 Vietnamese right to eat. right to eat. Vietnamese This is an obvious misuse of 10 This concession of land was in 12 These institutions not only created discontent among only created discontent These institutions not 7 Not only did the redistribution of land conflict with Vietnamese conflict with Not only did the redistribution of land 13 The French colonizers distributed land in Vietnam as they had distributed land in as they had distributed land Vietnam The French colonizers distributed land in Aside from using the council of notables to oversee the seizure and concession of Aside from using the council of notables These institutional changes raised tensions among the peasants, but transformed the raised tensions among the peasants, These institutional changes 11 in eight people. In Cochinchina only 255,000 people owned land and from those that owned in eight people. In Cochinchina only 255,000 land, 90,000 rented it out. views on the distribution of land, but it was in direct conflict with the livelihood, the French took away its main form of sustenance and By taking away a family’s While the peasants are still able forced them to work on the land that was stripped from them. coupled with to make a living as sharecroppers and tenant farmers, the stripping of their land peasants into starvation. Vietnamese new taxes and an inability to voice opinions forced many auction, or free of charge. The land that the French had given away was mostly from peasants The land that the French auction, or free of charge. Vietnam, was likely given to French settlers in This land who fled during the French invasion. men serving the French. Vietnamese French companies, or When a peasant returned after fleeing during the invasion, direct conflict with the peasants. to work on what used to be his land as a share his land was given away and he was forced owning peasants dropped to one Annamm, the property By 1931, in cropper or tenant farmer. peasant land, the French had different ideas than the natives on how to use the Vietnamese Vietnamese ideas than the natives on how to use the peasant land, the French had different stressed peasant ownership and a Vietnamese Where the pre-colonial land and property. endeavor for the This was a lucrative the French favored private ownership. stable economy, leaving the peasants with farmers and instability, French because it required exploited tenant money for the French and the new international no choice but to work on the land and make markets. an a fixed cost, at at of land amounts of large ownership private granted they colonies: their all and were able to increase their wealth and their landholdings. and were able to increase their wealth and not a committee meant for person The council of notables was society. Vietnamese power in for the wealthy had been frowned upon for centuries. al gain, and the increase of landholdings more wealth and land, but it took away the livelihood This act not only allowed these elitists and therefore jobless. of the peasants, leaving many of them landless In several instances, men who attempted to protest high taxes were punished by flogging. men who attempted to protest high taxes In several instances, admittance into the council of in values of the elite are revealed as Further transformations as a symbol of his good No longer did men need to hold a banquet notables has changed. received through monetary French colonization, power was With will toward the peasants. better his position would be. the more an elder was willing to pay the bribes, which meant well-being of the village. soon lost their ability to help the collective The council of notables in their posts during the French colonization Instead, it is found that the notables remained When the world-wide economy did well, Vietnamese trade did well; however, when the world when the world trade did well; however, Vietnamese did well, world-wide economy When the the peasants. as well as suffered trade Vietnamese was down, the economy For instance, the council of no structure of the socio-economic elite. traditional values and Controlling political dissent rule, now had control over political dissent. tables, under French rights: the right to his voice. men were losing one of their traditional Vietnamese meant the overseeing its operations. One institution, the Services of the Gouvernement General, was General, of the Gouvernement Services the One institution, its operations. overseeing the and implement works, public oversee the peasants, taxes from more to extract established and salt monopolies. alcohol, opium, exploita blocks for long term created the building also created they but they Vietnamese, the entrance Vietnam’s and The peasant exploitation markets. on international tion and reliance the rest of the world. in the hands of an unstable economy trade placed into international

aegis 2007 38 ing facetoftheseizureandredistribution Vietnamese landswasthatitenabledthe French tion achievedfromthecolonialforcesandtheiruseof Vietnamese lands. The mostdebilitat Their sharecroppingjobswerenotwieldingenoughoutputforthemtomakealiving. with Ton’s union sinceitwaskeptmostly secret andcontainedtothelaborers. the firstintroduction toMarxismthatthe Vietnamese received.Marxist ideasfailedtospread salary andshorterworkinghours. was activeinpoliticalstrikes againstimperialismandaggressivelydemandedanincreased organization secretwithlittleactivity. Hewascommitted toMarxismandby1925hisunion by Ton Duc Thang. Unionswereillegal underFrenchrule,whichforced Ton tokeephis unsuccessful strikes.However, by1920thefirstorganized workers’ unionwasfounded tions for the laboring class remained uniformly bad from the sweatshops to the rubber plants. to work twelve hour days, seven days a week and endure terrible working conditions. the workers increasingly low wages for exceedingly long work days. Workers were often forced increased laborenabledfactoryownersandcompaniestoexploit Vietnamese laborandpay labor. Between1919and1929theamountofworkersjumpedfrom100,000to220,000. The the workerswereaswell.ForFrench, Vietnam appearedto haveanendlesssupplyof became furtherexploitedandoppressed. in thecountry, though,whiletheestimatedninety percentofthepeasantsincountryside privileges andexemptions,likethatoftheFrench. Among theirrevolutionaryideaswerewaystohelpthenewburgeoning classreceivemore their movementtofavoronlyaimsandthoseinsocio-economicdemographic. were tooisolatedfrombothgovernmentalpowerandthepeasants. of. Furthermore,theseleadersfailedtocreateasuccessfulresistancemovementbecausethey and severaloldConfucian Vietnamese customsthatthepeasantswerenolongerinfavor Scholars suchas Tran Cao Van, PhanBoiChau,andEmperorDuy Tan favoredamonarch stemmed fromConfucianscholars. These movementswerepopular, butnotwhollyunified. creating anewidentityforthe Vietnamese. Resistancemovementsintheearly20 tionaries begantoarisein Vietnam withthehopesofstabilizingcountryanditspeople ploited fortheirlaborandremainedpoor. As theexploitationofpeasantscontinued,revolu only increasedthewealthofFrenchcolonizerswhilepeasantscontinuedtobeex precarious position. The taxestheypaidfordailysustenanceandthelandsharecropped looking to buy the product were too poor to afford the taxes on it, and therefore too poor to eat. have to sell or trade his merchandise at a very high price to make it worth while. Those peasants ing. With these taxes, a peasant could not afford to fish to make living, and if he could he would such items. Furthermore, these taxes kept the peasants from creating a livelihood and from eat viewed thesethingsasfreegiftsofnature,andthoughttheFrenchdidnothaverighttotax and oppressthe Vietnamese, theyexploited theforestsandriversaswell. The Vietnamese ing, distillingriceintoalcohol,andheaviersalttax. nopoly intheopiumtrade. two taxes,butbytheendofFrenchrule,colonizershadnineteentaxesinplaceandamo to moreeffectively placetaxes onthepeopleofvillages. The insecurityandunrestin Vietnam inthe1920sand1930sistiedtoexploita Throughout Vietnam, thenewlaboringclassbeganspontaneous,unorganized, and The peasantrywasnottheonlyclassofpeoplewhowereexploited andoppressed, The newtaxescoupledwiththeconcessionofpeasantlandsputina 15 Among thevarioustaxesissued,Frenchissuedonfish 20 Ton’s supportofworkersrightsandanti-imperialismwas 18 16 These ideaswouldonlyhelpaselectfew Notonlydidthesetaxesfurtherexploit 14 Pre-colonial Vietnam hadonly 17 This isolationforced th century 19 Condi ------

39 aegis 2007

- - 25 - - - - 22 - Once again, the cares of 24 He, too, favored east-west relations He, too, favored east-west 23 These demands illustrate that not only were the Vietnam were the that not only These demands illustrate 21 By 1925 Indochina was well aware of the weakness within the French coloniz By 1925 Indochina was well aware of the The next resistance movement won support of the peasants, but failed to reach its movement won support of the peasants, The next resistance Widespread Marxist-Leninist ideas failed to surface within Vietnam by World War War World by Vietnam within to surface failed ideas Marxist-Leninist Widespread Chi Minh was sent to Canton, China to “begin a systematic and intensive effort to develop a to develop “begin a systematic and intensive effort Chi Minh was sent to Canton, China to émigré radicals in China. Vietnam the various communist movement … using as his nucleus was first The reasons. various for movement the for location strategic a as seen a was Vietnam been had he since leader Marxist obvious an was he and land the of native a was Ho because was reason Another years. for Indochina outside movements creating and socialism studying the that was important, most and Lastly, country. the in weak becoming were French because those rea of Because them. support to someone for and revolution for desperate were peasants regime. There were a few factors which warranted the insurgence of the communist move the insurgence There were a few factors which warranted regime. of the first wave of anti-colonial revolutions. Many of ment, the first of which was the death which took away voices that believed in cooperation the previous leaders were dead or in jail, Their silence, peasant desperation, and French weakness and arrangements with the French. Indochina as a but in Vietnam, not only in to emerge opened the doors for a new movement a leading figure in the Comintern of China, Ho whole. Under the orders of Mikhail Borodin, Sarraut were not effective in the end, his reign exposed the continuing fragility of the French. the continuing fragility of the French. in the end, his reign exposed Sarraut were not effective it was clear that the French were spread By 1923, when Sarraut abandoned his endeavors, or they would face continual pressures Vietnam The French needed to make reforms in thin. French colonizers feared creating drastic reforms from more and more resistance movements. colonizers as weak and attempt to revolt as well. because the rest of Indochina would view ideas to liberate Indochina from the French ers and looked for leadership and revolutionary of the country and its people. The AFIMA (Association pour la Formation Intellectualle et (Association pour la Formation Intellectualle AFIMA The of the country and its people. relations. However, Vietnamese-French to promote Annamites) was organized Morale des became a tool for French propaganda AFIMA the Vietnam, as Sarraut won over the people of in status positions to maintain their status. Vietnamese and for the oppression continued while bureaucrats, notables, the peasantry were unspoken for and the reforms of While the internal and material goods. village chiefs, etc continued to gain wealth stimulate the French into action for the Vietnamese, and succumb to the revolution’s pressures. pressures. revolution’s the to succumb and Vietnamese, the for action into French the stimulate Vietnamese the because I War World before movements resistance feared never French The demands. their assert to violence used never they and masses the of support the had never his power and he and rallied their support for Vietnamese Albert Sarraut spoke to the goals. “the instrument of liberation.” promised to give them the betterment and French to have more unified interactions for Vietnamese and advocated the Chinese and Indian competition.” Chinese and of independent emerge were not ready to but that they for a Marxist revolution, ese not ready to reduce tensions and an attempt to work with the colonizer Their revolutions were France. revolutions these However, Vietnamese. and French the both for environment healthy a create mobi to failing therefore peasantry, the mobilize to failed they because failures obvious were to failure a in resulted peasantry the lure to inability The population. the of percent ninety lize the Constitutionalist developed Chieu Bui Quang in 1916, death Tan’s Duy After Emperor I. to offer this party failed efforts, class. Like previous the new middle also to represent Party, indigenous representa did include “greater its demands the peasants. However, rebellion for and special for natives in administrative positions bodies; more prestigious tion in elected business against Vietnamese protection of services; and expanded educational ized services;

aegis 2007 40 Vietnam thatunitedbothpoliticalandsocialissuesinacolonialresistancemovement. tionary Association, or Thanh Nien,in1925. This wasthefirstanti-colonialorganization in sons, supportwaslikelytocomequicklyfrom Vietnam, aswellwiththerestofIndochina. he movedtoexpose theindecenciesthat colonizershavedonetothe natives. addressing the public and forcing them to recognize that he was speaking to them, not at them, rate nearlyeverypersoninIndochina tofightforhiscause,theoppressed’ Oppressed andexploited!Sisters andbrothers!Comrades” the ICP hebeganbyaddressingthepeople“workers, peasants,soldiers,youth,andpupils! motivated themtoworkwith eachotherandforother. Inhisspeechatthe founding of ship, speeches,andwritings. Hewasthefirstleadertospeakdirectlypeople,which resistance movements,andby1931themovementincluded 100,000 Vietnamese peasants. to successfullyorganize theIndochineseCommunistParty. Vietnamese NationalistParty, in1930HoChiMinhandothercommunistleaderswereable pro-Leninist ideaswiththe Vietnamese tothepeasants’ restlessnessandthesuppressionof Party. However, theNationalistPartywasabletosuccessfullyimplantanti-imperialistand the Vietnamese NationalistPartyfortherebellion,whichinturnsuppressed the uprisingwasadisaster. helped spurtheuprising,instillingLeninistideasamong workersandpeasants;however, became rampantandpeasantuprisingsoccurred. The NationalistPartyandtheirsecretparty employment jumped.Farmerswereunabletoselltheirproduce.” economy wassuffering fromworld-widedepression.“Pricesdroppeddisastrously. Un faced withmoredebilitatingproblemsduetoworldwideproblems.In1929the Vietnamese labor giventheadopted Western economicsystem. unify boththeworkingclassandpeasantrywouldstillrelyonexploitationofpeasant Vietnam andthroughout France’s rule,buteachfailedbecauseareformmovementcouldnot ence. and the Vietnamese neededcompleteliberation fromtheircolonizerandwesterninflu revolution andanti-reformism:the Thanh Nienbelievedthatreformmovements weretoolate ally involvedmassmeetingsanddemonstrations. The mainthemeof their propagandawas at 250students. The Thanh Nienalsodevelopedanddistributedpropaganda. This usu in Cantonforcommunistrevolutionaries.In1929,theyearitopened,enrollmentstarted Thanh Nien,whichbeganwithsixtoeightyouths,gainedmomentumasHocreatedaschool was thegraftingofatwo-tierarrangementinparty:half-communist,half-nationalist. why thetwonationscouldnotachievepeacewithoneanother. The reasonfor his success he wasabletoeffectively exposeproblemsintheFrenchcolonizationpoliciesandexplain emerging middleclassofbureaucratsandnotablesthepeasants. Through hisspeeches, and makethemsuccessful. merely neededtosupporttherevolutionbringconformityandcontinuitymovements of therevolutionarymovementsdidnotneedtosupportMarx,Engels,Lenin,orStalin,they This ideawassupposedtobeusedthroughouttheComintern.Itexplainedthatsupporters two-tier movementwasinspiredbyLenin’s 29 As statedpreviously, therewereseveralreformmovementsthatsprung upthroughout Ho ChiMinhbeganhisrevolutionwiththeorganization ofthe Vietnamese Revolu Ho’s mobilizationofthe Vietnamese resistancewascontingentuponhisownleader While HowasinCantonexpandinghiscommunistnetwork,the Vietnamese were 27 31 Infusingboththeseelements,Howasabletoattractthe The Frenchwereabletosuppresstheuprisingsandblamed Theses ontheNationalandColonialQuestions 32 33 The partymerged eachofHo’s Here,hewasabletoincorpo 30 As aresult,starvation s cause. After 26 - - This 28

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41 aegis 2007 ------ganization to be cre 34

36 35 and other enterprises belonging to the imperialists and put them under the belonging to the imperialists and put and other enterprises the confiscate To peasant and soldier government.. control of the worker to the imperialists and the whole of the plantations and property belonging reactionary capitalist class and distribute them to poor peas Vietnamese abolish public loans To working day. implement the eight hour To ants. bring back To hitting the poor people. waive unjust taxes To and poll tax. implement To carry out universal education. To all freedoms to the masses. equality between men and women. people. In short, they reduced us to wretchedness. short, they reduced people. In Viet and the reactionary French imperialism, feudalism, overthrow To To completely independent. make Indochina To namese capitalist class. the banks confiscate To and soldier government. establish a worker-peasant They set up new factories to exploit the worker with low wages. They They wages. with low the worker to exploit factories set up new They to utter drive them and plantations to establish land the peasants’ plundered upon our public loans They imposed taxes. They levied many poverty. The riots of the region created panic with local officials and forced them to flea the The riots of the region created panic with local officials and forced them to flea The same year of the ICP formation and Ho’s promises to the Vietnamese, rampant Vietnamese, to the promises and Ho’s formation The same year of the ICP to unnecessary taxes, and redistribution of lands. By September the French responded with to unnecessary taxes, and redistribution and silencing the rioters. Vietnamese excessive force killing 174 The absence of French leadership area and directions from higher levels were non-existent. and political structure left room for the first small-scale communist or of a village militia and An, the institution Throughout the districts of Nghe Vietnam. ated in a mix of the French culture as well. August. In the began occurring in late Vietnam in uprisings from the workers and peasants riots, looting, and building burning. An, villagers engaged in wide-scale province of Nghe As they expanded, and expanded their activities. These rioters were met with little resistance end ideology as well: promising relief from poverty, local communist activists expanded their In this speech, Ho was able to effectively speak directly to the Vietnamese and address their Vietnamese speak directly to the In this speech, Ho was able to effectively broad ideas on reform, Ho created a rebellion with the hopes of develop his With concerns. economic traditions, Vietnamese to many previous ing a government which reverted back his plots and redistributing them to the peasants. However, land such as confiscating the large such as equal rights for women. Western, inherently movement also rested on ideas that were change how the coun would not only Vietnam in This introduction of the communist reform cultural customs and Vietnamese to be a mesh of old try was run, but also changed its identity ese were forced to recognize the oppression they have lived with for decades. He included decades. He included have lived with for the oppression they to recognize ese were forced to French, but wanted manipulated by the was not above being the oppression; he himself in called to his help. He directly reverse that oppression with the public’s prove that he could done to them, and then spelled spelled out the wrongs that had been audience for help. He actions he wanted At his appeal he exclaimed ten reverse those wrongs. out how he hoped to help of the Proletariat class: implemented with the As Ho Chi Minh exposed the deeds of the French Imperialists on the public, the Vietnam public, the Imperialists on the deeds of the French Minh exposed the As Ho Chi

aegis 2007 42 communism onthesmallscalevillagelevel. At thesmall-scalelevel,majordutieswere from thevillage. The developmentoftheseinstitutionsandpoliciesledtothe rents lowered,landredistributed,andricegiventotheneedywhileFrenchwereabsent peasant associationswereencouragedandorganized. Furthermore,localtaxeswereannulled, significant impact ontheoutcomesofthese elections.PriortoLaLutte, rebellionforceswere tions: elections. In April of1933andMay1935the Vietnamese anti-colonialforceshelda Marxist andcommunistideas, butitalsobroughtanewelementintotheanti-colonialrevolu only raisedawarenessofcolonial pressuresandexploitationaswellraisedawareness of to collaboratetogetheroppose imperialismandcapitalistexploitation. Their ideason Vietnamese revolutionreinforcedtheICP’s becausetheirmainobjectivewas in themovementwastocreate arevolutionfortheworkingclassandoppressedmasses. created astronganti-colonial movementin Vietnam andcalledLaLutte. The mainconcern tions toincreasepowerthroughouttheworld. important thantheirlongtermgoalsofworldwideclassconflict revolutionsormilitaryopera time thetwofactionswereablemerge. BothviewedthedevelopmentofMarxismtobemore communism. of Marxism. The Stalinistsfavoredovertpoliticalandmilitantactionasameanstospread tion. class conflictintoaninternationalconflict,whichthen completesthecycleofrevolu revolution intheSovietUnionwouldcreateclassconflicts inEurope,turninganational munist andtoconsolidatetheworldcommunistpowerthere. Trotsky’s theoryargued that theory wasincontrasttothosethatbelievedtheSovietUnionneededbecomecom raise awarenessofthesameideastheywerearguing forinareasthey failed toreach. Though thesegroupstookpowerandsupportawayfromtheComintern,theydidsuccessfully Chi MinhandtheCominternwereworkingwithNorthideasdidnottrickledown. further south. This areawaspreviouslyimpenetrabletocommunistforcessimplybecauseHo lead theirmovement,thosethatfolloweditbroughttheconceptsofMarxismandcommunism revolutions, adirectresultofthe Western education.Regardlessofhowtheleaderschoseto Trotskyists andtheStalinists,incontrast,followedFrenchpoliticalstructure Western Trung KyandeachoftheirleadersfollowedConfucian Vietnamese politicalideology. The ideas throughout Vietnam becauseeachof theothermovementsstemmedfromBacKyor and camefromNamKy. with colonialforcecontinuedtoriseaswellproponentsofcommunism. to 1935,andcoupledwiththeICP, theCominternandworkersmovement’s dissention Marxism andcommunism. however, theresistance movementswereincreasinglyhelpfulinraisingtheawarenessof because theyillustratedtheirweaknessandlackofabilitytomobilizeallanti-colonialforces, popular movementswere Trotskyism andStalinism. They wereanembarrassmenttotheICP ganizations werenotthemostpopularmovementsinresponsetocolonialoppression. These training, inspection,andstruggle. divided intoeightsections:secretariat,communications,organizations, finance,verification, 40 Trotsky’s mainconcernwastoinfluencecommunistopinionandreturnatruerform The Trotskyist andStalinistideasmerged, andcooperating Trotsky-Stalinist forces The Trotskyists believedin Trotsky’s theoryof“revolutioninpermanence.” This The leadersofthesenewresistancemovementswereapartthemiddleclass Though Hohadappealeddirectlytothecitizensof Vietnam, theICP andHo’s or 41 Stalinismwasinclearoppositionto Trotskyism andin Vietnam it was thefirst 39 This locationisimperativeinlookingatthespreadofcommunist 38 The heightofthe Trotskyists andStalinistsoccurredfrom1932 37

42 Their ideasnot - - - - -

43 aegis 2007 - - - 45 - - - Ho’s Ho’s 46 , he asked his Vietnam as well as the different as well as the different Vietnam 44 Their political activity changed the face of revolution movements in Vietnam as Vietnam in of revolution movements changed the face Their political activity 43 Ideas circling change in rule had changed significantly from the beginning of French Ideas circling change in rule had changed Ho was forced to create the Viet Minh with nationalist motives with communist Minh with nationalist motives with communist Viet Ho was forced to create the By 1940, the French had still refused to cede the rights and requested reforms of the had still refused to cede the rights and By 1940, the French writing clarified the direction communism was going in Vietnam at that time. It was clear writing clarified the direction communism was going in mittees at each level of the Vietnamese government in October of 1945 concerning breaches government in October of 1945 Vietnamese mittees at each level of the division, and conceit. He recognized these sectarianism, debauchery, arrogance, of law, problems, and addressed them as mistakes of his public officials. In this letter public government officials to not use personal hate to arrest honest people, to not disregard for by the citi opinion, to not be wasteful of money by dressing in finery and using cars paid government positions they do not deserve, to ignore to not give friends zens with tax money, and to not look at the people in contempt. past grievances and unite the entire country, country. On September 2, Ho read the Vietnamese Declaration of Independence and declared Vietnamese On September 2, Ho read the country. return was inevitable. though the French Vietnam, the birth of the Democratic Republic of the change had been, Ho still addressed the idea rule. However great colonial rule to Ho’s Vietnamese were no longer op made to ensure the that there needed to be significant steps com He wrote to the executive Vietnam. in pressed by the French or any other government Marxism and how their country should be run. It was the Viet Minh who were to ensure that Minh who were Viet be run. It was the Marxism and how their country should World necessary to ensure that and ten demands were carried out, and a revolution was Ho’s August Revolution, the During the II gave them the chance to create their revolution. War including Hanoi, Hue, Vietnam, Minh were able to seize and control several cities around Viet prevent the French from returning to the country after and Saigon. Seizing these areas did not and but it did force out the Japanese who were currently in control of the country the war, enter the Allied forces who would attempt to the created a de facto political situation among undertones as a means of obtaining more support for the anti-colonial cause. This is both a This is both support for the anti-colonial cause. undertones as a means of obtaining more spirit surrounding direct reflection of the strong anti-colonial Viet The be run if it were to become independent. ideas concerning how the country should had originally The Comintern Vietnam. within Minh also illustrated the evolution of Marxism to spread strict Marxist ideas throughout the East. planned to use the country as a vehicle had changed the ideas of Vietnam Minh, it was clear that Viet of the establishment Ho’s With within the country. In 1944 the Viet Minh began their military coup against the French. At against the French. Minh began their military coup Viet In 1944 the within the country. Their admin government. leaders began restructuring their Vietnamese the same time, the a president, vice president, a at the village level included five members: istrative committees one for public works and agri for finance, one for administration, and member responsible was renamed the Liberation National August Revolution, the government After the culture. Vietnam. Committee of stood with the workers and the oppressed peoples, creating clear anti-colonial demonstrations demonstrations creating clear anti-colonial oppressed peoples, the workers and the stood with Vietnam. politics of within the Viet and the Vietnam In 1941 Ho Chi Minh returned to Northern had been met. Vietnamese another colo had yet Vietnamese At this time, the on the Chinese border. Minh were formed France to be a puppet government forcing Vietnam, as Japan took over nial power to deal with viewed as illegal and overt; they were not to public organizations and those involved in anti- involved and those public organizations not to they were and overt; as illegal viewed however, La Lutte; of Members to rebellion. admit not to openly were movements colonial city council positions. to be elected into their dissent and attempt demonstrate chose to openly in house” of politics acted as the “clearing 1933 and 1935 and the elections of They did win the South. platforms Their general. of Marxist ideas in of their ideas and more awareness well as raised

aegis 2007 44 unite thecountryandkeep Vietnamese onequalterms,whiletheFrenchdid opposite. government aswell.EachofthesecorrectionswithintheDRV thathehopedtochangewould from hislistofgrievancesthatthesewerealsoatheFrenchcolonial 8. White, 25-26. Asian Studies Association of Australia inassociation with Allen &Unwin,1989),38. 7. GregLockhart, 6. White, 24. 5. White, 29-30. 1970), 31. 4. John T. McAlister, 3. White, 29. 2. White, 23-24. 1920-1957 1. Christine White, Notes led totheriseofcommunismin Vietnam andthedestructionof Western ruleinthecountry. radical, lesstraditionalcommunistrevolutionmovements. Ultimately, Frenchcolonization protest movementsbythe Vietnamese andthelackofresponse fromtheFrenchledtomore Immediate changesinthegovernmentandlandholdingsduetoFrenchruleledreform while transformationalandunsuccessful,wereallretaliationsoftheFrenchcolonization. nationalist andcommunistrevolutionaries.Eachofthesereformrevolutionaryfactions, groups wereneverabletosucceeduntiltheirideascoalescedandtransformedappeal for worker’s rightsoragrarianreform,andwhilereceivingalarge following,thesesocialist been futile. Traditional reformersthenturnedtosocialistreformers,advocatingmorestrongly formers argued forlesstaxation,worker’s rights,andredistributionofland,butthat,too,had French protestorshadargued foramoretraditionalgovernment,butthathadbeenfutile;re zen’s ideasonindependenceandrevolution.Bythetime Vietnam haddeclaredindependence, forced tocontinuallychangehisideasregardingcommunismasameansaffect eachciti considerably, butitstillwasnottheentirelyacceptedbyeach Vietnamese citizen.Howas reforms suchasthese. through the20 century Vietnamese. That inmind, Vietnamese socialismcontinuedtodevelopandchange economy stable,genderequalityandtheworkingclasswerenotideascirclingamong19 ese roles. While Hobelievedinthetraditionalideathatsmallpeasantlandholdingkept officials illustrates.However, thesereformsdidnotcompletelyreverttotraditional Vietnam in thegovernmentwasatheartofthesereforms,ashisaddressto Vietnamese government equality amongclassesandgendersareturntotraditional Vietnamese values. A change returning peasantlandtopeasantsandendingtheoppressionofworkers.Hestressed front againsttheFrenchandappealtopeopleof Vietnam. At theheartofhisideaswas Southern Vietnam, andthe Vietnamese inFrance pleadingwiththemtohelpcreateaunified By 1945,conceptsofMarxismandcommunismforthe Vietnamese hadchanged After the August Revolution,Howroteseveral letterstotheDRV, thepeopleof , 21-22. th centuryandHo’s revolutioncontinuedtogainpopularityashepressedfor Nation in Arms: the OriginsofthePeople’s Army of Vietnam Agrarian ReformandNationalLiberationinthe Vietnamese Revolution: The Vietnamese and Their Revolution (New York: Harper&Row, (Boston: th

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45 aegis 2007 (Stanford: Hoover Hoover (Stanford: (Ithaca: Cornell 19 (Nov, 1950), 203. 19 (Nov, (Stanford, Hoover (Ithaca: Cornell University (New York, The New American Library, American Library, The New York, (New Far Eastern Survey Far Eastern (New York: Vantage, 1973), 63. Vantage, York: (New Infrastructure and the Marxist Power Seizure: an Analysis of the an Infrastructure and the Marxist Power Seizure: Vietnamese Communism, 1925-1945 Vietnamese Ho Chi Minh on Revolution The Rise of Nationalism in Vietnam, 1900-1941 Vietnam, in The Rise of Nationalism Resistance, Rebellion, Revolution: Popular Movements in Vietnamese Vietnamese Revolution: Popular Movements in Resistance, Rebellion, Vietnamese Communism, Its Origins and Development Origins and Its Communism, Vietnamese The Moral Economy of the Peasant: Resistance and Subsistence in Resistance and Economy of the Peasant: The Moral History of Vietnamese Communism: 1925-1975 Vietnamese History of (New Haven: Yale University Press,1976), 57. University Press,1976), Yale (New Haven: (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1984), 27. of Southeast (Singapore: Institute 39. Khanh, 191. that the cycle of revolution begins with class conflict in one nation argue Trotskyists 40. was a and as the working class rise, they spread their ideology across the globe. Indochina to gain the strategic location for the Soviets create a socialist government because they hoped Africa and Europe. Creating an international revolution in the eastern countries and move to Trotskyists. name of socialism was the end of the cycle of revolution, according to 41. Khanh, 194-196. Inc, 1967), 129. 34. Fall, 130. 35. Fall, 131. 222-223. 36. Duiker, 224- 225. 37. Duiker, 38. Khanh, 190-191. 28. Pike, 3. 29. Pike, 3. O’Meara, Andrew P. 30. Communist Models of Revolution 31. Lockhart, 49-50. 32. O’Meara, 62-63. 33. Bernard B. Fall, ed, 24. Duiker, 128-129. 24. Duiker, 25. Douglas Pike, Institution Press, 1978), 2. 26. Huynh Kim Khanh, Press, 1982), 64. 303-308. Turner, 27. 18. Lam, 27. J. Duiker, William 19. 191. University Press, 1976), 192-193. 20. Duiker, 21. Lam, 28. 22. Lam, 28. 128. 23. Duiker, 14. James C. Scott, 14. James Asia Southeast 15. Lockhart. 16. Scott, 95. Buu Lam, Truong 17. History 9. Robert F. Turner, Turner, F. 9. Robert 53. 1975), Press, Institution White, 26. 10. Vietnam,” of “Republic Richard J. Coughlin, 11. White, 31-32. 12. 204. 13. Coughlin,

aegis 2007 46 45. Pike,52. 44. O’Meara,79. 43. Khanh,204-205. 42. Khanh,201. 46. Fall,147-148.

47 aegis 2007 ------Ultimately, Ultimately, sold so few 1 again in 1996, in 1972, called the called 1972, in Weeds Weeds Weeds Weeds was the shifting, chaotic social raises compelling questions about Weeds Weeds I was published in 1923, protagonist Judith Pip was published in 1923, “a major work of American fiction” (Graebel). The (Graebel). American fiction” “a major work of Weeds is fashioned from many tangled threads, with contem with threads, tangled many from fashioned is to Weeds Weeds praised the book for its “compassionate realism, its narrative its realism, “compassionate its for book the praised Weeds , and the Politics of Gender of Politics the and , had finally found its audience in the late twentieth century, and twentieth century, had finally found its audience in the late hailed Weeds was rediscovered in 1972 and rescued from its long-imposed silence, was rediscovered in 1972 and rescued , however, unfolds in the seventy years of silence separating these laudato years of silence separating these unfolds in the seventy , however, aware of the of the ways in which the lives of women may be circumscribed aware of the of the ways in which the lives and patriarchal attitudes. by material circumstances, biological imperatives, (354) class after class of college students[…]they were always surprised to class after class of college students[…]they in a novel written so many years ago, that Kelley was very much discover, Weeds Weeds Christi Amato Christi Weeds New York Times New York One of the primary factors shaping the fate of When When Edith Summers Kelley’s Kelley’s When Edith Summers New York Times Book Review Book Times York New yet, the contemporary critical and popular appeal of yet, the contemporary critical and popular value and its failure to succeed in its first publication: how could a novel with such obvious American literary tradition slip into virtual anonymity? relevance to the desire to elevate litera I and the emerging War World The aftermath of climate of the 1920s. Matthew Bruccoli, the English professor credited with rediscovering with credited professor English the Bruccoli, Matthew American deserving of a position in the novel…a quiet masterpiece” work “a superb forgotten When the Feminist Press reissued “realistic/naturalistic” tradition (335). the and for its sure literary craftsmanship” (Graebel). pace, its sensitive evocation of character Indeed, it would seem Kelley’s passionate novel found new significance and meaning in an era that valued dimin passionate novel found new significance and Kelley’s of Judith Pippinger Blackford, the restless, The moving story voices. ished and marginalized farmer reached through the generations to touch yearning wife of a Kentucky tobacco tenant as Goodman notes that alike. Charlotte Margolis a mournful chord among readers and critics she taught the newly reprinted real story of spiritual suffoca of the tedium, monotony and ultimate compelling saga ry reviews. Kelley’s after 1923, when Blackford plunged into obscurity tion of Judith Pippinger advance for the book. unable even to pay back her publisher’s copies, Kelley was of failure popular and critical the contributors that would seal and academic movements as the primary porary social, political for her story to be retold. fate: Judith would have to wait nearly a century the novel’s pinger Blackford’s tragic plight was described by one reviewer as the “common story of hu plight was described by one reviewer tragic pinger Blackford’s still resonated with reviewers: mastery Kelley’s Nearly a century later, manity” (Krutch 65). in 1996, the Resurrecting Judith: Edith Summers Summers Edith Judith: Resurrecting Kelley,

aegis 2007 48 like Kelley. The turnofthetwentiethcenturyfavored“historicalromances America,” cultural milieuthatwoulddefinethetwentiesandshapewritingenvironmentforauthors The decadesleadinguptothepublicationof ture that represented uniquely “American” interests created a turbulent atmosphere for writers. public andbyextension, theliteratureproduced. Hartobserves: which America perceived itsrealityhadirrevocablyshifted. radical rejectionoftheromantic idealsespousedintheprecedingdecades:lensthrough the literaryscenein1921 dominated writingoftheday, withbooks likeSinclairLewis’s It Through 89). The American publicwasconsumedwithwarnovelslikeH.G. Wells’s time in1920,anddebatesragedabouteverythingfromprohibition tobirthcontrol(Hackett booming industry. Women foundthemselves admittedintothevotingboothsforfirst trialization fromtheproductionofwargoodsandtechnological advancesthatparalleled sector oflife. The worldofliteraturebegantoevolveinresponsetheincreasingindus sess a romantic view conforming to the prevailing genteel standards” of the time (223). public between the Spanish-American war and the era of World War I was that “the writer pos the only prevailing qualification (regardless of the writer’s sex) in the appetite of the reading writers in the twenties and thirties. It is important to note however, as John Hart points out, that male” gendered interests would make the literary world a treacherous place for American female in 1914(Hart214). The resultofthisbuddingdichotomybetweentypically“male”and“fe extreme examplebeingthesuccessofEdgarRiceBurroughsandhisnovel their owninterestinliteraturethroughthe“primitivevirtuesofvigorandcourage,”withone (50). Inresponsetothe“Sundayschoolmorality”ofwomenauthors, American menasserted ten withpureheroinesandhappyendingsinordertoflattertheself-esteemoffemalereaders” 211). The popularityofsuchworksconfirmsCowley’s assertionthat“novelshadtobewrit tales oforphansandmisfortunatewaifstranscendingtheirdiminishedcircumstances(Hart ness” ofGeneStratton-Porterinbookslike popularity amongyoungwomen,whilematurefemaleaudiencesembracedthe“brightsweet realm ofsentimentalismanddomesticity. BookslikeEleanorPorter’s surged inpopularity, inadvertentlyshapingtheidentity ofwomennovelistsinanisolated nation’s bestandmostimportantform”intheearlytwentiethcentury(3). over realism(Hart203).Indeed,asElizabeth Ammons observes,theromancesagawas “the the latenineteenthandearlytwentiethcentury—apublicdeterminedtoembrace“ideality” negroes” andsagasofwestwardadventurescapturedtheimaginationreadingpublicin about them”(50).Instead,rosyportraitsof“grandioseSouthernplantationsworkedbyhappy “an effort toabolishvariousevilsandvulgaritiesin American societybyneverspeaking observes, thiserainliterature,alsoknownasthe“genteeltradition,”wascharacterizedby view ledreaderstoembracefictionsaturatedinidealismandnostalgia. Insecurity wroughtbyindustrialization,burgeoning American wealthandachangingworld celebrating sentimentalistyearningfor“asimpler America closertothesoil”(Hart202,203). As World War Iwoundtoaclose,anindelible imprintwasleftonthe American The traumaof World War Iwrenched America fromitsidealismineveryconceivable In theyearsleadinguptopublicationof andIanHay’s 2 The FirstHundred Thousand (Hackett91). The commondenominatorinthesetrends was the Freckles Weeds providesignificantsocialcontextforthe and Weeds (Hart224).Realisminfiction also A GirloftheLimberlost , romanticfictionbywomenalso Main Street Pollyanna As MalcolmCowley burstingontoto Tarzan ofthe Apes Mr. BritlingSees reignedin , nostalgic ------

49 aegis 2007 - - This Side and by Edith Hull. Gatsby America’s interests America’s The Sheik and , Kelley descended into the backwoods of of backwoods the into descended Kelley , This Side of Paradise nouveau riche nouveau (33). Hearn observes that Fitzgerald’s magazine stories, magazine (33). Hearn observes that Fitzgerald’s Gatsby . Amid the backdrop of global stability concerns and the obsession Amid the backdrop of global stability concerns and the . , a masterpiece of realist fiction published in 1925, achieved popular , a masterpiece of realist fiction published Weeds repeated the same things many, many times over. It was getting late, too, many times over. repeated the same things many, and there was a long drive ahead of them and all the chores were waiting to be done. But still there could be no hurried leave-taking; there was no precedent for such a thing. So they all stood about the There would be a long family gathering about the wagon before the visitors There would be a long family gathering is ever done in a for nothing having to do with social intercourse drove off; they had and They had all day to talk to each other, hurry in rural Kentucky. values that could be attributed to the war. (226-27). to the war. could be attributed values that the first years of peace began to show the effect of the war upon public upon public the war of the effect began to show of peace years the first the combat about books many popular produce did not The twenties taste. and in interests change by the was stamped another after but one work itself, that would win him canonical status, Fitzgerald was forced to resort to publishing that would win him canonical status, Fitzgerald It was into this tempestuous literary atmosphere that, in 1923, Edith Summers Kelley It was into this tempestuous literary atmosphere The Great Gatsby The Great romanticized Horatio Alger myths to support himself as a writer. himself as a writer. Alger myths to support romanticized Horatio released her novel York’s New of minutiae daily the with monotony: in exercise an like reads recreation where world a among Kentucky, poverty-stricken which he notoriously resented writing, were adapted to the “tastes and values of the mass au which he notoriously resented writing, American fairy “rags-to-riches” fables, “that favorite diences,” which characteristically meant by showing how success can come even to the tale that panders to the dreams of the reader writing career aptly demonstrates the existence personal most humble” (33, 34). Fitzgerald’s in the literary world during the twenties of dueling tastes, attitudes and trends circulating even as he wrote works like complicating the job facing serious writers: of Paradise abductor (Hart 232). It is interesting to note that even Fitzgerald seemed aware of (and indig abductor (Hart 232). It is interesting to Americans, resorting to writing magazine among nant about) this divide in literary appetite his income. Charles Hearn observes that even to supplement “formula-fiction” in the 1920’s as for five stories from magazine fiction—$11,025 income came success, “most of [Fitzgerald’s] compared to $1981.85” from sense of a growing divide between the prevailing intellectual worldview jaded by postwar divide between the prevailing intellectual sense of a growing “roaring twenties” created determined to embrace the high-spirited cynicism and a public companions shared the bestseller Unlikely in the early 1920’s. unique trends in literature Scott Fitzgerald’s lists, in books like F. While Fitzgerald’s the skeptical. absorbed the sensational as well as American literary tastes book youths” Hull’s and sophistication among Princeton-bred novel traces the “cynicism Arab between a naïve English girl and her outlines an improbable romance that blossoms with the advent of the automobile, the phonograph and the motion picture revolutionizing the revolutionizing and the motion picture the phonograph of the automobile, with the advent books now demanded Americans explains that Hart further were entertained. Americans way early 1920’s, but good in the a new generation” (228). Life was different, “that would explain peaking hips…mah-jongg” and dance marathons with “waistlines at the theories on human sexuality, Freud titillated the masses with his (Hackett 93). Sigmund The 231). sexual freedom almost essential” (Hart Americans “seemed to make which to The advance of technology also fed the general sense of dislocation in life and literary taste, in life and literary taste, of dislocation fed the general sense of technology also The advance

aegis 2007 50 Intothisleisurely, complacentworldKelleyimmersesherreader, introducingJudithPip characterized as “thevirtualembodimentof the American way”accordingtoJanetGalligani the working-class experienceoffarming. The professionoffarming hadalreadybeenlong perspective both maleandfemaleauthors initsovertcriticismofthehardlifefarming of herexistence(Hochman275). Judith PippingerBlackford,her inadequateeducation,andthetobaccofieldsthatare bane educated andverysophisticated,” movingincirclesofsocietyandcultureworldsaway from different socialrealitiesthanKelleycreatesforJudithin forces bothwithinandwithoutoftheirgrasp share anaturalistprogressiontowardtragedy, seeminglypulledtowardtheirowndefeatby inner andouter)beyondthecontrolofcharacters”(274). EdnaPontellierandLilyBart [their] concernforthepressuresofenvironmentandcircumstance, and…focusonforces(both examples ofwomenwritersthat“exemplifythe‘naturalist’ plotofindividualdecline,with protagonists (Hochman275).BarbaraHochmanoffers Edith Wharton andKate Chopinas “naturalist mode”beforeKelleycreatedcompletelydifferent environmentsfortheirfemale unrelenting farmlife(Walcutt 266).Evenwomenwritersthathadexperimented withthe over humandesires,”Kelleyelevatessingularlyfemaleinterests inhercritiqueofdreary, Kelley andothernaturalistssharedanemphasis“onthepowerscopeofmechanicallaws Crane andDreiser:Kelley’s brandofnaturalismwasuniqueinitsfemalepointview. While of unrelentingchildbirth,isolatedthenovelfromotherpopularandacclaimednaturalistslike naturalist themesofthenovelaremorepotentialreasonsforbook’s failure. its depictionoftheinevitablecyclesnaturalworldandhumannature.Entangledin cally associatedwithauthorssuchas Theodore Dreiser, StephenCraneandFrankNorris,for tenant farmers. that sheexpertlyblendswiththerealitiesofcrushingpovertyandmonotonyinlife the day. Kelley’s depictionoftheKentuckylandscapeformsaspectacular naturalbackdrop tucky dominate for commercialsuccess. Kelley revealedakeeninsightthatpopular American literaryappetiteslimitedherprospects Weeds about womenwhogotjobsinofficesandmarriedtheboss,ratherthanrealisticnovelslike publishers thatKelleycomplained“bitterlythe American publicwantedromanticnovels arguments aboutcontraception.Infact,Kelley’s son,IvorUpdegraff, yearslaternotedto in. Kelley’s choiceinsettingwasfarremovedfromtheworldofcinema,automobileand occupied adifferent realmofrealitythanmost Americans ofthedaycaredtobe absorbed terns, tripsbyhorse-drawnwagons,anddinnersofcorncakesscantrationscow’s milk pinger Blackfordandthetrivialitieshardshipsoffarmlife.Discussionsweatherpat ” (qtd.inGoodman,362).Itwouldseemthat,echoingthesentimentsofFitzgerald, Weeds, In particular, Kelley’s blunt,critical portrayaloflabor, bothfarmlaborandthe Worlds awayfrom . Weeds Weeds then,isexceptionalfromother naturalistworksoftheperiodproducedby Weeds more commentson Aunt JennyBoone’s stroke…(10) wagon andexchangedsomemorepropheciesabouttheweather isanovelconcernedbothwith thehighlygenderedfemaleexperienceand emerges amasterpieceofnaturalism,popularliterarytraditiontypi , andrelegatethenoveltoadifferent spherethanmostpopularbooks of bourgeois societyandwar-stained psyches,scenesofruralKen 3 . LilyandEdna,however, occupycompletely II Weeds . EdnaandLilyareboth“well from afemale - - - -

51 aegis 2007

- - - - The Farmer’s Wife The Farmer’s . Her unsympathetic portrayal portrayal . Her unsympathetic . An editor claimed: . Weeds Weeds City women have given up their jobs as homemakers, preferring to live in City women have given up their jobs as in order that they can follow the one-room city apartments to save work and shirking responsibility at every turn, [but] amusements of the city, ‘jazz’ continue to live in the way America, God bless them! the farm women of that the normal wife and the normal mother should live. (qtd. in Casey 99). Although nearly all of the ‘old folks’ were under fifty and most of them in were under fifty and of the ‘old folks’ Although nearly all array of bent limbs, bowed shoul the thirties and forties, it was a scarecrow and jagged angularities, that formed ders, sunken chests, twisted contortions men and women, who dance[...]these the circle for the old folks’ their lives were already classed should have been in the full flower of among the aged. (91) would have been offensive on two fronts to groups like the “Country Life would have been offensive Kelley’s brutal realism, her depictions of the broken and bruised farmers in the brutal realism, her depictions of the broken and Kelley’s Weeds , it reveals the existence of ideologies that undermined Kelley’s major themes in the , it reveals the existence of ideologies that undermined Kelley’s . 4 While the “Country Life Movement” had no specific causal relationship to the failure of While the Weeds novel stantial amount of attention in mainstream and agricultural publications (98). The impact of and agricultural publications (98). stantial amount of attention in mainstream comments of publications like such movements can be seen in the editorial of in 1920, a mere three years before the publication Judith’s community, counters the ideologies espoused by institutions like the “Country Life counters the ideologies espoused by institutions like the “Country Life community, Judith’s Roosevelt in 1908. Casey explains that the pre-Depres Theodore Movement” established by advocates for “moderniz[ing] images of the rural sion era in the United States found many myth’…and ‘agrarian fundamentalism’” (97). American family to reinforce both an ‘agrarian about farm life and emphasizing farming as the This involved propagating sentimentalism While Casey to increasing urbanization (Casey 97). economy” in response “base of the larger it received a sub “Country Life Movement” seriously, notes that Congress refused to take the

men, women and children of Scott County, Kentucky drudge through an unfulfilling and bleak Kentucky drudge through an unfulfilling of Scott County, men, women and children At the pint of corn whiskey. only by grueling labor and the occasional existence, punctuated poppy among weeds,” a survey of Judith Pippinger is described as “a party where the young picture: paints a very different the rest of the room Yet, this is exactly what Edith Summers Kelley does in Edith Summers Kelley this is exactly what Yet, portrait of the farming produces a dismal in tobacco prices by fluctuations of life determined off and Jerry must subsist in the winter tobacco killing drought means Judith A way of life. only the occasional “wormy runt” corn meal” with no milk or meat, and of a “great desert of and Jerry live is populated with The community in which Judith 196). of an apple (Kelley field work. Indeed, the deformity from malnutrition and back-breaking farmers shriveled to Casey (96). In her essay on female authors and agrarian landscapes, Casey argues that works that argues Casey landscapes, and agrarian authors on female her essay (96). In Casey early twentieth in the and thrived existed States in the United farming life the examining to a support relegated women which essentially from the male perspective, but only century, in “highly gendered” landscape was that the agrarian role. Casey argues ing, gender-limited to propagate “truly as an unlikely setting with farm culture the modern period, novels from (Casey 96). bodies” of women’s mind a radical theorization social ideals, never subversive

aegis 2007 52 delineated inagrariannovels,accordingtoCasey. Infact,anunimpressedreviewof and heruncontrolledchildbearing.Suchthemesfalloutsideofthehighlygenderedroles motherhood. JudithPippingerBlackfordfailstobefulfilledbyherdomesticroleonthefarm Movement:” sheattacksboththeromanticvisionsoffarmlife,anddeeplysacrednotions as animalisticandmachine-like; shepacesthefloor rary notionsofmaternalgender roles(103).In“Billy’s Birth,” Judithisalternatelydescribed to emphasizethe about typically“female”perspectivesinwriting.Caseyclaims Kelleyusesthebirthchapter connection tothecontentofnovelaswellinsight itprovidesintoculturalattitudes and analyzedthesignificanceofexcisionbirth chapter fromthebook,exploringits the novel,andclarifiesreinforcesitsnaturalistthemes. Various scholarshavedissected chapter, abrutallyrealisticaccountofthebirthingJudith’s firstchild,bringscohesionto the publisher, HarcourtBracetoincludeKelley’s chapter, “Billy’s Birth”inthenovel. The authors createdfortheirfemaleprotagonists. of womeninthe1920’s wascomplex,bothintheworldofwriting,andwomen as awriterandofthemajorfeministthemesshechampionedin cal issuessurroundingthefailureof novels reverberatebeyondsimplythe“type”ofnovelKelleywrote.Onemostcriti sonable toassume it is” claims thatKelley’s portrayaloffarmingexposesa“Jeffersonian idealfortheelitistparadigm psychic ramificationsforthefemalecharacterswhoselivesunfoldinit”(Casey99).Casey cording toCasey, “thelandscapeassumesenormousproportions…asithasvastmaterialand culine worldviewoftheagrarianlandscape.Inagrarian-basedfictionbyfemaleauthors,ac novel, insteaddismissingherrealismasoveremphasisonunsightlydetails. not comprehendKelley’s female-centeredperspectiveaboutfarmlifeandmotherhoodinthe Life Movement”circulatinginmainstream America. Boyntontotallymisunderstandsordoes particular reviewaptlyexposestheattitudesembracedbyorganizations likethe“Country to acceptherplightisthatit“not,afterall,anignobleorunhappyending”(289). This her” (289).Boynton’s onlycommentonJudith’s quietresignationattheendofnovel unhappiness inthenovel,whilecallingherhusbandan“honestboy, witharealdevotionfor of merephysicalunseemlinessandsqualor”(Boynton288).HegoesontodiminishJudith’s “for me,thechiefblemishin‘Weeds’ liesintheauthor’s tendencytoover-emphasize items about theagrarianlandscapeinnovels.ReviewerH.W. BoyntoncriticizesKelley, saying, 1923 by 5 (102). With thiskindofradicalsentimentthreaded inKelley’s writing,itisnotunrea The Independent One ofthemostrevealingincidentsinpublication Casey’s commentsonthehighly-genderednatureoffemaleroleinagrarian Weeds issubversiveinthatKelleybringstolifeavoiceoutsidethemainstream,mas un that seemedas thoughitcouldhaveitsorigin nowhereupontheearth.(338) again, thestrangelyunhuman shriek,asavage,elemental,appallingsound through herbody, shewouldgraspthenearestobject andutter, againand like awildtigressnewlycaged. When theterrificspasmofpainwouldgrind Weeds naturalness ofchildbirthandlabor, afurther fracturefromthecontempo mayhavesuffered forwantofaudience. complainedofpreciselytheseaspects,sustainingCasey’s argument Weeds istheconceptofgender, concerningbothKelley III Weeds Weeds . The socialidentity istherefusalof Weeds - - - in - -

53 aegis 2007 - - - , - - - Weeds . Judith’s . Judith’s This passage is criti This passage as a naturalist work. Every action that occurs in work. Every action as a naturalist Weeds power and scope of mechanical laws over human desire laws over human scope of mechanical power and Kelley received ample praise for her rendering of the dialect, as well as and some reviewers noted the the physical landscape, or rural Kentucky, put issues of maternity at the heart of however, oppressive conditions…few, the novel. (89) Significantly blurs [Kelley’s] focus. Indeed, because they did not read this focus. Indeed, Significantly blurs [Kelley’s] Weeds. aspect of pivotal scene…reviewers focused on the ‘local color’ be borne; and to do this endlessly, endlessly, endlessly without rest, without endlessly without endlessly, this endlessly, be borne; and to do respite. (345) Through no volition of her own, but following only the grimly point of her own, but following only the grimly Through no volition she must, as a leaf is drawn upon a downward because follow ing finger, of that between the towering entrance boulders current, the girl entered her fate only to far away from the world…It was silent canyon and passed thing: that each struggle knowing only one blindly, struggle on desperately, will that is unbearable and that yet must and of anguish meant the suffering The events in the birth chapter seem so inextricably linked to the meaning of the The events in the birth chapter seem so Reading Kelley’s moving portrayal of childbirth, it seems hardly believable that Al it seems hardly believable that moving portrayal of childbirth, Reading Kelley’s novel that it seems unlikely that the novel could retain its shape without it. Casey argues that could retain its shape without it. Casey argues novel that it seems unlikely that the novel major themes in of Kelley’s Birth” “substantially revises our understanding “Billy’s relation to the in its treatment of Judith’s as more daring, and more complex which emerges in this claim, because the entire argument natural world” (107). Casey makes a compelling supports this notion, say Birth.” Berg of “Billy’s scope of the novel shifts with the inclusion Birth” ing the omission of “Billy’s In fact, it hadn’t been done before. As Allison Berg explains, there were only “veiled refer explains, there were only Allison Berg As been done before. In fact, it hadn’t “nothing approaching the detail or length of Kelley’s ences” to childbearing in literature, with reasons Harcourt felt it necessary can only speculate about the real We 90). description” (Berg she “had adamant defense to Harcourt that Kelley’s to omit the “obstetrical incident,” despite adequate description of childbirth” (qtd. in never read in the works of a woman novelist…an Goodman 361). fred Harcourt could tell Kelley, “We don’t think you need all of the first obstetrical incident. It think you need all of the first obstetrical incident. don’t “We fred Harcourt could tell Kelley, thousands of women go through, but-almost there is a powerful piece of writing and is what Another 89). country” (qtd. in Berg Tobacco or the fore-it is not peculiar to the story of Judith and not to Kentucky “It [childbirth] is common to the lot of all women editor wrote to Kelley, 89). in modern realistic novels” (qtd. in Berg alone. It has been done over and over again birth scene is vital to bringing unity to is vital to bringing birth scene she is her surroundings; Judith does not control the idea that Birth” works to reinforce “Billy’s a force of nature beyond her power: relentlessly driven by As Judith’s labor progresses through the night, her contractions are described as “the ever- as are described contractions night, her the through labor progresses As Judith’s indomitable” and way relentless on its which went piston of some great drive recurring had led kindly that from her childhood her labor that “nature reflects during (344). Judith her” (344). paths…had at last betrayed through pleasant and blandly reader realizes during the novel: the themes that dominate the naturalist cal to understanding scene the the childbirth

aegis 2007 54 “exotic temperamentandstrangeinclinations”(7a). proclivities. ers in1923failedtosympathizewithKelley’s protagonist,muchlesspraise (158). Judithfinds herselfmiserableinher separationfromnatureandthe outdoorworldthat novelty woreoff, [it]begantofretherlike the tugofinnumerablesmall restrainingbands” different lines”(Kelley158). The baby“claimed mostofJudith’s attention…[and] afterthe of Judith’s firstchild, shereflectsthat“lifeinthelittlehousehollow fellalongquite ing aswellmotherhoodis a majorsourceofmiseryforJudith.Directlyafterthebirth hood. EvenwithoutJudith’s grueling labor sequence,readersclearlyrecognizethatbirth Weeds standing Judith)can’t simplybeexplainedfromthemissingbirthchapter, though. category ofsmut. This persistentthreadinmanyreviewsof or contentmentinsuchjourneys—insteadrelegatingJudith’s trialsandtribulationstothe Judith undertakes,andthetensionsbetweenfatehuman desiresthatcomplicatesuccess The reviewfailstoevenregisterthemajorpremiseofnovel—the deeplypersonaljourney community, evengoingsofarastoattackKelley’s writingstyle: discerning readers. Worse, thereviewmockssubjectsandlifestyleofKelley’s chosen (74). This reviewrelegates and thecarryonherlifeuntilsuchatimeasauthorthinksthatbookislongenough” with thechildhoodofheroine,influenceswhichsurroundedherearlydevelopment, illustrates thisideaquitewellwhenitcompares out: thesettingandcommunityoffarmers. overlooked inthecritics’ superficialcharacterizationofJudithasa“dissatisfied”woman. viable totheliteraryworld.Instead,Judith’s trueidentityasanartist,dreamer, andwomanis Kelley hasoffered auniqueperspectiveandvaluablefemalevoicecontributingsomething tions toherunhappinessinlife.Inshort,theydiminishanddismissthesensethatJudith, irrational, potentiallyimbalancedfarmwifewhosuffers miserablyinspiteofreasonablesolu necessary occupation,”butinexplicablyrebelsanyway. These reviewsdepictJudithasan articulates whatqualifiesas“logical,”hegoesontosaythatJudithis“amplysuppliedwith either areturntothesoil…orrearingofchildren”(F.A.G. 288). While thereviewernever soever thecause,whetherlogicalornot,usualremedyprovidedbyclosingchapteris of unoriginality, saying“manyanovelisthaswrittenthetaleo’ thedissatisfiedwoman. What trivializes Judith’s struggleforfreedomandindependencebylumping stillretainsfeministunderpinnings, primarilyinJudith’s unorthodoxviewsofmother While theexcisionofbirth chapterdetractsfromthenovel’s feministthemes, Otherreviewerslapsedintoaddressingtheonlyotheraspectofnovelthatstands Perhaps itispartlybecauseofthenovel’s senseofincompletenessthatmanyreview The

Springfield DailyRepublican their bookswillnotbedisappointed,foritisthere.(74) further inhersuggestivedescriptions,whilethosewholike a‘littlesmut’ in are partswherethereaderisdevoutlythankfulthatauthor hasgoneno find thestoryaverycompleteandminutedescriptionofthat life. Kentucky tobacco-growers,thetenant-farmersintobaccolands—will mon languageandimmoralityoftheuneducated—intypicallife Those readerswhoareinterestedinsqualidlife,thecoarseandcom Weeds intoaclassofclichéd,formulaicfictiondisdainedby The LiteraryDigestInternationalBookReview , forexample,describedJudithashavingan Weeds The BostonTranscript tothe“manystoriesthatcommence Weeds (overlooking ormisunder Weeds reviewfrom1923 Weeds intothecategory ’ feminist There - -

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55 aegis 2007 - - - s trouble’s, Judy…. s trouble’s, ’s Mother’s Day edition in 1920 as an example of some of Mother’s ’s wives may give up husbands; children may repudiate parents and fathers fathers and parents repudiate may children husbands; up give may wives 79) Berg in (qtd. forever. abides love mother the sons-but disown There is no form of life lying nearer Divinity than mere protoplasmic anima protoplasmic mere than Divinity nearer lying life of form no is There love[…]the mother of sentiment the with imbued is manner some in but tion, wives, against turn may Husbands sentiment. higher no knows heart human In such moments, she hated them both, the born and the unborn, two little and the unborn, two both, the born she hated them In such moments, the one from without, the other on her incessantly, greedy vampires working bent on drinking her last peace, her a moment’s from within, never giving out her last shrieking nerve. (208) drop of blood, tearing Overland Monthly It seems perplexing that in a decade characterized by Freud, sexual freedom and It seems perplexing that in a decade characterized by Freud, sexual freedom and Representation of children as vitality-sucking vampires and failed home abortions Representation of children as vitality-sucking Even more radical, Judith’s third pregnancy less than a year later finds her contem third pregnancy Even more radical, Judith’s Judith becomes hopeless, “degraded and in bondage” by the betrayal of her body; “degraded and in bondage” by the Judith becomes hopeless, Judith’s second pregnancy finds her despondent; feelings of oppression consume her consume her feelings of oppression finds her despondent; second pregnancy Judith’s Judith’s belief that children feed off the life of the mother would be considered subversive the life of the mother belief that children feed off Judith’s of the parent-child relationship is especially bleak representation then, in 1923. Kelley’s disseminated in popular publications of the rebellious considering the views of motherhood offers time. Berg time: abounding in Kelley’s the more popular views of motherhood and appalling…how could she bear to bring this child into the world?” (282) Judith tries the and appalling…how could she bear to bring riding first, hoping to induce abortion and instead less intrusive method of vigorous horseback she returns home “dejected,” having failed (285). She sets the neighborhood gossip aflame as knitting needle, only to abandon the procedure at the then makes an awkward attempt with the “first stab of pain” (285). modern times. It is not unreasonable to assume that present evoke powerful images, even in able role is mother, wife, counselor, and housekeeper: all roles firmly planted in the domestic and housekeeper: wife, counselor, able role is mother, sphere. a method learned from “the whispered confidences plating abortion with a “knitting needle,” her third in she will not survive another pregnancy, of other women” (282). Judith is resolute: were added a misery and disgust more hateful three years; to her “bodily misery and disgust Judith is very much aware needs (219). to her husband and Billy’s she becomes unresponsive the courage nor the strength to go misery: she feels that she has “neither of the source of her is fulfilling her prescribed role in and yet she has no choice—she through with it all again,” failings, her indifference, husband becomes irritable at her domestic procreation (240). Her in a man’ “seems like you might take a little interest chiding her in saying, as Judith has come to believe, that her only vi Mammy allus did” (245). Jerry has reinforced, always refreshed and revitalized her spirit; the introduction of a child into her life confines her life confines child into of a introduction spirit; the her and revitalized refreshed always Jerry maintains of domesticity. world to the circumscribed ties her one that in bondage, Judith it is simply assumed each morning, while the tobacco fields of leaving to work his freedom the home. is motherhood and assigned realm that Judith’s as she contemplates:

aegis 2007 56 well” (78).Shepointsoutthateventhepushforsomethingasradicalbirthcontrolwas Woman andthesexualfreedomsherepresented, thecultof True Motherhoodwasaliveand culture. Allison Berg explainsthecontradictionthus:“despiteascendancyofNew debates overcontraceptionthatsuchsentimentscouldstillpersistinmainstream American terizes gleaned valueand relevancefromthenovel initsoriginalpublishedform. Shermancharac of thebirthchapterinoriginal publication,clearlyrevealingthatthere Sherman’s astute observationsandinterpretationofthenovelemerge withouttheinclusion reviews initsinsightandattention toKelley’s truethemes. Evenmoreremarkableisthat man wroteaglowingreview of which complicatesanyclear-cut assessmentofwhythenovelfailed.Inparticular, StuartSher Weeds culture ofthetime(Berg 3). bodily colonization”wasacompletelyradicalsentimentfor bothliteratureandmainstream males. Kelley’s representationofthe“materialconditionsinwhich reproductionbecomes have hostiletothesuggestionthatfemaleexperienceswere more“fundamental”thanthatof suggests anaudienceunsympathetictoJudith’s plight,andperhapsamaleaudiencethatmay a morefundamentalwaythanforthemaleprotagonistof naturalnovel”(88). Again, this female, reproductive-centeredperspective.Shenotesthat, “forwomen,biologyisdestinyin Weeds of maternityingeneral”(88).Berg’s observationiscritical becausesherevealsthatwhile the 1920’s, one“notpreparedforacritiqueofreproduction—forunsentimentaldepictions 80). Berg pointsoutthattheremayhavebeenalimitedaudienceforKelley’s messagein pling” istheultimaterejectionofeugenics,whichmayhavewonKelleyfewadmirers(Berg ire ofGod,butshirkingtheircivicduty. (qtd. inBerg 79). According tothislogic,womenlikeJudithwerenotonlyaggravatingthe of therace,guardianitsblood…onlyanobleracewillorcanbuildinstitutions” to womenthat America looksfortherealizationofthisideal.Sheisnaturalconservator evidence ofpopulararguments supportingeugenics. Wiggam claimedthat“itispeculiarly a heftyroleinrealizingthe“greatrace.”Berg notesthecommentsofEdward Wiggam as years ledwhite America tocloseranks,and American women,willingornot,wereassigned Increases inimmigrationandthepushforequalityU.S.duringpost-World War I paranoia that America’s pureracewouldbeextinguishedifwomendidn’t takeaction(79). explains thatadropinbirthratesamong“white,native-born,middleclasswomen”induced women aspromotersofthe“greatrace”inmovementknowneugenics(Berg 79).Berg to thriveorfindacceptance. romanticized idealofthe“mother-woman” inthe1920’s leftnoplaceforwomenlikeJudith that childrearingcrushedawoman’s autonomyandcreativespirit? The answeristhatthe didn’t wantchildren more motherly”(Berg 79). Where didthisleavewomenlikeJudithPippingerBlackford,who neglecting hermaternalduties,awomanfreedfromreproductive‘slavery’ wouldbeallthe wrapped inrhetoricaboutbeingabettermother;Margaret Sangerargued that“farfrom , therewerepositivecriticalresponses tothenovelwhenitwasoriginallypublished, satisfiedapredominantliterarytrendofthetime,realism/naturalism, itwasthrougha Weeds The factremains,however, thatdespitethelarge bodyofunfavorablereviewsabout As Berg notes,viewingchildrenas“economicallywellpsychologicallycrip In additiontomotherhoodbeing“divinelyinspired,”the1920’s sawapushfor a“socialstudy,” inwhich at all ? What placewastherein American cultureforwomenwhothought Weeds for The LiteraryReview , thatparallelsmanymodern were criticswho - - 6

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57 aegis 2007 - - - - - in 1924, as Paul Lauter’s as Paul Lauter’s Weeds inclusion in the liter within critical circles? Weeds, Weeds, refutes the notion that the Weeds’ Weeds Weeds IV failure with the general reading public, ques failure with the general reading public, Weeds’ critics who took notice of the value of Kelley’s work, Kelley’s critics who took notice of the value of wrote a similarly perceptive review of wrote a similarly perceptive were The Nation of Ford cars and victrolas. They are still at the accordion and lumber wagon at the accordion and They are still and victrolas. of Ford cars their great-grandfathers…(363) they were left by stage, where these good people are as innocent as our parents in Eden. They are not They are in Eden. as our parents innocent are as good people these by the possession rural civilizations denoted distance of the within hailing While a thorough examination of attitudes, trends, tastes and movements of the While a thorough examination of attitudes, The existence of praiseworthy reviews concerning The existence of praiseworthy reviews Joseph Krutch of college classrooms and literary criticism, the power of the American literary canon cannot be the power of the college classrooms and literary criticism, as the vehicle by which we measure our identity The canon can be construed underestimated. guarantees and preserve our culture through literature—an authoritative institution which As Lauter to the periphery. immortality for some writers, while relegating others, like Kelley, of its observes, the canon “encodes a set of social norms and values; and these, by virtue Those authors and cultural standing, it helps endow with force and continuity” (Lauter 435). norms and values face certain exclusion. works which fall outside their culture’s which saw incredible value shifts and power struggles in academic and literary circles. The struggles in academic and literary circles. which saw incredible value shifts and power elite are critical to novels like preferences and attention of the literary Lauter identifies the canon as “that set of authors definition of the literary canon underscores. literature college courses and textbooks, and American and works generally included in basic cited, or criticism” Works of literary history, those ordinarily discussed in standard volumes the literature that will endure in As the institution that preserves and standardizes (435). 1920’s nets a broader understanding of 1920’s lack of appeal within scholarly literary circles. How could a tions still remain about Kelley’s being American literary tradition have fallen into obscurity, novel with such clear value to the by the literary elite that shaped the “canon” excluded from college curricula and ignored again lies in the tumultuous decade of the 1920’s, The answer taught in those colleges? novel may have simply been ahead of its time in Kelley’s feminist realism. While the lack of While the lack feminist realism. time in Kelley’s novel may have simply been ahead of its of audience, reviews like those by Krutch and Sher popular success may be attributed to lack man definitively prove that there critics make for contemporary making much the same arguments What, then, explains the rejection or neglect of ary canon today. concluding that the Kentucky community is “interesting not chiefly because of the strange Kentucky community is “interesting not concluding that the story of version of the common because it is only a slightly different ness of their story but calling her story in particular, like Sherman, he calls attention to Judith humanity” (65). Much the same aspects of the novel that (65). Krutch focuses attention on “the story of all women” through loss of vivacity of Judith’s and hence tragedy, the inevitability, Sherman pointed out: processes beyond her control. Sherman diverges from other critics here, in that he doesn’t punish Kelley for her rural, some Kelley for her punish in that he doesn’t other critics here, from Sherman diverges digs into the it. Instead, Sherman poverty that permeates setting choice and the what dull a “serf of the gradual decline into reasons for Judith’s more substantive themes: the novel’s with empathy and a critical eye (363). Sherman appraises Judith soil…slave of circumstance” “lapsing into fearless, [and] self-reliant,” a woman her to be: “eager, for what Kelley intended (363). understand” processes which [she] doesn’t defeat by irresistible

aegis 2007 58 [which] wasaproductoftheexpansionhighereducation”(440). twenties concerningliteraturewas“theproliferationof American literaryanthologies… that excludedKelley? According toLauter, oneofthemoreimportantdevelopmentsin ence andattention toworkslike demia, butdiminishedthechances offeministliteraturebeingadvancedinthoseforums. declined from1920-1950,which notonlyevidencesalackoffemalerepresentationinaca world ofacademia. The numberofwomenobtainingdoctoratesandcollegeprofessorships statistics alsosupportthenotion thatwomenwereunderrepresentedandundervaluedin the and longedforthereturn reverenceofthemasculinehero(Lauter447).Subsequent 1921. Hergesheimer complainedthat American fictionwasbeing“strangledwithapetticoat,” from thefeminineinhisessay, “TheFeminine Nuisancein American Literature”publishedin of “literature ispreeminentlyastudyforgirls”(Lauter444). A popularnovelistduringthetime that theoverwhelmingnumberofwomeninliteraturecourses wasfosteringtheopinionthat ple, asearly1909wasconfrontingtheissueof“coeducation andliterature,”complaining in theacademicliteraryworldearlytwentiethcentury. The MLA chairman,for exam world. Lauterprovidesmultipleexamplesevidencingthe diminishment ofallthings“female” dered lens,withthoseinterestsdesignatedastypicallyfemale beingdevaluedintheacademic (Lauter 443). The workofwomenauthorswasconsistentlyevaluatedthroughahighly gen gated inmassculture,veiledmovementslike“TheCountry LifeMovement”andeugenics evaluated byacademia,tendedtobehinderedthesame“ideologyofdomesticity”promul working-class, womenandminorityvaluestastestothemargins. Women authors,when whitewashed curriculumthatreflectedthevaluesofthissmallprofessoriat,whilerelegating nant elite]ownauthorityandstatusaswell”(Lauter442). The effect wasahomogenized, culture andvaluesforthecollege-educatedleadership,butalsoenhancedtheir[thedomi 441). Literaryscholarshipwasreorganized “inwaysthatnotonlyassertedamale-centered humanistic fields…theimmediateresultwasthustheintensificationofelitism”(qtd.inLauter authority inagroupthat,asof1900,numberedonlyfewhundredpersonsspreadacrossthe for womenandminoritywritersbecause,asLaurence Veysey observes,“thismeantvesting great majorityofwhomwerewhiteandmale”(Lauter441). This trendpromisedtrouble over readingshifted…fromwomenwhowerenotacademicprofessionalstoacademics,the emerged asthepurveyorofvaluesandtasteinliterature.Morespecifically, the“influence (Lauter 441). According toLauter was criticalbecauseitamountedtothe“academicinstitutionalizationofreadingchoices” Weeds Such trendsin the academicandliterarycircles haveresultedindiminished pres Essentially, the1920’s canbesingled outasauniqueperiodinwhichacademia The questionremains,whattrendsandfactorsduringthe1920’s shapedthecanon publication,JosephHergesheimer, providesanothersignificantexampleoftheflight literary societies,mainlyfemale.(441) literary study, particularlyofcontemporaryauthors,wascarriedonwithin lege campuses,priorto1920,andcertainlyincommunities,agooddealof ing cultureandtaste—becamethepurviewofclassroom.Evenoncol and certainmagazines—choosingbookstoberememberedread,build What hadbeenthefunctionofindividuals,families,orliteraryclubs Weeds , inwhichthesphere ofdomesticity, whileportrayed This singledevelopment ------

59 aegis 2007 - - - . Certainly, Judith . Certainly, American cultural Weeds may also have been ignored. may also have been Weeds illuminates Morris’s point aptly: Alfred aptly: point illuminates Morris’s V was still a rejection of the experiences Kelley was still a rejection of the experiences Weeds Weeds failed in the 1920’s is ultimately impossible to answer with a single, is ultimately impossible failed in the 1920’s privileges the whaling ship over the sewing circle as a symbol of human as a symbol of human the sewing circle the whaling ship over privileges rather than shrewish wives mothers and satirizes domineering community, exquisite compassion husbands, and displays fathers and abusive tyrannical of the parallel turmoil male while dismissing of the adolescent for the crises the female. (475) Weeds Why Lauter also makes a compelling argument about the exclusion of black authors which the exclusion of black authors which about compelling argument Lauter also makes a illuminating and all-encompassing response. Rather, the uninspired public reception and criti illuminating and all-encompassing response. Rather, novel is fashioned from the exceptional set of cal (and subsequent academic) snub of Kelley’s the years she cultural, political and academic trends that existed and disadvantaged Kelley in editing pen of Harcourt Brace is to blame, Whether the unforgiving plied her trade as a writer. with a or the presence and social acceptance of gendered ideologies, or a public consumed borer fell outside of the “collective” experience sought by those measuring value and identity borer fell outside of the “collective” experience a pur wasn’t unique perspective probably to exclude Kelley’s While the effort in the 1920’s. poseful exclusion, ignoring the value in The plight of a trapped woman yearning for freedom and sought to represent through Judith. was deemed on the periphery of escape from her scripted, unfulfilling life norms and values. that the arbiters of value in the literary elite of the time deemed interests of black writers on that the arbiters of value in the literary The writings and work of black authors were American norms and values. the periphery of identity in literature because the academic elite American collective not allowed to shape the voices very much these marginalized As is acknowledged today, judged them unworthy. truer culture, and contribute a richer, American history and demand a presence in The same can be said of a novel like American identity. rendering of wife, unwilling child bearer and farm-la existence as a beaten-down Pippinger Blackford’s white curiosity about the supposed ‘exotic’ qualities” of African-Americans (Lauter 436-7). qualities” of white curiosity about the supposed ‘exotic’ tradition for black authors, including “songs, tales This writing joined an already rich literary few Yet, and nineteenth centuries (Lauter 436). and slave narratives” from the eighteenth by black authors, with the occasional exception of classroom anthologies included any work exclusion of black authors What this systematic Wheatley or Paul Lawrence Dunbar. Phyllis tradition for centuries by this time) demonstrates is (who had been contributing to the literary irrational seem to be applying assumptions and beliefs about patriarchy and masculinity to the applying assumptions and beliefs about irrational seem to be for Jerry), while necessarily of that which is masculine (sympathy text, the result an elevation as odd or flighty). characterization (Judith’s devaluing the feminine novels like and like Kelley, demonstrates why authors body writers, producing a large saw a swell of activity from black 1920’s Lauter notes that the of struggle for civil and political rights…[and] of work addressing “the activism of a decade The editorial and general critical response to The editorial and general who reject Judith as birthing scene, and the various critics abrasive response to the Harcourt’s through the lens of brutal realism, is nonetheless devalued. As Adelaide Morris points out, points out, Morris Adelaide As devalued. is nonetheless realism, of brutal the lens through experience the “universal” males as class upper-middle of white, the values implementing literature sought in

aegis 2007 60 ing-class, thetyrannyofmotherhood,andcomplexsocialidentitypreordainedforwomen. not preparedorparticularlyinterestedinKelley’s messagesaboutthehardshipsofwork ford andEdithSummersKelleybecamecasualtiesofanindifferent, unreceptivepublic,one new, post-World War identity for America, theendresultissame.JudithPippingerBlack bara Lootensobserves, “thefirststepinthe destructionofthemyth artisticirrelevance tions thatgo“far beyondthevindicationof one womanwriter”(Lootens 113). Indeed,asBar feminine. the maleexperienceforuniversal, onethatcontinuestoundervalue,orsimplyignore the in thelatetwentiethcentury, Kelley stillfoundherworkplaguedbyaculturethatsubstitutes Bart orChopin’s Edna Pontelliar, despitetheirobviousaffinities. Itwouldappearthateven control, shemeritsnomention, nordoherbetter-known contemporaries, Wharton’s Lily While JudithhandilymeetsPizer’s criteriaforaprotagoniststifledbyprocessesbeyondher experience: updated definitionofanaturalistwriterandhisprotagonistmakesnomentionthefemale and protagonistinhis1993essay, “Contemporary American LiteraryNaturalism.”Pizer’s study fordirectcitation).Pizeragainpublishedhisideaofthequintessentialnaturalistwriter fails todevelopbecauseofthecircumstancesof…life”(qtd.inGoodman364—getPizer for anaturalistprotagonist:“tragicfigurewhosepotentialgrowthisevident,butwho the worksoffemalenaturalistslikeKelley, eventhoughJuditheasilymeetsPizer’s requisite Norman Mailer, William Styron,andSaulBellow(Goodman364).Conspicuouslyabsentare Crane, Theodore Dreiser, FrankNorris,James T. Farrell,JohnDosPassos,Steinbeck, Century American LiteraryNaturalism: An Interpretation leaving thenovelinperiphery, evennow(364).InDonaldPizer’s 1982study, writers withinthosetraditionswhoseworksarecited,particularlybymalecritics,male” the realist/naturalisttraditionin American literature, butasGoodmanpointsout,“American link ittootherworkswithwhichmaybecompared”(364).Undeniably, like means assured. As Goodmannotes,“whatisnecessarytosecureapermanentplacefornovel the firstevertoincludemissingbirthchapter. Thesurvivalof after. The FeministPressreissued Illinois Universitytoreissuethenovelin1972,itwasinexplicablyoutofprintagainshortly nency orsuccessincontemporarytimes. Almost asquicklyBruccolipersuadedSouthern survival today. Certainly, thefactthat to generationsofreadersunacquaintedwithJudith,andwhatcanbedoneassure Weeds Weeds’s Potentially moreimportantthanthereasons isthatitbediscussedovertimebycriticswhofocusonitsliterarymeritsandalso enduranceandKelley’s placeinthe American literarytraditionhasimplica world cloudedwithambiguity(257). en efforts byaHenryFlemingorSergeant Crofttoobtainknowledgeina the Joadsof America, menofsimpleneeds…orhewillrendertheself-driv expectations oftheirlimitedworlds.Orhewillencourage our sympathyfor who lackthecunningandstrengthtoovercomestructured visionsand the liveofthosefeelingtemperaments,aClydeGriffiths or StudsLonigan, The naturalistwilldramatizethepathosofwastehuman potentialin Weeds Weeds againin1982and1996,thelatteradditionbeing wasrecovereddoesnotguaranteeitsperma Weeds , hementionstheworksofStephen failedaretheinterminablelosses Weeds iseventodaybyno Weeds fallsinto Twentieth Weeds’s ’s -

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61 aegis 2007 , but by Stuart Main Street Weeds s good friend Sinclair s good friend Sinclair is no “aftermath” to is acceptance of the right of women to of women of the right is acceptance Weeds was critically compared to was critically compared Weeds Main Street . Sherman drew corollaries between the two novels, noting between the two novels, noting . Sherman drew corollaries . New York: Oxford University Press, 1992. York: . New Weeds a tall order, but one that is critical, essential and worthy in rendering a and worthy in rendering is critical, essential but one that a tall order, Conflicting Stories: American Women Writers at the Turn into the at the Writers Women American Conflicting Stories: sociologically preceding the middle-class mid-Westerners of Main the middle-class mid-Westerners sociologically preceding still

Weeds Twentieth Century Twentieth claims that a people who engaged in “race suicide” by not producing enough children of a claims that a people who engaged in “race it was “unfit to exist.” pure race, would conclusively prove that Cited Works Ammons, Elizabeth. 5 Casey presumably refers to the romantic notion of the “yeoman” farmer, an ideal long notion of the “yeoman” farmer, 5 Casey presumably refers to the romantic hoped to promote the yeoman Jefferson as the apex of republicanism. espoused by Jefferson landowner earning a living from the soil. America: an independent farmer as the face of applied to a this ideal embraced by Jefferson and thus ironically for Casey, Unfortunately, Slaves, immigrants, women and the poor bore small population: white, middle-class males. gloried future. America’s calculation for no part of Jefferson’s In it, Roosevelt speech from 1905 supports such sentiments. Theodore Roosevelt’s Again, 6 contributed to this discussion of a woman’s “sense of duty” a mere twenty years earlier contributed to this discussion of a woman’s of Mothers.” In his speech, Roosevelt echoes in his “Address to the National Congress saying “the primary duty of the woman is to be the Wife, The Farmer’s the sentiments of woman should have ample education advantages; The helpmeet, the housewife, and mother. must be, and she need not be, and generally ought not but save in exceptional cases, the man Roosevelt claimed women family bread-winner.” to be, trained for a lifelong career as the “self-indulgence.” meet this standard had fallen prey to who didn’t a “fresh harvest in a new field.” Wharton and Chopin are not typically that 3 It is of significance that Hochman notes fiction” that is the naturalist plot. She ‘virile’ associated with the “male authorship and affinities toward naturalist fiction, the connection Wharton’s claims that despite Chopin and are praised for their roles as “trailbreakers” in is typically ignored because the two authors fiction by women. had Theodore Roosevelt, had himself founder, 4 In fact, “The Country Life” movement’s her to work.” Lewis was instrumental in getting the book published, telling Harcourt “I think was instrumental in getting the book her to work.” Lewis big in her and this book.” you have something Sinclair Lewis’s 2 Interestingly, of Sherman in his review of civilization,’” with the farming represent “distinct stages in the ‘march that the two novels community of that Street. Sherman takes care to note, however, Notes the Kelleys were in such and also Goodman. Goodman notes that 1 See Fran Zaniello Kelley’ time when Kelley wrote the novel that financial straits at the that Kelley might “fail for on her behalf for financial help, fearing Lewis lobbied Harcourt [would] make it possible for in the hard dollars which lack of encouragement—particularly of an ordinary woman’s life, acceptance of life, acceptance woman’s ordinary of an Breaking (113). experience” female essential from evolving traditions new literary establish silence is Kelley’s an identity in particular, and identity and, American culture picture of more authentic richer, female experience. and celebrates the that includes

aegis 2007 62 Boynton, H.W. Rev. of Bruccoli, Matthew. Afterword. Berg, Allison. Zaniello, Fran. “Witnessing the BuriedLifeinRuralKentucky: EdithSummersKelley “Weeds.” Rev. of Walcutt, Charles Child. “The Three Stagesof Theodore Dreiser’s Naturalism.” “The DrabLife.”Rev. of Sherman, Stuart.“FreshHarvest.”Rev. of Rev. of Pizer, Donald.“Contemporary American LiteraryNaturalism.” Morris, Adelaide. “Dick,Jane,and American Literature:FightingwithCanons.” Lootens, Barbara.“A StruggleforSurvival:EdithSummersKelley’s Lauter, Paul.“Raceand GenderintheShapingof American LiteraryCanon: A Case Krutch, J.W. “TheIrrelevantSixth Act.” Rev. of Kelley, EdithSummers. Hochman, Barbara.“The Awakening and The HouseofMirth:PlottingExperienceand Hearn, Charles.“F. ScottFitzgeraldandthePopularMagazineFormulaStoryof Hatchett, Judith.“TheStubbornnessof Weeds: EdithSummersKelley’s ‘Quiet Hart, James. Hackett, Alice Payne,andJamesHenryBurke. Goodman, CharlotteMargolis. Afterword. F.A.G., “AnEpicof Tobacco-Land.” Rev. of Cowley, Malcolm.“Naturalism and American Literature.” Casey, JanetGalligani.“AgrarianLandscapes,theDepression,and Women’s Progressive Weeds and Book Review 55.1 (1940):266-289.1 April 2006. Republican Post Ed. HaroldBloom.Philadelphia:ChelseaHouse,2004.255-272. English Studies . Study fromthe Twenties.” Nation Chelsea House,2004.273-298. Experiencing Plot.” Twenties.” Masterpiece.’” York: R.R.Bowker, 1977. The FeministPress,1996.353-70. Transcript Harold Bloom.Philadelphia:ChelseaHouse,2004.49-79. University ofIowaPress,2004.96-117. Fiction.” 1923: 288. Southern IllinoisUniversity, 1972.335-343. The PopularBook Weeds 15December1923,eveningedition:363. , byEdithSummersKelley. Mothering theRace 16January1924:65. 47.5(1985):467-81.1October2005.. 13 (1986):103-13.8October2005. Weeds The Novelandthe American Left .” 21 November1923:288. Journal of American Culture

18 November1923:7a. The KentuckyReview Dec.1923:74. Weeds , byEdithSummersKelley. Kentucky PhilologicalReview Weeds Weeds American Naturalism , byEdithSummersKelley. . New York: The FeministPress,1996.353-70. Weeds . New York: Oxford,1950. , byEdithSummersKelley. . Urbana:UniversityofIllinois,2002. Feminist Studies . ByEdithSummersKelley. 1923.Carbondale, Wisconsin LibraryBulletin Weeds Weeds 8.3(1988):64-72. Weeds 80 Years ofBestSellers1895-1975 Weeds , byEdithSummersKelley. . ByEdithSummersKelley. New York: . 18.3(1995):33-40.1 April 2006. . Ed.HaroldBloom.Philadelphia: , byEdithSummersKelley. . Ed.JanetGalliganiCasey. IowaCity: The LiteraryDigestInternational 9.3(1983):435-65.1October2005 15(2001):33-38. , byEdithSummersKelley. The Independent American Naturalism Springfield Daily American Naturalism Dec.1923:509. Weeds 8December .” New York Women’s PMLA Boston . Ed. College . New The .

63 aegis 2007 - - - - - Sarah PrindleSarah I will provide a framework for place-based politics through the work of Arturo Es I will provide a framework for place-based politics through the work of Social movements often seek the assistance of, or incorporate into, NGOs and civil Social movements often seek the assistance -Arturo Escobar, “Beyond the Third World” Third “Beyond the -Arturo Escobar, and capitalism resistance to neoliberal globalization The importance of globalized In Gibson-Graham’s conceptualisation, this politics of place- often favoured by often favoured conceptualisation, this politics of place- In Gibson-Graham’s terms are not interchangeable; but in using and discussing both, it is possible to understand terms are not interchangeable; but in using and discussing both, it is possible to ing theories like socialism have failed to address. ing theories like socialism have failed to written extensively about place and its role in global social movements as Escobar has cobar. is similar to concept of the ‘life-world’ Habermas’ Jurgen well as in the field of anthropology. addresses the context of social movements, so I will include a discus and ‘place’ Escobar’s life-world in my exploration of place. It is important to note that these sion of Habermas’ the knowledge derived from living in that place. This knowledge becomes the social capital This knowledge becomes the social capital place. the knowledge derived from living in that this knowledge is and and internationally, ecologically, interacting internally, of community, The understanding of place is not replaceable by overarching attached to a particular place. of place that global social movements must theories of social being. It is from this importance made by these movements will not address the be derived, or any change that is effectively leading to the same problems that overarch needs of individual communities and life-worlds, society, where there are opportunities like the World Social Forum to discuss the needs of Social Forum to discuss the needs World where there are opportunities like the society, places. It is important to recognize the increasingly individual places or global needs of many respond to the global scale of the influences on global scale of social movements, as they in a place should the importance of place and movements rooted localized places. However, of social movements. Some have called this idea not be overshadowed by the globalization begin in a place, recognizing but it is more than that. Change must globalization from below, success of the World Trade Organization protests in Seattle in 1999. In some ways resistance Organization Trade World success of the regimes of capital, and working dealing with a new set of to neoliberal globalization is new, the Interna WTO, way democratic. Reactions to the against a system that is global and in no as localized movements, have Bank, often beginning World tional Monetary Fund, and the meet the widespread dominance of interna on a global scale to even begin to had to organize tional trade organizations. of localised action, reducing it to accommodation or reformism. As Gibson-Graham does not reformism. it to accommodation or reducing of localised action, to lie their potential herein always fail to be fully capitalist, and us, ‘places cease to remind become something other.’ movements alike, particularly since the relative has been emphasized by theorists and social of livelihood- is a lucid and those struggling for alternative forms women, environmentalist on the Left and which which is also common of empire’ to the type of ‘politics response all forms devaluing thereby level of totality, at the same be confronted that empire requires Social Movements and the Politics of and Politics the Movements Social and Change Local Transnational Place:

aegis 2007 64 The successorcompromiseofthesegroups’ idealsistheframework,onaglobalscale,within counter-globalization movements,aswelltheroleoftransnationalcivilsocietyandNGOs. the complexrelationshipsofacommunitytoplaceandviceversa. Escobar. Hefeelsthatplacebecomes importantwhen“weunderstand byplacetheexperience and ideologicallyinaspacerooted inthelocationofculture. and politicalprogressrequires place-basedprogress:changemustbemadebothphysically and improvethemontheirown grounds”(47).Reformulatingthepossibilitiesforindustrial instead ofsuperimposingtechnology onthetraditionalmodesoflifeandlabor, wouldextend Marcuse interestinglynotesthat “indigenousprogresswoulddemandaplannedpolicywhich, in thebookwhichMarcuse findsapossiblealternativetooppressiveforcesofcapitalism. with neo-colonialpressures,analternativeispossiblehere. Itisnotablyoneofthefewplaces (47). Though headmitsitislikelythatthisprospectwillleaddevelopingcountriestocomply sistance whichisnotabandonedevenattheverytangible prospect ofabetterandeasierlife” present “strongresistancefromtheindigenousandtraditional modesoflifeandlabor- are way ofliving(47).Heconcludesthatiftheseplacescould holdontotheirsenseofplaceand eas” or“undevelopedcountries,”notyetcolonized,tocreate orratherpreserveanalternative capitalism. In socialism, examinedthepossibilitiesforalternativesto all-appropriatingLeviathanof and socialmechanismsinplaceonthelocalorstatelevel. dependence ofnations”(Marx13).Globalfreetradeismorehighlyvaluedthanlocalmarkets national seclusionandself-sufficiency, wehaveintercourseineverydirection,universalinter (12). Heevennotesthewayinwhichcapitalisminfiltratesplaces;“inplaceoflocaland indefeasible charteredfreedoms,hassetupthatsingle,unconscionablefreedom-Free Trade” bourgeoisie “hasresolvedpersonalworthintoexchangevalue,andinplaceofthenumberless of thesearethesetrelationshipsandvaluesindailylivespeople.Marxsaysthat of theproletariat,andbegintogetatEscobar’s ideaofplaceandHabermas’ life-world;part Defining “Place” alternative totheseeminglyunachievablelevelofglobalinfluenceneoliberalcapitalism. fully onaglobalscale,andinfluenceothertransnationalmovementsbycreatingsignificant decide whetherornottoworkwithinit.Ibelieveplace-basedmovementscansuccess understand thecurrentframeworkofcivilsocietyandtransnationalsocialmovements, politics ofplaceinglobalsocialmovementsbecauseanygroupseekingchangehasto as theirmethods. All oftheseconceptsareimportanttotakeintoaccountwhenexaminingthe working withglobalmovementsandcivilsociety, whicharguably alterstheircourseaswell and supportneededtoprovidefortheircommunities,socialmovementshaverespondedby welfare stateisasgoodoutlawedbyneoliberalpractices,andthereforetogetthefunding significance ofplaceforsocialchange. reaction tothenegativeeffects ofglobalization,socialmovementsare beginningtolookatthe and themovementincivilsocietytounderstandindigenousknowledgesystemsshowthat, which place-basedmovementshavetowork. The importanceofglobalizationfrombelow The mostsignificant contributortothedefinition ofplaceIwillbeusing is Herbert Marcuseandthecriticaltheorists,respondingto failuresofscientific Marx andEngelstalkinthe Local movements,rootedinaplace,havebeenforcedtoworkonglobalscale. The Any discussionofglobalsocialmovementsneedstoaddresstheheadwaymadeby One-Dimensional Man , Marcuseexaminesthepossibilityof“backwardsar Communist Manifesto aboutthecolonizationoflives Arturo - - - -

65 aegis 2007 - - - - 143). Culture 143). Yet places, and people’s sense places, and people’s Yet 143). 140). A sense of place, and the politics sense of place, A 140). Culture Culture 154). In this way, capitalism alienates place and “the lived 154). In this way, 146). In their exploration of indigenous knowledge systems of indigenous knowledge systems 146). In their exploration 140). Place has not been adequately addressed in western social addressed in has not been adequately 140). Place Culture 142). Culture Culture Culture Place has frequently been left out of the discussion of globalization, which is Place has frequently been left out of the The concept of place addressed here and that Escobar discusses is related to the ways addressed here and that Escobar discusses The concept of place For Escobar, place’s counter part is “placelessness [which] has become the essential has become is “placelessness [which] counter part place’s For Escobar, 155). However, this search for the elements of place which are not yet commodi 155). However, Culture universalize the market’” ( and social processes” from the discussion of body [which] is the result of habitual cultural global economies in theory and political action ( system. Es of place, cannot be completely extracted from experiences in the global capitalist a critique of cobar asks an important question; “Is it possible to find in place-based practices capital, power and hegemony without overlooking their emeddedness in circuits of patriarchy, and modernity?” ( significant because place often is a source of domination as well as resistance: place in the significant because place often is a source and conditions of the people attached to that physical sense of land, with all the freedoms capitalism as “‘inherently spatial and as naturally place. Discussions of globalization present World” economy (traditional economies, “Third stronger than the forms of noncapitalist experiments) because of its presumed capacity to economies, socialist economies, communal to a commodity” (Whitt 712). This addresses what is important to Escobar about place. Places to a commodity” (Whitt 712). because they encompass knowledge that values cannot be completely reduced to capital reducible to the constructs of capitalism and modernity” that are not “elements of difference ( or colonial processes, leads to the discussion of fied, or have not been influenced by capitalist these systems, and how to separate or include these elements that have been appropriated by contradictory elements. are intimately bound to one another is widely shared among indigenous peoples” (Whitt 701). are intimately bound to one another is widely sees itself as the only guardian of the “‘pristine This is not to say that indigenous knowledge part of humans and humans are a part of nature (Whitt wilderness,’” but rather that the land is relationships, echoes Esco This binding of land and knowledge, of human-ecosystem 710). in which “a people belongs to a Whitt argues, sense of place. Indigenous knowledge, bar’s cannot be alienated or disowned. It cannot be reduced land, and land inheres in a people, […] though they have in some way identified placelessness as a symptom of the proletariat in the some way identified placelessness as though they have in capitalist system. landscape is endowed with knowledge is attached to landscape; “the in which indigenous the land results from an active […] connectedness of people with agency and personhood ( engagement with it” et al asserts that the “belief that knowledge and land Whitt Anne “Belonging to Land,” Laurie feature of the modern condition, a very acute and painful one in many cases, such as those of cases, such as those painful one in many a very acute and the modern condition, feature of refugees” ( exiles and of theology and physics- has philosophy—often times with the help theory because “Western from the bodies that occupy absolute […] space has to be disassociated enshrined space as the they inhabit” ( that these bodies lent to the places it and from the particularities socialists like Marx and Engels, why place is not valued by western This perhaps explains of a particular location with some measure of groundedness (however, unstable), sense of sense unstable), (however, groundedness measure of some location with of a particular is con if its identity life, even everyday to and connection permeable), (however, boundaries fixed” ( and never by power, structed, traversed in Nairobi, an indigenous housing in a slum dweller of informal is as valid for a of that place, in California. or a suburban housewife dweller in Colombia, rainforest

aegis 2007 66 as seeking“resistancetotendenciescolonizethelife-world”(35).Habermasdoesnot tem. In physical andideologicalspacenotyetcommodifiedbythemoderncapitalist-hegemonicsys to thelocal,daily, and bodily, recognizingthat transformingtheworldinvolves transforming movements of women, rejecting“imperialglobalization […and]continuing theirorientation place andtheliberationofwomen’s bodiesintersect,creating independent,non-hierarchical tions ofwomenin“a‘politics ofbecoming’”(Harcourt130).Inthissense,boththepolitics of social movementsbeyondidentity-based, organized socialmovementstoubiquitousconnec movements andEscobar’s senseofplace(Harcourt2). The politicsofplacetakeswomen’s at womenmobilizinginplace,” whichincorporatesHabermas’ identity-based newsocial bodies isconnectedtoreclaimingtheecologiesandcommunities inwhichthosebodieslive. place-based movements,andtheyoftenbecomeonemovement becausereclaimingwomen’s der. Movementswhichresistthepatriarchal-capitalistcolonizationofwomen’s bodiesreflect the way it commodifies lived places, alienating people from their identities within a place/gen important explorationofthewaysinwhichsystemdenies womentheirlivedbodies,much identity-based movementsin identity outsidethecapitalist-hegemonicsystemandEscobar identifiestheimportanceof reducible tothesystem,somethingwhichpeopleidentifywith outsideofthesystem. people defendfromthesystembecausethereissomething withinthosespaceswhichisnot life-world andsystemisidentifiablebecauseitwhereconflictoccurs.Itsignalsthespaces include alltheelementswhichdescribeEscobar’s senseofplace.However, theseambetween for personalandcollectiveidentity”( […] thecreationofsub-culturallyprotectedcommunicationsgroupswhichfurthersearch characteristics suchassex,age,skin,color, evenneighborhoodandreligion,contributeto a beginning.ForHabermas,thespaceswhereresistanceseekslife-worldarein“ascribed place arenotequivalentconcepts,thisdoescompletelysatisfyEscobar’s question,butitis found “attheseambetweensystemandlife-world”( gemonic systemandthosealreadycommodified,Habermasanswersthattheseelementsare elements ofplaceandthelife-worldnotyetappropriatedbyorreducibletocapitalist-he before colonization as well as many of the places that are now resisting neoliberal globalization. tion’ ( complex infiltrated and devalued the ‘small social places’ and ‘decentralized forms of interac but to preserve old ones and to look back at how life was before the economic-administrative practice” ( ing to “defend or reinstate endangered lifestyles” as well as “put[ting] reformed lifestyles into tive complexasdoingsomethingradicallynew. Yet healsoseesthesemovementsasseek who seekaplacewhichisnotyetcommodifiedorappropriatedbytheeconomic-administra centralized formsofinteractionandde-specializedactivities”( find mostsignificantinthenewsocialmovementsis“provincial,smallspaces,de istrative complex[that]spurserosiveprocessesinthelife-world”( specifically citecapitalismasthesourceofcolonization.Forhim,itis“economic-admin New New SocialMovements Women andthePoliticsofPlace Habermas’ newsocialmovementscenteronthesearchforpersonalorcollective To addressEscobar’s question,howarewetolocatethedivisionbetweenthose This iswhereEscobar’s placeandHabermas’ life-worldmeet,inthesearchfora 36). A smaller, decentralized social place could describe indigenous communities New 33). So in a sense, new social movements do not seek to create new life-worlds, Women andthePoliticsofPlace , Habermasdescribesthemovementsof1960sand1970s New emphasizes“thepoliticalimportance oflooking 36). This searchforidentitydoesnotnecessarily New 36).Ofcourse,sincelife-worldand . This collectionofarticlesisan New New 36).Habermasseesthose 34). The resistancehe ------

67 aegis 2007 - - - - a - - 210). This is 210). are everywhere, are everywhere, Beyond women 141). These movements 141). Culture At this point I think it is important to address placelessness and the complexity of At this point I think it is important to address placelessness and the complexity This decentralized, and seemingly disjointed, global movement is not simply a This decentralized, and seemingly disjointed, This rejection of globalization, often called globalization from below, arises from globalization from below, This rejection of globalization, often called With the framework of Escobar’s place-based politics and Habermas’ social move place-based politics and Habermas’ the framework of Escobar’s With is always somewhere, and those ‘somewheres’ are what the project is about: places what the project are ‘somewheres’ somewhere, and those is always place of greater depth than ever before,” as Escobar says ( place of greater depth than ever before,” the WTO, such as the by globalized economic power, are acting against a privileging of space Therefore, it is perhaps important to be decentralized in order to Bank. World and the IMF, springs. create a movement that recognizes the local, the places from which the movement Places Poor social place in order to more fully understand both the appropriation of place that global (Falk 192). This description of the movement is often characterized as globalization from This description of the movement is (Falk 192). beginning in local ways, and maintaining decentral below because it is reclaiming place by which the movements begin. ization in recognition of the places from The it is also a reaction to placelessness. reaction to the chaotic dislocation of globalization; have experienced “a sundering of local like from movements often spring from people who compared to the centralized social movements of the past, Habermas’ new social movements. new social of the past, Habermas’ compared to the centralized social movements “process of distantiation, dislocation, or ‘disem locations because it reacts to modernity’s out of their local contexts and redis whereby traditional symbol systems are lifted bedding’ appropriation of place and space”: globalization’s tributed across new dimensions of time that the movement is theorized as non-cohesive, as (Dallmayr 323).It is therefore appropriate and “political activism without a territorial base” the movement is worldwide, decentralized, Habermas considered the new social movements with the old social movements, or organized with the old social movements, or organized Habermas considered the new social movements movement as “grassroots out of this Anisur Rahman describes the ideology emerging labor. issue-based character without much significance for social activism […] of a local or specific it is the decentralized nature of this movement Yet fundamental social change” (Rahman 14). notes that the best features of the movement are that others find most significant, as Escobar structures” ( non-hierarchical meshworks and largely “self-organizing but, arguably, reclaiming place is at the heart of much of the current counter-globalization the heart of much of the current counter-globalization reclaiming place is at but, arguably, The protests and the North. actions in both the Global South movement, if we incorporate counter-neolib in 1999 marked the beginning of an identifiable WTO in Seattle against the This movement(s) Global North. or movements, at least in the eral-globalization movement dominance, “crystallized into global rejection of neoliberal capitalist has been hailed as a and participated in by empire’ protest movement in the very ‘heart of a concerted popular This includes a conglomeration of what (Rahman 13). people coming from all over the world” have been incorporated into or have educated place-based social movements, such as the such as the social movements, have educated place-based incorporated into or have been by Gibson-Graham. place described movement towards women’s Social Movements “Place” in Global have begun to do with women’s the global social movements as we ments, we can examine are responding to place, Not all global social movements place-based social movements. sites, subjects, and practices worldwide” (Harcourt 131). In this section of the book, “Build the book, section of In this 131). (Harcourt worldwide” and practices subjects, sites, gets to Gibson-Graham Place,” J.K. of and the Politics Women Economies: ing Community “If empowerment: women’s the nature of place-based the heart of women 131). women” (Harcourt or transformed by augmented, strengthened, defended, being created, movement, the feminist as he considered new social movements, how Habermas’ This shows

aegis 2007 68 dire ofcircumstances. This senseofplaceisoverlookedbecauseitavaluedspacethathas balization becauseitisnotrecognized,particularlywhenasenseofplacefoundinthemost indigenous wayofbeing,althoughitsometimesis.Placeisoftenleftoutdiscussionglo movements arereactingto.Itisalsoimportanttoseeplacenotasanideal,deep-rootedand of theslumbecause therewasanopportunity tointeractwithcommunity andplace. sense ofplace, ofcommunityandbelonging, totheextentthatsomepreferred theconditions creation ofpublichousingdid notrecognizetheneedofinhabitantsanddidcreate a found that“thepooractively prefer theiroldslumstothenewtower-blocks” (Davis64).The “home workshops” of the “huge informal labor force” (Davis 64). A similarsurveyinBangkok and loneliness of old people” (Davis 64). In addition, public housing provides no space for the visits, intercourse with neighbors, and frequency of children’s play, as well as increased isolation about the quality of their living and “in surveys residents report dramatic declines in social land that was not highly profitable in the city. The residents of this public housing were surveyed high rise public housing was created to house a large amount of people on the small amount of with the number of people living in slums (Davis 62-3). Beijing was one of the cities in which debtor nations in the late 1970s and 1980s,” some states created public housing in order to deal government programs were cut by the “Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) imposed on of value. Yet, Davis later points to instances where this could be said to be true. While most community andlocalknowledge,despitevirtuallyuninhabitable conditions. place forthoselivinginthem. Those livingintheslumsattempttocreateasenseofplace, plied bythewelfarestate,arguably iscreatingtheconditionsofslumsandalterssense not findsuchservices.Neoliberalreform,whichoftenpreventsservicesfrombeingsup leads eventuallytohousingwithmunicipalservices,likewaterandsanitation,butmanydo to thecitycenter- locationatany price-tofindjobs”(Davis29).Ideally, informalhousing Slum-dwellers areoftenadaptingtourbanlife,when“ruralmigrantsfirstmovefromprovince security, qualityofshelter, journeytowork,andsometimes,personalsafety”(Davis27). urban poorhavetosolvethecomplexequationastheytryoptimizehousingcost,tenure living inslums.Davisdescribeshousingas“ahardcalculusofconfusingtrade-of 1844” (Davis23).Daviscomplicatestheideaofplace,ashedescribeshowpooradaptto young EngelsfirstventuredontothemeanstreetsofSt.GilesandOld billion sluminhabitantsintheworld,“nearlyequaltopopulationofworldwhen Nations HumanSettlementsProgrammeinestimatingthat,asof2005,therewereaboutone be aresultofneoliberalcapitalism. the Working ClassinEngland1844 recognized therolecapitalismplaysincreatingslums,describedEngels’ are notnewanywhere,includingthewealthywest,andcertainlyMarxparticularlyEngels experience ofplaceformanyintheglobalsouthisnowconstitutedbylifeaslum.Slums the experienceofplaceisverydifferent forthepeopleinbothworlds. Forexample,the should be recognized and incorporating into the global movements which fight this system. to be most affected by the global capitalist-hegemonic system, and therefore this sense of place but itisaglobalexperienceinthepoorplacesofworld.Itthesethatcanbe said little economicorglobalpower. Senseofplacemaynotalwaysbeprivilegedorwholesome, Davis complicates the idea of place because one would not think of a slum as a place This istheargument madebyMikeDavisin Though alienationfromasenseofplaceoccursinboththeglobalnorthandsouth, . The slumsoftheglobalsouthtodaycanalsobesaidto Planet ofSlums . DaviscitesUnited Town Manchesterin The Conditionof fs […]The - -

69 aegis 2007 ------s who and ” (Harcourt 154). I would , Susan George de , Susan George Culture 140). This is why it is important for any is important for any This is why it 140). to create other ways of being to create Culture Another World is Possible If Another World While George certainly opposes the capitalist-hegemonic system, she does not seem While George It may seem, then, that all of the global social movements, in rejecting the spaces It may seem, then, that all of the global The question when recognizing place as global social movements becomes how to recognizing place as global social movements The question when These people had created social capital in their slums, and had met Escobar’s ideas met Escobar’s and had slums, in their social capital created people had These unusual attitude in the counter-globalization movement, and certainly one that George claims George movement, and certainly one that unusual attitude in the counter-globalization North). for the global social movement (of the not in the tran to recognize possibilities working outside of the system as legitimate, at least reject, sitional phase. It is precisely this “capitalocentrism” that Escobar and Gibson-Graham noncapitalist development” ( the tendency “to devalue or marginalize alternatives, go further to say that the global social movement of the North often focuses on a body of the UN, made up of members of the global social movement or civil society, which of the global social movement or civil society, a body of the UN, made up of members to make sure that redistribution of wealth (through oversees the governments of the world becomes “‘neo-colonial,’ At this point George taxation) and debt relief was properly enacted. NGOs, development and humanitarian agencies with no apologies” and states that “Northern countries [of the South…] they know who’ have been working in these [corrupted] This is perhaps not an 148). elements” (George they know which are the truly independent system, that a space outside the system is found. system, that a space outside the system are acknowledging place. In her introduction to created by the capitalist-hegemonic system, the global social movement and its roots, which suppose that change will a ‘transitional phase,’ scribes solutions for the steps needed in is a proponent global capitalist system. George require at least some work within the current sees She solution. temporary a least at as Europe, Western of model socialist democratic the of ments is important because place recognizes the differences of the ways in which places the differences ments is important because place recognizes global capitalism operates. In fact, place creates “a operate in contrast to the ways in which opposed to authoritarianisms […] place-based new modality of being that is itself inherently politics must work actors believe that an effective rejecting the prevailing capitalist-hegemonic system 183). Creating alternatives and therefore places, which are not (completely) reducible to the must begin in places, because it is in these can we recognize place in global movement that is inherently global: how recognize place in a as pertaining to place-based wom begins the answer to this question, spaces? Gibson-Graham “not only are wave feminism becomes global because movements, by saying that second en’s relationships, and organizations” but so are economic practices, resource women everywhere, commodifying globalization, are everywhere, connected by the same (Harcourt 154). Places move Place in global social move against everywhere, globally. which places, individually, ing. Yet, in recognizing what place really means, we find that is more than just recognizing than just recognizing we find that is more place really means, in recognizing what Yet, ing. of what the capitalist-hegemon as independent must recognize place We legitimate. spaces as and capitalist ideas of space, as legitimate. Place lives outside of western ic system recognizes neoliberal globalization about by making the movements against and must be recognized as informal as it may be. re-legitimizing place, Alternative Place as of sense of place. In the slums they had some level of boundaries, rootedness in a place, and and in a place, rootedness boundaries, level of had some slums they In the of place. of sense life in that place, aspects of everyday and environmental the social, economic, connection unstable ( aspects are at times thought these public thought that cheap Some might have sense of place. for change to recognize movement hous with no formal of thousands of people for the problem be a good answer housing would

aegis 2007 70 223). This valuingofglobalized actionoverrootedinlocalizedplacesandthereforeof devaluing allformsoflocalisedaction,reducingittoaccommodationorreformism”( empire” and“requiresthatempirebyconfrontedatthesameleveloftotality[…]thereby if any, oftheNorth,asGeorge doeswithdemocraticsocialism. This acceptsthe“politicsof governmental and non-governmentalagencies” (Mato346).Indigenouspeoples’ groups, at Embera people anditsorganizations intermsthatareacceptable toPanamanianandforeign these wordsismeaningfulbecause theycometoprovidemeaningcertainpracticesof the in ordergainalegitimateplace amongthesegroups.Matofoundthatthe“incorporation of this wasmorethanjustappropriation oflanguageusedbynorthernortransnationalNGOs versity’ in ordertocommunicatewithtransnationalNGOs(Mato345). ButMatofoundthat that indigenouspeoples’ organizations havebeguntouse “critical words”suchas‘biodi found inDanielMato’s workontransnational networkingbyindigenouspeoples.Matofound even anentirebook,butthereareafewidentifiableanswers tothisquestion.Oneansweris place withoutleavingitbehind? This cannotbeansweredinafewpages,andperhapsnot behind place-basedalternatives,withoutindulgingincapitalocentrism: howdowetranscend Place Transcends Places alternatives tothecurrentcapitalist-hegemonicsystem. It isanargument thattakesseriouslytheroleofplaceinnationalandglobalmovements for successful atgoverningandprovidinglivelihoodsforcommunities thantop-downgoverning. 107). This isasignificantexampleofthewaysinwhichplace-basedknowledgeoften more ecologies andinstitutions,wherelongtimeseriesexiston many successesandfailures”(Dietz preferable totop-downregulation,wherethe“knowledgebasedisstrongestwithsmall-scale that self-regulatingcommunitieswhicharedirectlyinteractingwiththecommonresource the ecosystemishighestinstable,localizedcommunities. This leadsDietzetaltoconclude centuries” (1907). The reasonforthisisperhapsbecausethesocialcapitalandknowledgeof communities andbuffered fromoutsideforceshavesustainedresourcessuccessfullyfor led commonsscholarstore-examinethequestion. that havebeendegradedathigherratesthanbeforegovernmentcontrol(Dietz1910). This has controlled resources,suchasthoseinIndonesianBorneo,orthecodfishingareasCanada, This systemhasoftenfailedastheregulatorshavenotachievedsolutionsandgovernment work andhowtochangeinstitutionssoasinducesociallyoptimalbehavior”(Ostrom31). assume that“regulatorswillactinthepublicinterestandunderstandhowecologicalsystems property tocommodifyitsresources. Top-down regulations have notworkedbecausethey resources bypeople,itisnotalwaysnecessarytohavetop-downregulations,orprivatize 1968 isnotinevitable.Inessence,Ostromhasshownthattopreventexploitationofnatural Ostrom hassoughttoprovethatthe‘tragedyofcommons’ describedbyGarret Hardinin working inadecentralizedway, aroundtheglobe.Inherworkwithcommonsresearch,Elinor able tonationalorglobalscaleaction,inordershowthelegitimacyofsmallactions, It isforpreciselythisreasonthattheyaretruealternativestocapitalism. in localizedplacesaslegitimate,thoughtheymaynotreachtheleveloftotalitycapitalism. social movement.Itisthistendencythatmustberesisted,torecognizethealternativesfound capitalocentric valuesofGlobalNorthispreciselythewaythatplacedevaluedinglobal The questionnowbecomeshowtouseplaceonaglobalscale, withoutleaving Dietz etalfoundthat“locallyevolvedinstitutionalarrangementsgovernedbystable To reinforcethispointIwouldliketopresentanexampleoflocalaction asprefer Beyond - -

71 aegis 2007 - - -

Cul , the Beyond 223). The goals of this 223). Beyond Escobar provides an example of a place-based group in the context of a global net Escobar provides an example of a place-based The answer to this question has been partially described in the definition of the term The answer to this question has been partially This serves their purposes, but also involves changing, at least superficially also involves changing, their purposes, but This serves 157). There are also examples of “localization of the global that locals might be able There are also examples of “localization of 157). and therefore glocal may not distinguishes local from place, however, 157). Escobar, 156). This includes the movement of local goods on a global scale, and the use of global This includes the movement of local goods 156). Culture Culture right to be different), to their territory (as the space for exercising identity), to a measure of to their territory (as the space right to be different), and to their own vision of development” ( local autonomy, yet the defining factor in place as opposed to ‘local,’ movement connect identity and territory, are also significant to place because it is through these rights that autonomy and difference This becomes especially the group is able to exercise and defend alternative ways of living. Pacific important as placed-based movements like the black communities of the Colombian as well as a sense of place, in social Autonomy and difference, work in a global context. be the best term to discuss place-based movements on a global scale. be the best term to discuss place-based movements of black communities of the Colombian The “social work of social movements. by providing the ideas of that place-based movements, Pacific illustrate the politics of place” changed when placed in a global context ( its goals, as well as how the movement “four rights: to their identity (hence, their The goals of this place-based movement are 223). ture “glocal,” is important in a discussion of place because This term, concepts on a local scale. forces in political local that could become effective there are “forms of globalization of the such as transnational groups like COICA the defense of place and place-based identities,” ( access to, or information about, global movements to use to their own advantage,” such as ( ‘local’ agents exist as separate realities, since both kinds of agents have become increasingly agents exist as separate realities, since both kinds ‘local’ question of whether or not place can be transcended interconnected” (Mato 355). Perhaps the The question movements are already becoming global. is no longer valid because place-based being represented in the transnational scene? now becomes, how are place-based politics traffic between globalization and localization” ( “glocal” which refers to the “two-way addition to learning the critical language of the transnational scene. Mato does not identify the critical language of the transnational addition to learning shift in the social representations but rather points out an important these as negative changes, Is this biodiversity. as valuing the environment for its groups, such of indigenous peoples’ movements and peoples’ language and concepts changing indigenous appropriation of valued places and thereby preserving Or is it providing a means of preserving their sense of place? this, but he does notably point system? Mato does not answer alternatives to the prevailing and questionable any assumptions that ‘global’ to the fact that these representations “make because indigenous peoples’ groups “have been forced to seek extra-national support because support because forced to seek extra-national groups “have been peoples’ because indigenous encroached of power have increasingly national groups and diverse national governments these groups have to participate on deny them any rights” (Mato 347). So their territories and the Coordinating Body groups such as often joining together in larger the transnational level, Basin (COICA). Separate groups Amazon of the Organization for the Indigenous Peoples’ in like COICA, identity, have found it necessary to create a collective of indigenous people least some, use these critical words to legitimize their control over natural resources attached attached resources natural control over their to legitimize words these critical some, use least spaces and other of “biodiversity” as protectors themselves place, positioning sense of to their civil society. important by transnational deemed as and nongov values of the governmental to fit predetermined the groups in order priorities of This is system. in the capitalist-hegemonic money and power agencies, which hold ernmental

aegis 2007 72 and socialmovements,createdasortof“‘region-territoryethnicgroups’”inthePacific, Escobar describesthatthismovement,whenitbegantoencountertransnationalcivilsociety pendent, indefenseofplace,butalsopartanetworkotherplacedefendingmovements. movements meanthatinoperatingonaglobalscalethesemustbeatonceinde stand asperhaps oneofthelastrefugesforidentity outsideof,oralternative to,lifeinthe Conclusion that marginalize themthatinfactunitethem. of marginalization, andsuccessfullyunitedespitedifference because it’s theoppressive forces their oppositiontothecapitalist hegemonicsystem.Socialmovementsareoftencreated out connection becausetheseplaces areunitedintheirdifference, intheirmarginalization and third worldofmarginalized placesandmovementswould allowforsuccessfuldifference and of articulation‘worldsandknowledgesotherwise’”( movements (albeitquestioningtheirparticularidentities)[…] makingpossibleahigherlevel be reclaimedas“atheoryoftranslationthat,whilerespecting diversityandmultiplicityof national thirdworldsofpeoplesandknowledge’”(224). This transnationalthirdworldcould governance. In“Beyondthe Third World,” Escobarnotesthatthiscouldbecreating“‘trans the mostpartglobalsocialmovementsandtheirnetworks have beenexcludedfromglobal ist-hegemonic system. While someNGOshavebeen allowedintoUnitedNationsbodies,for ing aglobalalternative. resistance tocapital,workingcreatealternativesintheplaces theyliveaswellrepresent below” ( occur onmassivescaleallovertheworld,asasourceofglobal“reorganization ofspacefrom spaces. Escobaralsopointstothescaleofanti-WTO, anti-GATT, andsimilarprotests,which ence to,the World EconomicForum,creatingaglobalspaceequaltointernationalcapitalist different individuallyandasanetworkofdifference. Italsostandsinscaleof,anddiffer for socialmovementsandNGOstocommunicatedifferent worldand place-views, tostandas create aglobalnetworkofalternativeandplace-basedmovements. This forumcreatesaplace The World SocialForumprovidesaplaceforglobalsocialmeshworkstocometogether of neoliberalglobalization. The World SocialForumstandsasatestamenttothisstatement. struggles, unitedinglobalnetworks,dohavethepotentialtocreateanalternativeonscale hegemonic socialmovementabletoinfiltratethespacesthatcapitalandmodernityoccupy? but isitascalecomparabletothatofcapitalistglobalization?Isthisformglobal,counter- This meshworkofnoncapitalist(oratleastnotcompletelycapitalist)spaceisglobalinscale, meshworks intotalityconstitutea“formofcounter-hegemonic globalization”( “meshworks” todescribetheirnonhierarchicalnature( as aprotectionoftherighttodifference andadefenseofplace.Escobar callsthesenetworks nonhierarchical, decentralizednatureofglobalsocialmovementnetworksbecomesnecessary: hand, andagentsofmodernity, ontheother”( thinking fromwhichthey[socialmovements]engagewithboththeircommunities,ontheone have alegitimateroleamongtransnationalagents.Escobarfeelsthatthisis“kindofborder scribes inhisdiscussionofCOICA,whereindigenousgroupscreatedacollectiveidentityto making italegitimatedefenderofcultureandplace. This ismuchlikewhatMatode Culture Place, asindividual andcollectiveattachment toculture,territory, andthelife-world, It isimportanttorecognizethatthesemovementsaremarginalized bythecapital Escobar andproponentsofglobalizationfrombelowwouldsaythatplace-based 166).Place-basedmovementshavenetworkedtocreateregionalandglobal Beyond 223). With thislogicweseewhythe Beyond Beyond 223).Onaglobalscale,these 224).Inasense,global Beyond 223). ------

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Civilizing . Princeton: Sociological Review 36 (1999): 321-334. 25.1 (2004): 207-230. International Politics 158). This is because sense of place and local sense of place and This is because 158). . Ed. Richard Sandbrook. Albany: State University . Ed. Richard Sandbrook. Third World Quarterly World Third Culture 18.5 (2004): 716-748. 153). I feel that this is at the heart of why places cannot heart of why places that this is at the 153). I feel Culture 20 (2001): 139-174. . London: Verso, 2006. Verso, . London: Cultural Studies 302 (2003): 1907-1912. Planet of Slums

Political Geography Princeton University Press, 1995. Survival Guide A Globalization: Press, 2003. 191-205. of NY Science 52.1 (2004):113-130. balisation social movements.” movements.” Place-based politics have been largely ignored by hegemonic and counter-hegemonic by hegemonic and counter-hegemonic ignored have been largely Place-based politics Encountering Development: The making and unmaking of the third world Encountering Development: The making and unmaking of the third —. “Culture sits in places: reflections on globalism and subaltern strategies of localization.” —. “Culture sits in places: reflections —. An Innovative Politics of Resistance.” Falk, Richard. “Globalization-from-Below: Dietz, Thomas, Elinor Ostrom, and Paul C. Stern. “The Struggle to Govern the Commons.” Thomas, Elinor Ostrom, and Paul C. Stern. Dietz, ‘new’?” Movements: what’s Edwards, Gemma. “Habermas and Social and anti-glo global coloniality imperial globality, World: Third the Arturo. “Beyond Escobar, Works Cited Works Fred R. “Globalization from Below.” Dallmayr, Davis, Mike. The political logic of the newest social Affinity: Hegemony to “From J. F. Richard Day, movements. Place needs to recognized as a basis for global social change, not only to recog movements. Place needs to recognized and their life-worlds, but also to recognize difference nize the meaning place brings to people current system, and one that provides place-based in understanding as an alternative to the for global change. Recognizing place will not needs without requiring uniformity or totality it is a beginning. problems, but intrinsically solve the world’s connectedness and difference, prove that place-based movements are finding global spaces for are finding global spaces for prove that place-based movements connectedness and difference, movements are significant place-based self-organizing, to discuss change. Non-hierarchical, capitalist-hegemonic system, but also to the current stand in difference because they not only with and of ‘the Revolution’ place that contrast with the grandiose politics enact “a politics of be confronted in its totality” (Be politics that require that empire conceptions of anti-imperial and localized counter-hegemonic struggles need to be recognized, and yond 221). Place-based and ecological source of their personal, community, movements need to discuss place, as the knowledge is “a place-specific (even if not place-bound or place-determined) way of endow or place-determined) (even if not place-bound is “a place-specific knowledge ( with meaning” ing the world do what capitalism can never do: ecosystems, and life-worlds be erased. Places, communities, none. a world where there often seems to be provide meaning in Social Forum, which encourage World but networks like those in the globalization forces, capitalist-hegemonic system. This is not because places are untouched by capital but because but because by capital untouched places are because This is not system. capitalist-hegemonic in differ still stand and places them, to normalize attempt places to to come to has capitalism least “capitalism is at of place means that This survival influence. capitalism’s ence despite are not completely same way as women places; that in the transformed by to some degree by completely defined are not men, places and non-capitalisms their relation to defined by space” ( to capitalism and their relation

aegis 2007 74 Halbert, Debora.“GlobalizedResistancetoIntellectualProperty.” —. “NewSocialMovements.” Habermas, Jurgen. “Beyond theNationState?” George, Susan. Willetts, Peter. “TheCardosoReportontheUNandCivilSociety:Functionalism,Global Whitt, Laurie Anne, MereRoberts, Waerete Norman,and Vicki Grieves.“BelongingtoLand: Weissman, Robert.“Seattle:GlobalProtestComesof Age.” Rahman, Anisur. “Globalization: The emerging ideology in the popular protests and grassroots Pretty, Jules.“SocialCapital andCollectiveManagementofResources.” Posey, Darrell A. Ostrom, Elinor. “ReformulatingtheCommons.” Opel, Andy andDonnalynPompper, ed. Mato, Daniel.“Transnational NetworkingandtheSocialProductionofRepresentations Marx, KarlandFriedrichEngels. McCay, BonnieJ.andLouise Fortmann.“Voices fromtheCommons: EvolvingRelationsof Hereniko, Vilsoni. “IndigenousKnowledge and Academic Imperialism.” Harcourt, Wendy and Arturo Escobar. Corporatism, orGlobalDemocracy?” Law Review Indigenous KnowledgeSystemsandtheNatural World.” 207-213. Survival Guide action research.” 1912-1914. Plenderleith. New York: Routledge,2004. 29-52. and theGlobalJusticeMovement Sociology Identities byIndigenousPeoples’ Organizations ofLatin America.” Northbrook, Ill.: AHM PublishingCo.,1955. Property andManagement.” University ofHawai’iPress,2000.78-91. Pacific Pasts: AnInvitationtoRemakeHistory Kumarian Press,2005. Oct. 2006 Another World isPossibleIf… Indigenous KnowledgeandEthics: A Darrell PoseyReader 15.2(2000):343-360. http://globalization.icaap.org/content/v5.2/halbert.htm 26(2001):701-743. . Ed.RichardSandbrook. Albany: StateUniversityofNY Press,2003. Action Research Telos Manifesto oftheCommunistParty 49 (1981):33-37. Cultural SurvivalQuarterly Women andthePoliticsofPlace Representing Resistance:Media,CivilDisobedience, . West Port,Connecticut:Praeger, 2003. 2.1(2004):9-23. London: Verso, 2004. World Policy Journal Peace Review Swiss PoliticalScienceReview . Ed.RobertBorofsky. Honolulu: Civilizing Globalization: A 10.2(1998):235-240. 20.1(1996):24. Oklahoma CityUniversity Globalization . Ed.SamuelH.Beer. 12(2006):305-324. . Bloomfield,CT: Remembrance of Science l .

International . Ed.Kristina 6.1(2000): 5.2(2005):3 302(2003):

75 aegis 2007 , ------Science Sarah PrindleSarah The periodical in which Hardin published “The Tragedy of the Commons,” Tragedy “The The periodical in which Hardin published I intend to show that Hardin’s “tragedy” is not inevitable, and that his theory has shut shut has theory his that and inevitable, not is “tragedy” Hardin’s that show to intend I In 1968, in his much-cited work “The Tragedy of the Commons,” Garrett Hardin Tragedy work “The In 1968, in his much-cited arrangements, in which resource users were able to sustainably prevent the ‘tragedy of the arrangements, in which resource users regulations federal where States, United Northeastern the of fisheries includes This commons.’ They found that in these instances “top-down rules [..] were not credible had not worked. 1907). among users,” which led to resistance to national, environmental regulations (Dietz as well as the Local institutions allow resource users a sense of autonomy and responsibility, “have sustained ability to have a say in regulations. Some of these local commons institutions occurs,” such resources successfully for centuries, although they often fail when rapid change recently reviewed the original article with a series of articles, determining how we have dealt recently reviewed the original article with Hardin raised the issue. In “The Struggle to Govern with the commons in the 35 years since discuss that in the years since Hardin first published the Commons,” Dietz, Ostrom, and Stern influential but has long been aptly criticized as over the theory has been “highly “Tragedy,” been many instances of locally-governed They point out that there have simplified” (1907). I argue that denying the context in which overpopulation and resource exploitation occurs often often occurs exploitation resource and overpopulation which in context the denying that argue I environ the of exploitation the see not does women, poor particularly people, wrong the hurts and all), at environment the of part as people (or people of exploitation the to related as ment be can commons The contemporary. or indigenous it be self-regulation, for space allow not does successfully are resources common when comedy, a be also can it but tragic, is that something enjoy. to something commons the making way, sustainable a in shared “Tragedy” After Years Thirty-five of government, with debatable success (Hardin 1247). of government, with debatable success detri been often has This scale. small a on regulation or self-regulation, of possibility all out Hardin’s deny not do I world. the around relationships social to and environmental the to mental do Neither with. dealt be must this that and exploited being is environment the that presumption environment. the of degradation the affects population that assumption Hardin’s with disagree I negative will be externalized into the community, so that no individual has incentive to pre so that into the community, negative will be externalized of inevitably leads to degradation Hardin argues, This, of the commons. vent the exploitation com After nearly 38 years, the idea of the the tragedy of the commons. the environment, and of scholars, with positive and nega has been reviewed by thousands mons, and its tragedy, using regulation as “mutual idea that privatizing the commons and/or tive opinions. Hardin’s used to justify environmental regulation at all levels coercion mutually agreed upon” has been proposed that property or resources held in common would always be exploited. The positives always be exploited. or resources held in common would proposed that property self-interested individual, and the commons will be internalized by the appropriated from the The Drama and Drama The Comedy the of the of Tragedy “The Rethinking Commons: the Commons”

aegis 2007 76 providing modelsofpositiveself-governance. private orstateownership”(Dietz1907).Successfulsystemsalsohaveidentifiablequalities, of theselocalizedinstitutionshave“succeeded,neitherHardin’s preferredalternativesof as interventionbynationalregulation(Dietz1907). The articleemphasizesthatwhilenotall compliance with governingthecommons. governing institutions, butsocialcapital,and thetrustandcooperationit entails, increases 1914). So,asDietzpointsout, scientificandlocalinformationiskeytocreatingsuccessful knowledge toappreciatethat what theyaredoingmaybeharmful”tonaturalresources (Pretty He alsoimportantlynotesthat communitieswithgoodsocialcapital“donotalwayshave the example, afeudalsocietymay haveattributesofsocialcapital,itisstillasignificantfactor incentive tocooperatewith,for example,environmentalinstitutions. Without socialcapital,peopledonottrustthesourcesofrulesandregulations, haveno tion incommunities,andthereforeisanimportantfactor governingthecommons(1913). bonds andnormsareimportantforpeoplecommunities,” improveslong-termcoopera moval ofindigenouspopulations.Prettyemphasizesthatsocial capital,or“theideathatsocial izing orprivatizingoftheseresources,inthenameprotecting them,leadstotheforcedre centuries. Oftenthesepeoplehavelivedsustainablyin environments,butthenational people, oftenpoorand/orindigenous,fromtheveryresources thattheyhavedependedonfor emerged independentoftheactionlocalpeople”(1913). This hasledtotheremovalof poses thatHardin’s theoryhaspartiallyledtotheideathat“ecosystemsarepristineandhave or privateinstitutions,onsocialcapitalandparticularly indigenouspeoples.Prettypro discusses theeffect ofpoliciesinfluencedbyHardin’s ideas,suchasthecreationofstate ‘tragedy ofthecommons,’ tounderstandwhyHardin’s modelhasnotworked.JulesPretty tions thathadpreviouslyeffectively solvedthe‘tragedyofcommons.’ many cases,aswelldetrimentaltotheenvironmentandolder, community-basedinstitu ploitation ofnaturalresources,hismethodscoercionhavebeenshowntobeineffective in and inducingcompliance.DietzconcludesthatwhileHardincorrectlyrecognizedtheex incentives forresourceusers,usescientificandlocalinformation,havemeansofmonitoring the scienceandlocalconditions”(Dietz1910).Successfulinstitutionsatanylevelwillhave institutions “aredesignedincapitalcitiesorbydonoragenciesignoranceofthestate unsuccessful institutionsaswellcreatingnewones. They doemphasize thatunsuccessful a varietyand/ormixtureofthesetypesinstitutionsshouldbeusedinchangingcurrent, formly succeedsorfailstohaltmajorresourcedeterioration”(1908). They concludethat tive, notesthat“nosinglebroadtypeofownership-government,private,orcommunity-uni ing allpartsofthesystem. institution, communicationbetweenallresourceusersisimportantincreatingandimplement means ofcompliancewiththerules. Through theseattributesofahealthy self-governing compliance. Infrastructureisalsoneeded,formonitoringresourceusers,aswellproviding These systemsalsoworkbestwithameansofenforcingrules,consequencesfornon the systems,”aswellabilitytoadaptchangeswithininstitution(Dietz1908-9). ronment interactionsandabouttheresources,butalso“inherentunpredictabilityin Pretty pointsoutthatwhilesocial capitalinitselfdoesnotsolveallproblems,for In thesameissueof Finally, Dietz,whileencouragingthelocalinstitutionalarrangementasanalterna Dietz et al findthatsuccessfulgovernancesystemsareinformed,abouthuman-envi Science , severalotherscholarsgavetheirviewpointsonthe - - - - - . ------

77 aegis 2007 - - - - - (Adams 1915). The au The (Adams 1915). articles, has been highly articles, has been highly Science reinforces the importance of local of local importance the reinforces Science articles emphasized: knowledge in both resource users and regulators. The resource users and regulators. articles emphasized: knowledge in both Science Ostrom explores examples of self-regulating resource users, such as farmers in Nepal Ostrom explores examples of self-regulating Elinor Ostrom, one of the authors of the above Elinor Ostrom, one Another article in the same issue of issue of in the same article Another framework for predicting success of local, self-regulating institutions: framework for predicting success of local, tutions often never consider the idea of self-regulating communities. tutions often never consider the idea of whose small and medium-sized irrigation systems who regulate usage of irrigation waters, higher outcomes per farmer than nationally were found to be more efficient and produced Ostrom says, is dependent on “long-term The success of this example, regulated systems. trust in established monitors, and “sanctions for those ownership claims,” communication, the (Reformulating 33). Ostrom also outlines a general who do not conform to their own rules” theory for looking at the commons. Ostrom points out that not only does Hardin’s prevailing points out that not only does Hardin’s theory for looking at the commons. Ostrom only act in self interest, it also assumes that “regulators theory assume that resource users will how ecological systems work and how to change will act in public interest and understand goes back to This behavior” (Reformulating 31). institutions so as to induce socially optimal what the so that these insti Ostrom notes, has been used in economics and law texts, prevailing theory, effectively managing the commons. effectively of the Commons The Drama/Comedy In “Reformulating the Com the debate over governing the commons. influential in reframing theory and its suc Hardin’s that empirical evidence has contradicted mons,” Ostrom explains will be unable to extricate a uniform prediction that users themselves cessors, which “makes (29). In this article, Ostrom presents a new themselves from the tragedy of the commons” makers must be aware of these sources of knowledge in their prejudices and those of local and those of local in their prejudices sources of knowledge be aware of these makers must like ‘tragedy of the science and theory, informed by users, as well as knowledge resources knowledge” or ‘folk’ formal science, including informal as well as “ideas outside commons,’ Adams notes that understanding the the ideas of Dietz and Pretty, (Adams 1915). Emphasizing environmental problems and users, such as if they even know about knowledge of resource the commons is essential to as the knowledge of those who regulate their solutions, as well knowledge in regulating institutions. Adams discusses the perception of resource users, and users, of resource the perception discusses Adams institutions. in regulating knowledge pool resources’ over common of this in the “conflict the importance of an perception resource users’ which affect and beliefs” the “ideas, ideologies, thors discuss be important in struc conviction can beliefs and moral problem: “religious environmental 1915). Decision and scientists” (Adams among local people understanding, both turing and

aegis 2007 78 to establish trust is essential for creating conditions conducive to a self-governing commons cally supported “(Reformulating 46). Ostrom finds that, in empirical evidence, communication ing trust through their own efforts […the tragedy of the commons] theory is likely to be empiri hoods altogether” ( traditional peoples whootherwisewouldbe deprivedoftheirlongstanding homesandliveli CBMRs areimportantinrecognizing “communitymanagementpractices[…]tohelpprotect courages avarietyofapproaches tosolvingenvironmentalproblems,butshepointsout the problems. TEAs dealwithpollutionandCBMRs resourceextraction.Roseen discovers thatthesetwoapproaches haveoppositestrengthsanddealwithdifferent sortsof Environmental Allowances” (TEAs),such asthoseprescribedbytheKyotoProtocol,and the attributesofsuccessfulCBMRs. Rosealsocomparestheseregimesagainst“Tradable Management Regimes”(CBMRs),andexplores,asseveral otherauthorsdiscussedherehave, ers’ undersuchcircumstancesshouldnotbetakenoutofcontext. rules changehumanbehaviorandcommunitynorms,therefore thebehaviorof‘common in thecommonsmustbeunderstoodcontextofenvironmental regulation.Shefeelsthat 392). ForMcCay, examininghumanbehaviorinalaboratoryisnotenough, behavior “the theoreticalandempiricalunderpinningforthatobservation iswoefullylacking”( that thecontextofhumanbehaviorisoftentoutedasimportant bycommonsresearchers,but social policiesthatunfairlydisadvantagethe‘commoners’” ( mons to say that the model “may blind investigators to other causes and justify the adoption of commons research.BonnieMcCaygoesbeyondOstrom’s criticismofthetragedycom Cooperation ispossible,thoughitnottherule. Hardin and William Ophuls would have it, and therefore a controlling sovereign is not needed. viathan In thetextofOstrom’s articleofthesametopic,OstromdeterminesthataHobbesian hoped forinciviceducationclassesifitleadstothetragedyofcommons”(Amadae164). non-cooperative gametheorypopularoverthelastdecade,maynothavesanguineresults have reversedhumanprogressingoverningthecommons;“afterall,teachinglessonsof (163). Shegoesasfartosaythatperhapssocialtheories,suchHobbes’ andHardin’s, ‘tragedy ofthecommons’ problemlongbeforeitattractedtheattentionofsocialtheorists” is oftentheorized. Amadae notesthatispossible“humansthemselvesoftenresolvedthe ing publicchoiceasHardin’s andtheproblemofgoverningcommonsismucholderthan dae andOstromconcludethatHobbes’ ideaisasinfluentialindeterminingmeansofgovern discusses thesamesubjectin words, andofnostrengthtosecureamanatall’”(162).ElinorOstromwroteanarticlewhich absolute sovereignisneededtogovernsociety, or“‘Covenants,withoutthesword,arebut commons,’ inscholarlyworkonpublicchoice. Amadae notesthatitisHobbes’ ideathatan the Devil,”exploringinfluencesofHobbesianmetaphor, aswellthe‘tragedyof communities, it is a positive alternative to the prevailing theory of the ‘tragedy of the commons.’ es” (Reformulating 47). Though Ostrom does not claim this solution will work uniformly for all community, as well as “draw[ing] on cultural endowments and their knowledge of local resourc isnotnecessary, andthat humansarenotstuckinaninescapabletragedy, asGarrett Ostrom finds that “when appropriators cannot communicate and have no way of gain In thissamecollection,CarolM.Rosediscusseswhatshe calls “Community-Based In S.M. Amadae examinestheworkofElinorand Vincent Ostromin“Bargaining with The DramaoftheCommons Drama 252). The PoliticalEconomyofCustomsandCulture , Ostrom,Dietz,Sternandothersexplorethefieldof Drama 392).McCayconcludes , andboth Ama Le Drama ------

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79 aegis 2007 ------Dangerous Dangerous , in which she discusses the discusses she , in which Property & Persuasion & Property , that concepts like military spending, luxury, and renewable energy and resourc renewable energy and , that concepts like military spending, luxury, Several ideas complicate alternative solutions to population control; as Ostrom’s Several ideas complicate alternative solutions to population control; as Ostrom’s Feminist critiques of population control have focused on educating women and en Feminist critiques of population control I would like to conclude with a discussion of population as a commons, and attempt with a discussion of population as I would like to conclude discus Ann and Paul Ehrlich’s critique of Elinor Ostrom addresses this issue in her Rose is also the author of the author of is also the Rose Intersections es be added into the equation. theories about model for a successful regulation of commons has certain requirements, so do Bomb population control, or rather population self-regulation. In “Unmasking the Population Ann Filemyr notes that “the topic of overpopulation in the developing nations […] is er,” in the overdeveloped used to draw attention away from the taboo subject of over-consumption to make, reproductive choices (Dixon-Mueller 53). suring they have access to, and the ability the model to determine the environmental impact, There has also been a call for reexamining is the where environmental Impact of IPAT, put forth by Paul Ehrlich and John Holdren, of goods per person (A), and the amount of product of the number of People, the consumption 39). H. Patricia Haynes suggests, in pollution created by each good (T) (Silliman certainly has not created sustainable practices (Evolution 179). Ostrom also points out the certainly has not created sustainable practices destruction, and reduced the number of falling birthrates have not prevented resource Russia’s problems (179). to look for solutions to the country’s young people who are willing and able is no guarantee of establishing a sustainable society” Ostrom concludes “reducing population regimes to decrease population are less likely to (Evolution 179). Ostrom feels that top-down would resemble the small resource sharing groups lead to sustainable living than groups that CBMRs. in her previous research, or Rose’s sion of population. Ostrom notes that Hardin’s solutions not only ignore previous, successful sion of population. Ostrom notes that Hardin’s but also encourage “government takeovers of model of local common resource management, for many of the poorest of the earth” (Evolution natural resources with tragic consequences solutions for population. She the Ehrlich’s is applicable to 179). Ostrom feels this argument population growth in China without creating feels that the “draconian measures to reduce has not been shown to save the commons, and institutions fostering resource stewardship” Population, Women, and the Commons Women, Population, that looking for solutions alterna This is to show to population. approach to criticize Hardin’s self-regulate the commons important because communities can is not only tive to Hardin’s or commodifying the com but because the alternatives of coercion under the right conditions, as a commons. especially when looking at population mons can be harmful, tion of the commons (Rose 173). Rose also emphasizes that public, or collective property, or collective property, that public, Rose also emphasizes commons (Rose 173). tion of the in a to gain value a space for social capital and this provides for socializing, provides space to creating self-regulating social capital is essential earlier, As Jules Pretty noted community. that in order to create the suc This would suggest of a commons. institutions for governing commons, to create conditions space is needed, such as a community cessful CBMRs, a social governing. conducive to commons “Comedy of the Commons” (Rose 105). Here Rose calls for the recognition of collective of collective recognition for the Rose calls 105). Here (Rose Commons” of the “Comedy problem of the solutions to the a possibility for future element, and as as a historic property, custom recognized British law, at one time in is comedy because The commons commons. The commons. rights on a manor and resource collecting property for grazing collective and so on,” a celebra races, cricket matches, dances, horse of that era are “maypole remnants

aegis 2007 80 devouring children”(Filemyr143).However, Filemyrpointsoutthat“lessthan20percentof mental degradation,”particularly“dark-skinnedwomensurroundedbytheirhungryhoardsof Ehrlich suggeststhat“womenandtheirfamiliesaretheprimarycauseofworldwideenviron countries” (Filemyr138).ForFilemyr, theperceptionofpopulationinworkHardinand and community overthetragedyofself-interested exploitation. Another world a communitythatdisprovesHobbes, Hardin,andotherpessimists,hasfaithineducation good orunselfish.Butthecommons shouldbecelebratedbecausethereisapotentialto create erning communitybuiltaround thecommonsisonlypossibleifhumannatureinherently to beforciblyruledbyasovereign bodyinordertobegood. This isnottosaythataself-gov supported bytraditionalwestern theory, asweseeinHobbes,whobelievesthatpeopleneeded function ontrust,knowledge, themutualdesireforsuccessoneselfandothers. This isnot leagues, aswellotherswhoemphasizelocalgoverning, istheideathatacommunitycould mons andtobearealcommunity. What issoradicalaboutthetheoryofOstromandhercol nect, buildingtheleveloftrust,knowledge,andsocialcapital neededbothtogovernthecom only becauseitisasolutiontoproblem,butprovides aspaceforpeopletocon commons fails,asintheexamplecitedbyDietz. involvement shouldbeincluded,becausewhenlocalityhas beenignored,thegoverningof forever. Regardlessofwhatmethodregulationisusedinacommons,localknowledgeand dismissed, andturnedovertostateorprivateregulation,which maychangethecommunity Rose pointsout,thecommonshasbeenahistoricallyimportant placeandshouldnotbeeasily self-regulation, whichgoverntheabilityofacommunitytoself-regulatetheircommons. As ing trustandreciprocity, sizeofaresource,andlong-terminvolvementasanincentivefor environmental degradationandnaturalresourceexploitation. There aremanyfactors,includ Ostrom andhercolleagueshaveemphasized,avarietyofapproachesisneededtoprevent not havebeenpreviouslyconsideredlegitimate,suchasindigenousknowledgesystems. As resource userscannotself-regulate,butalsobecauseindoingsoweopenupoptionsthatmay Conclusion create sustainablesocieties,asdescribedbyOstrominhercritiqueofpopulationcontrol. created situationswherecoercivemethodstopreventthese‘problems’ hurtpeopleanddonot resource consumptionoutofthecontextconsumerism,war, andlivingconditions,has raries. Taking theactionsofhumansoutcontext,suchastakingpopulationitaffects control mechanismshesuggests,isthesamecritiquemadebyOstromandhercontempo population controlasitaffects sustainability. the abilitytomakesexual,andthereforereproductive,choices,and,asOstrompointsout, context. Filemyralsopointsoutthatpopulationmustbetakeninthecontextofwarorpeace, where groupsofwomenhaveshowntobesuccessfulcommonsusers,orCBMRsinRose’s uniform, andthecommonsofpopulationisnodifferent. Filemyrgoes ontopointinstances must seepopulation. As wesawinthecritiquesofOstromandothers,humannatureisnot less than20percentoftheworldresources”(Filemyr143). This isthe contextinwhichwe of theworld’s population(includingwomenindevelopingnationsandtheirchildren)with the world’s populationaccountsforover80percent ofresourceuse,leavingover80percent The community-governedcommons,asRosepointedout, should becelebratednot Rethinking thecommonsisimportantnotonlytorefuteHardin’s generalizationthat The feministcritiqueofHardin’s perceptionofthepopulationproblems,and is possible. ------

81 aegis 2007 ------. San 16.3 Ameri 302 63.1 (2004): 63.1 (2004): Science . Bloomfield, CT: . Bloomfield, CT: Protecting the Protecting 302 (2003): 1915- 302 (2003): . Philadelphia: New Soci Environment and Develop Environment 6.1 (2000): 29-52. Science People and Forests: Com People and Forests: 9.3 (1997): 138-155. . Lanham, Maryland: Rowman and . Lanham, Maryland: 162 (1968): 1243-1248. . Washington: National Academy Press, National Washington: . Science Cambridge. MA: MIT Press, 2005. Cambridge. MA: MIT The Political Economy of Customs and Cul The Political Economy N.W.S.A. Journal N.W.S.A. . Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000. . Cambridge, MA: MIT Women and the Politics of Place Women Seeing the Forest and the Trees: Human-Environ and the Trees: Seeing the Forest 90.12 (2000): 1845-1847. 54 (2000): 19-28. Swiss Political Science Review International Journal of Politics, Culture and Society of Politics, Culture International Journal American Journal of Economics and Sociology Journal of Economics American The Drama of the Commons 7 (2002): 177-182. . Population Policy & Women’s Rights: Transforming Reproductive Reproductive Rights: Transforming . Population Policy & Women’s . Ed. Joanna Burger, et al. Washington: Island Press, 2001. Island Washington: et al. . Ed. Joanna Burger, . The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology, and the Scientific Revolution Ecology, Women, . The Death of Nature: Population Studies Healing the Wounds: The Promise of Ecofeminism The Promise Healing the Wounds: 302 (2003): 1907-1912. . Westport, CT.: Praeger, 1993. Praeger, CT.: Westport, . Ehrlich’s, ‘Population, development, and human nature.’” ‘Population, development, and human nature.’” Ehrlich’s, ment Economics ety Publishers, 1989. (2003): 1912-1914. Francisco: Harper & Row, 1990. Francisco: Harper & Row, Ecosystems. ment Interactions in Forest 2002. can Journal of Public Health munities, Institutions, and Governance Kumarian Press, 2005. Choice Race, Class, and Ecology.” of Gender, Commons Policies and Strategies.” Policies and Strategies.” (2003): 327-330. policy.” Science ing in Public Choice.’” ing in Public 161-165. the Commons Problem Informal Solutions to ture: Inc., 1993. Littlefield Publishers, Understanding Conflict over Common Pool Resources.” Common Pool Resources.” Conflict over Understanding 1916. —. “Reformulating the Commons.” Plant, Judith, ed. Management of Resources.” Jules. “Social Capital and the Collective Pretty, Moran, Emilio F. and Elinor Ostrom, eds. Moran, Emilio F. et al, eds. Ostrom, Elinor, Anne H. comments on Paul R. Ehrlich and —. “The evolution of norms within institutions: Gibson, Clark C., Margaret A. McKean, and Elinor Ostrom, eds. A. McKean, and Elinor Ostrom, eds. Gibson, Clark C., Margaret eds. Arturo Escobar, and Wendy Harcourt, of the Commons.” Tragedy Hardin, Garrett. “The Merchant, Carolyn Filemyr, Ann. “Unmasking the Population Bomber: Analyzing Domination at the Intersection the Population Bomber: Ann. “Unmasking Filemyr, Michel. “Integrating Scale and Social Justice in the Commons.” Gelobter, Go Next?” We Where Do Adrienne. “Population and Reproductive Health: Germain, Basu, Alaka Malwade. “Gender in population research: Confusing implication for health population research: Confusing implication Alaka Malwade. “Gender in Basu, Govern the Commons.” and Paul C. Stern. “The Struggle to Thomas, Elinor Ostrom, Dietz, Ruth Dixon-Mueller, Anderson, Terry L. and Randy T. Simmons, eds. Simmons, eds. T. L. and Randy Terry Anderson, Gender Equity: “Toward Steven Pressman, and Gale Summerfield. Aslanbeigui, Nahid, Works Cited Works Tragedies: “Managing Vira. and Bhaskar Jane Dyson, M., Dan Brockington, William Adams, Mean ‘Quest for the Ostroms’ Commentary on with the Devil: “Bargaining Amadae, S.M.

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- - - - Emily Starr According to Beuys, within everyone there lay a dormant “self-determination” which According to Beuys, within everyone there Although Beuys and Antoni are each products of a different generation, their artistic Antoni are each products of a different Although Beuys and In the decades following Abstract Expressionism and Clement Greenberg’s formal Clement Greenberg’s Expressionism and Abstract following In the decades will to The terror of war had paralyzed everyone’s needed to be revitalized (Hopkins 92). Borer describes the social climate tap into their innate ability to control their own destiny. but following the war and states, “[the citizens of Europe] were no longer heroic protagonists regime, independent and innovative thought was deconstructed victims” (14). Under Hitler’s For example, condemned as a threat to what he considered traditional and stable standards. His modern art work was banned and destroyed for its departure from classical aesthetics. wounds received in the accident and the freezing climate if it had not been for the care pro wounds received in the accident and the The tribesmen covered his body in fat to generate Tartars. vided by a native nomadic tribe of This was a pivotal experience for Beuys; the warmth. heat and wrapped him in felt to insulate in his work throughout the remainder of his life. a rebirth which remained a primary influence he would As a teacher, public to their spiritual being. His objective became reconnecting the for a rebirth of their own. provide them with the information necessary their own personal reference, Beuys and Antoni effectively maintain the viewer’s attention maintain the viewer’s effectively Antoni their own personal reference, Beuys and while engaging them in a critique of society. II and War World lived amongst the turmoil of missions cross paths on many levels. Beuys on the psychological and economical atmosphere of it had experienced the ravaging effect He himself was involved with the Nazi regime and served as a radio Germany. Western in Crimea. He claimed he would have died from operator and pilot until his plane crashed language of their own through their choice of materials. In today’s fast paced society, it is no fast paced society, of materials. In today’s language of their own through their choice with aesthetics alone and it becomes necessary to longer possible to fully engage the audience provides a platform on which the artist can com include a system of encoded meaning that This task becomes more difficult when confronting a public that municate with the audience. By utilizing 11). or already overloaded” (Weintraub “tends to be disinterested, complacent, material as well as incorporating conventional cognitive association with a particular society’s the next avant garde movement, they have sought a non-objective approach to their work movement, they have sought a non-objective the next avant garde The 15). materials (Weintraub pieces and the use of unconventional through performance no longer adequate as media to declares, “conventional art media are critic, Lucy Lippard new medium in which to convey and so the artist must devise a be messages in themselves,” the linguistic power of Some such artists have come to rely on 16). their message (Morgan in that they have developed a Antoni are prominent examples art. Joseph Beuys and Janine ist standards on art, contemporary artists have been abolishing the boundaries of convention contemporary artists have been abolishing ist standards on art, of social issues. In system as well as generate awareness to challenge the gallery in an effort visual is no longer preoccupied with stimulating the artist of society, addressing the dilemmas and contemplating philosophi questioning the intelligence of the viewer pleasure but rather in design and the expectation to define escape the confinement of formal To cal subject matter. The Material Language of Material The and Beuys Antoni

aegis 2007 84 He wasconvincedthattheonlywayforsocietytohealandmoveforwardbyholdingan they hadwitnessed.InBeuys’ eyes,thiswasnotapositivereactiontotheproblemathand. expressed. When thewarwas over, mostpeoplewerestillhesitanttoconfrontthehorrors intention wastoeradicateanymeansbywhichoppositiontowardshisagendacouldbe For Antoni, thedefinitionof“self” alsoextendstophysicalappearance. Inaninterview with reciprocal relationship betweenourownself-perception andhowweare perceived insociety. She concentratesonconsumerism’s impact onthedevelopmentofpersonalidentityand who viewedthisrelationship in politicalterms, Antoni studies itonamorepersonallevel. identity anditsexistencewithin acapitalistsocietyaswell.However, incontrast toBeuys false valuesofacapitalisteconomy andseekthesanctityofanaturallifestyle. would aidintherevitalization ofcivilization.Itwascriticalthatsocietyrelieveitselffrom the society placedonmonetarywealth. Again, thehealingpowersheattributedtofatandfelt a severedconnectionwithnature(Borer25). A primaryculpritofthiscrisis was thepriority nurse naturebacktohealth.Beuysardentlybelievedthatthe flawsincivilizationweredueto personalized medicinepackfortheindividualprovidingthem withthemeansnecessaryto each ofwhichholdsapiecefat,rolledblanketfelt, and alantern.Eachsledgewas way oflife(Borer25). The piececonsistsofa Volkswagen vanfollowedbytwentysledges, would eventuallyabuse. in thehandsasmallgroupofpeople. As aresult,theygainedpower andauthoritywhichthey develop, Beuysargued thatthecirculationofcurrencywasdisruptedandwealthbottlenecked fied insociety, creatingdifferent economicclasses.Oncetheseclassdistinctionsbeginto Capitalism alsopromotesfiercecompetitionforwealth.Currencybecomesunequallystrati of utilizingtheirtimeandenergy towardssearchingwithinthemselves forasenseofcomfort. people becomepreoccupiedwithattainingmaterialwealthasameansofsatisfactioninstead material goodsandtoconvincethepublicthattheseareessentialdailylife. As aresult, driven bytheproductionandsaleofobjects. With itssuccesscomestheneedtopromote goods, furtherdistractingindividualsfromattainingaspiritualconnection.Capitalismis the flawsofmaterialism.Heinsistedthatcapitalistsocietyyieldedfalsevalueinmaterial culation andeverflowingmotionwouldserveasadefenseagainststagnationcorruption. state becauseitwouldbesupplementedbythefreeexchangeofideas(Morgan 152). This cir corruption ofcentralizedpowercouldbeeradicated. Thus, socialdemocracywastheideal ity thatexistswithineveryindividualtodevelopnewconcepts,Beuyswasconvincedthe being whichwouldprovidetheanswerstoaflawlesscommunity. Bylocatingtheinnateabil comprehension ofthemasses. Art wasthekeytounlimitedcreativepotentialwithinevery held asavesselforhighertruth.However, hedidn’t perceiveitasbeingbeyondthegraspor (181). Itwasthereforeasubjectheregardedwithgreatimportanceinrespecttothepowerit “[the public’s] latentcreativepowerswereunleashedastheyexchangedideaswiththeartist” them. Weintraub explainsthatthroughthedialogueinitiatedbyBeuys’ lectures andsculpture artist” (Hopkins89). Art wastheonlymeansofeducatingpublicpotentialwithin “Great Dialogue”(Morgan 152). This correspondedwithhisdeclaration,“Everyone[is]an tion asawhole. This “grouptherapy”requiredeveryonetoengageinwhathecalledthe open discussionconcerningtheevent’s psychologicalimpactonindividualsandthepopula In hersculpturalworks, Antoni examinesphilosophicalquestionsconcerning The Pack In assumingtheroleofashamanicleader, Beuysalsomadeithismissiontoreveal (1969)symbolizedtheurgent needsocietyhadfor relieffromsucha - - - -

85 aegis 2007 - - - - - 13). A professor at Harvard A This in turn challenges (1993) in which she created seven which she created seven (1993) in Lick and Lather Lick and Lather To address their audiences, both artists utilized common materials throughout their address their audiences, To Our culture has developed standards in regards to beauty and ideal physique. In Our culture has developed standards in Antoni explores these concepts in these concepts Antoni explores due in large part to his associating them with survival. He recalled their positive influence on part to his associating them with survival. due in large II. In addition to this autobiographi War World experience in the outcome of his near-death application cal context, the selection of these materials was based in their unconventional German contemporaries made an attempt to regain their country’s to art. Many of Beuys’s unless it abided position in the art world after the Nazis prohibited the production of any work As a result, they had by classical standards in regards to content and aesthetic appearance. 87). lost credibility in the art world and felt the need to reestablish their presence (Hopkins tive and becoming intense metaphors for the human condition” (Cameron et al. 133). Beuys, tive and becoming intense metaphors for locating a unique entity was indeed accomplishable. In that on the other hand, would argue a necessity for a utopian society. fact, this “homecoming” of the spirit was significance. Fat is a sculptural material used bodies of work to which they applied symbolic and felt in his work was choice to consistently apply fat Antoni. Beuys’ by both Beuys and behavior is influenced as a result. Antoni raises the question of whether or not we can truly Antoni behavior is influenced as a result. reflects back upon us. know ourselves outside of the image culture are. Can we develop a concept of ourselves without our ability to truly comprehend who we we are stripped from our natural being, is it possible to conventionalized standards? If at birth Antoni strives Through her personal physical involvement, ever again come in touch with it? The art critic, not provide a concrete answer. to raise public awareness of such questions, the personal sphere, leaping into the collec Rosa Martinez concludes, “her works transcend be a complex process of interaction between the two” (Cameron et al. 56-7). The soap busts the two” (Cameron et al. 56-7). be a complex process of interaction between in that they represent the personal relation provide a contrast to their chocolate counterparts than the physical image of the self perceived by ship individuals have with themselves rather members of society. to meet these standards and often find that their dividuals are confronted with the pressure and intimacy, a concept multiplied by the intimate manner in which Antoni sculpted it. The Antoni sculpted it. in which concept multiplied by the intimate manner a and intimacy, self projected upon society become a representation of the physical chocolate images thus hours Antoni explains, “we spent several to shaping the soap portraits, (Art: 21). In reference (Art: 21). were very intimate with each other” in the tub together…we art, Ewa Lajer-Bur nineteenth-century and contemporary and a writer on eighteenth-and and imaginary: a cultural means busts define the body as both symbolic charth, declares, “the to The formation of subjectivity is shown of the self. of self-articulation and a psychic image pairs of self-portrait busts. Each pair of busts consists of an identical cast of herself; one cast of herself; one of an identical pair of busts consists busts. Each pairs of self-portrait each cast suggests, she distorted As the title made of soap. and the other made of chocolate made of chocolate, she sculpted them the pieces With interaction. through direct physical and back down around the head licking them from the chin, up the face, through a process of each one individually for of soap were sculpted by bathing with The busts made to the neck. of love chocolate itself is a material suggestive The bathtub (Art: 21). hours at a time in a Art: 21 which aired on PBS in September of 2003, she discussed the idea of “an image that of “an image the idea discussed 2003, she of in September aired on PBS which Art: 21 self.” In of the description “an accurate that is or not and whether the world,” to [we present] us to speak for on our physical appearance we often rely image is everything, a world where we have of ourselves the womb, the view Once removed from first impressions. in making et al. 1 convention (Cameron influence and societal product of exterior becomes a

aegis 2007 86 182). Byacknowledgingtheseconventionalrelationshipshecouldstrengthenhisefforts in as post-industrialproductsthatrepulsedandchallengedthetasteofhighsociety(Weintraub possession oflessrefinedattributes.Hereliedonthepublic’s associationoftheseobjects Aside fromseekingcriticalrecognition,Beuyswasalsointriguedbysuchmaterialsfortheir and discarding, sheembodiestheobsessive extremes somepeopleengage inaneffort tore physique soit no longermeetsaestheticstandards. Intheprocessofrepetitively consuming it, thereistheurge to expelitfromthebody. Too muchindulgence canpotentiallyalterthe chocolate’s pleasures,wearesimultaneously repelledbyitshighfatcontent. After eating threat inanimage-conscious society throughthemulledblockoflard. While weindulge in exchange confectionarytreats inadisplayofaffection. But Antoni alsoaddresseschocolate’s acknowledged byourculture insuchtraditionsas Valentine’s Daywherelovedonesoften of loveandhappiness(Cameron etal.28). This desirableandromanticnotion isuniversally shown thatwhenitisconsumed,chemicalsarereleasedin thebodythatstimulatesfeelings its connectiontopleasureandindulgencemuchlikeshedid in collecting whatshedidn’t eat.Intheprocessofeating thechocolate, Antoni compliedwith separate sessions,sometimesconsumingthemediumandat othertimesspittingitoutand mensions untiltheartist“chiseled”themwithherteeth.She chewedoneachblockduring of lardandasimilarsizedblockchocolate.Initially, bothcubeswereofidenticaldi (Cameron etal.28). gates thematerial’s “roleintheformationofasocialdynamicbased onbeautyandpleasure” complex identity. Itsignifiesbothdesireand repulsion.Hersculpture rogate thepublicastowhyandhowthesedistinctionsaremade. As chocolate,fattakesona produce aradicallydifferent response.Shereliesonthesecontrastingperceptionstointer cial production:chocolate,soap,andmakeup.Inassumingthesealternativeguises,fatcan ment withinsociety. would hinderanypossibilityforgrowthbywayofknowledge,self-discovery, andimprove be confinedtoaneternalform. A worldheldstaticbyimmobileenergy andstagnantforms the object,emphasizingitsmetamorphoses”(Cooke,Kelly, andFuncke52).Nothingshould this by“rendering[the]chairunusableaddingaslopingpileoffat,physically[changing] a slavetoonepurpose,Beuysmadepointgivenewlifetheobject.Heaccomplished through yearsoftraditionaluse.Ratherthanleavethepiecefurnitureinapatheticstate, of paintappearontheback. The audienceistoconcludethatithassuffered thisdestruction nicks andscratchesalloverthesurface. The legsaredarkenedwithdirt andrandomsplashes he placedaslaboffatontheseatwoodenchair. The chairappearsagedandwornwith of flux,fatholdsthekeytohisstatementasanartist.Insculpture potential tomovefromrigidmaterialitydynamiccreativity”(Weintraub 182).Inthisstate embodies thepotentialtotakeonalternateidentities.“Itsmalleabilitymanifestshuman corrosion (Weintraub 182). chemicals whichproducedavarietyofreactionsbywayfermentation,oxidation,rotand (Borer 15).Inadditiontofatandfelt,hisarsenalofconstructivemediaincludedcopper but asa“spaceforteaching;”aneducatingprocesssuspendedmediumoftransformation contradicting them.Hismaterialsweren’t meanttobeexhibitedforwhattheywereinsociety The pieceisformedbyseveralelements,thefirstbeing displayofalar Antoni’s variousapplicationsoffatexploretheformsitcantakethroughcommer Beuys’ workexploitsfatonlyinitspurestformbecausenaturalstate,itstill Lick andLather Chair withFat Gnaw (1992)investi . Researchhas ge block (1963), ------

87 aegis 2007 , ------Gnaw also consists of a display of chocolate of a display of chocolate also consists Gnaw It is evident that both Beuys and Antoni attribute a great significance to art for they It is evident that both Beuys and When first laying eyes on Beuys’ work, confusion is most likely the initial response work, When first laying eyes on Beuys’ Much of Antoni’s work employs the use of her own body. Her sculptural pieces are body. work employs the use of her own Antoni’s Much of In addition to the dueling forms of fat, to the dueling forms In addition self-destruction would require the construction of a new life. Losing everything puts us in a self-destruction would require the construction of gaining everything. position where we have the opportunity Their sculpture becomes a both use it as a means to arrive at philosophical conclusions. self-prescribed language of communication in which the media assumes a vocabulary through Antoni permits in that The structures of their language differ and conventional association. Consequently, “disengagement from rationality spurs the genesis of a new soul…Injury, dis “disengagement from rationality spurs the genesis of a new soul…Injury, Consequently, 181). Once the viewer for rebirth” (Weintraub ease, darkness and solitude are opportunities symbolic associations, they pos adopts the artist’s relinquishes the confines of reason and This evokes an image his entire body of work. sess the key to decoding the message behind the ashes. Rather than cling to a false world built on similar to that of the phoenix rising from people should permit loss of control because the resulting chaos and “truths” over-analyzed of the uninformed viewer. There seems to be no logical reason for his unique arrangements There seems to be no logical of the uninformed viewer. the case, Beuys certainly accomplished his objective. of such untraditional objects. If this be it is a comprehension of his encoded meaning assigned to each particular material Without to Thus, the audience is required the piece is about. difficult for the viewer to decipher what to understanding. Instead, they must engage in a more abandon logic for it provides no means ex method of his process, he developed an effective intimate conversation with the artist. In ability to perceive the world. thought has on people’s that analytic posing the crippling effect the results of her activity and situated themselves in her absence. Mentally, they engaged in in her absence. Mentally, the results of her activity and situated themselves fat and began to conceive the experience through all of the act of consuming mass amounts of connection on which Beuys founded This sensual aspect parallels the spiritual their senses. become actively engaged in the work as well as his art. Both artists request that the viewer intellectually stimulated. products of repetitive physical processes such as chewing and bathing. Beuys’ works also works and bathing. Beuys’ physical processes such as chewing products of repetitive stem from one significant experi presence of the artist in that they possess a strong personal various and dis works are given life through Antoni’s But in contrast, ence- one of survival. appearance. In sculpture’s is also these experiences that shape the tinct experiences. It the point of physical exhaustion. of chocolate and a block of lard to she chewed on a block the physical act was not performed in front of an audience. Instead, they viewed However, “carving” the blocks. The chocolate trays represent the sensational gratification offered with gratification offered the sensational chocolate trays represent The the blocks. “carving” Both enhance beauty. a means to the lipsticks symbolize they hold whereas in the product their dates with a gift of boxed notions. Men traditionally present products present romantic the parts of the Together, makeup. prepare for the date by putting on candy and women often acted out by members of society to discussing the endless struggle sculpture create a dialogue still achieve physical perfection. in the face of pleasurable enticement and exhibit self control gain control of their body. Weight, waist size, and other such standards of beauty sometimes beauty sometimes of such standards and other waist size, Weight, their body. control of gain that self into something corporal of the “the transformation seeking behavior, our influence et al. 29). currency” (Cameron as desirable social …registers coun produced of their commercially They serve as imitations tubes of lipstick. trays and in the process of Antoni lard discarded by the chocolate and are in fact made of terparts but

aegis 2007 88 common threadthroughoutallofhispieces.Healwaysappliedfatinitsnaturalstate.In ent reference.Ontheotherhand,Beuysmaintainedastrictcodeofmeaningthatworkedas in avarietyofformssuchaslard,soap,andchocolate,butshehadeachformtakeondiffer versatility tothesymbolismassignedherchoicematerials.Notonlydidsheworkwithfat Weintraub, Linda. Schapiro, Meyer. Morgan, RobertC. Hopkins, David. Gaggi, Silvio. Cooke, Lynee, ed.,KarenKelly, ed.,andBettinaFuncke, Carter, Micheal,and Adam Geczy. Cameron, Dan,etal. Borer, Alain. Art: 21. Works Cited and thedevelopmentofidentity. of suchconventions.Herworkisastudyacceptedstandardsandtheireffect onbehavior tion ofculture’s standardsisnot Antoni’s mission.Shestrivesonlytoraisepublicawareness the wholeofsocietyandinitiatechangesnecessarytoattainapuresociety. The eradica nature. Hebelievedthatoncereunitedwiththenaturalself,itwaspossibletocontribute tool withwhichtoteachandrevealthepotentialwithineveryindividualreconnect tion. Despitealltheirsimilarities,thegoalsofeachartistaredistinct.ForBeuys,artwasa Antoni physicallyproducesthealterationofobjectthroughhabitualandrepetitiveinterac process, hereliedonthematerial’s potentialcapacitytochangeasaresultofitsenvironment. Janine Antoni George Braziller, 1994. Cambridge UniversityPress,1996. 1989. Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvania,1992. Contemporary Art Press, 1997. The EssentialJosephBeuys Modern/Postmodern: A Studyin Twentieth-Century Art andIdeas After Modern Art 1945-2000 Theory andPhilosophyof Art: Style, Artist, andSociety Art ontheEdgeandOver Art intoIdeas:EssaysonConceptual Art Janine Antoni . 2005.PBS.15Oct.2006 . New York: DIA Art Foundation, 2004. . specialed.Kusnacht,Switzerland:Ink Tree, 2000. Reframing Art . Ed.LotharSchirmer. Cambridge,Mass.:MIT . 1996.Litchfield: ArtInsights,2002. . Oxford:OxfordUniversity, 2000. . Oxford,New York: Berg, 2006 . Cambridge,England: Robert LehmanLectureson . New York: . - - -

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, 1969 Joseph Beuys The Pack

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Detail: LickandLather Janine Antoni , 1993

91 aegis 2007 , 1963 Chair with Fat Joseph Beuys

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Gnaw Janine Antoni

, 1992

93 aegis 2007 ------objects? How are we to understand the relations objects? How are we to understand the similar Jason Thomas Craig Jason objects—from exactly The realist is a philosopher who believes in a Platonic (or modified Platonic) concep The realist is a philosopher who believes in a Platonic (or modified Platonic) Historically, there have been two main approaches to explaining the relations be there have been two main approaches to explaining the relations Historically, Before me I am confronted, or appeared to, by numerous concrete entities. In the concrete entities. appeared to, by numerous I am confronted, or Before me identical I will begin by explaining in more detail the differences in approach to similarity, or at in approach to similarity, the differences I will begin by explaining in more detail 1 tion of abstract and concrete relations. A nominalist is a philosopher who rejects the notion nominalist is a philosopher who rejects the A tion of abstract and concrete relations. with the historical approaches to metaphysics, both in the understanding of concrete objects, with the historical approaches to metaphysics, are left to and in the debate between nominalists and realists, then we must see what options as theory, the metaphysician. One possible solution is a move to an “Aristotelian Substance” suggested by Michael J. Loux. position The realist ics. and nominalist. I will then explain what tropes are, tribute agreement, as set out by the realist to be a viable alternative to realism and nominalism. and how some philosophers find them The one of what the very nature of concrete entities is. Then I will examine a related problem, also usually falls into two categories: the bare sub typical divide in approach to this problem If tropes fail to fix the numerous problems associated and the bundle theory. stratum theory, stuffs that exist, etc.? stuffs And, as with many schools of thought and debates in tween particulars and their properties. will at Aristotle. In this paper I in approach come from Plato and the differences philosophy, ontology that is both historically grounded, tempt to explain a third approach to metaphysical to be a middle ground between purports trope theory, This third approach, and more recent. and a “nominalist” approach to metaphys what is called a “realist” approach to metaphysics, pre-philosophical sense, to differentiate between all of these similar objects—to say that there pre-philosophical sense, to differentiate of soda. How are we to explain numerically—ex are thirteen individual, non-identical, cans actly that we associate with them? In other words, what is between these objects, and the properties Are concrete particulars composed of properties that the ontology of objects and properties? entities, but merely physical globs of various are abstract universals, or are there no abstract with them (greenness, roundness, etc.). Our daily lives deal with a flood of these object-prop roundness, etc.). Our daily lives deal with them (greenness, of particulars by using subject- relations (we speak of these aspects erty observations and it is green, it is me. It is shiny, There is a can of Mountain Dew before predicate sentences). thousands of miles away and some away from the computer monitor, cold, it is twelve inches my left, there is a To etc. is spherical; its main body is cylindrical, from Shanghai. Its top my right sit twelve To of my name. and marked by an inscription grey, rectangular, book; it’s This is problematic (in a metaphysical sense) because we want, in a cans of Mountain Dew. purest, non-philosophical sense, we are confronted by objects that we view as green, shiny, view as green, shiny, by objects that we we are confronted sense, purest, non-philosophical in what, if philosopher is interested The them as they are. We just accept etc. circular, fluffy, particulars (the qualities or properties of these concrete there are between the differences any, concrete particulars— These itself. etc.), and the concrete particular greenness, circularity, location that cannot be occupied by physically occupy a spatiotemporal concrete because they or properties, associated same time—have what can be called attributes, anything else at the Is Trope Theory Viable? Theory Trope Is

aegis 2007 94 object displays,orcontains,areactuallyanexemplificationofauniversalentity(theuniver two theories. The realistbelieves thatwhenoneisconfrontedbyanobject,theproperties are variousepistemological,semantic,andargumentative reasonsandmotivationsbehindthe of abstractentitiesaltogether, andendorsestheexistenceofonly concrete particulars. There exemplifying universals.So, 1, wouldbecome(somethinglike) Must berewordedinorderto showthattheyindeedtalkaboutparticulars,andnotobjects sentences suchas that realistsconstrueasrequiringuniversals;sentences require“abstractreference.”So, way oflookingatsubject-predicatediscourserequiresthe nominalist toreinterpretsentences between thatobjectsfeatures,andthosefeaturesactuallybeing presentintheobject. This framework ofsentences. The truthvalueofdescribinganobjectrestsonthecorrespondence ing “Ockham’s razor”),withthesameexplanatoryforcethatrealistclaimsshehas. guing this,thenominalististakingapositionthattheythink isontologicallysimpler(follow dependence onattributesseparatefromthesubstancetogive thesubstancedefinitionByar words, blobsarejustvarious“stuffs” thatarebrute,orprimitive,andexistasawhole, without The nominalistproposesthatallexistsareconcreteparticulars, or, “blobs.”Inother knowledge aboutanythingelse,off oftheseodd,“creaturesdarkness”thatareuniversals? barrier touniversalsexistence.Howcouldwebaseourknowledgeofobjects,letalone and explainingsimilarityinattribute,thenominalistpointstowhattheyseeasanepistemic abstract entitiessuchasuniversalsasimplewayofviewingsubject-predicatediscourse, and informationasthebasisforunderstandingbeing,science,etc. Where therealistposits universals becauseofherempiricistleanings.Nominalistsbelieveinexperientialevidence and beinmultipleconcreteobjectsatonce. The nominalistreallyisrejectingtheideaof sals, andevenmoresobythewayinwhichnonspatiotemporalentitiescouldexist,interact, The nominalistposition word, andareabletobeexemplifiedbyamultitudeofobjectsatonce. universals arenotrestrictedbyspatiotemporallocations,yetthey“exist”insomesenseofthe ist argues thatmultipleobjectscanparticipatein,orbeinstantiatedbyoneuniversal. These properties canbeexplained.Becausetheseareuniversal,andnotconcrete,thereal (sentences like“Thisballisred,”or, “Napoleonisbrave”),andmultiplyexemplifiedsimilar sals. Byappealingtoanabstractuniversal,therealistthinksthatsubject-predicatediscourse sweetness, etc. The sodacansthemselvesshare,orexemplify, numericallyidenticaluniver universals. So,mythirteenMountainDewcansexemplifytheuniversalsgreenness,coldness, of “participationinForms,”withobjects“exemplifying”orbeing“instantiated”byabstract terms like“Form,”andhavereplaceditwithtalkof“universals.” And theyhavereplacedtalk Courage, etc.ModernrealistswhoendorsethisconceptionhavemovedawayfromPlatonic Forms. So,forapersontobecourageousisthattheparticipatinginForm, sal, “green”). This, initsearliest form,isPlato’s ideaofconcreteparticularsparticipatingin 1* Honestpersons arevirtuouspersons, 1. The nominalistbelievesthatthekeytounderstandingobjects hingesonthelinguistic The nominalistissetagainsttherealistbyverynatureoftheseabstractuniver Honesty isamoralvirtue, 2

3

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6 ------The nominalist poses a theory The nominalist poses a theory 5 s razor justification for nominal s razor justification

4 A trope then is a particular entity either abstract or consisting of one or more or consisting abstract either entity is a particular trope then A Thus Napoleon and abstraction. concrete entities in combination with an is a trope, and posture forelock are not tropes, but Napoleon’s Napoleon’s his forelock and his posture, and so is so is the whole whose constituents are 1953, 43) his residing on Elba. (Williams Partial motivation for this move comes from our pre-philosophical beliefs about Partial motivation for this move comes from our pre-philosophical beliefs about What exactly, then, are tropes? The term ‘trope’ was not brought into popularity until was The term ‘trope’ are tropes? then, What exactly, We can see that both realism and nominalism have serious problems with their argu have serious problems and nominalism see that both realism can We exactly similar blue shirts don’t share a numerically identical property “blueness,” there is just share exactly similar blue shirts don’t but are numerically 2, and they may be exactly similar, the blue in shirt 1, and the blue in shirt distinct, and essentially unique. If one is committed to nominal sensory knowledge; and also from our empiricist worldview. explain things through sensory experience, there is just some blob that ism, then one can’t when we are confronted with a painting, it Conversely, is describable in a linguistic manner. a realist), or are just brute, unanalyzable blobs that can be described, but have no attributes a realist), or are just brute, unanalyzable theorist is a nominalist, in the sense that she wishes to The trope (if you are a nominalist). burdensome ontology of the realist, but, she disagrees avoid the (as she sees it) unnecessarily primitive blob, or particular that we see, with no with the nominalist that there is just some attributes, but that for each object we The trope theorist believes that there are attributes. attributes associated with it. For instance, two perceive, that object alone has the particular Consider again, if you will, my thirteen Mountain Dew cans. They were produced from the Mountain Dew cans. Consider again, if you will, my thirteen (if you are and therefore, they have exactly identical properties same factory in New Jersey, but not necessarily for the same purpose of Williams). Some others who had argued for a Some others who had argued Williams). of but not necessarily for the same purpose Hume, and Leibniz. were Berkeley, it trope theory, trope theory in the past, but had not called specific instances of properties and particulars, or, At the simplest level, tropes are abstract attributes: reference, therefore, the simplicity the view strives to achieve is lost in the cumbersome proj the simplicity the view strives to achieve reference, therefore, So, is there a way out of these sentence to sentences about particulars. ect of converting every of the dense philosophi believes that she can show us a path out The trope theorist problems? and nominalism. cal traps of realism theory Trope the phrase in the fifties (it had appeared in some literature, revived/popularized Williams D.C. explain abstract reference and attribute agreement, is dependent upon entities that for most lay entities that for most is dependent upon attribute agreement, reference and explain abstract is that this argues realist, of course, The are hard to accept. well as philosophers, people, as knowledge and discourse, regard the universals are necessary for basic not the case, and that themselves. of the universals less of the counter-intuitiveness one-category ontology. a simpler, the same explanatory force, but via that she claims to have methodology to explain abstract complex traps as well, as there is no set This view falls into Unfortunately, this leaves the nominalist in a position of having to approach each new, and new, each to approach of having in a position nominalist the this leaves Unfortunately, conversion for methodology a different with sentence subject-predicate difficult, increasingly Ockham’ is the case, then the particulars. If this to talk about to be in jeopardy. ism seems to in simplicity and ability the upper hand perhaps maintaining The realist, while mentation.

aegis 2007 96 ject. Eachcanhasacommonquality‘green,’ buttheydon’t sharegreenness,theyeachhavea my sodacans,weareexperiencingthatobject’s attributesinawaythatisuniquetoob as arealistwouldassert. The tropetheoristthinksthat,whenconfronted,forinstance,with seems oddtosaythattherearemultipleobjectsexistandcanexemplify The OneRing from the theory oftropes istheabilitywehavetorefer, orascribe properties,toentitiesthat don’t exist. The twomainproblemstothis constructionareadvancedbyLoux.Oneproblemwiththe set avoid theuniversal,butitavoids theproblemofresemblancethatnominalistrunsinto. than appealtotheuniversal, tropesthemselvesbelongtovarioussets.Notonlydoes this be thetropetheorist’s wayofresolving thesimilarityinattributeofconcreteentities.Rather structure thatmosttropetheorists endorse. This wayofusingmathematicalsetsissupposedto Some objectionstotrope theory—settheoretic objections trope theory. it doesn’t forceweirdontologiesontous.Ordoesit?Letusnowexaminesomeobjections to ticulars functionwithinconcretewholes.Itdoesn’t forceustogiveupcommonbeliefs,and avoids unnecessaryentities,andstillsupportsourtraditional understandingofthewaypar realism. Itcanexplainsubject-predicatediscourse,andsimilarity ofattributesinawaythat why tropetheoryis,onthesurface,suchanicecounterview totraditionalnominalism,and identical property—blueness)but,theyareexactlysimilar toeachother. universal blueintherealistsense,whichtherearemultiple instantiationsofanumerically objects thatagreeintropeattributearenevernumericallyidentical witheachother(thereisno of tropesthatweexperienceinparticulars,tothesetallforattribute. Thus, and green,wearesemanticallyrelating(throughsubject-predicatediscourse)thoseinstances age, thereisasetofallthecouragetropes. When wespeakofparticular instancesofcourage all greentropes,eachaparticularinstanceofgreen:{G1,G2,G3…};forinstancescour to auniversal,butwithouttheabstractentity. So,foreachinstanceofgreen,thereisaset allows thetropetheoristtogroupthingsthataresimilarintoa‘oneoverall’ groupingsimilar ity inattribute(resemblance). These abstractparticularsare,wearetold, setsoftropes. This would betoldforallothersubject-predicatesentences. color tropeblue,whichisanabstractparticular, particulartothatbookalone. The samestory rainbow). So,inthesubject-predicatesentence“thisbookisblue.” The “blue”referstothe color tropesexistingindependentlyofcommonmiddlesizedparticulars(likeathe often thannotweseecolortropesinassociationwithothertropes,butthereareinstancesof believes thatcolor, eventhoughabstract,hassomewhatofanindependentexistence.More “concrete” like a block of actual concrete is. Rather, “blue itself” is abstract. The trope theorist blue object,onewhichisalone(thereno“bluemass,”orshape”),not blue ingeneral,butrathertheofacertainobject.Becausethereisnosuchthingaspure color isoftenthoughttoonlyexistwithattachmentsomeconcreteparticular. There isno abstract, suchasacolor, thattheyarelabeledabstractparticulars.Letmeexplain. A particular object. Itisbecausetropesserveasparticularsinsubstances,andyetcanalsobeconstrued of courage,andcolor, andofshape,isjusttalkaboutspecifictropes,eachuniquetosome this-green, andathis-sweet,this-cold.Eachpropertyisparticulartotheobject. One objectiontothesupposed superiorityoftropetheoryistothe“set-theoretic” Along withexplainingsubject-predicatetalk,tropesexplaintheproblemofsimilar Further, thetropetheorist seesthesubject-predicateproblemaseasilysolvable. Talk Lord oftheRings seriesisnotan itemthatactuallyexists. Although, 8 Itcannowbeseen the same 7 color, - 9 - -

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97 aegis 2007 - - - - - The As Loux Let’s examine Loux’s other set theoretic objection. examine Loux’s Let’s 10 Furthering the quagmire of arguments and dead ends that confront realists and trope Furthering the quagmire of arguments Now we must examine the realist and trope theorist’s explanations for the ontol theorist’s Now we must examine the realist and trope Sets are unlike universals in the sense that, by definition, sets identities are created in the sense that, by definition, Sets are unlike universals Well, perhaps they would fit into the null set, or the set of things which don’t exist. which don’t or the set of things fit into the null set, perhaps they would Well, theorists, is the debate about what exactly concrete particulars are. Are concrete particulars Are concrete particulars concrete particulars are. theorists, is the debate about what exactly Do these substances exist prior to the properties, or something separate from their properties? just believes are the substances actually just the properties themselves? For a nominalist, who that are brute, or primitive, and in concrete particulars, they are essentially “blobs.” Stuffs to give the exist as a whole, without dependence on attributes separate from the substance parts of a par substance definition. It is possible, according to the nominalist, to describe the sense; the concrete particular is just but the parts are unanalyzable in a metaphysical ticular, ogy of concrete particulars. Trope theorists believe they have an edge when it comes to the theorists believe they have an edge Trope ogy of concrete particulars. relationship of concrete particulars, bare two historical ways of looking at the mereological must see if the trope theorist is able to circumvent the tradi We substratum and bundle theory. tional flaws of both these views. substratum and bundles particulars—bare of concrete The nature particular person that has a bravery trope, and so on. This implies a very rigid deterministic and so on. particular person that has a bravery trope, at the very least, entirely opposite of what we per nature for the universe; one which seems, all think that the coward can become We and objects. ceive as changes in properties of people that exist fluctuates depending on copulation and a hero, or that the amount of human beings beings could not have one more member in it for disease, not on the fact that the set of human it to exist. sarily. This is unlike a universal, which exists and allows for multiple objects to exemplify This is unlike sarily. to exemplifying courage, and this fits with it (someone could go from being non-courageous a set is nothing but in properties). If, however, our pre-philosophical intuitions about change have been other than what they are, than the set of all its members, and its members could not There could never have been one or one less member. red tropes could not have had one more, red; there could never have been one more or less more or less particular that has a particular or other created fictions just is meaningless; that there are no Dragons or Griffins. just is meaningless; that there are or other created fictions that there are uninstantiated or Platonist, the philosopher who believes points out, “only the decisive objection to trope theory” will take this objection to be a unexemplified universals, to a possible way to get around this objection is to appeal Another possible (Loux 1998, 92). framework. world’s set requires that the set has the members it has neces The structure of a by their members. At this point, both the realist and the austere nominalist can claim a small victory. How is it small victory. can claim a and the austere nominalist both the realist At this point, the same trope set? both refer to Griffins and Dragons entities like that the non-existent individual whole. Now, its existence in a specific, in its particularity, appeal of the trope is things we can speak of, and seem to be countless non-existent things, all of a sudden, there But is this objection fatal? Loux all refer to one trope set—the null set. give properties to, that any talk about mythological, with him. It might just be the case that thinks not, and I agree it could possibly exist in another world, in which case it would have a possible solid trope, solid have a possible it would case in which another world, exist in possibly it could has however, item, This etc. trope, you invisible able to turn a being gold trope, trope, circular Browns winning Cleveland and a Super Bowl Dragons, Griffins, will exist (like not and never about talked exist, but can be meaningfully If these items do not to my chagrin). team—much set structure? do they fit into the then where framework, world’s via a possible

aegis 2007 98 soda cansgreenness—isanessentialorcontingentpartofthatobjectsbeing. There issome are, orcanbe,brokendownintotheirproperties.Eachpropertythatwedescribe—my the tropetheorist,thisisn’t anargument theywouldendorse. To thesephilosophers,objects a particular, withnometaphysicalstructuretospeakof.Fortherealist,and,aswewillsee, principle called the edly afatalflaw, astherealistbundletheoristiscommittedtoendorsing the truthofafalse that givesustheconcreteobject “cake.”However, thisview runsintowhatisalmostassur its universalsinvolvingshape, taste,texture,etc. And itisthe combinationoftheseuniversals “bundles” ofcompresentuniversals. This seemssimpleenough;acakeisthecompresence of ning withthebundletheorists. Forarealistwhoisbundletheorist,concreteparticulars are for tropetheorists.Iwillexamine theproblemswithbothbaresubstratumandbundle;begin Bundle theory terms, puttingforthnostrangecreaturestodoourontological work. is thesimplerone,andso,betterone.Itallowsustounderstand thingsinpurelyempiricist (the sweetnessoftheapple).Itisthoughtbythisgroup philosophers thatthebundletheory a concreteparticularwedonotthinkofitintermsitswhole, butofitspartsorproperties whole. This viewalsoseemstofitwithourperceptionofobjects.Oftenwhenwethink about the collectionoftheseproperties,“compresently,” “collocated,”or“coactualized”toform the properties roundness,tartness,andcrispnessthatmakeup an apple,theappleisitselfmerely are nothingbutthe“bundle”oftheirproperties.So,thereis nobaresubstratathatcontainsthe nominalist andtropetheoristbelievesabstractuniversalsare.Forthesephilosophers,wholes properties tocreatethewholethatisaconcreteparticular, tobeasempiricallybarrenthe particular, whichitselfisproperty-less,andabletosomehowbindexemplifyother some sphericality, etc.becausethegreenitselfisa my sodacanastheattributethatsomehowexemplifiespropertiesofcoldness,sweetness, necessary forthatwholesexistencetobetheexemplifier. Ican’t appealtothe greenness of exemplifies therestofconstituentsawhole,itislogicallyimpossibleforsomeproperty the whole.Letmeexplain.Ifoneisattemptingtoexplainwhatattributethatbearsor theorists havepositedwhattheycallabaresubstratumtoexemplifythepropertiesandcreate is abearerofproperties.Inorderforviciousregresspropertyrelationstonotoccur, these green tocreatethewholeobjectthatissodacan. The languageweusesuggeststhatthere to suggestthatthereissomeproperty, green,andsomeother whole, isitselfmadeupofjusttheproperties.Forinstance,greenmysodacanseems the restofattributes.Onotherhand,itmightseemabsurdtosaythatpossessor, or sophical intuitionstothinkaboutsomeattribute,orproperty, thatisitselftheexemplifierof of thoseproperties.Itisthispropertythatcreatesthewhole.seemscountertoourpre-philo particular, there is some property that literally serves as the bearer, exemplifier, or individuator question. Oneschoolofthoughtsuggeststhat,alongwiththeindividualconstituentsina the concreteparticular, orwhole. relationship betweenthevariousproperties,orconstituents,thatdirectlyaffects thestatusof Some realistslikethesubstratumtheory, andsomethebundletheory, andthesamegoes thing The otherschoolofthought,calledthe“bundletheory,” findstheideaofabare Historically, therealistsandtropetheoristshavebeensplitintotwocampsonthis ; Hence,thebaresubstratum,or, bareparticular. Identity ofIndiscernibles . Which Loux statesas: necessary attributethatmustbeexemplifiedby thing thatpossessestheproperty - - -

99 aegis 2007 -

- 11 - 13 is numerically is numerically a , then , then b , if for any attribute, Φ, Φ is Φ, Φ any attribute, , if for b and a , if and only if Φ is an attribute of of Φ is an attribute only if , if and . a b tropes that found them, tropes seem incapable of existing without the sub And this existence dependence makes it difficult to stances that they found. see how one can be epistemically prior to the other: when I see a substance, when I see tropes, I see them as I do so by seeing its tropes; but equally, individualized ways of the substances they found. (Macdonald 1998, 337) stomach to a worm. (Williams 1953, 47) stomach to a worm. (Williams Just as substances cannot exist (according to trope theory) without the What we primarily see of the Moon, for example, is its shape and color What we primarily see of the Moon, for If now we impute to it a solidity and not at all its whole or concrete bulk. a we do it item by item quite as we impute wheels to a clock or and aridity, Necessarily, for any concrete objects, objects, for any concrete Necessarily, of an attribute identical with This is an interesting line of thought, and for some trope theorists, like Williams Williams like theorists, trope some for and thought, of line interesting an is This 12 Cynthia Macdonald objects to the logic behind the assertion that tropes can be prior, behind the assertion that tropes can be prior, Cynthia Macdonald objects to the logic How is it that tropes, if thought of as the basic constituents of a substance, some of if thought of as the basic constituents How is it that tropes, (II) both metaphysically and epistemically, to substances: both metaphysically and epistemically, see an object—the trope theorist believes that it implies a metaphysically prior existence for for existence prior metaphysically a implies it that believes theorist trope object—the an see well. as tropes sub That universe. the of constituents basic the are tropes that idea the to leads this Bacon, and cannot themselves tropes the that but tropes, of out formed are and exist, particulars and stances things. these to prior are tropes hence, particular, or substance a of out formed be While this may be an epistemic passage, regarding what we first encounter, or know, when we when know, or encounter, first we what regarding passage, epistemic an be may this While conflation) about the terms concrete and abstract. A concrete particular is a whole that exists abstract. conflation) about the terms concrete and an abstract entity or property like color cannot ex And it is usually thought that in space-time. are The trope theorist thinks that there concrete object. ist without being a constituent of some entities that exist without being tied to a concrete plenty of day to day examples of abstract purple or the diffuse or the color of the sky, For instance, the colors of a rainbow, particular. puts it this way: Williams glow from a neon light at night; particulars we see are just bundles of compresent tropes; a redness trope, a circular trope, etc. just bundles of compresent tropes; a particulars we see are to that particular. each trope being unique bundle theorist the trope for Problems What is it that relates a whole? could ever be bundled together to create which are abstract, by questioning the bundled trope relation may be raised An objection to this theory of them? here that there is confusion (or The trope theorist argues nature of these “abstract particulars.” The bundle theorist who is a realist has no way of differentiating between objects with the between differentiating realist has no way of theorist who is a The bundle thing), and is indeed they are the same have the same bundle, (if two objects same properties which are obviously false. of such numerically identical entities, committed to the existence The trope so for the trope theorist. for the realist bundle theorist, but not This objection is fatal not allow for numerical identity, nature of tropes, has a theory that does theorist, by the very is fairly simple: the concrete The trope view of bundles only for exact similarity. but rather, Since the possibility exists for there to be numerous concrete entities that share all of the very that share all of the concrete entities there to be numerous possibility exists for Since the then (II) is false. objects, be different cans of soda), yet can (my thirteen same properties

aegis 2007 100 we encounteraresubstances,thenwhattropesnecessaryforthatparticularwholetobethe tropes bundleorexistcompresentlyinawaythatgivesus“trope-whole.”Ifthefirstthings we encounterinthisworldaretropes,thenthereneedstobeagoodstoryforhoworwhy trope ceasedto occupytheplaceitwasin, wouldceasetobe,evenifreplaced nextdoorby bundle itsidentity, then“ifplaces werebearers,tropescould notmove,sincethemoment a sand milesfromShanghai—that isacontingentproperty. Also, iflocationiswhatprovidesa of mysodacanarenotessentially relatedtothepropertyofmysodacanbeingseveralthou least intuitively, necessaryfortheidentity ofthewhole. The tropesthatconstitutethe whole of impurepropertiesisthatthey presupposethecomplexityofbundle,andtheyare not, at properties thatusespatiallocation asanidentifier, ordifferentiator. Theproblemwiththeuse that avoidsregressexplanations. This isapurepropertyrelation.Impureproperties arethose some foundationalrelationasSimonssuggests,orthrough someothercompresencetheory that thereisacompresencesoftropeswhichareessentialto thatthing,andrelatedthrough impure theory.” Usingspace-timelocationalsobringsupobjectionsthatLouxstatesabout its location,thisisessentially, asSimonpointsout,“asubstratumtheory, notthebundle bundles thatcreatethewhole.However, by placing theidentityrequirementofabundleon necessary relationtothewhole,“wax,”andso,existsinan entirelycontingentmanner. can bemanipulatedinthisway. This seemstobeafleetingtrope,onethathasnointernalor involves thetropeofbeingpressedintoshape Abraham Lincoln’s beard,butthewax tal tropes.Forinstance,itdoesn’t seemnecessarythatthetropewholeforapieceofwax the whole,butthisseemsnecessarilyfalse,asitwouldnotexplaincontingentoracciden trope, itwouldbeessentialthatacertainshapetropeandcolorcompresenttocreate tion. This would,however, maketroperelationsall essentialrelations.So,forsomewhole to thesetofgreentropes.Perhapsconstituentsbundlejustneedthiskindrela all theredtropesissettropes,whicharecolorandso,insomewayrelated blance betweentropes,itcouldbesomekindofinternalrelation. The resemblancebetween trope bindsthem,andsoon this bundleoftropes? This thirdtropebindsthem. Well, whatbindsthosetropes? This fourth stance? This lineofreasoningcouldeasilyleadtoaprobleminfiniteregress. Whatbinds How manybundlesoftropesdoesittaketohaveenoughconstituentscreateawholesub are “bound”together. The problemissetoutrathernicelybyPeterSimons: cially complextropesthatformwholes. There istheissueofhowcompresenttropes substance (likethecolorofsky),butthisdoesnotseemtobecaseforalltropes,espe way itis?Itseemsfairlyclearthatsomeabstractparticularscanexistwithoutaconcrete properties. When wesaythatasubjectiswholeconstitutedoftropes,aresaying Itcouldbesuggestedthatspace-timelocationservestoexplain thecompresent This objectionraisesthequestionofhowtropeinstancesarerelated.Iffirstthing single substance.(Simons1994,369) be manycompresencesallofwhicharecompresentinordertobuildupa lot intoasystem…[s]incenormalsubstanceshavemanytropes,theremust place withtwotropes,orarelationofmanymoreplacesbindingthewhole be atwo-placerelationbindingtwotropes,orthree-placeonelinking Consider firsttherelationofcompresence.Itisnotclearwhetherthisshould ad infinitum . Itmightbetemptingtosaythat,likewithresem pure 14 and ------

101 aegis 2007 ------a is Now, the bare the Now, 15 be essentially “featureless,” or “without essence,” or it falls prey to the same be essentially “featureless,” or “without must The more fatal flaw, as put forth by Loux, involves the claim on the substratum as put forth by Loux, involves the claim on the substratum The more fatal flaw, How damaging is this claim of empirical barrenness? In some ways it is damaging, no no damaging, is it ways some In barrenness? empirical of claim this is damaging How If the realist is stuck with the necessary falsehood of the bundle theory, and the trope falsehood of the bundle theory, If the realist is stuck with the necessary Macdonald makes an interesting objection to the idea that space-time regions or idea that space-time objection to the makes an interesting Macdonald theorist’s part that the bare particular is in and of itself essentially featureless. part that the bare particular is in and of itself theorist’s particular The argu the regression of relations. vicious regress that plagues the bundle theorist; namely, property-less, ment goes something along these lines: the bare particular is itself essentially particular but it has the ability to exemplify properties. None of the properties that the bare existence, and the bare particular is not exemplifies are necessary for that bare particular’s states: dependent upon the properties for existence. Does this logic make sense? Loux muon, or the electron, or string theory? Most of these things can’t be seen, and we postulate their their postulate we and seen, be can’t things these of Most theory? string or electron, the or muon, existence. their of traces tell-tale insignificant physically or, alone, mathematics of off existence our in particular bare the of necessity the to appeal could theorist substratum the sense, this In empiri strict the onto burden the shift would This objects. of ontology the of grasp explanatory theory. bundle the of traps the into fall not did that theory a forth put to cists we should instantly object to the nature of this bare entity. It’s not available to touch, taste, not It’s of this bare entity. we should instantly object to the nature scientific sense of the word—even via an electron smell, nor can it be “seen” in the most sense a property that could be viewed. It microscope. Indeed, it is not in a metaphysical serves as a bare individuator of the substance whole. property we are told, but one that merely level high the of much hand, other the on but, seen, be can’t that entities to appeal to likes one the of What particular. bare the as peculiar as just entities posits science in going is that physics theorist is stuck with some severe difficulties, a viable option appears to be the bare substra theorist is stuck with some severe difficulties, solution to her prob By moving to the bare substratum, the realist seems to have a tum theory. have exactly identical properties—but are What can make it so that two objects lems with (II). Almost exemplifies all of those properties. objects—is the bare particular that two different start piling up. though, problems for this peculiar entity that is the bare particular instantly, sense intuition. If we are grounded in empiricism, then The first objection rests on a common rist does not get stuck in a vicious regress (Macdonald 1998, 341). If trope theory is stuck in in a vicious regress (Macdonald 1998, rist does not get stuck trope bundles, then it looks can only explain internally related, essential a position where they on equal footing with the real theorist is in trouble (or at the very least, as if the trope bundle to avoid a regress of relations). primitive relation as a stropping point ist in using some brute, problems. substratum theory will alleviate these Perhaps a move to the a solution to the bundle theory? substratum theory: The bare is that it is supposed to be ontologically less clustered, while maintaining as adequate an as adequate an while maintaining less clustered, supposed to be ontologically is that it is If the or nominalist. properties as the realist of particulars and the ontology ability to explain I guess) then what has happened a “quasi-trope” (a pseudo-trope, space-time itself becomes ontology to sneaking in a have gone from advocating a “one-category” is that trope theorists related, essential tropes, and these One in which there are internally “two-category” ontology. binding, so that the trope theo contingent, “quasi-tropes” to give them tropes in turn rely on an exactly similar one” (Simons 1994, 371). This seems like a bad move to make, as now it as now move to make, a bad seems like This 371). 1994, one” (Simons similar an exactly a particular. time for through no persistence there is as though looks is that by using The objection themselves. “quasi-tropes” are somehow points in space-time to a simpler theory their claims trope theorist is abandoning as a quasi-trope, the space-time trope theory in endorsing The original attractiveness suggests or nominalist than the realist

aegis 2007 102 non-essential. Simons statesthefunctionof the accidentaltropesassuch: They aresomehow, orwould be, essentiallytiedtonuclear bundles,buttheythemselves are substratum forobjects,butrather, thenuclearbundleoftropesis. Aristotelian substancetheorist approach,butitdiffers inthatprimematterisnottheessential bundles, andaccidentalorcontingent properties. This issimilartowhatwewillseewiththe that thistheoryhasalotofpotential. The worldanduniversecouldbemoldedintoessential details uptolaterworks,and to otherphilosophers’ objections.Itdoesseemtome,however, and attachmentwithaccidentaltropes.Simonsjustbriefly setsoutthisview Relations arenowunderstoodasmostlyessential,withsome complexsystemofcausation how, tothenucleus. These tropescancomeandgowithoutdestroyingtheessentialwhole. not destroyedbylocationmovement. There areaccidentaltropesthatcanbeattached,some tion andchangeissuetiedtothebundletheory. (Simons 1994,377).Oneimmediateconsequenceforsuch atheoryisthatitresolvestherela substratum tothelooserbundleofaccidentaltropes,andaccounts fortheirallbeingtogether” on thenucleusasawholebearer…theisthusitself atightbundlethatservesasthe which maybereplacedwithoutthenucleusceasingtoexist, maybeconsideredasdependent occasionally attach,orarepulledintoorbitaroundthenucleus:“Theothertropesithas,and tropes, isitselfanindividual,however, thereareaccidentalornucleusdependenttropesthat contingent properties,butonlyinherent,orinternalrelations.Now, thiskernel,ornucleusof how compresencewasaproblem,becausemosttheoriescouldnotexplainaccidentalor form anucleusforanyparticularsubstance.InthesectionaboveonbundletheoryIdiscussed lems. InSimons’ view, therearegroupsofessentiallyco-occurring tropes,andthesetropes theorist; onethattakesthebestofsubstratumandbundletheories,withnoneprob Simons’ nuclear theory Aristotelian SubstancetheorysetoutbyLoux.Iwillexaminetheminturn. substratum theory. Oneisa“nucleartheory”assetoutbySimons;theothermoveto consider? There aretwotheoriesthatmaygetusoutoftheapparentdeadendsbundleand attempting thisapproachrunsintothesameproblemsasrealist. What then,isleftforusto erties together, andindividuatethem,thisleadstoaviciousregress. The tropetheorist longer bare.Hence,theymustnowappealtosomeotherrelational“glue”holdtheprop then theyareinevenmoretrouble,becausehaveadmittedthatthebaresubstratumisno something else.Ifthesubstratumtheoristadmitssomepropertyfeaturesintotheirontology, has someproperty, even ifit’s a counterfactual property, likenothavingthepropertyofbeing So itnowappearsthattheideaofanessentiallyproperty-lessbeingisabsurd. Any particular One problemIstillhavewith theideaisexistenceofaccidentalproperties. If tropesmainlyconsistoftightlybundledessentialnuclear groupings,thentheyare Simons proposesamovethatheclaimswillprovidemiddlegroundforthetrope (Loux 1998,122) has them,attributeslikebeingnumericallydifferent fromthenumberseven. tributes thatwhilenotessentialtoeverythingareeachthing seem tobeuniqueinbeingessentialornecessarythem…andthereareat claim, areessentialtoit.Butthecategoricalfeaturesofsubstratawouldnot butes essentiallyiscoherent…thecategoricalfeaturesofathing,wewantto One mightwonder, however, whethertheidea of athingthathasnoattri , andheleavesthe ------

103 aegis 2007 - - - - And that the 16 guments, let us Wouldn’t the accidental the accidental Wouldn’t (essence, or genuine being), and ousia , are the basic irreducible entities of the , are the basic irreducible entities of the kinds in its life. (378) in its life. Then again, perhaps there are substantial collections of tropes without a tropes without of collections are substantial there again, perhaps Then tropes…while be free single could that there not mean This does nucleus. change all its partners exist alone, it might could not, perhaps such a trope ), but unlike the nominalist, these concrete particulars have properties, which are ), but unlike the nominalist, these concrete A concrete particular belonging to a kind also has the added benefit of giving that concrete particular belonging to a kind also has the added A The Aristotelian substance theorist (hereafter referred to as just substance theorist) Aristotelian substance theorist (hereafter referred The kinds particular item numerical identity while explaining exact similarity. Each kind is a universal, Each kind is a universal, explaining exact similarity. particular item numerical identity while and the instantiation of each kind results in a numeri substance theorists are pseudo-realists, kind is There is no problem with (II) here, as the item belonging to a object. cally different As for similarity in attribute, by virtue of kinds belonging itself pre-marked as an individual. they will have some features a rose and a daffodil, to the same general hierarchy of kinds, say, the hierarchy that are necessary for that specific kind, and some that are similar because of And it is important here kingdom, phylum, genus, species…). of kinds (think of biology’s substance theorist, the concrete particulars, or substance theorist, the concrete particulars, are irreducible beyond that concept). universe (kinds like maple trees, cats, etc There any and all attributes associated with them. particulars in the kind are the subjects for They are very few kinds. of substance theory, are, for what I take to be the stricter reading etc. mostly biological: humans, animals, plants, some merely contingently related to the kinds. How could a substance be built out of prop some merely contingently related to the substances as the bundle and substratum theorist erties that are themselves associated with texture all presuppose the substance of which they are shape, and color, Weight, suggest? without some concrete particular, experience weight don’t We supposed to be the constituents. of which it is a member (or exemplified by). experience texture without a substance we don’t (part-whole) approach to substances, and this is The substance theorist takes a mereological the To constituent-whole framework. theorists’ in stark contrast with the bundle and substance of the dead ends of the substratum and bundle theory. a way out believes that she can offer talk of objects being constructed out of their prop The substance theorist believes that all there are only concrete particulars (which are erties is wrong. For the substance theorist, called to that beings universals, some of which are essential programmed in. Perhaps the nuclear bundle is somewhat deterministic in its nature, or, maybe maybe in its nature, or, the nuclear bundle is somewhat deterministic programmed in. Perhaps of contingent tropes that necessarily explanation for the co-existence there is a more scientific needs As the nuclear theory independently). exist tropes (as they can’t are a part of nuclear create counter ar development to find its weaknesses and more literature and Aristotelian substance the theory of property-object relations called now turn to a similar as set out by Loux. theory, Aristotelian substance theory unable to exist independently, as he seems to suggest, then isn’t the notion of a contingent the notion of a then isn’t he seems to suggest, as exist independently, unable to of its life false? over the course or changing partners trope floating to be in the orbit of a nuclear trope? Its very nature requires it trope become an essential has that “contingent” that mean that the nuclear trope essentially doesn’t bundle of tropes, so, of these nuclear contingent rela its identity? Perhaps part of the nature trope as a member of with its shifting tropes already bundle has some kind of preset path tions is that the nuclear It’s intriguing, but it doesn’t get at the nature of these accidental tropes. If they are, by nature, tropes. If they are, of these accidental get at the nature but it doesn’t intriguing, It’s

aegis 2007 104 are groupedintoit.So,eachindividualflower, whileunique,isrelated tothegeneralclassof determined forit. A set’s identityisconstructedoutofitsmembers. There isnosetuntilthings the identityofparticular. A kindexistsalready, andamemberofthatkindhasitsidentity to notconflatewhatakindisandsetis.Kindsaredifferent fromsetsthattheycreate entities should begottenridof. The universalspositedbythesubstance theoristasfarkinds ren ontological landscapepossible.Ifitisat allpossible,Ibelievethatnon-concrete, abstract the substancetheoristwasusing abstractuniversalsfor. Itcomes downtohavingthemostbar kinds, theyarecontingent. And because theyarecontingent,thetropecandoworkofwhat of thesethingsareessentialto theessenceofahumanbeing,orsimilarlyforotherkinds of as farthenon-kinduniversals— thetropeofcomplexion,posture,vocaltone,etc.None particular. ated withhowanythingasinsubstantialasingletropecould combineandbuildaconcrete “glue” ofthekind,Iassume—andthiswillneedexplaining), aswellproblemsassoci binding metaphysical“glue”aregone(thecontingenttropes arestuckinthemetaphysical particulars thatarestrictlyconcrete,andindivisible,soall the problemsofcompresenceand lem (asthingsbelongingtokindsarerelatedvia tothatkind),andwehaveconcrete being. We alsowouldn’t needtropestodoas muchworkintheresemblanceofattributeprob flowers, andfish). Thekindbeinginstantiatedismerelyaninstanceofthatcominginto kind universalismerelywhateverfallingintothosekinds (individualinstancesofhumans, kinds are“universals,”butnotinanecessarilyspookyway astherealistsargue. Rather, the very appealinganswertothesamedilemmatropetheorist wasattemptingtosolve. The basic constituentsofallthereis.However, kindsasthebasicsubstanceofuniversearea are irreducible,sothereisnomoreuniversaltropecosmology, inwhichtropescomprisethe the tropetheoristhadbeenattemptingtoexplainareobviouslygone.Onthisview, kinds these particularconcreteparticularsareirreduciblyunifiedintheirbeing.Certainthingsthat substance theorist’s views. Assume thatthesekindsarethebasicstuffs oftheuniverse—that tion Iamconcernedwithiswhetherornotthetropetheoristcouldfindsomerefugein not themselveskinds(mountains,etc.)But,thosedeeperproblemsaside,themainques (electrons, muons,etc.),andhowdoesthatrelatetolarge-scale items in theworldwhichare are, obviously, problems withtheviewthatneedwork,namely, whatthingsfallintokinds A trope-centric substancetheory gent universals. This allowsthesubstancetheoristtohavenon-essentialproperties,whichforthemarecontin kinds, andtherefore,arenotessentialproperties. As Louxstates: kinds flowers,explainingsimilarityinattribute.Now, someproperties arenotrelatedtothe In whatIwilldubthe“trope-centric substancetheory,” the tropescomeintoplay This, inanextremelybriefform,isthepositionofsubstancetheorist. There 17 1998 127) complexion isaccidental,notessentialtothepersoninquestion.(Loux, so nonessentiallyormerelycontingently. As Aristotelians oftenputit,the exhibiting thatcomplexion,sowhileitdoesexhibitcomplexion; not determinehisorhercorebeing. The humanbeingcouldexistwithout Thus, acertaincomplexionmaycharacterizehumanbeing,butitdoes - - - - -

105 aegis 2007 - - - - - for Metaphysics the prime matter? the prime is

what ), Wolterstoff (1973), Zimmerman (1997), and Wolterstoff ), Phaedo and Republic [w]hat grounds the correspondence between language and the world, then, is naming [w]hat grounds the correspondence between both tie linguistic expressions to the and satisfaction. Both are referential concepts; certain string of words corresponds to the appropriate nonlinguistic objects that a world. (Loux 1998, 64) There just are blobs of stuff. My soda can is a blob of stuff, and we can describe it, but those can is a blob of stuff, My soda There just are blobs of stuff. either create, or subsist in the whole that is the particu that descriptions are not separate stuffs and it is actually green, not if it ‘participates in greenness,’ my soda can is green, if lar; rather, so on. must 4 For a more detailed discussion of the various sentence structures that the nominalist Sellarsian translate, and possible solutions to difficulties involved in that project (such as metalinguistic nominalism) see Loux, 1998. The nominalist is endorsing a view that does not divide the particular from its properties. The nominalist is endorsing a view that explain a thing such as subject-predicate discourse, for any subject S (my soda can), ‘S is G’ discourse, for any subject S (my soda can), ‘S is G’ explain a thing such as subject-predicate That is, the nominalist takes the object and its features S is G. green), iff is true (its property, blue triangular, they are Objects are triangular iff as brute, or primitive, unanalyzable facts. it is five miles from Stonehenge. It is not that they are blue, five miles from Stonehenge iff iff properties or attributes exist dependent on their exem these objects exist, and somehow their plification of some universal, but rather, opposed to a metalinguistic nominalist. Trope theorists, while nominalists of a kind, I will just theorists, Trope opposed to a metalinguistic nominalist. refer to as trope theorists. and problems of the realists positions 2 For more in-depth discussion of the complexities see Loux (1998), Plato ( Macdonald (1998). that to particulars the nominalist is arguing 3 By reducing their ontology to just concrete theory seems to avoid the major, insurmountable problems of the traditional metaphysical ap insurmountable problems the major, theory seems to avoid proaches. Notes to a nominalist is about an austere nominalist, as 1 Unless otherwise noted, any reference more applications of tropes. As a consequence of the problems the realist, nominalist, substra problems the realist, consequence of the As a of tropes. more applications for the only avenue run into, I believe views of these theories and trope centered tum, bundle, is through is through a modi of concrete particulars and their properties a valid understanding in detail, that allows for tropes. Obviously the intricacies Aristotelian substance theory fied and the kinds needs to be between the tropes (which are contingent), and the relationships move to a trope-centric substance more detail. But, at the moment, the thought about in much are, in my opinion, not that abstract. Accepting kinds as the basic stuffs of the universe is is of the universe stuffs as the basic kinds Accepting abstract. not that my opinion, are, in only unanalyzable there are that insisting the nominalist than maneuver a desperate no more that avoids a regress brute, relationship there is some basic, realist insisting that blobs, or the matter one accepts prime Obviously if all of the other theories. and the same for of universals, arise, such as other important questions then ontology, into their Aristotle’s delves more into one that paper, for another This is a question

aegis 2007 106 the waywethinkaboutconcreteparticulars. abstract universalsexistinginmultiplephysicalobjectssimultaneously, itisnodifferent than particulars. So,eventhoughitrunsagainstour“pre-philosophicalgrain”tothinkabout 5 Forinstance,itisnotcounterintuitiveatalltothinkofmultipleexactlysimilarconcrete body, etc.Campbellstates: really seethe“whole”ofanythingatonce. You don’t seethewholemoon, aperson’s whole 12 Tropes aresupposedtogiveusastoryforDirectRealistview ofperception. We never 11 ForamuchmoredetailedexaminationseeLoux(1998),andZimmerman (1997). a tropeorientedontology, seeBacon(1995). 1986), andPlantinga(1970,1974,1976). To seehowatropetheoristfitsmodalproblemsinto 10 Forfurtheranalysisofwhatthepossibleworldsframework entails,seeLewis(1973and 9 Louxhasagoodexampleofthisproblem: out by Williams: 8 The classicexampleofthedifference betweenexactsimilarityandnumericidentityisset (Loux 1998,86). pinkness ingeneral,butofthatuniquepinkness,theonly Taj Mahalhas” 7 As Louxputsit,“[W]henIfocusonthecolorof Taj Mahal,Iamnotthinkingof 6 Someothertermsfortropesare‘individualaccident,’ and‘moments.’ 1981, 355) can giveusknowledge onlyofcertainaspects ofconcreteparticulars.(Campbell sensitive; thatiswhythere no needforembarrassmentinadmittingthatthesenses perceived, othersarehidden. That isthewayinwhichsensesareselectively are perceptible,somenot.On anyoneoccasion,someoftheperceptibleonesare are whatisseen,touched,and soon…someofthetropesbelongingtocat A DirectRealisttheory ofperceptionwouldholdthatnotcats,buttropes cats, high-powered anatomists to know that this is false. (Loux 1998, 89) that having a heart and having a kidney are the same thing; but we do not need to be hearts and the set of things with kidneys are the same set, our…nominalist must hold things that have hearts have kidneys and vice versa. Then, since the set of things with corresponding abstract singular terms name the same object…suppose that all the sets, however, this account is bound to fail…the account is forced to say that the are all and only the persons who are courageous…given the identity condition for sets] could hold that ‘courage’ is a name, after all—a name of the set whose members That is, it might be thought that they [the austere nominalist who is willing to endorse together). (Williams 1953, 42) same father…ortwocollegeboyswearthetuxedo(andsocannotgotodances [T]hey donothavethesameshapeinsensewhichtwochildren two soldiers“wearthesameuniform”orinwhichason“hashisfather “the shapeofoneisidenticalwiththeother”senseinwhich The senseinwhichHeraplemandBoanerp“havethesameshape” ’s nose…

107 aegis 2007 - : . London and Contemporary edition nd 2

Cambridge, Massachusetts

Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell Contemporary Readings in the Foundations of Contemporary Readings in the Foundations Contemporary Readings in the Foundations of Metaphysics. Contemporary Readings in the Foundations Metaphysics: The Big Questions. Metaphysics, a Contemporary Introduction Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers. merman eds. 1998. Blackwell Publishers. Macdonald eds. 1998. Publishers. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell Macdonald eds. 1998. From From Laurence, Stephen and Cynthia Readings in the Foundations of Metaphysics. and Cynthia Macdonald eds. 1998. Metaphysics. Routledge Publishing. NY: principle that all deduction must be analytic so that while any proper component while any proper be analytic so that all deduction must principle that deducible it, no composite is which contains from the composition is deducible must in principle be as components, and hence that abstracta from any of its proper 51) 1953, contexts as concrete things are. (Williams independent of their Plausible though it be, however, that a color or shape cannot exist by itself, I think or shape cannot exist that a color though it be, however, Plausible from the For it means that standard concreteness. reject the notion of we have to the thinner the better—we abstractum—indeed, of even the thinnest awareness me an analytic thing…it seems to the rest of a concrete the presence of could deduce Williams, D.C. 1953. The Elements of Being. From Van Inwagen, Peter and Dean W. Zim W. Inwagen, Peter and Dean Van The Elements of Being. From D.C. 1953. Williams, Macdonald, Cynthia 1998. Tropes and Other Things. In Laurence, Stephen and Cynthia Things. In Laurence, Stephen and Other Tropes Macdonald, Cynthia 1998. of Substance.’ Theories Trope Three Clothing: Simons, Peter 1994. Particulars in Particular Works Cited Works Particulars. From Laurence, Stephen Abstract of The Metaphysics Campbell, Keith. 1981 Loux, Michael J. 1998. 16 Or, as Loux puts it: “We have said that the kinds to which concrete particulars belong it: “We as Loux puts 16 Or, (Loux 1998, 128). represent irreducibly unified ways of being” and problems with the the various arguments 17 For much more in-depth analysis of see Loux (1978, 1991, and 1998) substance theory, problem involves a “foundational relation” that somehow prevents a vicious regress from “foundational relation” that somehow problem involves a substantial more into tropes of groups of cement the as foundation “using However, occurring. Between on one another. for tropes which are individually founded wholes will only work of each of which an instance is tropes (even though they be of kinds, contingent or accidental foundation relation” (Simons 1994, 370). required) there is no see Denkel (1992 and reading on problems with the bare substratum, 15 For some further 2000). 14 Simons lays out these problems very effectively. His possible solution to the compresences His possible solution to the compresences these problems very effectively. 14 Simons lays out 13 Williams reasons further: Williams 13

aegis 2007 108 The Origins RepublicanWomanhood of the earlyyears ofsettlement,thefamilywas regardedastheprimarymainstay ofsocialorder, Early America,” describeshow the familywascentraltocolonial life.Shestates:“Justas in instance, MaryBethNortonin heressay, “TheEvolutionof White Women’s Experiencein society wasindeedatopicopen upfordebatebeforethe American Revolutionary War. For ideology. However, otherhistoriansgiveexamplesthatsuggestwomen’s contributionto lacked directioninanythingbut mattersofthehomefromheranalysisEnlightenment Enlightenment philosophyfailed torecognizewomenasintellectualandpoliticalentities. pertaining to the household. domestic—domestic inthesense,thatwomen’s solepurposeinsocietywastooverseematters and whentheydidconsiderwomen’s rolewithinsociety, theyunderstooditasexclusively in theirdiscussionsonintellectforcontemplatingtherole of womenaccordingtoKerber, ogy. GreatintellectualfiguressuchasJohnLockeandJean-JacquesRousseauleft littleroom sion making.” no dearthofargument tellingthemthattheywereperipheraltotheworldofpoliticsand deci retical analysesoftheirplaceinsocietyonwhichtheymight drawforsustenance. There was identification. Sheargues: “As AmericanwomenenteredtheRevolution,theyhadfewtheo Kerber statesthatbeforethe American War ofIndependencewomenlackedcompletepolitical independence wasdeclaredfromBritain. publican Womanhood mayoweitssuccesstothewar, butits originsstretchbacklongbefore re-evaluation of Western politicaltheoryintheyearsbeforewarproveotherwise.Re Kerber argues that“RepublicanMotherhood”wasbornoutofthe American Revolution,a the onlyissueinKerber’s argument whichhistorianshavecritiqued.Despitethefactthat “Republican Motherhood”toanewphrase, Womanhood.” However, thisisnot ity womenexperiencedbecauseoftheRepublicshouldbemodifiedfromoriginalphrase, sidered tobeequallyasimportantthenewnation. Therefore, thenewpoliticalresponsibil argument andreasonedthattheroleofwifeinadditiontomotherwascon ment. Historianssuchas,RuthBloch,MaryBethNorton,andJanLewisexpandedKerber’s motherhood wasnottheonlyrolebelievedtobesignificantforshapingofanewgovern Ladies’ Academy inPhiladelphia.Nevertheless,furtheranalysisofthesesourcesrevealsthat jamin Rush’s essaysonfemaleeducation,aswelllectureseducationgivenatthe Young Kerber’s basisfortheemphasisonmotherhoodderivesmostlyfromherexaminationofBen on republicanvaluesandthus,ensurethecountryfuturevirtuouspatrioticmalecitizens. motherhood. As motherslivinginanew America, womenwereexpectedtoraisetheirsons lican politicaltheoryassertedthatwomen’s mostessential rolewithinthenewnationwas began tobeseenascrucialthesuccessofnewRepublic.Kerberclaimedthatrepub War. After thewarended, principlesofrepublicanismincreasedinimportanceandwomen a transformationinwomen’s educationtookplacebecauseofthe American Revolutionary Kerber drawsherconclusion that beforethe American Revolutionary War women In herbook, In 1980,LindaKerbercoinedthephrase,“RepublicanMotherhood”andargued that 1 Furthermore,KerberclaimsthatwomenwereleftoutofEnlightenment ideol Shannon Bauchett Women oftheRepublic:Intellect&IdeologyinRevolutionary America 2 In Kerber’s research, prewar republican ideology combined with ------, -

109 aegis 2007 ------Consequently, Consequently, 6 In addition to this, she argues that the she argues In addition to this, 4 Norton does acknowledge that the family as family as that the does acknowledge Norton 3 Even though the main reason this was encouraged was to keep women off public encouraged was to keep women off Even though the main reason this was 5 Norton claims that even though much of the advice literature on parenting recog Norton claims that even though much of According to Norton, women also experienced an increase in domestic influence According to Norton, women also experienced Specifically, Norton argues that a rising rural population within colonial America America colonial that a rising rural population within Norton argues Specifically, early moral development. For example, Norton explains how until the ages of six, children early moral development. For example, Furthermore, and she was their primary supporter. were under the direct care of the mother upbringing. In other words, as she would continue to be held accountable for her daughter’s Puritan think Norton makes clear: “The early moral development of the child—so crucial in formal A domain. within the mother’s if not theoretically, ing in particular—this fell actually, Quakers, but Pu acknowledgment of the importance of the maternal role came first from the thus helped concentration on children The Northern family’s ritans soon followed their lead. had to be carefully supervised. To the Puritans, that meant breaking a child’s will at an early will at an early the Puritans, that meant breaking a child’s To had to be carefully supervised. nurturant approach. In both cases, the motive was age; to the Quakers, it meant taking a more in both sects were child oriented.” the same, and so was the result: the families upbringing. power over their children’s this gave Puritan and Quaker women greater responsible for the child’s women were nonetheless nizes the father as the essential caregiver, during the colonial era because of religion. In particular, this was the case among Puritan and In particular, during the colonial era because of religion. these religious traditions, individuals were themselves respon Within Quaker households. Anglicanism from traditions such as, This was different sible for affirming their own faith. at birth. Because Puritan and Quaker households religious identity that awarded a person’s own declaration of faith once they reached the ap believed that individuals must make their parenting was especially important for them. Norton propriate age, spiritual guidance through playthings, and their development “Children were more than nuisances or amusing argues: relief and not to promote their economic independence, the acceptance of feme-sole statues relief and not to promote their economic goods discredit the myth of complete marital unity along with improvements in household American that the this information, one could argue in seventeenth-century colonies. Given own knowledge of business in was not the first time women relied on their War Revolutionary order to survive. their neighbors. She states: “Women exchanged work and produce, employing each other’s employing each other’s exchanged work and produce, states: “Women their neighbors. She own burdens in the process.” skills and easing their market also could have con in the home which were taken to the production of surpluses “Many colonial Norton also states: Similarly, domestic power. women’s tributed to a rise in by adopting feme-sole trader married women to support themselves governments encouraged in the absence of their women some limited power to run businesses statues that allowed husbands.” circle, Norton explains how changes in both religion and the economy allowed women to gain allowed women and the economy in both religion explains how changes circle, Norton of their children. and the well-being own lives in general, over their a greater influence claims that as the practice of power within the household. She women’s may have increased The improved in quality. developed household goods also increased farming became more the opportunity to trade with goods gave some colonial women development in household and indeed, as a critical microcosm of society.” a critical microcosm as and indeed, mat it came to case when the was especially This patriarchal. dominantly was an institution legal identity women’s of coveture, married Because of the law with property. ters dealing came husbands when it upon their considered to be dependent and women were was revoked although women were In any event, with other legal issues. contracts or dealing to signing his own domestic the master over and the father was authority their husband’s subject to

aegis 2007 110 the beliefthatwomenwereresponsibleforraisingrighteouschildrenexistedincolonial these religioustraditionsasimportantfigurestotheirchildren’ women’s roleintheirchildren’s livelihoodwasnotpolitical,thefactthatwomenwereseenin focus attentiononadultwomenintheirmaternalcapacity.” did indeedconsider women’s rolewithinsociety. Zaggariassertsthe followingargument: lican Mother,” Zagarriclaimsthatinparticular, philosophersofthe ScottishEnlightenment Enlightenment was not a contributing factor. In her article, “Morals, Manners and the Repub actually canbefoundwithin Enlightenment philosophy, despite Kerber’s argument thatthe marie Zagarridepictshowthe valuespresentwithintheRepublican Womanhood ideology hood derivedfromideaspresent beforethe American Revolutionary War. Forinstance, Rose etc, incolonial America, otherhistorians alsorevealhowprinciplesofRepublican Woman in illustratingthewayswhich womenwereactiveasparents,educators,religiousfigures, before the“Republican Womanhood” ideologybegantobeconstructed. Therefore, Quakerwomenalreadypossessedsocialinfluence overtheircommunitydecades lectively intheirmaternalcapacity. Among Quakers,maternityacquiredapublicfunction.” young coupleswhowishedtomarryinthefaith.Quakerwomen, inotherwords,actedcol men’s meetingscooperatedinapprovingallmarriages,investigatingthecharacterandpietyof ings hadadirectimpactonQuakermen. As Nortonaffirms:“Mostimportant,womenand tant figureinlinkingthefamilyandchurch. the familywereallintertwinedanditwasmother, notthefather, who wasthemostimpor the case.Forexample,inQuakercommunityduring colonialera,religion,state,and tirely toalifecenteredondomesticity. However, Norton indicatesthatthisisnotcompletely erhood” restsontheassumptionthatbeforeRevolutionary War womenwereconfineden early colonial America. a politicalroleforwomen(education)aftertheRevolutionary War haditsrootsintheeraof educators wasnotentirelyapost-Revolutionary War phenomenon. What wouldlaterbecome active ineducatingtheirchildrenduringthecolonialera,oneseesthatroleofwomenas their children’s educationthandidSouthern Anglicans andCatholics.” gious motivesundoubtedlyledNorthernPuritanandQuakermotherstopaymoreattention suggests: “Regionaldifferences alsoaffected children’s acquisitionofskillsliteracy:reli had alottodowithhowmuchattentionmotherspaidtheirchild’s education. As Norton know howtowrite. that eventhoughmanycolonialwomenknewhowtoread;agreatnumberofthemdidnot whereas, thechildren’s fathertaughtthemhowtowrite. This procedurewasduetothefact reading andwriting,oftentimeswomentookcharge ofteachingtheir children howtoread, their instructor. However, Norton pointsoutthatwhenitcametolearningbasicskillssuchas schools, oftenchildrenreceivedtheireducationexclusivelyathomeandthemotherservedas number. Inruralareas,thiswasevenmoresothecase.Becauseofshortageactual pecially themother)wereliterate.Duringthisera,formal,organized schoolswerefewin how achild’s educationduringthistimeperiodrestedonwhetherornottheirparents(es women alsoparticipatedintheirchildren’s basiceducation. Forinstance,Nortonillustrates era aswellduringtheyearsofearlyRepublicin America. Other thanthereligiousandeconomicexampleswhichMary BethNortonprovides With allthisinmind,one mustrememberthatKerber’s modelof“RepublicanMoth In additiontomerelyraisingtheirchildrenonreligiousandmoralprinciples,colonial 8 Inanycase,whatalsomustbetakenintoconsiderationisthatgeography 10 Mostsignificantly, Quakerwomen’s meet 7 Although thePuritanandQuaker s well-beingdemonstratesthat 9 Becausewomenwere - - - - - 11 - - - -

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111 aegis 2007 - - - - , ------This group 13 In this statement, 19 Most importantly, as Zagarri as Most importantly, 15 This idea originated with the philosopher, This idea originated with the philosopher, 16 Therefore, the idea that moral upbringing within the Therefore, the idea that moral upbringing within By examining this specific Enlightenment philosophy Enlightenment philosophy this specific By examining 18 12 Hume states: “building on these extrafamilial associations, Hume states: “building on these extrafamilial 17 . In this excerpt, Smith stated the following: “There are no public . In this excerpt, Smith stated the following: However, Zagarri does note that even though this outlook defined that even though this outlook defined Zagarri does note However, Women of the Republic: Intellect & Ideology in Revolutionary America of the Republic: Intellect & Ideology in Revolutionary Women 14 In her book, Above all, civil jurisprudential philosophers believed the family institution and wom Above all, civil jurisprudential philosophers Zagarri points out that there was a certain group of Scottish philosophers who pro of Scottish philosophers a certain group out that there was Zagarri points The Wealth of Nations The Wealth book, and there is accordingly nothing useless, absurd, institutions for the education of women, They are taught what their parents or fantastical in the common course of their education. nothing else. or guardians judge it necessary or useful for them to learn; and they are taught Every part of their education tends evidently to some useful purpose…” education need not be improved because it Smith is maintaining the notion that women’s instruction. already served its purpose—it was not necessary for women to receive any more the viewpoint certain Enlightenment philoso Linda Kerber does spend some time addressing Adam Smith. She addresses she mentions is phers had about education. One philosopher exclude to wished Smith that claims she however, education; reforming about concern Smith’s that the education of women was not an issue, women from this reforming process—meaning comes from an excerpt Smith wrote in his argument Kerber’s it was already satisfactory. family life set the groundwork for future relationships for individuals and through these rela family life set the groundwork for future tionships society was formed. The creation of government followed from a variety of social institutions. individuals forged to certain rules based upon common interest, utility, the collective decision to live according and the preservation of the species.” American Revolu was an idea born before the family could contribute to a political society had already shown interest in the subject. tion because philosophers such as Hume place within that institution to be intrinsic to society. en’s women and the family as crucial to an understanding serts: “civil jurisprudential thinkers saw of the relationship between virtue and commerce. notion with Hume when he expanded Hutcheson’s Francis Hutcheson in 1725 and continued that He believed Hume reasoned that family was the basic principle of society. about family. habits, morals, and manners. Arguing that women acted as both the means and beneficiaries acted as both the means and beneficiaries that women Arguing manners. habits, morals, and and rose in stature brutal passions claimed that women softened men’s of social progress, they as society improved.” Zagarri ar defined was not political. In any case, the role it to society, women as important Woman American ideology of “Republican laid the foundation for the gues that this mind-set as vital participants in a function because it recognized women hood.” It laid the foundation ing society. role was something that was debated upon before the Revolutionary era. the Revolutionary upon before that was debated role was something a prominent role. history and society” in which women had moted “a theory of Wil Smith, David Hume, Henry Home, Adam the following thinkers: of individuals included place in outlook on women’s Zagarri states this about their John Pillar. liam Robertson, and a primary transmitter of customs, maintained that the family represented society: “The Scots “These writers (Scottish Enlightenment philosophers) articulated certain key concepts, such as such key concepts, certain articulated philosophers) Enlightenment (Scottish writers “These a characterologi and of history, theory a four stage family, of the understanding a sociological American European and links between of which provided critical all of ‘manners,’ cal concept of womanhood.” conceptualizations Motherhood” Kerber called “Republican see that what Linda suggests, one can which Zagarri women’s of women because of the role older transformation a part of a broader, was actually

aegis 2007 112 later developintotheRepublican Womanhood ideology. Forexample,Smith,likeHume,also entirely unrepresentativeofanytheprinciples“RepublicanMotherhood”wouldembrace. Because ofSmith’s stanceonwomen’s education,KerberassumesthatSmith’s philosophyis creased because womenwereseenasdesirable andmenbegantocompete forwomen’s affec vival. Also, itwasinthisstage that theconceptofchivalrywas born. Women’s statuswasin this time,womenwerefreed even moresofromdesperatelytryingtofindameansfor sur Women’s positionincreasedevenfurtheroncesocietyreached the agriculturalstage.During ing thisstagetheywereable to freethemselvesfromtheharshdemandsofphysicalsurvival. progressed tothenextstage(the pastoralstage),women’s status increasedsomewhat.Dur men sincetheirmainpurpose wastoseetheneedsandwantsoftheirhusband. As society received anincreaseinstatus. Inthefirststage,womencouldbeconsidered“slaves” of is the“four-stage theoryofhistory.” Republican Womanhood principles. of thefamilyasaninstitution.Enlightenmentthoughtsuch asthisappearstohaveinspired and Adam Smithproposedthesameargument. They toobelievedinthepoliticalimportance patterns offamilyauthorityinfluencethegeneralpolitical culture.” early age,thatthefamilyisabasicpartofsystempolitical communication,andthat function, representstherecognitionthatacitizen’s politicalsocializationtakesplaceatan following abouttheimportanceoffamily:“Thenotionthat amothercanperformpolitical to viewwomen’s rolesafterthewar. Kerberstatesinherbook, can society, itisnothardtoimaginethatalsohelpedformtheway American societycame the American Revolution.BecauseEnlightenmentthinkinghadsuchaninfluenceon Ameri was shapingtheway Americans viewedsocietyandthiswasthecasebothbeforeafter an effect onformingtheideologyofRepublican Womanhood. Enlightenmentphilosophy that theirpositionsonmatterssuchasthefamilyanditsconnectiontopoliticsdidnothave They werenotknownfortheirpositionontheequalityofsexes,butthatdoesmean women’s education. This appearstobeageneralruleamongallEnlightenmentphilosophers. for women.Kerberiscorrectwhensheargues that Adam Smithwasnotaproponentfor own familywasalreadyarecognizedideawhichillustratedinEnlightenmentthinking. patriotic sentiments.Smith’s positionprovesthatlearninghowtobepatrioticthroughone’s Revolution “mothers”(asKerbersuggests)wereheldaccountableforinstillingintheirsons later attachedtoone’s country. Smith’s idea isconnectedtotheideathatafter American fore, thispoliticalattitudeofpatriotismwasfirstlearnedgrowingupinone’ many ofhisfriendsandcompanions,arecommonlyagooddealconnectedwithit.” particular order, thantoanyother. Hisowninterest,hisvanity, theinterestandvanityof its connectiontofamilyrelations:“Everyindividualisnaturallymoreattachedhisown was alsolearnedfromthefamily. Smithwrotethefollowingstatementaboutpatriotismand In additionto“sympathy,” Smithalsoheldthenotionthatpatriotismwasaqualitywhich “sympathy andbelieveditallowedforindividualstobeableidentifywithotherpersons. he assertedwasaqualitywhichlearnedwithinthefamily. Smithhadfaithintheideaof Smith, hebelievedthat‘sympathy’ wasthegluewhichheldsocietytogether. “Sympathy,” supported thenotionthatfamilywasessentiallyimportanttogrowthofsociety. For On thecontrary, Zagarriargues thatSmith’s philosophydidpromoteideasthatwould Another ideawhichZagarribelieveshelpedlaterinfluence Republican It istruethatneitherHumenorSmithaddressedanysortofnon-domesticrole 23 Ineachofthefourstages,Zagarriargues thatwomen Women oftheRepublic, 22 Likewise,DavidHume s ownfamilyand Womanhood 21 There the - - 20 - -

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113 aegis 2007 ------Zagarri s educa 29 Zagarri’s Zagarri’s 32 Therefore, the discussion about female educa 28 . Zagarri explains how this periodical presented a . Zagarri explains how this periodical presented The emphasis on manners portrayed women as The emphasis on manners portrayed women as 31 The Spectator Montesquieu’s perception on manners is as follows: “Manners and perception on manners is as follows: “Manners Montesquieu’s In connection with this, those who upheld the four-stage theory this, those who upheld the four-stage In connection with In addition to this, the subject of “manners” was also a topic found In addition to this, the subject of “manners” 26 30 It was in this stage, according to Zagarri, that men truly began to appreciate truly began to appreciate to Zagarri, that men this stage, according It was in 24 Even though Scottish philosophers advocated women’s education for the benefit philosophers advocated women’s Even though Scottish At this time, woman began to be admired for their personal attributes. Zagarri their personal attributes. to be admired for time, woman began At this 27 25 Spirit of Laws. Moreover, Zagarri also acknowledges that a “characterological notion of manners” Moreover, As far as education for women was concerned, first and foremost, women’ for women was concerned, first and foremost, As far as education both an integral part of the process of social development and as important contributors to it. both an integral part of the process of social benefits of education for women, even if for some The schema led thinkers to advocate the And it proclaimed that women were the social equals of men, even if what limited purposes. this basis, the leap from European With that equality carried with it no political privileges. of womanhood was not as great as previously believed. American conceptions to ideas promoted sexual equality is probably a bit of an over opinion that these philosopher’s were statement, but nonetheless, it does prove that at least some Enlightenment philosophers manners regulate the actions of man. Customs regulate exterior conduct, while manners relate manners regulate the actions of man. Customs to the interior conduct.” within the British periodical a female audience and encouraged them to use their number of articles that were directed at influence to manipulate male behavior. As Zagarri indicates: “It described women as important in shaping the way society operated. Republican Womanhood. When Zagarri speaks of manners she makes it clear that she is not When Zagarri speaks of manners she makes it Womanhood. Republican “ideas of individual morality and personal char describing matters of etiquette, but instead, a strong connection between private values and public behavior.” suggesting acter, position on manners in connection to society in further goes on to describe Montesquieu’s his book, established by the laws, either because they were not customs, are those habits which are not Laws regulate the behavior of the subject, while able, or were not willing to establish them. tant. As Zagarri claims: “Despite these limitations, the fact that these thinkers used the term As Zagarri claims: “Despite these limitations, the tant. significant and opened up the possibility for further at all with respect to women was highly expansions in the meaning of the concept.” War. American Revolutionary tion existed prior to the also helped contribute to shaping the ideology of held by Scottish Enlightenment philosophers tion was supported by Scottish philosophers for the purpose of having women become more by Scottish philosophers for the purpose tion was supported he had However, learn history. instance, Hume persuaded women to attractive to men. For may behave herself with good they should learn history: “a woman this to say about why where her mind is so unfur some vivacity in her turn of wit; but manners, and have even and any entertainment to men of sense her conversation can afford nished, it is impossible reflection.” promoted education for women at all is very impor of their husbands, the very fact that they further explains: “Women were valued for their accomplishments rather than viewed as mere than viewed as mere rather valued for their accomplishments were “Women further explains: friends and believed, “as faithful the philosopher Hume to be seen, as They came sex objects. agreeable companions.” in order to completely become that women would need to be educated of history believed for their husbands. adequate companions tion. Finally, in the fourth stage, women’s status escalated more than ever. With the rise of a the rise With than ever. more status escalated women’s fourth stage, in the Finally, tion. on ‘pleasures their attention to focus were able and wealthier men became society, mercantile of the mind.’ states: elevated. Zagarri social position was of this, women’s company and because women’s encouraged to mix were Women down. began to break separation of the sexes “The rigid with men.”

aegis 2007 114 of American individuals.Zagarrimakesclear that amongthewell-educatedpersonslivingin society, itmustbenotedthatScottishEnlightenmentphilosophygreatlyaffected thethinking concerned withwomen’s roleinshapingsociety. that women’s influenceovermen gavethemthepowertoreform themannersandmorals of in men.Bloch states:“Itwasrepeatedlyclaimed, by American and Englishmoralistsboth, ica,” sheargues thatwomenwerepresentedasessentialand activepromotersofpatriotism can Motherhood.”Inheressay, “TheGenderedMeaningsof Virtue inRevolutionary Amer promotes theideathatwomen’s rolesof bothwifeandmotherwereequallyimportant. Kerber’s othermainsourceforinformation, The Young Ladies Academy ofPhiladelphia also advocating anewroleforwomen aswivesinadditiontotheirrolemothers.Furthermore, their capabilitiesasmothers;however, critiquesofKerber’s researchonRushdepictshimalso tion. KerberclaimsthatultimatelyRushwasadvocatinga newroleforwomenbypromoting of whatessayistssuchasDr. BenjaminRushaddressedintheirpositionsonfemaleeduca historians suggest,Kerber’s basisfor“RepublicanMotherhood”onlypresentshalfthe picture her research,accordingtootherhistorianswhohavecritiqued Kerber. Forexample,asother contribute toRepublican Womanhood, thiswouldcertainlynotbethefirsterrorshemadein hood. merely borrowedEnlightenmentideaswhenitcreatedthe new ideology, Republican Woman Womanhood owesitsheritagetoEnlightenmentideas. The American Revolutionary War is accuratethenKerberwrongabouttheoriginof“RepublicanMotherhood.”Republican and Adam Smiththenhisstanceoneducationmayhavebeenderivedfromtheirideas.Ifthis Consequently, ifRushhad beeninfluencedbyEnlightenmentthinkerssuchasDavidHume women becamepoliticizedbecauseoftheirnewroleasmothersrestsgreatlyonRush’s essay. education insupportofherclaimfor“RepublicanMotherhood.”Infact,argument that The reasonthisisthecasebecauseKerberusedDr. BenjaminRush’s essayonfemale can Motherhood”cameintobeingexclusivelybecauseofthe American Revolutionary War. as Zagarrisuggests,thenthiswouldquestionKerber’s claimthattheideologyof“Republi thought. erhood ideology. many articlesinladies’ magazines,weretwoofthefirstsupports“Republican moth jamin Rush,amaleEdinburgh-educated physician,andJudithSargent Murray, anauthorof these works.Becauseofthis,ZagarripointsoutthatitisnotsurprisingbothDr. Ben even thoughwomencouldnotgotocollegetheywerestillablefamiliarizethemselveswith particular ideasavailabletowomen.Zagarriclaimsthatbecauseofcertainpublishers’ efforts, during thiseramadeaneffort tomakecertainEnlightenmentliteraturedealingwiththese tish universities.” thinkers suchasJames Wilson andBenjaminRush receivedtheirhighereducationsatScot William Smallof William andMarypersonallybroughtScottishideasto America. Political and Humehadbecomestaplesofthecollegecurriculum.John Witherspoon ofPrincetonand able. Forinstance,Zagarripointsoutthefollowing:“BytimeofRevolution,Smith the colonies,treatisesdealingwiththistypeofEnlightenmentphilosophywerereadilyavail In discussingtheopinionsofScottishphilosophersontopicwomen’s rolein Ruth Blochisoneofthehistorians whochallengesKerber’s claimabout“Republi If Kerberiswrongaboutthestartingpointofprinciples whichwouldlater If Dr. BenjaminRushwasindeedinfluencedbyScottishEnlightenmentphilosophy 34 33 Inotherwords,theywereprobablydirectlyaffected byEnlightenment Also, whatisimportanttotakeintoconsiderationthatsomepublishers ------

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- 39 The first s ability to influence their s ability to Educated women according to Bloch, to Bloch, according women Educated 36 This relationship between women’s power, marriage, and court power, This relationship between women’s 37 Above all, Bloch asserted that virtue was the most valued quality defining individ quality defining valued the most virtue was that Bloch asserted Above all, Bloch goes on to trace the origin of “virtue” and its association with women in her Bloch goes on to trace the origin of “virtue” Like Rosemarie Zaggari, Ruth Bloch also addresses Scottish Enlightenment philoso Bloch reasons that in order to understand the importance the idea of virtue had in Bloch reasons that in order to understand As Zagarri suggested in her essay, the opinion that women were able to influence that women were the opinion suggested in her essay, As Zagarri 35 38 sive emotionalism, were beginning to be regarded as particularly receptive to grace. sive emotionalism, were beginning to be third generation Puritan pietist Cotton Mather.” vigorous proponent of this view was the the issue of female piety during the course other preachers spent time addressing Like Mather, of the seventeenth century. virtue came from particular notions held by Bloch claims that ideas of phers in her essay. according certain Scottish philosophers as well as the philosopher John Locke. For instance, most significant about how virtue is understood in connection to religion is realizing the role most significant about how virtue is understood colonies. For example, even though Bloch points women played as religious citizens in the considered to be characteristically feminine, she out that religious virtue was not necessarily religious War American Revolutionary up to the does indicate that during the years leading were in particular directed toward a female audience. sermons centered on the topic of virtue by their supposedly exces long regarded as morally encumbered Bloch proposes: “Women, a post-Revolutionary America, one must look to other prominent ideas involving women, America, one must look a post-Revolutionary and education as well. She states: “In this broader intellectual history human psychology, of gender distinctions already well under one finds the origins of a long term re-definition to changes in the nonpolitical understanding of way by the 1770s and intimately connected virtue.” doing so, she presents three ways in which the idea of virtue influenced individu In essay. What is The first she claims was through religion. American colonies. als living within the ship is representative of the same argument which Scottish philosophers such as Montesquieu ship is representative of the same argument only difference The to promote behavioral “manners.” were making about the increased need attention toward teach America’s is that in this case Bloch is addressing post-Revolutionary in turn influence their husbands and children to ing women about virtue and how they could be virtuous citizens as well. the connection between Enlightenment thinking and Republican Womanhood. However, However, Womanhood. Enlightenment thinking and Republican the connection between played in shaping their husband’s did acknowledge the role women historians such as Bloch courtship and marriage is that Bloch saw a link between What is important political behavior. For example, Bloch quotes a Columbia education. in women’s and the call for an increase and courtship, it is it came to these two things: “Love authority when Orator about women’s in any other situation that falls to invest a lady with more authority than universally allowed, the lot of human beings.” Enlightenment philosophers. of Scottish reflected in the writings conduct is their husband’s advocates of Kerber failed to recognize that contemporary the fact that Linda However, were both War American Revolutionary following the education during the years women’s ideas in addition their husband’s that women had a political role in shaping promoting the idea unsuccessful in recognizing may be the reason why Kerber was behavior to their children’s society.” cause. Republican American to the ual commitment increase women’ education would necessity because was a patriotic that both their to make sure women were persuaded More than anything, behavior. husband’s the fundamen This was virtuous citizens. and remained their husbands became children and Womanhood. of Republican tal purpose

aegis 2007 116 ercive mannerandthattruevirtuepromotedanurturingenvironmentforchildrentoberaised John LockeandtheScottishphilosophersargued thatchildrenshouldberaisedinanon-co within individuals.Forthem,virtuewasalsobelievedtobe“aninstincttowardshappiness.” to theFrancisHutcheson,Blochpointsoutthatvirtuewasbelievedbeaninnatequality the American Revolutionary War likeKerber argues. Historians suchasMaryBethNorton, that wouldshape theprinciplesofRepublican Womanhood donotderive exclusivelyfrom can Womanhood confirmedthatthehousehold couldfunctionpolitically;however, theideas responsibility aswivesandmothers changedwomen’s positionin America forever. Republi the Republican Womanhood ideology recognized that women had a political role through their rights suchastherighttovote andtherighttohavegreatercontrolofproperty, thefactthat a politicalpositioninthenew Republic.Eventhoughasawhole,womenlackedmany basic given atthe Young Ladies’ Academy inPhiladelphia.Republican Womanhood gavewomen of the American RevolutionissupportedinheranalysisofbothRush’s essays andthelectures asserted, womenwereincluded. Republic wasequallyimportantinensuringthelibertyof new American nature.Inthishe see thisasanessentialresponsibilitytotheircountry. Rushclaimedthateverycitizen inthe and promotemoralitytoboththeirchildrenhusbands. To Rush,womenshould on women’s education.Rushargues thatwomenshouldstrivetobeeducatorsofpatriotism port herthesison“RepublicanMotherhood”describetheimportance thenewRepublicplaced during the American Revolutionary War. BenjaminRush’s essayswhichKerberusedtosup would becomeintrinsictoRepublican Womanhood. promote virtuosityinboththeirhusbandsandchildren.Promotingvirtuetheseindividuals years leadinguptothewarandafternewRepublicwascreated,womenwereexpected Therefore, somevirtuesinwomenwereconsideredtobeinnatetheiressence.Duringthese a patriotmagazineinstructeditsreaders,“Whatbraveryisinman,Chastitywoman.” peatedly enjoinedtoprotecttheirsexualpurity. InthemidstofearlyRevolutionaryfervor was usedsimplytomeanchastity, andinthedidacticliteratureofperiodwomenwerere their self-discipline.Forexample,Blochargues: The sentimentalconceptionoffemalevirtue women werenotonlyvaluedfortheiremotionalcharacter, buttheywerealsocherishedfor literary sentimentalismemphasizestheemotionalnatureofwomeningeneral.Moreover, erary sentimentalismdeclaresthatvirtueisfundamentallyafemininequality. Inotherwords, literary sentimentalismisthatithadthemosttosayaboutwomen’s positioninsociety. individual throughdomesticrelationshipsandBlochassertsthatwhatismostimportantabout claims thatliterarysentimentalismconcerneditselfwithfindingpersonalhappinesswithinthe and Scottishphilosophersreadthistypeoffictionwhichexistedduringera. ideas ofvirtueinearly America. BlochpointsoutthatthereligiousleaderJonathanEdwards subject ofRepublican Womanhood. philosophers maintainedaboutvirtuewouldlatercontributetoprinciplessurroundingthe motherhood roleindidacticandmedicalliterature.” about theimportanceofearlychildhoodeducationgraduallyledtoagreateremphasison “Although theseparticularphilosophersenvisionedmenastheprincipleeducators,theirideas educators ofvirtueforchildren,Blochstatesthisabouttheirgeneralstanceonthesubject: in. Though itistruethatthese philosophersweremainlyaddressingmenastheprimary Kerber isrightinstatingthateducationalopportunitiesfor womenweretransformed According toBloch,literarysentimentalismwasthethirdaspectthatcontributed 44 Kerber’s claimthatwomenbenefitedintellectuallybecause 40 Therefore, thepositionEnlightenment 41 Bloch 42 Lit 43 -

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117 aegis 2007 - - Boston: The Baltimore The Baltimore The Boston Early American Early

3 (May 1805): 359- st (1798). series APS Online (December APS Online (December st

st (1791). Early American Imprints 1st Series. American Early Early American Imprints Early Early American Imprints 1 Early (October 1787). Series, no. 23176 st The Letters of John and Abigail Adams. Adams. Abigail and The Letters of John Early American Imprints 1 Early Early American Imprints 1 Early (1791). The Baltimore Weekly Magazine Weekly The Baltimore APS Online (March 1801): 224. APS Online (March (1790). Series no. 45090 The Literary Magazine and American Registrar The Literary Magazine and st 3 APS Online (February 1786): 54-56. 3 no.26723 (1794). Series no.23372 st delphia, Pennsylvania: Record Number: 0F2F82A4015BC358. delphia, Pennsylvania: Record Number: Imprints 1 Record Number: 0F2FD36EC8B22688. Number: 0F301AA2366B4640. Series no.22570 360. 31, 1787.” Phila October Academy, Ladies Young address, in the Swanwick’s Mr. 0F301ABC68A45BA0. Magazine cord Number: 0F301975CDDC1880. 1 Early American Imprints 1 Early 0F30143DF3B60598. Series, Ormrod, John, Printer: Record Number: private families, and public seminaries.” Penguin Books, 2003. Magazine Weekly 1800): 155. Record Number: 0F2FD319911C95B0. Hartford: Printed by Hudson and Goodwin: More, Hannah. “Strictures on the modern system of female education.” Budd Henry, Printer Henry, More, Hannah. “Strictures on the modern system of female education.” Budd “A Literary Lady.” Literary Lady.” “A and after delivered at the close of the quarterly examination, Prayer, Samuel. “A Magaw, “Desultory Observations on the Education and Manners of the Fair Sex.” “Desultory Observations on the Education Thomas, printer Re Dobson, Little female academy.” Fielding, Sarah. “The governess: or, Massachusetts: Record Boston, family.” Hitchcock, Enos. “Memoirs of the Bloomsgrave Burton, John. “Lectures on female education and manners.” New York: Record Number: York: and manners.” New Burton, John. “Lectures on female education in boarding schools, Plan for the conduct of female education Darwin, Erasmus. “A “Advice to the Single Ladies of Baltimore, especially the wits and toasts.” Ladies of Baltimore, especially the wits “Advice to the Single “Anecdote for the Ladies.” and interesting subjects. on a variety of useful lady, Young to a Bennett, John. “Letters claim that Republican Womanhood resulted entirely because of the war. because of the resulted entirely Womanhood Republican claim that Cited Works Adams. Abigail, and John Adams, Rosemarie Zagarri, and Ruth Bloch affirm that Republican Womanhood’s origin derives from origin derives Womanhood’s that Republican affirm Bloch and Ruth Zagarri, Rosemarie as as far date back factors Some War. Revolutionary up to the leading of factors a number other factors developed suggests, whereas Mary Beth Norton century as the mid-seventeenth any theories. In as certain Enlightenment century such early and mid-eighteenth during the decades, and began Womanhood the foundation for Republican that would set case, the ideas Kerber’s despite War, American Revolutionary the start of the a century before in some cases

aegis 2007 118 (Chapel Hill,NorthCarolina: The UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,1980),32. 1. LindaK.Kerber, Notes 30. Montesquieu inRosemarie,Zagarri,“Rosemarie Zagarri,“Morals,Manners, andthe 29. Ibid,201. 28. Ibid. 27. Ibid,200. 26. Ibid. 25. Ibid. 24. Zagarri,199. merchant—a mercantilesociety representingthepeakofhistory. Zagarri,197. civilization. This theorysuggestsaprogressionfrom huntertoshepherdfarmer 23. The Four-stage theoryofhistoryisa fourpartanalysisofthedevelopmenthuman 22. Kerber, 283. 21. Ibid. 20. Zagarri,196. 1980), 25. Revolutionary America 19. Adam SmithinLindaK.Kerber, American Quarterly 18. DavidHumeinRosemarieZagarri,““Morals,Manners, andtheRepublicanMother,” child couldthengooff andseekrelationshipsoutsidetheimmediatefamily. bond fortheindividualandoffspring strengthenedtheunionbetweencouple. The 17. Heclaimedthatsexualattractionbetweenamanandwomanprovidedtheinitialsocial 16. Ibid. 15. CivilJurisprudentialphilosophersarethosewhostudythetheoryoflaw. 14. Ibid. 13. Ibid,194. 44 no.2(June1992),193. 12. RosemarieZagarri,“Morals,Manners,andtheRepublicanMother,” 11. Ibid. 10. Ibid,608. 9. Ibid. the Bible,buttheysawnoreasonwhywouldneedtoknowhowwrite.Ibid,607. skills weretaughtseparately. MostProtestantsrecognizedthatwomenshouldbeabletoread 8 Colonialwomenwhoknewhowtoread,butnotwritewasuncommonbecausethetwo 7. Ibid,606-7. 6. Ibid,606. 5. Ibid. 4. Ibid,605. American HistoricalReview 3. MaryBethNorton,“TheEvolutionof White Women’s ExperienceinEarly America,” as wivesandmothers.Ibid,27. 2. KerberstatesthatforLocke,Montesquieu,Rousseau,andKames,womenexistedmerely Women oftheRepublic:Intellect&IdeologyinRevolutionary America 44 no.2(June1992),196. (ChapelHill,NorthCarolina: The Universityof North CarolinaPress, 89no.3(June1984):602. Women oftheRepublic:Intellect&Ideologyin American Quarterly The

119 aegis 2007 13 no.1 , O.S.U. Signs Early American Imprints Early 44 no.2 (June 1992), 201. (June 1992), 44 no.2 American Quarterly Quarterly American 41. Ibid, 51. 42. Ibid. 43. Ibid, 52. “Thoughts Upon Female Education,” 44. Benjamin Rush, October 1787 Lib, Columbus, Ohio, (Autumn, 1987), 47. (Autumn, 36. Ibid, 6. 37. Ibid, 45. 38. Ibid. 39. Ibid, 49. 40. Ibid, 50. Republican Mother,” Mother,” Republican 31. Ibid. 32. Ibid. 33. Ibid, 203. 34. Ibid. America,” in Revolutionary Virtue Meanings of “The Gendered 35. Ruth Bloch,

aegis 2007 120 of Five of Kid Songs Leonard Bernstein: ing hisconducting assistant(Gradenwitz31). Boston Symphony Orchestraandmetrenowned conductorSerge Koussevitzky, laterbecom in 1940,Bernstein attendedthenewlycreated Tanglewood MusicFestivalsponsored bythe with FritzReiner, andorchestrationwithRandall Thompson (Briggs 21). The followingyear Curtis InstituteofMusicinPhiladelphia, studyingpianowithIsabella Vengerova, conducting controversial leftistmusical, 43). Beforegraduatingfrom Harvard in1939,BernsteinwentontoplayforMarcBlitzstein’s duced tocomposersDavidDiamond and Aaron Copland,oneofBernstein’s heroes(Secrest ald Kennedy(Secrest15).HewentontoattendHarvardUniversity. There hewasalsointro Franklin, JohnQuincy Adams, andJohnHancocktoRalph Waldo EmersonandJohnFitzger college preparatoryschools.Itsalumniincludesuchnotable pastfiguresfromBenjamin sons to neighborhood kids, using the money he earned to pay for his own lessons (Peyser 4). Leonard taught himself the basics, being an obviously gifted child, and soon began teaching les fee forlessons,Samrefused,notwantinghissontofollow amusicalpath.Defyinghisfather, his fatherforpianolessons. Though SamandtheBernsteinfamilyhadmeanstopay the it…and thatwasit. That wasmycontractwithlife, withGod”(Secrest15).Hepleaded fascinated withtheinstrument.LeonardBernsteinhimself recalled,“Iremembertouching was willedapiano(Secrest3).Leonardnineyearsold atthetime,andwasimmediately have hadalateintroductiontomusic. With thedeathofan Aunt Clara,theBernsteinfamily Shirley, andbrother, Burton.Comparedtomostmusicalmasters,Leonardisconsidered Bernstein. Hewouldlaterbenefitfromthebirthsoftwoyoungersiblings,asisternamed and educator, LeonardBernstein, wasborntoRussianJewishimmigrantsSamandJennie from whichthispiecewascomposed. ing LeonardBernstein’s life,thecompositionofsongcycle,andhistoricalcontext of ayounggirlin America duringthemid-1940’s. This realizationcanbeachievedbystudy tary onsociety. Inhis formed inconcerthallsettings. more successwithhiscompositionsfortheBroadwaystage,classicalmusicisoftenper Leonard Bernsteinbeganhiscareerinclassicalmusic. Though Bernsteinarguably achieved Leonard Bernstein with musicisatotalembrace.” “Life withoutmusicisunthinkable.Musiclifeacademic. That iswhymycontact Leonard wasenrolledatBostonLatinSchool,oneofthecountry’s mostprestigious On August 25,1918in Lawrence, Massachusetts, future pianist, conductor, composer A scholar, andacomposer, Bernstein’s worksoftenencompassunderlyingcommen Known tomanyasthecomposerofground-breakingmusical Danielle Hickey I HateMusic! The CradleWill Rock and its Cultural Context songcycle,Bernsteincleverlydisplaysthedevelopment I Hate Music! A Cycle . After graduation, Bernsteinheadedtothe West SideStory , ------

121 aegis 2007

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. Wonder , , for violin, strings, strings, violin, for New York Times New York I Hate Music! Hate I On the Town the On and and a Theater piece for Singers, Singers, for piece Theater a Serenade : : Mass song cycle was well received by . Less well known, but still highly highly still but known, well Less . cycle explores the “coming of age” of Story

Two Love Songs Songs Love Two (1963). Other notable compositions in compositions notable Other (1963). , , , was Bernstein’s first composed song cycle. cycle. first composed song , was Bernstein’s . However, today’s society best remembers remembers best society today’s However, . I Hate Music! Kiddish West Side West I Hate Music! , a choral masterpiece; and and masterpiece; choral a , Trouble in Tahiti in Trouble La Bonne Cuisine Bonne La : : (1949), and and (1949), 1 for solo clarinet and jazz ensemble; ensemble; jazz and clarinet solo for . Bernstein also composed several works for the stage including three three including stage the for works several composed also Bernstein . , and the groundbreaking groundbreaking the and , Age of Anxiety of Age Chichester Psalms Chichester Candide (1943), (1943), The cycle, in which the protagonist is a ten-year-old girl, is written for soprano and The cycle, in which the protagonist is a ten-year-old Jennie Tourel’s performance of the Tourel’s Jennie I Hate Music! A Cycle of Five Kid Songs A I Hate Music! This apprenticeship launched Bernstein’s conducting career, which led to him becom him to led which career, conducting Bernstein’s launched apprenticeship This , , Prelude, Fugue and Riffs and Fugue Prelude, readily apparent. Interestingly enough, Bernstein wrote his Harvard undergraduate thesis thesis Bernstein wrote his Harvard undergraduate readily apparent. Interestingly enough, (Briggs 56). about the use of jazz in classical music Leonard Bernstein’s piano. Sequentially, come from?” this girl. In the first song, the child asks the age old question: “Where do babies curiosity This question is often associated with children at their first moments of intellectual the universe, From there, the child looks beyond the earth in the second song, and questions They are not art songs but cute little jazzy songs that should be sung at a house party. They songs that should be sung at a house party. They are not art songs but cute little jazzy 100). Noel Straus of the style or stature” (Peyser did not rise to Jennie’s out that they appeared to show the though pointing songs as ‘amusing’ “praised Bernstein’s point cycle” (Briggs 80). Bernstein claimed that at that ‘Nursery’ influence of Mussorgsky’s was whether this cycle truly The main debate songs. in life he had never heard Mussorgsky or not, as strong jazz and popular influences were could be considered a cycle of art songs stating that it had “too much bleed with popular music to be considered serious art” (Peyser stating that it had “too much bleed with conductor but also the pianist for the evening, 81). Since Bernstein was not only the assistant objections. the cycle as an encore despite Koussevitzky’s offer Tourel he was able to help “people yelled and stomped and cheered and I had the audience. Leonard Bernstein recalls, reactions were mixed. Publicist 91). Critics’ to take a bow…a party commenced” (Peyser noted, “I hated them when I heard them at town hall. Tourel and friend of both Bernstein and needed it to be premiered. During this time Bernstein had been introduced to the acclaimed needed it to be premiered. During this immediately taken with her voice and innate performance and was Tourel, soprano, Jennie her U.S. to sing his songs at agreed Tourel and a friendship, kindled two quickly The abilities. not a recitalist). However, as a stage performer, debut recital (as previously she was known of the Boston Sym was the conductor Koussevitzky, Serge mentor and teacher, Bernstein’s recital. Koussevitzky refused the cycle Tourel’s phony Orchestra which would be presenting dedicated the cycle to his and lyrics. Composed in 1943, Bernstein He wrote both the music Bernstein a Aaron Copland bought Edys Merrill. It is said that friend and then roommate at his apartment night and coached singers and rehearsed dances piano, and thus Bernstein apartment with Edys recalled, “I would walk around the The music was so constant that day. wrote a cycle of and Lenny de da,’ screaming, ‘I hate music- la de da my hands over my ears Though the cycle was complete, Bernstein 78). songs based on what I screamed…” (Peyser and percussion; percussion; and Dancers and Players opera, one-act a even and ballets, introducing genre theatre musical the to contributions his for Bernstein Town ful cycles song three are acclaimed conducting favored He Orchestra. Philharmonic York New for director music time long the ing personal his of those and Mahler, Sibelius, Schumann, Brahms, Beethoven, Haydn, by pieces symphonies: three writing composition, of realm the into delved also Bernstein Copland. friend, Jeremiah clude

aegis 2007 122 cycle, wherethechildseemstobediscoveringherselfasanindividual.Itisultimatestep sophistication. However, thetruepeakofmaturityisreachedinfifthandfinalsong strating ahigherlevelofintelligence. Though aseeminglytriteriddle,itdoesshowsome and herplaceinit.Songthreecommentsonsociety, whilesongfourusesariddledemon Example 2:HalfCadence development thatthechildismakingnotcompleted. gins andendsonE.Endingwithahalf-cadence stating, “MyNameisBarbara,”whereweagainseetheimportance of“E,”asthephrasebe simplicity is,afterall,associatedwithyouth. The songendswithafinaldeclaratorysentence be seeninthefollowingsong. This devicemayalso beconnectedtoasimplebeginning: This beginningandendingonthesamenote(orchord)isa favoredBernsteindeviceaswill Example 1:‘E’ PedalTone starts andendswithan‘E’,whichservesasthedominant stein dedicatedthepiece. There isan‘E’ pedaltone ture. Itseemsnocoincidencethat“E”isalsothefirstletterof conceived melodies,multicolorrhythms,andrichharmonieswithinterwovenjazzelements. childhood. Behindthefaçadeofsimple ABA exteriors,eachsongcontainschromatically stein iscommentingonthesimplicityofyouth—howeverythingseemsmuchsimplerduring misconception ofchildrenbeingcompletelytrouble-freeandnaïve.Inotherwords,Bern form in maturationandindividuality. 2 . Beingconsideredthe“simplest”offorms,Bernsteinseemstobecommentingon In thefirstsong,itisclearthatanE-majorchordplaysimportantroleinstruc In abroadersense,thecyclehasanoverlyingconnectionasallsongsarein ABA 6 , Bernstein’s musicalformsuggeststhatthe 4 incorporatedthroughout,andthepiece 5 inthekeyofa-minor. E dys Merrill,towhomBern - 3 -

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123 aegis 2007 - 3: Extensive vocal range in mm.2-5 3: Extensive vocal range

Example 4: Extensive vocal range in mm.14-17 ing questions: “What’s a baby bush anyway?” a baby bush “What’s ing questions: Examples Also seen throughout the pieces is the extensive vocal range that the vocal line encompasses line encompasses the vocal range that vocal the extensive pieces is the seen throughout Also used in vast space that the presume One might 14-16. and mm. mm. 2-5 from as witnessed children commenting that “child-like” theme, Bernstein’s line continues to represent the vocal The song is reached. level of maturity limits until a certain having no often see themselves piece is at m. 14 where moment of the from, but the climactic where babies come questions prob begins asking more has provided, but her mother questions the information she not only

aegis 2007 124 arduously totheoldbelovedFmajorsandmodulatoryharmonies”(Secrest286). Also nota once toldastudent,“Therearestillsomereactionarieshangingaroundlikemyselfclinging major. The Fisalsofoundinthebeginningandendingofvocalline.Fittingly, Bernstein which notesareemphasizedby ate withthemoods,andmore melancholicslowertemporeturnsfortheclosinglament in the restofsong. As thechild’s imaginationgrowsmorewhimsical, thetempos in-depth moments. This servesasafoiltotheskittish, carnival-likemusicheardthroughout people whopopulateourplanet. The buildupto theD-flatchordsseemtobeatheaviermore number ofmoonsotherplanetscontain)thegirlisonlyone personintheinfinitenumberof By examingthelyricsonecanseethatjustasearthhas onlyonemoon(despitethevast Example 7:D-flatmajorchord mm.48-50 shows arealizationabouthowtheworldis. This chordseemstobeassociatedwiththeword“one”whichinm.23,44,andmm.48-50 ble isBernstein’s useofaverydistinctiveD-flatmajorchordforspecialmomentsintensity. The secondsongreusesthenotionofbeginningandendingonsamechord,F Examples 5and6:D-flatmajorchord m.23andm.44 tenuto

8 marks. 7 fluctu - -

125 aegis 2007 - - . This, and the seem . 9 s first experiences with interval th Song three, the title song of the cycle displays Bernstein’s exploration of range in the Bernstein’s Song three, the title song of the cycle displays 9 Bernstein favors the use of a Major vocal line. Interestingly, syllables, represents the child’ ingly tuneless melody sung on nonsense music. On a smaller scale, Bernstein uses repetition to emphasize the girl’s child-like manner. Mea child-like manner. the girl’s Bernstein uses repetition to emphasize On a smaller scale, on the similar sounding “million, rhythmic and melodic figures sures 12-13 show repeating much in representation of childish antics. billion, trillion,” very of mm.12-13 and melodic figure rhythmic Example 9: Repeated Example 8: Tenuto marks 8: Tenuto Example

aegis 2007 126 Example 10:Major9 urgency andirritation. ing rhythmsoftriplets she moveawayfromtheseleapsandwiderange. The Bsectionisfasterwithcomplexrepeat Onlywhenthechildbeginsthinkingofpretensemusic, andsocietyingeneral,does nique thatBernsteinwaspubliclyopposedto(Gradenwitz139). lables, “ladeedadee.” These syllablesseemtobeaparodyofthedodecaphonic melody. To showtheimportanceofthismotif,songbeginsandendswithnonsensesyl like tosing.” The childdoesjustthatbyoffering thistunelessseeminglytonelessandcarefree It takestrainingforchildrentosingorplayintune. As thetextstates,“Ihatemusic!But I Example 11: Parody of12-tonetechniqueasseenattheendpiece th 11 intervalandtunelessmelodyofnonsensesyllables , notonlycontributingtothe vocalist’s rant,butproviding a senseof 10 tech - - -

127 aegis 2007 - Example 14: unevenly grouped quavers Example 14: unevenly grouped Bernstein makes the fourth song sound extremely playful, and this seems appropriate Bernstein makes the fourth song sound associated with children, especially children eager to share something. associated with children, especially children One must also appreciate the irony of this songs’ basic statement, since Bernstein’s life was so life was so basic statement, since Bernstein’s songs’ One must also appreciate the irony of this hall” setting on which the girl comments. obviously imbedded in music and the “concert accents on a majority of the notes in both the voice and There are since the song is a riddle. are used to drive the music forward with the eager piano parts and unevenly grouped quavers with irrepressible enthusiasm, qualities often ness of a child. It comes across as impatient on the F-sharp major. on the F-sharp major. major chord Example 13: F-sharp The sense of irritation on the word “hate” is punctuated by a very distinctive F-sharp major on the word “hate” is punctuated by The sense of irritation music” focuses again and melodic phrase on the words “hate The repeated rhythmic chord. Example 12: Beginning of the B-section 12: Beginning Example

aegis 2007 128 notes ofthephrase,oftenbywayaleaptobringgreateremphasisword.Suchwords phasized inthisspeakingpartbyunderlining,aremusicallyemphasizedbeingthehighest for thevocalisttospeakriddleinitsentirety. The samewordsthatBernsteinasksbeem After singingtheriddle,Bernsteincreatesasection wherethepianoisplaying“E”octaves represented witharepeatedrhythmic figureasseeninm.9andm.24. longer notevaluesshowingher contemplativeandintrospectiveside.“Everyone’s” viewsare songs. It’s asong ofrevelationsandself-discovery. The child’s thoughtsarerepresented by very seriousintone,andsoundsfinal.Itisthemost melodic andhomophonic the answertoriddle. last threemeasuresofthesong,wheredirectionsread, “triumphantly” asthechildgives Bernstein wasfondofwritingemotionalcluesblatantlyin themusic,ascanbeseenwith Example 16:“Indian”soundsofmm.18-22 ment evenreads,“pesante,likeIndians.” Bernstein providesavariationonthetypical“Indian”soundsinmm.18-22. The accompani Example 15:“E”octaveswithspokenriddle include “Little”and“Big.” In contrasttothelight-heartedfunofriddle,fifthand finalsongofthecycleis 12 ofallthe - -

129 aegis 2007 . Her final statements show offer clarity within the music, clarity clarity offer 13 Example 18: Repeated rhythmic figure of m.24 figure rhythmic Example 18: Repeated Adding key signatures helps to convey different lines of thought, and also to show a new Adding key signatures helps to convey different stages of dimension of meaning and complexity to the song where the child is in the final becoming an individual—a person. Key signatures that the girl may finally have achieved on her road to individuality to the original that she has finally achieved this moment of self-identity as the piece modulates key of F-major. offers a faster rhythmic listing of the items including “soft things and movies and horses and a faster rhythmic listing of the items including offers warm things and red things.” of mm.14-15 Example 19: Faster rhythms In an attempt to fit in and point out that she “likes things that everyone likes” (m.14), she In an attempt to fit in and point out that Example 17: Repeated rhythmic figure of m.9 figure rhythmic 17: Repeated Example

aegis 2007 130 Example 20:FinalStatement challenge atthe time. The UnitedStatesentered World War IIin1941,withthe bombingof able toachievedespitehisfather’s efforts todiscouragehim. This songcycleoutlinesthegrowth ofachild’s individuality, whichLeonardultimatelywas I spent$12,000onyou.But… youpaidmebackeverycent—withinterest!”(Secrest120). However, whenfinallyconvincedofLeonard’s successSam was quotedassaying,“Lenny, poor, andhehadnotimmigratedto America forhissontoendupabeggar(Secrest 120). song cyclewascomposed.Sam Bernsteinfearedthatbeingamusicianwouldleavehis son formance withtheNew York Philharmonic Orchestrain1943,theyearthat Bernstein refusedtosupporthisson’s careerinmusicupuntilLeonard’s first conductingper World War II(thetimewhenthispiecewascomposed). position hasmuchtosayintermsofhistoricalcontextabout beingachildatthebeginningof training oughttobeanintegralpartofeducation”(Secrest 24).Ontheotherhand,thiscom Bernstein’s ownchildhoodandhisbeliefthat“allchildrenhaveanaturalgiftmusical stein wroteacyclesoheavilyimbeddedwithyouthfulthemes. Muchcanbeattributedto innocence ofyouthistheutmostimportancetoBernstein. OnemaywonderwhyBern dignity andsophisticatedunderstandingofthesinger”(Bernstein 8).Itappearsthatthe can neverbesuccessfullygilded;ratherwillitcomethroughthemusicinproportionto coyness istobeassiduouslyavoided. The natural,unforcedsweetnessofchildexpressions Growing upduring theSecond World War and goingthroughchildhoodwas a It isnosecretthatLeonardBernsteinandhisfatherhadavolatile relationship.Sam Bernstein notesatthebeginningofcyclethat“inperformancethesesongs, I HateMusic! - - -

131 aegis 2007 - - - - . - Leon (1942) (West (1942) (West oung People’s Con oung People’s Bambi cycle. Another program cycle. (1941), and Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs Snow White and the I Hate Music! Dumbo (1940), Fantasia , Meryle Secrest notes, “For him the idea that music could be—ought to , Meryle Secrest notes, “For him the idea cycle had been criticized for it’s incorporation of jazz, but Bernstein defended cycle had been criticized for it’s somehow remained separate, like two streams that flow along side by side without somehow remained separate, like two streams those once-in-a- once in a while. But it’s ever touching or mixing—except every whiles that we’re interested in today: those pieces in which the jazz stream now flows and then does sneak over to the symphonic stream, and for a moment or two, And these days—at least, for the last five or fifty along with it in happy harmony. American music actually called “the third years, that is—there is a new movement in the stream” which mixes the rivers of jazz with the other rivers that flow down from In spite of these tries at combining jazz and symphonic writing, the two musics have In spite of these tries at combining jazz Bernstein wanted to help cultivate the idea of youthfulness again. Author of of youthfulness again. Bernstein wanted to help cultivate the idea Small concessions were made to entertain and provide a more optimistic and youth made to entertain and provide a more Small concessions were Music!

for much of Bernstein’s music, and specifically, the music, and specifically, for much of Bernstein’s The music. classical in views of jazz up Bernstein’s summed Hall,” Concert the in “Jazz titled I Hate his compositional style. Bernstein explains, only in this specific cycle, but also is evident in his creation of the “Y only in this specific cycle, but also is evident television Concerts (fifty-three concerts in all) were broadcast via People’s Young The certs.” by Bernstein, the program discussed such topics for fourteen years. Concieved and hosted and You?” Music?,” “How Musical are American is as “What Does Music Mean?,” “What Concert titled, “Who is Gustav Mahler” People’s Young A “Humor in Music” (Secrest 247). to “recapture the pure emotions of childhood, had Leonard saying Mahler had the ability said The same can be and gloom” (Horowitz 479). oscillating between extremes of happiness Bernstein’s cycle. Bernstein’s Bernstein a Life ard music during this period” (Secrest 248). She be—fun is a reoccurent theme in Bernstein’s is the place to be young, versatile, breathless with later states, “For him, the United States This is reflected not suddenly the measure of all things musical” (Secrest 478). possibility, Shortly after, Disney produced Disney produced Shortly after, halted progress developing televi became popularized as the war had 154). Radio programs of interest Another point war effort. and finances were needed for the sion since the materials the raising awareness With the advancements in space exploration. during this time included with the first success noted that “the space rocket age began it was of technology and war, Though no man had yet 251). of a Nazi sponsored project” (Derks A-4 as part ful test of the and its influences are hinted at in the second song of landed on the moon, interest had piqued, steady support of their mothers who at the time had been called to work outside of the home, outside of the home, been called to work who at the time had of their mothers steady support were put on war expenses, rations Due to men serving in the war. voids left by the filling the and about every other type of commodity. food, clothes, toys, a name Disney began making Walt children growing up at this time. ful atmosphere for the with the feature color cartoon film, for himself in 1937 Pearl Harbor. It appeared that childhood was lost to many. Families were forced to join the to join the forced were Families to many. was lost childhood that It appeared Harbor. Pearl with help To Depression. the Great from still recovering they were though even war effort, tons of Scouts “salvaged 150,000 metal and the Boy collected scrap children the war effort, The war had (Derks 265). foil balls” 50 cents for aluminum Children received wastepaper. others telegrams arrived, while when tragic as some suffered on children effect a devastating up without the children grew Ultimately, made available. eat what ration tickets learned to

aegis 2007 132 feeling thatsomething isrightintheworld.” energies andhis lifejusttomakesurethat one notefollowsanother…and leavesuswiththe “The keytothemysteryofa great artististhatforreasonsunknown,hewillgiveaway his serious. You are listening to the authentic roots of a great culture” (Bernstein 128). Young People’s Concert, Bernstein explained, “Jazz belongs to everyone…so remember to be and Barbra Streisand performing this piece, it has survived its early criticism. During a televised great performers agree with Bernstein. With such names as Jennie Tourel, Roberta Alexander, tempted to bring this quality into the concert and opera world (Briggs 56). It appears that many it into something new. Believing firmly that jazz was a major part of American music, he at erything he did” (Peyser 32). Bernstein is able to lift jazz from its original context and transform Bernstein never totally eliminated jazz from his creative process. In fact “it can be heard in ev up ever since I heard music” (Peyser 225). Despite controversy of what serious or “high” art is, for critics in a concert hall setting. The jazz influences and irreverent tone of the cycle were target points there continues to be debate as to whether it is serious or “high art”—that which one would see the girldeclares,“I’mapersontoo.” and goalsaschildhooddreams,whichwillamounttonothing.Bernsteinclearlydisagrees, disregards herthoughtsandonlynoteshowcutesweetsheis,dismissingambitions the protagonistinthisspecificcycle.Infifthandfinalsong,girllamentshoweveryone educated ofcourse”(Peyser98).PerhapsthisisthereasonwhyBernsteinchoseagirltobe comes fromherbeingonedayagoodhomemakerandbearerofchildren—shewassuitably the secondborn,ofwhomnothingmuchwasexpectedordemandedsave twice as hard on Shirley. Their younger brother Burton Bernstein noted, “She was a girl child, Sam BernsteinhadbeenaboutnotallowingLeonardtobecomeamusician,hewas read, andoftencastedherinmanyofhischildhoodproductions(Peyser9). As adamantly as lasting relationshipsamongothers.BernsteintaughtShirleyhowtoplaypiano,sight- love witheachother”(Briggs22). They saweachotherastheideal,andhaddifficultyfinding his belovedsisterShirley. home. PerhapsBernsteinwashelpingaidthisadvancement,ashewishedsomuchmorefor back totheirhomeswhenthewarwasover, somewomenmaintainedtheirjobsoutsideofthe for war. RosietheRiveterbecameaniconfor Women’s Movement. Though manywent deferred thisidealforabit,havingthewomentakeoverjobsleftbehindbymenwho ideal householdcontainedthebreadwinningfather, andthehousewifemother. World War II personal appearance, all patterned on the ways of life of middle class homes” (West 135). The emphasized thelearningof“certainstylesfoodpreparation,tablemanners,costumeand viduality, andwasevenmoredifficultforagirl. Thoughgirlswereeducated,theireducation already challengingforaboychildtomaintainhisinnocencewhilediscoveringindi right tovotein1920,womenwerenotconsideredequalstheirmalecounterparts.Itwas Interestingly, thecycleusesayounggirlasitsstoryteller. Though womengainedthe Regardless of the detail and complexity of this song cycle and its audience approval, The twohadaseeminglystrangerelationship,asfriendsnotethe“beingin bernstein.com/youth.html> n.pa high-brow faroutmountainpeaksoftwelve-tone,oratonalmusic(< 14 . Bernstein admitted to being fascinated with jazz noting, “It’s the stuff I’ve soaked g ). nachas www.leonard that - - - -

133 aegis 2007 - devised by . W.W.Norton & W.W.Norton . . 2001 ed. Bernstein, Leonard. Bernstein, . Princeton U Press: . The World Publishing Publishing World The . composition . Grey House Publishing: New Publishing: New . Grey House . U of Chicago Press: Chicago, . U of Chicago Press: . Greenwood Press: London, 1996. . 11 June 2006 . nstein.com/youth.html Company: New York, 1961. York, New Company: 2002. York, 2006. York, 1988. York, usually under a slur 3 figure length or a complete interruption of the meter. length or a complete interruption of the The distance between two pitches, or notes. 9. as Also known 10. Arnold Schoenberg equal importance, and the music avoids being in a key. group of three notes to be performed in the time of two of the same kind. Indicated by a A 11. of the most important pitches of a key, since as the fifth in the tonic triad it is harmonically since as the fifth in the of the most important pitches of a key, stable. it sound seemingly cadence, or ending, which comes to rest on the dominant, making A 6. incomplete. of a composition. the ‘time’ The speed or pacing of a compositon. Literally 7. notes to their full performance instruction used to denote either a holding of individual A 8. 1. A group of individually complete songs designed as a unit A 1. A, moves to section B and section Also known as binary form—where a piece starts with 2. A. returns to section by half-steps. chromatic scale consists of an ascending or descending line that advances A 3. sustained tone, typically in the bass. A 4. the fifth degree of the scale, the triad built upon that 5. In the tonal system, the dominant is The dominant scale degree is considered one its tonic. degree, or the key that has this triad as Yaffe, David. Yaffe, Notes “Jazz in the Concert Hall.” “Jazz in the Concert “Leonard Bernstein.” Joan. Peyser, Secrest, Meryle. Elliot. West, Derks, Scott. Gennari, John. Horowitz, Joseph. Works Cited Works Leonard. Bernstein, Album, Score Song Briggs, John.

aegis 2007 134 consistently playedoneahalf-stephigherorlowerthantheequivalentnotesunlessotherwise 13. A seriesofsharporflatsymbolsplacedonthestaff, designatingthatnotesareto be relationship betweenthemcreatingchords. 12. Homophonyisatextureinwhichtwoormorepartsmovetogetherharmony, the John Gennariand 14. Formorereadingonjazzanditscriticssee notated. FascinatingRhythm:ReadingJazzin American Writing Blowin’ HotandCool:JazzItsCritics byDavid Yaffe. by

135 aegis 2007 - - , - Knoxville: Sum The Rose Tree , but even this term does not fit , but even this term 1 by investigating the life, composi a fresh start with his freedom of expression and a fresh start with his 2 Knoxville: Summer of 1915 Barber gave Romanticism of the genius. For this, he became the composer melodic and orchestral He was the of the avant-garde loved to hate. twentieth-century members breathed new life into a language last thing they needed—a composer who they had declared dead (46). Alison Brooks 10). These two relatives would encourage and support Barber throughout his These two relatives would encourage and support 10). illustrates this point. This work has become one of Barber’s most famous vocal become one of Barber’s This work has illustrates this point. 3 At ten years of age Barber had begun composition on his first opera, At ten years of age Barber had begun composition on his Samuel Barber was born on March 9, 1910 in West Chester, Pennsylvania. He was Chester, West in Samuel Barber was born on March 9, 1910 Music is an ever changing art form. As time progresses, music has become increas As time progresses, music art form. Music is an ever changing well-known musicians including George Boyle, Isabelle Vengerova (who studied piano with (who studied piano with Vengerova Boyle, Isabelle well-known musicians including George to his mother, “I was meant to be a composer, and will be, I’m sure...Don’t ask me to try and and will be, I’m sure...Don’t “I was meant to be a composer, to his mother, and go and play football, Please!” (Hennessee 3). this forget at the up which he never finished. During high school he was accepted as a charter student Institute of Music, during its first year of operation in the Curtis and coming conservatory, a number of 1926. Barber remained at the Curtis Institute for eight years and studied with Board. Barber’s family was a musical one. His maternal aunt was the well known contralto family was a musical one. His Board. Barber’s Homer (Broder, American song, Sidney and his uncle the notable composer of Louise Homer, Samuel Barber This was not encouraged piano. At the age of six Barber began to play the musical career. By the age him to play sports like a “normal boy.” by his parents who would have preferred and wrote the following career path of a composer, of eight Barber had decided to follow the mer of 1915 mixture of old it provides a glimpse into Barber’s works. Scored for orchestra and soprano, in which Barber was submersed at the time he wrote and new styles and reflects the culture This essay seeks to analyze it. surrounded Barber at the time of its composition. tional style, and cultural environment that West Chester School his father being a doctor and the head of the born into an affluent family, Although critically acclaimed by many of his colleagues, Barber’s music spoke for itself as he music spoke of his colleagues, Barber’s Although critically acclaimed by many century. mid-twentieth the of composers played often and well-known most the of one became works because of “his lyricism, along with a great Barber is especially known for his vocal of poetic texts...” (Nicholls 486). sensitivity to the nuances and accentuation the full scope of his music. Robert R. Reilly comments on the academic reaction to Barber’s the academic reaction to Barber’s music. Robert R. Reilly comments on the full scope of his music by noting: During the twentieth century genres and subgenres. different ingly diverse, with many and coherence of a has often been stressed over understanding originality of composition brought on by modernism who did not fit the stereotype of newness piece. One composer to as a neoromantic He is often referred was Samuel Barber. Discovering Knoxville: A Biography, Biography, A Knoxville: Discovering Context Cultural of Study and Analysis,

aegis 2007 136 effects areseenthroughouthis music. While stillastudent,Barberwonnumberofawards His studiesattheCurtisInstitutehelpedtoshapehiscompositionalstyleandabilities, Curtis Instituteallowedtomajorinthreeareas:piano,voice,andcomposition(Alcorn2-3). Leschetizky), RosarioScalero,andEmiliodeGorgorza. Barberwasthefirststudentat the premiere’s successfrom bothMenottiandKoussevitzky. Barber eventuallywentontore the strongconnection hefeltwiththispiece, buthisspiritswereliftedwhen helearnedabout and Barberwasunabletoattend thepremiereofwork.Hewasquitedistraughtbecause of Soprano. BarberaskedKoussevitzky ifthedatecouldberearranged.Hisrequestwasrefused slated topremieretheworkwith theBostonSymphonyOrchestrawithEleanorStebersinging one ofBarber’s extendedstaysoutofthecountry. The conductorSerge Koussevitzkywas ville: Summerof1915 with herinmind.Barbercompleted thiscompositionon April 4,1947. The premiereof begun workon music. BarberreceivedacommissionfromEleanorSteber inFebruaryof1947,afterhehad adhered verycloselyto Agee’s textonlycuttingshortsnippetsthatdidnotfittheflowof graphical workbyauthorJames Agee, whoseworkhadimpressedthe composer. Barber Knoxville: Summerof1915. (Hennessee 6-9). eventually wonaPulitzerPrize.Hereceivedtheagain in1962forhis Concerto most famousworksduringthistimeincluding: The yearsafterhismilitaryserviceprovedtobeverysuccessful.Barberwrotemanyof found inspirationforanumberofworksandcontinuedtocomposeinwidearraygenres. Essay forOrchestra ni ledtheNBCsymphonyorchestrainapremiereofBarber’s can Academy inRome.Barber’s careertookoff whenin1938thefamousconductor Toscani travel throughoutEurope. While therehereceivedthe claim thatcanbemadebyveryfew American composersofthetwentiethcentury. to enablehimdevoteallhistimecomposing”(Broder, his compositionsinroyalties,performancefees,andcommissionsfornewworksawards, to increase.InthelateryearsofhislifeBarber“achievedstatusearningenoughfrom Barber’s music,provingratherlucrativeforthecompanyascomposer’s popularitybegan Barber’s firstpublishedwork dent oftheG.Schirmer, Inc.publishinghousewasintroducedtoBarber’s music,resultingin teaching andsingingtosupporthimselfbutfoundhedidnotlikeeither. In1934thepresi home inMt.Kisco,New York, fondlynamedCapricorn(Hennessee4). librettos The twocollaboratedonmanyworksthroughouttheirlives,withMenottioftenproviding 1928 Barbermethissoontobelife-longfriendGian-CarloMenottiattheCurtisInstitute. works awardedandisapiecestillseenintheclassicalrepertoiretoday(Alcorn4).Inyear the Bearnsawardforhiscompositions. which allowedhimtotravelextensivelythroughoutEurope.In1928and1933Barberwon 4 In 1947Barbercomposedwhatwouldbecomeoneofhis mostfamousvocalpieces, In 1935and1936BarberreceivedthePulitzertraveling scholarshipallowinghimto In 1933BarberlefttheCurtisInstitute.Duringnext fewyearsheattemptedboth forBarbertoset. The twotraveledextensivelytogetheranduntil1974maintaineda , Medea Suite Knoxville: Summerof1915, (Alcorn 4-5). While servinginthemilitaryfrom1943to1945,Barber , whichwasscheduledfor April 9,1948,happenedtocoincidewith , Piano Sonata The textforthiscompositionwastakenfromashortautobio Dover Beach , and Overture to . G.Schirmerbecametheexclusivepublisherof Vanessa. andthereforecontinuedworkingonthepiece Symphony No.2

The SchoolforScandal

Vanessa Prix deRome Samuel Barber , Barber’s firstcompletedopera, Adagio forStrings , The HermitSongs awardfromthe Ameri 24). This isa was oneofthe Piano Sonata andthe , Violin Knox First - - -

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137 aegis 2007 ------...

- 7 - - Samuel Knoxville: ’s second style ’s , and the melodic 5 , with frequent meter 11 ). form, the sections divided by the . This was written during his sec . 15 combine to intensify a climactic pas 13 and ninths 12 The Musical Times The Musical was premiered September 16, 1966 with Leontyne 1966 with Leontyne September 16, was premiered themes. When talking about the expanse of Barber’s When talking about the expanse of Barber’s themes. 9 was originally scored for Soprano vocalist and full was originally scored for Soprano vocalist , with the melodic spotlight held firmly by the voice. When , with the melodic spotlight held firmly by the voice. 14 Knoxville: Summer of 1915 written for Oboe and Strings. On January 23, 1981, after a long and Strings. On January 23, 1981, after a written for Oboe and Antony and Cleopatra Antony and Barber returns to traditional key relationships (though not to traditional Barber returns to traditional key relationships . The music of Barber’s first style period can also be “dramatic and expan style period can also be “dramatic first The music of Barber’s . 6 with many short, disjunct 8 Knoxville: Summer of 1915 Barber’s compositional style is at times difficult to describe. He utilizes character He utilizes is at times difficult to describe. compositional style Barber’s Due to Barber’s talent for composing vocal music and his ever increasing fame, he ever increasing music and his for composing vocal talent Due to Barber’s become more common and rhythms become more varied and difficult. In the second become more common and rhythms become Canzonetta, 10 orchestra. The orchestration included Flute/Piccolo, Oboe/English Horn, Clarinet in A, Bas Oboe/English Horn, Clarinet in The orchestration included Flute/Piccolo, orchestra. Cello, and Bass. Violin Viola, I/II, Violin Harp, Triangle, in C, Trumpet soon, Horns I/II in F, This work is mostly homophonic sus usually is and instruments different passed between is melody the present, not is voice the The melody of this work shifts between lyric and dramatic in the tained by a solo instrument. This work is a loosely constructed ternary various sections. section includes a calm, quiet, and A The text being sung and the music that accompanies it. comments on this mixture of old and new by writing, “In the tender and nostalgic comments on this mixture of old and new Summer of 1915 here seconds even harmonic textures)...Yet music is very distinct, it cannot always While Barber’s “The Music...” 328). sage” (Broder, be confined to one stylistic genre. style period vocal lines are fluid and reflect a free declamation of text style period vocal lines are fluid and reflect did begin to use more modern techniques in his second While Barber changes being the norm. not interfere with the clarity and expression of style period, he only did so when they would two style periods, his feeling Throughout Barber’s Samuel” 1). his works (Heyman, “Barber, works conform to the boundaries of the two for form remained strong. Not all of Barber’s style periods. One such work is reflects on a more traditional writing style. Broder ond style period but at times deliberately of his first style period normally includes simple melodies and rhythms. Barber of his first style period normally includes During this time his music became more chromatic period is said to start in the year 1940. and angular in is no longer the principal determining factor; music and output, Broder writes: “Tonality “The Music...” 326). Disso structure” (Broder, stead, certain intervals dominate the melodic nances istics from older styles as well as new and often mixes them within a single piece of music. as well as new and often mixes them istics from older styles music Barber” talks of Barber’s journal article “The Music of Samuel Nathan Broder in the period lasts until approximately 1939. first style style periods Barber’s as encompassing two by tonality time is more traditional. It is governed His music during this lines are lyrical ear Barber’s “The Music...” 326). Even though broad leaps” (Broder, sive, characterized by The music and minor keys. they often shift between major lier works include a tonal center, is now performed very rarely. Despite this set back, Barber continued to compose music in to compose back, Barber continued Despite this set very rarely. is now performed a work in 1978, is composition, completed 12 years. His last the genres for the next almost all entitled memories, Samuel Barber died of many accomplishments and cherished successful career full of 70 (“Obituary,” from cancer at the age score this work for soprano with small orchestra, and soprano with piano (Heyman, (Heyman, piano soprano with and orchestra, with small for soprano this work score 428-451). Opera House of the new Metropolitan opera for the opening to write an was commissioned Center. in Lincoln well, and This work was not received (Hennessee 10). the role of Cleopatra Price singing

aegis 2007 138 forward, whilestillallowingitroomtoexpandandcontract. The linesoftenhaveanascend (Alcorn 26-29). The melodic lineisnormallythreemeasureslong,helpingtopropelthepiece melody becomesdisjointedanddramatic. The Csectionshowsareturntomelodiclyricism lyrical melody, witharockingaccompaniment. The moodchangesintheBsectionwhere (see Ex.2). gia. The tempo ofthisworkvariesconstantly andisoftenaccompanied byachangeinmood and syncopation reflecting thefreedeclamatory styleofthesungmelodicline. 6/8, 7/8,15/8. The constantlychangingmeterprovidesBarber aflowing,everchangingbeat, lar. The timesignatures ing factorintheworkasawhole. melody ofthispiece,forthemostpart,isverypronouncedthroughoutandbecomesaunify exclusively diatonic purposes, especiallyintheBandCsections. The melodiclinesinthisworkarealmost over anoctavehigher). The widerangeallowsBarbertoexpandthemelodyfordramatic The vocalrangeofthemelodyiswide,spanningnearlytwooctaves(frommiddleCtoB-flat and thetextbeingsung. ing anddescendingarchlikemotion(seeEx.1). This servestoreflectthemoodofpiece The meter Ex. 1,mm.117-119, “Archingmotionofmelodicsoprano line.” 20 Barberweakens thedownbeat,creatingafeeling ofambiguityandnostal 18 16 ofthisworkiseverchanging, usingduple,triple,compound,andirregu . Increasedchromaticism 19 fluctuateconstantlyandinclude: 4/4,2/4,3/4,5/4,3/2,12/8,9/8, 17 inthemelodyisseenBsection. The Through tiesacrossthebarline - - - -

139 aegis 2007 - - - - . Although chro . 21 and Mood Relation of Tempo of Relation Knoxville: Summer of 1915 Summer Knoxville: and images are brought to mind. and images are brought section which is gradu Transitional reminiscent of a ally slowing down, fading memory. with is slower and smoother, Tempo of nostal no stressed beat. Feeling gia. slows down even more, pro Tempo viding a brief interlude. about is again reminiscing Text childhood. Strong beat on 1 and 4 of Tempo measures subdivided into 8. is more rubato, molding the mood back and forth. Includes a strong down beat and is The mood is now agitated. swift. Returning to first tempo. Lilting and forward moving, but restrained. Return to a lilting, walking tempo. Reminiscent mood is rekindled and present to the end. Reminiscent quality, calm, with a calm, with quality, Reminiscent steady beat. rocking on a porch. Feeling of Calm on 1 and 4 of 6/8. Strong beats feeling. and nostalgic section. Reminiscent Faster moving sounds Vivid of a busy street corner. is completely tertian mosso mosso Piu agitato by Barber None included None included Allegro agitato Sempre con moto Allegretto a tempo m. 202 marked Meno Come prima, un poco Adagio ma non troppo Adagio ma Knoxville: Summer of 1915 Andante, un poco mosso Andante, Tempo included in score included Tempo The harmony in Ex. 2, Chart of tempo and mood changes in mood changes tempo and Chart of Ex. 2, mm. 1-5 mm. 6-40 mm. 41-76 mm. 77-91 mm. 92-123 mm. 198-230 mm. 129-182 mm. 183-197 mm. 124-128 mm. 231-263 (end) Measure Numbers Measure hectic and maticism is rather rare, it is utilized in the B section to help accentuate the highly dramatic mood (see Ex. 3). often reflecting nostalgic feelings of childhood with the midsection including active, excited often reflecting nostalgic feelings of childhood is an important facet helping to establish the rhythms and tempos. Rhythm in this work In general, the and dotted rhythms prevail throughout. Triplets mood and setting up themes. yet they help to create forward motion in the rhythms in this piece are not overly complex in the melody is contrasted with the rhythm of the instruments At times the rhythm melody. brief, add much texture and color to the work as a These sections, though in the orchestra. whole. The tempo of this work resembles an arch form. The outer sections are calm and tranquil, form. The tempo of this work resembles an arch

aegis 2007 140 performance suggestions piece inherdissertationentitled change inmoodand/ortempo. Carla Alcorn outlinestheconstant modulationsthroughoutthe ambiguous, merging seamlesslyintooneanother. Modulationsare oftenaccompaniedbya 19). The harmonyinthisworkincorporatesbotholdand newstylesofcomposition. 40 andmm.104-124,whichutilizethedottedquarternote for theharmonicrhythm monic rhythmismostoftenbasedonthequarternote,with theonlyexceptionsbeingmm.6- dramatic cadenceatm.90andanotherin m.263endsthework. The har cadences chords facilitatesmanymodulations This wasacommontraitofBarber’s secondstyleperiod. The frequentuseofdiminished vals ofasecond,third,fourth,andseventhareemphasized throughoutthiswork(Alcorn20). 23 Ex. 3,mm.107-110, “Increaseduseofchromaticismin theBsection.” This workisbasedontraditionaltonality, butthemajor andminorkeysareoften More thananythingelse,thispieceisdominatedbyintervallic relationships. Inter inthiswork. A fewexamplesare the weak,deceptivecadenceatm.40;astrong, . A charthasbeenincluded basedonherfindings (seeEx.4). Samuel Barber’s 22 torelatedkeys.Barbermakesscarceuseofstrong Knoxville: Summerof1915 : An analysisand 24 (Alcorn - -

141 aegis 2007 - - - A form chart for the A B A getting (m.90). This creates getting (m.90). Section Introduction F Major F Major A Major A A Major A f# minor B flat Major A flat Major A Tonal Center Tonal Knoxville: Summer of 1915 Summer Knoxville: resolves to A Major A resolves to d minor and f# minor Various tonal centers, tonal Various A Major and g# minor Major A Chromatic/ transitional Knoxville: Summer of 1915 mm.1-5 mm. 6-40 Ex. 5, Form Chart for mm. 41-102 mm. 183-201 mm. 202-230 mm. 231-263 mm. 103-124 mm. 124-128 mm. 128-155 mm. 155-173 mm. 174-182 Ex. 4, Chart of modulations in modulations Chart of Ex. 4, mm. 1-5 mm. 6-40 Measure Numbers Measure mm. 41-102 Measure Numbers Measure The form of this work is loosely based on a ternary form, with the A section being A with the on a ternary form, The form of this work is loosely based restating an idea that was heard earlier in the work. This section is much more straightforward This section is much more straightforward in the work. restating an idea that was heard earlier Barber where the text begins, and later is marked “ca and has been marked “very simply” by about the good times spent together. The text talks of family and reminisces sually” (m. 151). in the C section (Alcorn 27). The text is both narrative and reflective entire work is as follows (see Ex. 5): niscent of rocking on a porch swing in the summertime. The B section of this work is much the summertime. niscent of rocking on a porch swing in noises are heard, such as a car horn in m. 41, reflect more agitated and dramatic. Mechanical is much quicker at the beginning The tempo the day. ing a busy street corner in the middle of as the text reflects on for of this section, and slows down steadily you are one in which you can vividly hear and see what of a flashbulb memory, the effect The C section begins by less vivid memory. remembering slowly fading away into another, forward moving quality. A section is characterized by a lilting The modified on each return. gentle feeling of rocking A of childhood. The text is often very nostalgic and reminiscent This is remi eighth notes in the accompaniment. back and forth is created by upward moving

aegis 2007 142 individual wordsarerarelyrepeated(seeEx.6). lowing precisely Agee’s words. There islittlerepetitionoftextwithinthemusicalworkand of childhoodduringtheearlytwentiethcentury. The textisprosewithBarber’s settingfol original scoringforfullorchestra. The textiswritteninEnglishandpaintsanostalgicpicture Ex. 6,“Text from This piecelastsapproximately15:00to17:00minutes when performedwiththe eardrums. The dryandexaltednoiseof the locustsfrom alltheairatonceenchants my hang theirancientfaces. Parents onporches: rock and rock. From dampstringsmorningglories Low onthelengthoflawns,afrailingfire whobreathes... hose. Now isthenightonebluedew, myfatherhasdrained,he coiledthe forgotten. Nowisthenightonebluedew. stinging bell;risesagain,stillfainter;fainting,lifting’ lifts’ faintsforegone: the iron whinerisesonrisingspeed;stillrisen,faints;halts;thefaint ling andcursingaboveitlikeasmallmalignantspiritsetto dogitstracks; windows andstrawseatsonpastpast,thebleak sparkcrack rousing andraisingagainitsiron increasing moanandswimmingitsgold clowns inhuelessamber. starched milk,theimageuponthemofloversand horsemen,squared with sually, thetastehoveringoverthemofvanilla, strawberry, pasteboard, and not inahurry, scuffling,switchingtheirweightofaestivalbody, talkingca hollow iron musicontheasphalt:aloudauto:quietpeopleinpairs, gars. Peoplegoby;thingsby. A horse,drawingabuggy, breaking his up intotheirsphere ofpossessionthetrees, ofbirds’ hunghavens,han rocking gently andtalkingwatchingthestreet andthestanding …It hasbecomethattimeofeveningwhenthepeoplesitontheirpor

A streetcar raisingitsiron moan;stopping;bellingandstarting,stertorous; mm. 202-263 mm. 128-201 mm. 124-128 mm. 114-124 mm. 103-114 Knoxville:Summerof1915” (includes Bmaterial) Transition Transition A A C ches, - - - -

143 aegis 2007 - , rhythm, and chro 25 ... 428-451). Considerable examples of word painting can be found ... 428-451). Considerable examples of

Sleep, soft smiling, draws me in and put to bed. Sleep, soft smiling, After a little I am taken familiar and me, as one me, who quietly treat receive unto her: and those not ever; but oh, will not, not now, well-beloved in that home: but will not, will not ever tell me who I am. The stars are are at all. The stars of nothing in particular, of nothing at all in particular, very they and sweetness, great of smile a like each seem they alive, and wide gently and than mine,.. with voices bodies larger All my people are near. artist, he is living One is an sleeping birds. like the voices of meaningless artist, he is One is an at home. she is living at home. One is a musician, she is living at home. One is my mother living at home. One is a musician, is good to me... By some chance, One is my father who who is good to me. of being who shall ever tell the sorrow all on this earth; and they are, here among on quilts, on the grass, in a summer evening, on this earth, lying, my aunt, my May God bless my people, my uncle, the sounds of the night... of trouble; them kindly in their time oh, remember my good father, mother, raking away. and in the hour of their On the rough wet grass of the back yard my father and mother have spread spread have and mother my father yard of the back wet grass rough On the and I too my aunt, my uncle, father, my mother, my lie there, all We quilts. of nothing and the talk is quiet, not talking much, They are am lying there... Samuel Ex. 8, mm.66-67, “Word painting seen on the word ‘moan’.” Ex. 8, mm.66-67, “Word throughout this composition, such as in mm. 66-67 on the word “moan” (see Ex. 8). throughout this composition, such as in Barber places emphasis on certain words through the use of dynamics Barber places emphasis on certain words around the words being set as one can see within The form of this piece revolves maticism. text because it was very lyrical and speech sections. Barber enjoyed setting this the different like (Heyman,

aegis 2007 144 a quasi-pastoralstyle,withfrequentword-painting,hintsoftheblues,richorchestralcolour in asmallSoutherntown,ontextbyJames Agee, itisapalpableevocationoffolklorein Knoxville: Summerof1915 this piece,and the compositionalprocessmay havebeenawayforhimto copewiththisloss. at thetimeoftheirdeaths.Barber’s anguish overtheinevitablelossofhisfatherisobviousin uncle. Hemayalsobeshowing thesefamilymembersbeingtakentoanotherspiritualrealm place withinhisfamilyandthe negativeeffects theyarehaving uponhim,hismother, andhis their takingaway.” BymodulatingBarberonceagainemphasizesthechanges thataretaking 218, whichendsthissectionof text,Barbersuddenlymodulatesonthewords“inhour of Barber isgrievingforimpending familydeathsbutalsocelebratingeachindividual.In m. lengthening thenotesandthinningaccompanimenttexture. At thispoint itisapparentthat named inthescore.Barberplacesevenmoreemphasisupon thetext“mygoodfather”by ens themusicinthissection,placingspecialemphasisoneach ofthedifferent peoplebeing This sectionistheclimaxofboth Agee’s proseandBarber’s musicalsetting.Barberbroad panied bydirectioninthescorethatitistobeperformed“with intensityanddeepfeeling.” member themkindlyintheirtimeoftroubleandthehour oftheirtakingaway,” isaccom 204-218), “MayGodblessmypeople,uncle,aunt, mymother, mygoodfather, oh,re would havefoundpeaceinthememoriesthatthistextbrought. Another sectionoftext(mm. affinity forfamilyties.Barber, whowasgoing throughsomuchpersonalturmoilatthetime, there, mymother, myfather, myuncle,aunt,andItooamlying there,”clearlyshowsan text, “Onthewetgrassofbackyardmyfatherandmotherhavespreadquilts. We alllie Barber maintainedacloserelationshipwithmanymembersofhisfamily. Inmm.137-146the would haveappealedtoBarberbecauseofitsstrongemphasisonfamily. Throughout hislife evenings whenIwasachildathome”(Heyman, summer eveninghedescribesinhisnativesoutherntownremindedmesomuchofsimilar this textinaninterviewbysaying,“...Thisprosepoemparticularlystruckmebecausethe of hisfatherandaunt,bothtowhomhewasespeciallyclose.Barberlatercommentedupon childhood memorieswhichhewouldhavebeendwellingonbecauseoftheimpendingdeaths West Chester, nowveryfaraway, andallofyouareinit!”(Heyman, times in West Chester...It [James Agee’s text]remindedmesomuchofsummereveningsin work andgaveinsightintowhyhedecidedtowriteit.“We havebeenthroughsomedifficult gravely ill.BarberwrotetohisuncleSidneyHomeraboutthecircumstancessurroundingthis ville: Summerof1915 The resultsofthisresearchoffer manyinsightsintotheoriginsandreasoningbehind work throughpersonalstatementsmadebyBarberhimselfinanumberofdifferent media. 1915 for almostsixtyyears. period. The simplebeautythatthispiecebearsallowsonetoseewhyithasremainedpopular of composition,anddoesnoteasilyfitintothetypicalcompositionsBarber and freelyvariedmetre”(“Barber, Samuel”1). This pieceincludesbotholdandnewstyles . Inherdoctoraldissertation,BarbaraB.HeymaninvestigatestheoriginsofBarber’s Samuel Barbercombinedawidearrayofcompositional elementsinhiswork While investigating thiswork,somepeculiar similarities betweenBarber andJames Barber seemstohavebeendrawnthistextbecauseit remindedhimofhisown Upon the completion of this work both Barber’s father and aunt, Louise Homer, were There ismuchspeculationastowhySamuelBarberwrote . . Heymandescribesthispiecebysaying,“A reverieofchildhood Samuel Barber 429). Agee’s prosealso Knoxville: Summerof Samuel Barber ’s secondstyle 428). Knox - - - -

145 aegis 2007 ------429). 429). Knoxville: Sum Knoxville: Samuel Barber Samuel Barber 430). Samuel Barber is one of Samuel Barber’s most influential vocal works. is one of Samuel Barber’s to his father” (Heyman, to his father” (Heyman, We both had back yards where our families used to lie in the long summer both had back yards where our families used to lie We a musician. I remember well my evenings, we each had an aunt who was And there was a as they rocked. parents sitting on the porch, talking quietly bell called “The Dinky” that trav trolley car with straw seats and a clanging eled up and down the main street (Heyman, ...I found out, after setting this, that Mr. Agee and I are the same age, and the I are the same age, Agee and that Mr. out, after setting this, ...I found it expresses You see, five. we were both was 1915 when year he described in that marginal lack of identity and wonder, feeling of loneliness, a child’s (Heyman, twilight and sleep... world between was completed. Upon meeting one another, they found that there were many were many that there found they another, one Upon meeting completed. was Knoxville Knoxville: Summer of 1915 Barber commented upon the similarities between himself and Agee once again in 1980: in again once Agee and himself between similarities the upon commented Barber have been another reason why Barber chose to set this text. He could relate personally to it, have been another reason why Barber chose therefore it appealed to him. the circum The motives behind this work are not completely known but can be deduced from the prose of stances surrounding Barber at the time of its completion. Barber was drawn to Barber’s The similarities between it reminded him of his own childhood. Agee because James prose. He also Agee’s to and explain why Barber was so drawn lives are many, Agee’s and his father when he was six years of age. Agee wrote extensively about his father in his works, Agee his father when he was six years of age. life evolved” (Ai the pivot around which ...his [Agee’s] death, “...was believing his father’s making his writing walk right Agee was very exact in his descriptions of Knoxville, ken 150). Although Agee cannot be overlooked. The similarities between Barber and of the page. off work was written, they shared common back they did not know one another before this would This, obviously, on which they both tread. grounds and common emotional ground These similarities may seem to be superficial, but when looking back at childhood, they be These similarities may seem to be superficial, in memories of childhood, even the rocking of come very important. Everything is intensified would otherwise seem meaningless take on signifi Things that people upon their porches. Alcorn. Both Agee shared are discussed by Carla cance. Other similarities that Barber and side of the family. pursue the arts by their mother’s men were introduced and encouraged to attended esteemed schools of higher learning. Both Both were from prosperous families and inspiration for his text was the death of Agee’s (15-16). received formal training in their fields though an actual piece of one’s being is wrenched from within. Barber would be able to from within. Barber would be able to being is wrenched of one’s though an actual piece that his father was dying. In telling this story for this exact reason: identify with the child identification intensity of Barber’s Heyman writes, “The from Barber, response to this quote be the reason he impending death and may reverie coincided with Roy Barber’s Agee’s with dedicated Barber brings up the fact that this text is supposed to be written from the viewpoint of a fact that this text is supposed to be written Barber brings up the lack of identity” that and wonder, relates to the feelings of “loneliness, child. He personally it can often seem as a child experiences the death of a parent, When surrounded this piece. Agee appear. Barber and Agee did not meet, or even correspond, until after until after or even correspond, not meet, Agee did and Barber appear. Agee 1915 mer of by saying: upon these coincidences, Barber commented between their lives. similarities

aegis 2007 146 years thatweretofollow. anguish andlovetowardshisfatheraunt,anoutletthatwouldtranscendthehurt father’s illness.Bywriting this composition,Barberfoundanoutletwhichlethimexpresshis set thistextbecauseitreflectedtheemotionalturmoilwhichhewasexperiencingduetohis Schwartz, Elliot andDanielGodfrey. Music Reilly, RobertR. “ObituaryofSamuelBarber.” JSTOR. Nicholls, David,ed. Hicks, Anne Matlack. “SamuelBarber’s Heyman, BarbaraB. Heyman, BarbaraB.“Barber, Samuel,” Hennessee, Don A. Cox, ChristophandDaniel Warner, eds. Broder, Nathan.“TheMusic ofSamuelBarber.” JSTOR, Broder, Nathan. Bonds, MarkEvans. Barber, Samuel. Ammer, Christine. Alcorn, CarlaOlivia.“SamuelBarber’s Aiken, CharlesS.“The Transformation ofJames Agee’s Knoxville.”JSTOR, Works Cited process. That iswhatSamuelBarberwouldhavewanted. continue itsjourneyforanothersixtyyearsandbydoingsotouchtheheartsofmanyin remained successfulforoversixtyyears.Onewouldhopethispieceofnobleproportionswill same reasons.Onecanseewithallofthepersonalinvestmentputintothisworkwhyithas on familyand“thegoodolddays.” This compositionisstillvaluedtodayformanyofthe culture. The themeswithinthismusicalworkresonatedwithpeoplebecauseoftheemphasis as menreturnedfromwar. This ledtoagreateremphasisuponfamilyvaluesin American . Washington, D.C.:MorleyBooks,2002. vices, 1994:428-451. City UniversityofNew York, 1989. Ann Arbor, Michigan:UMIDissertationSer Press, 1985. York: Continuum,2004. 325-335. New Jersey:PearsonEducation,Inc.,2006. Publishers, 1987. mance suggestions.”Diss.BowlingGreenStateUniversity, 1980. Review mont, California: Schirmer Thomson Learning,1993. dom: CambridgeUniversityPress, 1998. This piecewaswrittensoonaftertheendof WWII. Familieswerebeingreunited Samuel Barber Knoxville: Summerof1915. 73.2(1983):150-165. Suprised byBeauty: A listener’s GuidetotheRecovery ofModern The HarperDictionaryofMusic Samuel Barber: A Bio-Works cited The CambridgeHistoryof American Music A HistoryofMusicin Western Culture Samuel Barber: A DocumentaryStudyofHis Works . Westport, Connecticut:GreenwoodPress,Publishers,1985. Music since1945: Issues,Material,andLiterature The Grove MusicOnline Audio Culture:ReadingsinModernMusic Knoxville: Summerof1915 The Lovers

Musical Times New York: G.Schirmer, Inc.,1952. . 2 .” Diss.UniversityofCincinnati, 1991. nd . Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood ed.New York: Harper&Row The MusicalQuarterly 122.1657(Mar., 1981): 193. . 2 ed.L.Macy(Accessed4/11/06), nd ed.UpperSaddleRiver, . Cambridge,UnitedKing An analysisandperfor . Vol. 2.Diss. The Geographical 34.3(1948): . New

. Bel - - - -

147 aegis 2007 - - . New York: Con York: . New with Performance Performance with . New York: Routledge, 2001. York: . New Melodies Passageres Melodies can be heard by following these steps: can be heard by following Samuel Barber: A guide to Research A Samuel Barber: Under-Currents: The Hidden Wiring of Modern Music of Wiring The Hidden Under-Currents: Click on “Links for the OC Campus” drop-down menu and choose library Click on “Links for the OC Campus” drop-down Databases—by sub Articles and more” and choose “Research Click on “Find ject” Click on Music Click on “Classical Music Library” search engine and click go Knoxville into the Type piece! Click on Play and enjoy listening to the Access the www.otterbein.edu website Access the www.otterbein.edu tinuum, 2002. Implications.” Diss. Bowling Green State University, 1978. State University, Green Diss. Bowling Implications.” 5, 1988. 3 5269 0001171 Hawkes, Inc., 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 1) Knoxville: Summer of 1915 Knoxville: Summer 12. “The interval made up of the first and second tones (in rising order of pitches) in any 12. “The interval made up of the first 379). major or minor scale, for example, C—D in the scale of C major…” (Ammer the D over 13. “The interval of an octave plus a second” (Ammer 262). For example, C and an octave above in the key of C major. is supported by chords in the other 14. “Music in which one voice-part, carrying the melody, voice-parts carrying melodies of equal importance” (Ammer 183). 7. “Pertaining to or containing notes not belonging to a given major or minor key” (Ammer 7. “Pertaining to or containing notes not 78). traditional rules of composition, and is more strident 8. Music that is angular does not follow in sound. songlike. leaps between notes, and is not disjunct theme involves large A 9. (Ammer 109). musical interval that sounds harsh or unpleasant” 10. “A is speech like and free flowing. Text 11. 4. “The text to which an opera or oratorio is set” (Ammer 215). 4. “The text to which an opera or oratorio tonic, around which the other tonal material of the 5. “The use of a central note, called the chords—is built and to which the music returns for a composition—the notes, intervals, and sense of rest and finality” (Ammer 445). lyrical melodic line is one which is songlike and easily remembered. A 6. nineteenth-century romanticism in emphasizing emotional expressiveness rather than strictly romanticism in emphasizing emotional nineteenth-century (Ammer 260). rational formalism…” on feeling, both very of romanticism in music…is emphasis 2. “The chief characteristic 362). country” (Ammer ones, such as love for one’s larger personal emotions and 3. Notes of to a style of composition that is reminiscent loosely applied in the 1980’s term A 1. “ Shinaberry, Cathleen Stettner. “Samuel Barber’s Barber’s “Samuel Stettner. Cathleen Shinaberry, CD. Boosey and Summer of 1915. of 1915.” Knoxville: Summer Dawn. “Knoxville: Upshaw, C. Wayne Wentzel, Rob, ed. Young,

aegis 2007 148 (Ammer 107). 16. “Pertainingtoorcontainingthenotesthatmakeupaparticularmajorminorscale” identical tothefirst“(Ammer437). 15. “A basicmusicalform,consistingofthree sections, ABA, thethirdsectionbeingvirtually 25. “Thegradationsofloudnessorsoftnesswithwhichmusicisperformed”(Ammer118). composition. associated withhowfrequentlytheunderlyingchordsinharmonychangethroughout 24. “Thepatternofchangesinharmonyacompositionorsection”(Ammer173). Also of partialorcompletefinality”(Ammer57). 23. “Theseriesofnotesorchordsthatendsamelodysection,givingthelistenersense (Ammer 247). 22. “Changingfromonekeytoanotherwithinacompositionorsectionofcomposition” 21. Tertian harmonyismadeupofintervalsamajororminorthird,whichformchords. beats” (Ammer423). 20. “Aneffect ofunevenrhythmthatresultsfromchangingthenormalpatternaccentsand musical compositionorsection”(Ammer441). 19. “A signconsistingoftwonumbers,oneplacedabovetheother, thatindicatethemeterofa equal size(timevalues)andwithregularlyrecurringaccents”(Ammer242). 18. “Thearrangementofbeats(unitsusedtomeasuremusicaltime)intomeasures,groups 17. “Theuseofchromaticnotes…Theharmony”(Ammer78).

149 aegis 2007 - - - - - The Weekly Stan The Weekly . Fukuyama explains, America at the Crossroads: America at the Crossroads: , provides a history and a definition of The Weekly Standard The Weekly America at the Crossroads: the Crossroads: at America Cassi Smith may differ to some extent, these four characteristics make up to some extent, these four characteristics may differ New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006. 264 pp. 264 2006. Press, University Yale CT: Haven, New Fukuyama, Francis. Francis. Fukuyama, the Neoconservative and Legacy. Power, Democracy, These four characteristics are much more viable and less extreme than the common These four characteristics are much more According to Fukuyama, the beginnings of neoconservatism came in the 1930s out According to Fukuyama, the beginnings Former neoconservative, Francis Fukuyama’s book, Former neoconservative, Francis Fukuyama’s When it became apparent that September 11 was an excuse for America’s leaders leaders America’s for excuse an was 11 September that apparent became it When In light of this current presidential administration, criticism has become easy. This has become easy. presidential administration, criticism In light of this current The National Interest The National Interest or will not be persuaded to change their minds regardless of the facts about the diverse views of will not be persuaded to change their minds regardless of the facts about the diverse of right wing extremists who create democracy perception of neoconservatives as a group just moral pur across the globe by violating the sovereignty of other countries in the name of Kris William poses. In fact, this perception is a new concept perpetuated by neoconservative issues of tol and Robert Kagan in the late 1990s’ to redefine neoconservatism in this fashion has been immensely “The Kristol-Kagan effort such people successful, insofar as most people around the world now perceive it this way; power has been and could be used for moral purposes, and that the United States needs to power has been and could be used for moral “a distrust of ambitious social engineering projects,” remain engaged in international affairs,” to of international law and institutions effectiveness and “skepticism about the legitimacy and While the ideas perpetuated in achieve either security or justice” (48-49). dard, neoconservatives, or at least used to. neoconservatism as well as a critique of the Bush administration’s meddling in Iraq. the Bush administration’s neoconservatism as well as a critique of Union, these first neoconservatives were from both of anti-communist reaction to the Soviet has recently taken up neoconservative ideas. sides of the aisle, and current conservatism as individuals with varying ideas, but Fukuyama seems to characterize neoconservatives “that the internal character of regimes matters and that have four main principles in common: values of liberal democratic societies,” “American foreign policy must reflect the deepest servatives as those within the American conservatism that sought it as America’s moral duty to to duty moral America’s as it sought that conservatism American the within those as servatives organizations. international to regard little with world, the around government democratic enact easy become has it produced has war Iraq the that ideas criticized easily the all with Therefore fact, In entails. neoconservatism what of knowledge any without neoconservatives criticize to dissenters. administration Bush and war Iraqi own its contains neoconservatism and the Neoconservative Legacy Power, Democracy, Operation Iraqi Freedom is taking longer and is more costly in American life than previously American life in is taking longer and is more costly Operation Iraqi Freedom media to criticize and the obviously wrong, it is easy for the When things are going expected. suit. American people follow to easy became it election, Bush’s before long existed has that plan invasion Iraq an on act to neocon defined media The drafted. few a only plan a for whole a as neoconservatives criticize criticism is easy when it is so obvious to the American public that the Iraq war has become public that the Iraq war has become American it is so obvious to the criticism is easy when The connec of Bush and company. if not a historical mistake on account a major blunder, of mass destruction, and Al Quida were small, there were no weapons tions between Iraq and

aegis 2007 150 the Bushadministration’s dealingwiththeIraqwar. HebelievesthatthethreatSuddam as BushandIraqiwarsupporters,Fukuyamastraysfromthisstereotype. actual neoconservatives”(40). While politicallyminded Americans mayseeneoconservatives tions will employ to nations finding themselves in need of social change. foreign policy changes Fukuyama suggests are worthwhile ideas that hopefully future genera dent Bush’s administration’s reasoning behind Iraq and view of American military might. The fresh look at what neoconservatism used to be and what it has become; he then dismantles Presi or the hard headed military force that America seems content on using. Fukuyama provides a grams withinforeignpolicythat helpcountriesdevelopsocially, notonlymilitarily. promotes democracythrough militaryforce.Hismajorsuggestionistodevelopmorepro (139). Fukuyama’s majorideaseemstolayinhisanalysisof America’s roleasaforcethat an afterthought,akindofmop-upactivitypursuedwhenthe ‘serious’ playersleftthestage” fighting wars,balancingthreats,ornegotiatingagreements. Developmenthasalwayscomeas forces thatfocusonlyonregimechange.“Foreignpolicy has revolvedaroundactivitieslike that promotesdemocracythroughsocialengineeringanddevelopment ratherthanmilitary social planstogetdemocracystabilizedandaneconomystarted. So oncedemocracyispromotedbymilitaryforceinplaces suchasIraqthereisnosetof they distrustambitioussocialprograms. invading becauseasneoconservativesseedemocracypromotionthe American moralduty, process. This wasanotherfacetoftheIraqwarthatnotfullythoughtthroughbefore the UnitedStates his critiqueoftheBushadministrationFukuyamapointsto threat fromIraqspecifically, andfromnuclearterrorismmoregenerally”(84). Throughout to berightaboutthedangersfacingUnitedStates. As itturnedout,overestimatedthe emption toincludepreventivewaragainstnonimminentthreats,theadministrationneeded “The problemwith mistake thePresidencymade,reasoningbehindIraqwarwashistoricalmistake. away frommaterializing”(83).Changingthenationalsecuritystrategywasnoteminent preventive warisamilitaryoperationdesignedtoheadoff athreatthatismonthsoryears “Preemption isusuallyunderstoodtobeaneffort tobreakupanimminent militaryattack; Strategy oftheUnitedStates action hasalwaysbeenapossibilityin American foreignpolicy, butBush’s a newdimensiontoforeignpolicy:preemptivestrike.Fukuyamaexplainsthat Hussein posedwasexaggeratedand America took ahighriskchancewhenitdecidedtoadd The secondportionof America at the Crossroads Fukuyama suggeststhat America shouldinvestmoreorganization intosoftpower the dangersofoverlyambitioussocialengineering(114). ships…On theotherhand,anotherstrandofneoconservative thoughthasemphasized basic humanrightoftheircitizensandarelessexternallyaggressivethandictator that internalcharacterofregimeisimportant:liberaldemocraciestendtorespectthe tive principlespotentiallycollide.Ontheonehand,neoconservativesrightlybelieve It istheareaofpoliticalandeconomicdevelopmentthattwoimportantneoconserva The secondmajormishandlingofthewarFukuyamafocusesonisrebuilding asthebasisforhisnegativeopinionaboutOperationIraqiFreedom. NSS doctrine wasthatinordertojustifystretchingthedefinitionofpre takesthisconceptastepfurtherthanpreviousadministrations. America attheCrossroads is a worthwhile read for anyone who hates neoconservatives contains Fukuyama’s critiqueof National SecurityStrategyof National Security ------

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- To do this, the To Whites argues that the Civil Whites argues Gender Matters: Civil War, Matters:Gender Civil War, Megan Hatfield Megan Gender Matters: Civil War, Reconstruction, and the Making of the New New the of Making the and Reconstruction, War, Civil Matters: Gender New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005. 256 pp. 2005. Macmillan, Palgrave York: New Whites, LeeAnn. LeeAnn. Whites, Making and the ofReconstruction, South. New the The book is a compilation of essays written by Whites. She divides the book into by The book is a compilation of essays written In her book book her In century South in a new light revealing that not only did gender matter in shaping those those shaping in matter gender did only not that revealing light new a in South century th , LeeAnn Whites examines the role that gender played in the events of the South in the the in South the of events the in played gender that role the examines Whites LeeAnn , century. Her thesis is quite simple: gender mattered. While this seems like a simple and and simple a like seems this While mattered. gender simple: quite is thesis Her century. th who fought in the war. master of slaves, and less able to protect his wife. The final two essays in the first part specifi his wife. master of slaves, and less able to protect attempted cally examine the role gender played in Reconstruction focusing on how the South how the Whites shows to “turn back the clock” by having gender return back in invisibility. and return to Southern white women simply wanted to reconstruct Southern white manhood the time when women were protected by men and confined to the household. the men Southern white women formed associations that were dedicated to memorializing and necessity to enter the public realm and to become socially visible. Typically, it seems like it seems like Typically, and to become socially visible. and necessity to enter the public realm women could achieve some independence, but in a wonderful opportunity—finally Southern that that was far from what they wanted. Independence was at odds Whites argues reality, charge while women were taking Significantly, with traditional conceptions of femininity. experiencing a major crisis in gender as their role as on the home front, Southern men were itself was deteriorating as the war was lost. By the head of the household —their masculinity the the Southern white man lost his position in society since he was no longer losing the war, focuses on the making of the New South. In the first four essays focuses on the making of the New South. view and public significance the role “turned the household inside out, laid bare to public War was fought by the men in the War shows that the Civil of gender in the social order” (6). She in the social order as the heads of their households South in order to preserve their standing the war and their women dependent. However, which rested on their ability to keep slaves all of the dependents the opportunity offering itself destabilized the structure of the household workings of the social structure. With this definition, it is possible to examine the events of events the examine to possible is it definition, this With structure. social the of workings 19 the under not by that saying is she Basically, them. in role central a played actually it but events, to able not are historians South, the of structure social the in played gender that role the standing South. New the of making the and Reconstruction, War, Civil the understand fully Reconstruction, and the second part War and Civil two parts: the first part focuses on the which has essentially held that gender was not important in the South because issues of race and and race of issues because South the in important not was gender that held essentially has which level the on “invisible” gender rendered This status. gender one’s above privileged were class points Whites society. that on impact significant or real no had therefore, and individual, the of to it restricting by narrowly too gender defined have scholars true, part in is that while that out understood be to needs gender that explains she Instead, level. individual and ideological the larger the to gender tying thus, women; dependent their and men between matter relational a as South 19 study of area that in scholarship traditional against arguing actually is she assertion, obvious

aegis 2007 152 blacks supposedtostayatthebottomofsocialhierarchy, butalso,thatwomenwere chies thatpersistedbeforetheCivil War andReconstruction. This meantthatnotonlywere New South. Whites argues thatSouthernerswerededicatedtopreservingthesocialhierar gender issuesinthatera. history thatIwouldrecommendtoanyoneinterestedin19 well written,interesting,andsignificantcontributiontothe fieldofgenderstudiesandsocial used specificallyforanindividualessay, oritcanbereadasanentirebook.Overall,wasa to followheroverarchingargument, butthebenefit ofthisstructureisthatbookcanbe applicable totheSouthmoregenerally. Ingeneral,theessaystructurejustmadeitdifficult the uniquenessofthosecircumstancesmakesitdifficultto discernifherconclusionsare heavily contestedareaduringtheCivil War. While thiscertainlymakesitinterestingtostudy, she specificallychosetostudybecauseofitsparticularsituation asaborderstateandthus, ies. Mostofthefirstpartwascenteredoncasestudiesfrom St.Louis,Missouri—anarea Latimer Felton. Additionally, theessaystructuremeant thatshereliedheavilyoncasestud repeated muchofthesameinformationbecausetheydealtwithperson,Rebecca book andhaveitsownargument. As aresult,thelastfourchaptersoressaysfeltlikethey as acompilationofessaysmeansthateachessayisabletostandonitsownapartfromthe each individualessay, Ididnotlikethewaybookwasstructured. The natureofthebook of genderstudiesinthattime. Although Irecognizethevalidityofherworkandstrength social structureshehascontributedanewviewpointandmethodofinvestigationtothearea ter inthe19 a significantroleinthemajoreventsoftheirtime. Felton recognizedthatgenderwasusedasasystemicsocialconstructandplayed perfectly illustrates Whites’ pointthatgendermatteredintheeventsofSouthbecause preserving theracialandsocialhierarchiesthatexistedbeforewar. Inessence,Felton advocates ofwomen’s rightsinthelate19 gate thepoliticsandviewsofRebeccaLatimerFelton.Feltonwasonemostprominent erly, whilemenwereunable toprotecttheirwives. The finalthreeessaysofthebookinvesti household structureaswomenweretheworkersandunabletomaintainprop ist marketsystemthatworkedagainsttheirinterests. As aresult,thisvirtuallyinvertedthe of workandonlyperpetuatingtheproblemsworkingclassbyparticipatinginacapital exploited thelaborofwomenandchildren.Meanwhile,menwerenotdoingtheirfairshare try andit’s affect onthehousehold.Sheshowsthattextilemillsprimarilyemployedand permanently. Inthefirsttwoessaysofthispart, Whitesstudiestheriseoftextileindus desired ideal,theeffects ofindustrializationthreatenedtounderminethissocialordermore supposed tobesociallyinvisible. While bothwhitewomenandmensawthisasthe

The secondpartofbookexaminestheroleindustrializationinmaking In summation,LeeAnn Whites issuccessfulinshowingthatgenderdidindeedmat th centurySouth.Byunderstandinggenderasarelationalmatterthatimpactedthe th centuryandshewasalsostronglycommittedto th century American historyand/or ------

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New New The Last American Man. American Last The Notable Book. , Elizabeth Gilbert invites readers into the life of Eustace , Elizabeth Gilbert invites Meghan Johnson Meghan New York Times New York world, but it’s modern Americans who live in a fake world, because they’ve modern world, but it’s stepped outside the natural circle of life. (18) in nature, where everything is connected, circular…The ancient people in nature, where everything is connected, we modern people have lost sight understood that our world is a circle, but are dead places live inside buildings, because buildings of that. I don’t and where life stops. I flow, where nothing grows, where water doesn’t in the real live to live in a dead place. People say that I don’t want don’t Gilbert, Elizabeth. Gilbert, 288 pp. 2005. Group, Penguin York: The Last American Man The Last Eustace’s main argument against modern society is that we are too absorbed in the against modern society is that we are too main argument Eustace’s Turtle Island serves as more than just Eustace’s home and a nature preserve; he home and a Island serves as more than just Eustace’s Turtle Gilbert explains the timeline of Eustace’s life: where he grew up, the differing styles in in styles differing the up, grew he where life: Eustace’s of timeline the explains Gilbert life, he needed to realize that in order to live a simple take long for Eustace It didn’t In This is an interesting perspective for how technology and other modern conveniences and This is an interesting perspective for how technology and other modern conveniences conveniences and not in the basics such as nature and life itself. He differentiates his lifestyle his lifestyle as nature and life itself. He differentiates conveniences and not in the basics such American in that he lives from that of the typical modern visit Turtle Island to experience nature and he even runs an apprenticeship program through Island to experience nature and he even runs an apprenticeship program Turtle visit the land and be more Eustace and learn to live off the compound. People apply to “shadow” to complete the entire program no one has been able nature-savvy individuals. Unfortunately, heavy work load or because they just cannot deal with and usually ends up leaving due to the and goals for Eustace has such great plans impersonal and demanding personality. Eustace’s lacks the interpersonal communication skills to ac himself and society but unfortunately he complish all that he has set out to do. distance from nature, he knew he needed to own his own land and save it from development distance from nature, he knew he needed more than 50,000 acres in North Carolina This desire led him to acquire and urban sprawl. Island. Turtle which he calls utopian experiment in which he would try to do wanted it to be “the setting of a colossal He has had groups of children and adults America.”(95) nothing less than change and save finalist and was also a finalist and was also lifestyle. current his achieve to took he steps the and him, raised father and mother his which familiarize himself with na piece of wilderness. Growing up, he would to preserve his own when those woodlands were devel his home in North Carolina, ture in the woods surrounding for people requiring more and more conveniences and oped to provide more and more homes Conway, a man whose mission in life is to return to nature. Not only is this a goal for himself, in life is to return to nature. Not only a man whose mission Conway, and live a more to connect with nature all people to make an effort but Eustace also desires Awards Conway became a National Book illustration of Eustace simple lifestyle. Gilbert’s

aegis 2007 154 the American frontierwassuddenlyandofficially closed.”(7) Whentherewasnolongera as theirtransitionintomanhood,butin1890,newcamefromthe“CensusDepartmentthat comforts havedetachedhumansfromnatureandtheland. would dowonderstosavethemythical“AmericanMan”from extinction. within society, saying“no”tounnecessaryluxuries, andeliminatingthe“Ican’t” mentality ideal. However, re-familiarizingtheyouthof America withnature,promotinglessconformity will quittheirjobandleavethecitytoliveinwoods ateepee. That wouldbeEustace’s nature andthe“basics”theyreallyare. losophy reallygetsthereadertoreflectontheirownlifestyle andjusthowfarremovedfrom you’ve beengivenisyourownhumanity, which isaboutconsciousness.”(258)Eustace’s phi to slumberthroughlifeinaninstant-gratificationsugarcoma. Themostextraordinarygift low whateverwateryideasmodernsocietymaybottle-feedyouthroughthemedia,satisfied pioneer lifestyleandmindset.Hisadvice?“Don’t passyourdaysina stupor, contenttoswal ness, “showingupforone’s ownlife,”wecanreturntothe“mythical”ideaof American want to,orareafraidto. amazed by, butatthesametimethink“ cal innerself,madeflesh.”(126)Heisabletoliveinawaythatmostofusrespectandare many Americans believeournationwasfoundedupon.Gilbertclaimsthat“heismythi because heseemstobetheonlyknownpersonactivelypursuinglifestyleuponwhichso est floorandleavingonlytheirfacesexposed,sothattheybecomeonewiththesurroundings. frontier,” oneexamplebeing actuallyhavingchildrenlayontheirbacksintrenchesthefor to reallyexperiencenatureandreturnthementalityofchildrenbefore“closing terial thingsandconformity.(137) To fightthistrend,hehasgonetoextremesgetchildren children. Hefeelsthat“childrenarenowlessthanhuman”becausetheysofocusedonma tations, Eustacehasbecomeconcernedwiththementalandemotionalstateof America’s nature withbusinessandeconomicskeptthesamementality. (123) or referringtopeoplebeginningsomethingnewas“stakingtheirclaim.”Societyhasreplaced our nation’s Western Frontierdays:describing anentrepreneurasa“pioneer”or“cowboy,” transitioned intoapopularmetaphor. Gilbertpointsoutthatmanyphrasesarereminiscent of Western Frontierofwhichtoconquer, beingapioneerwasnolongerliteralconceptand Perhaps hisexpectationsofsocietyarealittleextremeand unrealistic.Noteveryone It’s thisthoughtthatEustacewantstoeradicate.Hebelievesthroughmindful It’s fittingthatGilbertgivesEustaceConwaythetitleof“Last AmericanMan” From hisexperienceswithchildrenduringvisitsto Turtle Islandorschoolpresen During the18 th and19 th centuries,boysgoingwestandbecomingpioneersserved I couldneverdothat,”ormaybeit’s thatwedon’t ------

155 aegis 2007 - - they are going to . It is the story of why Little Women New York: Penguin Group, Group, Penguin York: New , Geraldine Brooks tells the story of the , Geraldine Brooks March. March Larsa Ramsini Brooks, Geraldine. Brooks, pp. 304 2005. The theme of the hypocrisy of religion in this novel runs along the same lines as the The theme of the hypocrisy of religion March believes he is fighting for a great cause and will be able to do much good fighting for a great cause and will be March believes he is In her most recently published novel, In her most recently money they are about to use to send the scriptures to Africa cannot be better spent by freeing scriptures to money they are about to use to send the with cold hos the human beings being sold into slavery right outside its doors, he is rebuked Afterward, March wonders “how the scene might have gone if the tility and asked to leave. with their pastor had led his people of faith out from that little church to stand in that square they were Bibles raised in protest;” that is, if their Bibles were used for purposes for which people in this intended, instead of being blind to reality (44). If religion is intended to help such as liberty and equality” (216). Christianity is meant to be one because ideally, idealistic versus realistic view of the world, that appear utterly opposing to Christian doctrine, this thing, but when people maintain views This novel frequently regresses back to different. religion turns into something completely and experiences during the war. past so the reader can further understand his feelings March’s that is going on inside a church, and asks why the When March intervenes in a Bible study to win, they cannot give up on this ideal. Despite everything he has seen and gone through, to win, they cannot give up on this ideal. believes it is possible through courage and determi March still yearns for a better future and the end goal is, and truly believes that the ideal is nation. But March knows how important in order to work it is monstrous. So paradoxically, possible, even if the reality of achieving to be realistic in action. In the words of his one needs toward the idealistic goal of equality, who believe that one can “build a nation upon ideas wife, March is one of the “few dreamers” between his views of an ideal world, and the reality in which he and the rest of mankind are between his views of an ideal world, and dealings with the ones needs to be realistic in one’s trapped. He recognizes the times when life or death. In speaking to the youth ready to go off world, especially when it is an issue of in saying that they must know to battle, March refers to the scriptures words as what they are fighting against. But he feels the “essential emptiness” of his and war, The war has come, according to was all that mattered” (182). he recognizes that “action, now, a great ideal that it wants to see realized; and in order March, because one group of people has unbearable guilt that results. unbearable guilt that from the start. It is during this fellow man; but the road is bumpy right for his country and gods dwell in the high places. why “simple men have always had their time that he realizes the horizon, he risks setting it on lets his eye drop from the heavens to For as soon as a man understanding of the sharp contrast The war brings him to an (4). some scene of desolation” classic Alcott’s March, from Louisa May Mr. absent father, religious confronted with cold reality, War minister during the Civil a passionate, idealistic and the seemingly strongest beliefs, as well as his cowardice challenges to his hypocrisy,

aegis 2007 156 overlook peopleinthisworld,theyaretoofocusedontheidealthatdon’t seehowthey it’s supposedtodoifitisnothelpingasmany people asitcan. When religiousinstitutions have torecognizewhatisreallyimportant. According toMarch,religionisn’t doingwhat world, thenpeoplewhoclaimingtobereligiouscannotignoreeverythingaroundthem;they the newstandards hesetsforhimself. learn andbuildhisfaitheven further. What willnowbedifficultforhimtolive upto admirable asconvictionitself. ItisthroughdoubtandexperiencethatMarchwillcontinue to now beabletohelppeopledevelop evenmorebyshowingdoubttobealmost,ifnotas most, as thedoubtsthatariseoutof hismostrecentexperiences.Bygoingthroughthiswar, hewill time. Marchmayhavehada fewdoubtsabouthisbeliefs,butnothingasgrandorprofound comment aboutJohnBrownis thatheiscommentingonjustthetypeofpersonat that maintaining theirfoundationalconvictions. What Marchdoesn’t knowwhenhemakesthat ioners howtodealwiththeseeminglyhopelessrealityof worldwhileatthesametime be aneffective preachertohiscommunity, itisimperativethathebeabletotellhisparish it istoownupthemandformbeliefsthattakerealityinto consideration.IfMarchisto It iseasiertobeignorantofrealityandtheterribleatrocities committedinthisworldthan thinks tohimself: doubt almosteverythinghethoughthadright. As hesitsalone,awayfromhisfamily, he well astheobviousdoubtsthatresultfromseeingbloodshedallaround,driveMarchto of knowledgethatMarchgains,butitistheseeminglyinsignificantinstanceslikethese,as ways judged black childrenare,eventhoughtheyhaveneverlearnedtoreadorwrite;beforehand,heal home toMarmeeandhisdaughters,hewritesofhowsurprisedisatintelligentthe for ahumanbeinglivinginthisworld. To addressoneofhis realizations,inoneofhisletters believes thisbeforethewar, thenafterthewarheknowshowmuchdoubt of person[hehas]neverquitetrusted,itisamanwhoknowsnodoubt”(120).Ifhetruly kill,” Marchcringes(120).Heclaimstohavebelievedbackthenthat“ifthereisoneclass doubt Brown’s endeavorsfortheUnderground Railroad. After “Brownproclaimedthathehad going towar, Marchinvests, andsubsequentlyloses,allofhissavingstoamannamedJohn convictions, butthroughthewarherealizesthateverythingisnotblackandwhite.Before realization thathereallydoesnothaveverymuchatall.Hehasbeenamanofstrongmoral what theyaredoingisright. can use itwouldberight,inopposingslavery, notonlytoacceptaviolentdeath,butalso realitytomoveclosertowardsthatidealgoal,becausetheyare do” (184). man, whoknewwithsuchclearconfidenceexactlywhatit wasthathemeantto to mygirls,butalsothemanofmoralcertaintythatIwas thatday;innocent ate oratorperchedonhistree-stumppulpit.Oneday, Ihopetogoback. To mywife, tainty. Morethanmonths,moremiles,nowstandbetweenmeandthatpassion sweating, inthesolitudeofseedstoreatOakLanding,toaconditionuncer “And now, ayearhaspassed sinceIundertooktogowar, andIwakeeveryday, One ofthemostvaluablepiecesknowledgeMarchgainsduringwaris

“a man’s mind”

by “howlettered”hewas(135). This iscertainlyasmalltrifling absolutely certain really is inevitable no that - - - -

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- - s - ferent light , he returns ? I do not think there is a man alive who will not yearn to alive who will not think there is a man ? I do not cowardice and “‘it is not enough for you to be accounted commonly courageous. Oh no: you must “‘it is not enough for you to be accounted You must not only try to the field. must carry all the wounded off You Titan. be a you heap ashes on your head save a man, you must succeed at it, and when you can’t, you as if all the blame were yours—none to spare for the generals who blundered into that battle, or the stretcher bearers, who also fled for their lives; or for Stone’ own panic, or for the fact that he never troubled to learn to swim, not even a modi or Zannah’s did not kill Silas Stone, cum of blame for the man who shot him…You March goes into the war thinking that he is going to help multitudes of people, but is March goes into the war thinking that he on one’s way only by fear of being called craven. Sometimes, true courage requires called craven. Sometimes, true courage way only by fear of being on one’s so one satisfies the quiet at home while war rages, if by doing inaction; that one sit conscience” (168). voice of honorable of man’s character, the other its nadir. And yet, to me, the two sit side by side on the me, the two sit side And yet, to the other its nadir. character, of man’s Who is the brave degree of arc. other by the merest removed from each circle of life, term for a mind de no fear? If so, then bravery is but a polite man—he who feels man, the real hero, quakes with terror, The brave imagination. void of rationality and moves forward to do the bowels betray him, and in spite of this sweats, feels his very whipped it heroic to march into fields of fire, And yet I do not think act he dreads. While at war, March gives a brief commentary on, in his view, the surprisingly close close the surprisingly in his view, on, commentary gives a brief March at war, While twinned than more closely all of the English language any two words in “Are there courage apogee is held to be the One latter. to be accused of the former and dread possess the overwhelmed with guilt at having behaved so cowardly. March’s problem is that since he is a March’s so cowardly. overwhelmed with guilt at having behaved When he does make mistakes, he is unable to man of God, he thinks he needs to be infallible. are realistically unattainable. Marmee hits himself because his standards for courage forgive the issue right on when she tells him: wife, March would have gone back to the war as a man set on making amends for his failures. war as a man set on making amends for his failures. wife, March would have gone back to the him and he realizes his duty to his family When Marmee finally gets through to courage greater than any asked walking up that path was an act of home, thinking that “truly, more strength to face and own up According to March, it takes much of [him] at war” (271). than it does to do the right thing in the first place. to another about the mistakes one has made is learned even at the end of the war, certainly hasn’t What March needs to learn, and what he as outcome enough. himself and to accept his best efforts how to forgive not cease dwelling over his cowardice, and his stubbornness tells him he needs to stay in the not cease dwelling over his cowardice, But it is not only March who lacks the courage war and make up for the pain he had caused. to finish. Courage is shown in a dif necessary to complete the tasks he endeavors her husband to stay home in the very beginning, with Marmee, who cannot manage to tell between them is that she is But the difference that what he is doing at his age is ridiculous. situation, whereas without this faith from his herself and see the positive in the able to forgive March doesn’t feel as if he lives up to this conception of courage after leaving a man to drown up to this conception of courage after feel as if he lives March doesn’t an old slave if March does not the Confederate who threatens to kill in a river and ignoring his wife Marmee about this in the hospital, he can As he speaks with come out from hiding. proximity of courage and cowardice on the entire spectrum of behavior: of behavior: entire spectrum on the cowardice and of courage proximity

aegis 2007 158 nocent. Inhismind,theoutcomeisonlythingthatmatters.Buteventhroughallof March loatheshimselfforvaluinghisprinciplesofnotkillinganyoneoverlivesthein duced totheseideas,butnotthecriticalreaderlookingbechallenged. would recommendthenoveltoayounger, moreinexperiencedreaderthatisjustbeingintro looking foranewglimpseoflightinanoldstory, thisprobablyisn’t agoodplacetolook.I through asrepresentativeoftheproblemsmostsoldiersprobablyface.Butifreaderis the readerreallyfeelinvolved,andBrooksdoesafinejobofdepictingwhatonemangoes extremely wellwrittenwithagooduseofvividimageryandfrequentflashbackstomake the hardshipsandtrialsofwarthatwehaven’t alreadyseenandheardbefore. The novelis them andmoveon. dwell inourpastandneverforgive ourselvesforourtransgressions,orwecanlearnfrom to emphasizethepointthathowweviewthingsinthisworldisupus. We canchooseto would everbeathand”(273).Brooksusestheword“decides”veryendofnovel was tobe,now:[he]woulddo[his]bestliveinthequickworld,butghostsofdead war, heisconstantlyreminded ofthehurthehascausedanddecidesthat,“thiswashowit before enteringthewar. As hespendstimewithhisfamilyfollowingdeparturefromthe wife’s coaxing,shestillcannotconvincehimthat heisstillthesamehonorablemanwas

As isevident,noneofthethemesmentionedhereseemtoshedanynewlighton child. The warkilledbothof them. You must accept that’”(258). - -

159 aegis 2007 - - - - - pres - of My Melancholy Whores

Memories of Memories My Memories New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005. 2005. Knopf, A. Alfred York: New Shannon BauchertShannon 115 pp. Marquez, Gabriel Garcia. Garcia. Gabriel Marquez, Melancholy Whores. It is hard to feel any sort of animosity toward the narrator because of how he de The love the narrator describes for this young girl whose real name is never men The love the narrator describes for this The virgin whom Rose Cabarcas supplies the narrator with is a poor girl. She lives whom Rose Cabarcas supplies the narrator The virgin Gabriel Garcia Marquez in his new novel, Gabriel Garcia Marquez the novel sends is daring: for it speaks on behalf of a love that is forbidden. In fact, it speaks the novel sends is daring: for it speaks Marquez portrays the narrator in such a way that the on behalf of pedophilia. In spite of this, to understand. reader can sympathize with his emotions. He is someone who is worth trying He is someone to pity. to be, scribes his lifestyle and because of how he describes himself. He considers himself anachronistic.” Over all, he has a very low opinion of himself. He lives alone and shy, “ugly, narrator’s feelings for the young virgin in such a way that his love for her appears genuine and in such a way that feelings for the young virgin narrator’s point expresses his love for his, “Delgadina,” with heartfelt. For instance, the narrator at one love for Delgadina with an intensity and happiness the following words: “…I sailed on my Thanks to her I confronted my inner self for the first I had never known in my former life. love is upsetting in the sense Though the narrator’s time as my ninetieth year went by” (65). an inexperienced child, at the same time, the message is clearly that the object of his affection while she sleeps. His only physical contact with her body is the nearness of his own while he while she sleeps. His only physical contact he becomes fixated by the mute girl to the point that he believes slowly, Yet, sleeps beside her. he has fallen in love with her. is intense and poignant. Despite the fact that tioned (though he refers to her as Delgadina) gazed upon her speech but merely with her, she is a child and he has never communicated readers, but Gabriel Garcia Marquez illustrates the less form, may appear disturbing to many with her crippled mother and is forced to take care of her brothers and sisters on a petty sal with her crippled mother and is forced firsts meets the When the narrator clothing factory. ary she receives by sewing buttons in a brothel, she is asleep, having been drugged Cabarcas’ young girl in one of the rooms at Rose the course of the Throughout of losing her virginity. by Cabarcas in order to assuage her fear visits. Even though the narra during the narrator’s novel, the young girl is always sleeping but instead studies her never wakes her, initial intention was to sleep with the girl, he tor’s the reader discovers the narrator’s most coveted wish: to engage in sexual relations with an wish: to engage in sexual relations most coveted the narrator’s the reader discovers As it a birthday present to himself. an act which he hopes to perform as adolescent virgin, old brothel owner and friend, Rose is soon granted his wish by an soon turns out, the narrator growing obsession with the the novel focuses on the narrator’s The remainder of Cabarcas. with her silent presence. the details of his utter infatuation young girl and describes same time, somewhat unsettling to tantalizing pleasure to read, yet at the ents a story that is a unnamed narrator—a to the novel’s the reader is introduced love story, digest. In this unusual old. From the very beginning, man who has recently turned ninety years somewhat reclusive

aegis 2007 160 amount oftime. At onepointheevenclaimsthathasneverparticipatedinsexualrelations without children.Inadditiontothis,hehasneverevenhadaloverthatlastedanysignificant makes sureheisstillbreathing.BesidesDamiana,hasnoone.Henevermarriedand except forDamiana,hisloyalservantwhooccasionallycomesaroundtocleanhouseand definitely worthreading. age difference betweenthenarratorandhislover, overallthenovelisbeautifullywrittenand ship inordertoendloneliness.Despitethedisquietingthemesofsuchastorybecause it expressesacertaintypeofrealityaboutwhatmeanstofallinloveorseekcompanion such arelationshipbetweentwopeopleisnotcompletelyatrociousandgrotesque,butinstead vey amessageaboutage.InwayperhapswhatMarquez’s istryingtocommunicate that has experiencedmanydifferent sexualencounterswithayoung,untaintedgirlappearstocon with theinevitabilitythathemustgrowoldanddie.Marquez’s blendingofanoldmanwho touched, yetremainsenchantedbyherveryessence.However, itisalsoaboutamandealing in thesensethatanoldmanfallslovewithideaofapureyounggirl,whoheisnever that somethingwilloccurtotakeawaythenarrator’s incessantloneliness. created acharacterthatanyreaderwouldfeelsorryfor. The readertrulyfinds himself hoping disillusioned byhisage.Bydescribingallthesecharacteristicsofthenarrator, Marquezhas the readersofhiscolumnaremerelyinterestedinfactthatheisold. The narratorisfeels He wantstodiscussthetopicsinhiswritingthatareimportanthim,butisfrustrated thoughts hetrulywishestoexpressbecausehiseditorbelievesnoonewantshearthem. ness evenwithhiswriting.Hefeelsdisappointedthathecannotexpressthesentimentsand newspaper whohehaswrittenacolumnforfiftyyears.Inanycase,expresseslittlehappi and theonlysocialinteractionheappearstohaveisthroughasmallwritingjobwithlocal with awomaninwhichhedidnotpayfor. The narratorconsidershimselftobeanoutsider Memories ofMyMelancholyWhores isreallyabouttwothings.Italovestory - - -

161 aegis 2007 - - New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Knopf, A. Alfred York: New The Road. The , McCarthy explores the darkness at the heart of human , McCarthy explores Jason Craig Blood Meridian , through its narrative and use of shockingly gruesome imagery, comes gruesome imagery, , through its narrative and use of shockingly , one gets the story of the Kid, a figure whose capacity for violence allows of the Kid, a figure whose capacity for , one gets the story to one knee and raised the lever to stop the tub and then turned on both taps to one knee and raised the lever to stop in the doorway in her nightwear, as far as they would go. She was standing What is it? she said. one hand. clutching the jamb, cradling her belly in Why are you taking a bath? I’m not. (45) What is happening? I dont know. The clocks stopped at 1:17. A long shear of light and then a series of low long shear of light and then A The clocks stopped at 1:17. What is it? she said. He window. concussions. He got up and went to the lightswitch but the He went into the bathroom and threw the didnt answer. dull rose glow in the windowglass. He dropped A power was already gone. , then, is the logical conclusion of these previous novels. In it, a man and , then, is the logical conclusion of these McCarthy, Cormac. Cormac. McCarthy, pp. 256 2006. The Road McCarthy’s position as one of the greatest living American novelists is solidified American novelists living position as one of the greatest McCarthy’s The Road Blood Meridian It to shatter the precious façade of peace and complacency that so many of us perpetuate. And it calls into question what those violates those easy distinctions between good and evil. mundane—the terms can mean; especially in a world where the ultra-violent has become the The conversation between the man and his wife, who commits suicide, sums up quotidian. this destruction of man-made notions of ethics very well: With each horrific confrontation, be it with sickness, starvation, sleep deprivation, or the rov horrific confrontation, be it with sickness, starvation, sleep deprivation, or each With use “the road” as their personal hunting preserve, it ing bands of cannibalistic humans that Their oneself in the shoes of the man and his son. becomes harder and harder to not imagine both within the novel and for the reader become very existence in this world, their identities with each ethical choice they are forced to make. complicated, blurred, and then shattered nature. The details of what America. in a post-apocalyptic his son are trying desperately to survive of the man about it sets the tone for the exactly happened are elusive, but this remembrance dark journey to come: identity and purpose in a universe of brutal violence, of utter meaninglessness. In many of in a universe of brutal violence, of utter identity and purpose his novels, such as Thus, life and modernity. around the clash between “traditional” ity by setting his narratives in One “Manifest Destiny.” America’s of template for the darkest vision of him to serve as a kind modern—of enlightenment and apparent that all notions—classical and in which it becomes of a kind of blind, brute and amoral violent destiny/ morality become subsumed by the march wandering people seeking an in a long line of novels that explore by this latest and darkest

aegis 2007 162 modern novels. (on purpose),hisstyleandimageryconveyadarkbeautythatIthinkisunparalleledinother reading. Hiswritingislyrical,andwhilemuchofhisnarrativedisjointedchronologically plations aboutsocietyandonesownethicalviews,McCarthy’s prosemakesthebookworth sumed positions. Along withtheabilitytobringreadercomplexthoughtsandcontem fate ofhumanity, thenovelservestoremindoneofnecessitiesquestioningonesas least, evenifoneisnotsodarkmindedorpessimisticasMcCarthyappearstobeaboutthe In theendonecomestoquestionpurposeofstandswemakeeveryday. At thevery ness ofphilosopherschainedtoamadhousewall.(49) they’d satupdebatingtheprosandconsofselfdestructionwithearnest atom thick. And shewasright. There wasnoargument. The hundrednights a flakeofobsidian.He’dtaughtherhimself.Sharperthansteel. She wasgoneandthecoldnessofitherfinalgift.woulddowith The edgean - - -

163 aegis 2007 - - - - Wall, the rise Wall, New York: York: New , published in 2006, The World is Flat The World The World is Flat. is World The Jennifer Scarbrough Jennifer by Thomas L. Friedman is a masterpiece about the changes that Thomas L. Friedman is a by century which drove the world to globalize at an increasing rate which is the world to globalize at an increasing century which drove st Friedman, Thomas L. L. Thomas Friedman, pp. 608 2005. Giroux, and Straus Farrar, Friedman also writes about the United States and how they may have “missed Friedman also writes about the United of The new updated and extended version Friedman lists the forces that “flatten” the globe: the fall of the Berlin Friedman lists the forces that “flatten” Globalization, however, offers the possibility for individuals to collaborate and com offers Globalization, however, Friedman traveled the world in order to research this book. After visiting ground zero world in order to research this book. Friedman traveled the The World is Flat The World includes an extra 100 pages which talk about current events including 9/11. Overall, this book Overall, this about current events including 9/11. includes an extra 100 pages which talk would be of great interest to students studying business, This book is a great but lengthy read. start to finish. especially at a global level. It is an intriguing book that interests the reader from Friedman said there was a “political perfect the bandwagon.” In a speech given at MIT, and the Enron scandal—distracted us completely 9/11, storm—the dotcom bust, the attacks of in order to Just when we needed to really focus on globalization and its effects as a country.” looking elsewhere. compete in the new “flat” world, we were of common software that allows global col of Netscape and the dot.com era, the emergence These uploading, and in-forming. offshoring, laboration, the rise of outsourcing, insourcing, around 2000 and helped to mold the world into a more global “flatteners” came into effect on industrialized of the “flatteners” due to the effect The countries that emerged ized society. Soviet Union. Friedman states that the three billion countries are China, India, and the former onto the playing field. people who were out of the game, walked Globalization today also means moving work where it pete on a global versus a national scale. will be staggering for those countries, companies, can be done best. “The gains in productivity And we are entering a phase technological tools. and individuals who can absorb the new the history of the world are going to have access to where more people than ever before in and, alas, even as terrorists.”(47) these tools—as innovators, as collaborators, ments and societies must change and adapt or be left behind. ments and societies competitive began to realize that “the global outsourcing industry—Infosys—he of India’s he Through his research, flattened.”(8) The world was being leveled. playing field was being innovators and multinational of the world was not only drawing noticed that the “flattening” who distrust and reject globalization. companies, but also angry terrorist groups took place in the 21 means to the world and why govern Friedman also discusses what this still occurring today.

aegis 2007 164 Contributors supposition that “theydon’t justhand outPh.D.’s in CrackerJackboxes.”No“thank pursue hisgoal ofbecomingaphilosophyprofessor; aswellprovingDr. Mills’ Master’s programatGeorgia StateUniversityin Atlanta nextyear, wherehewill be whereheisaseitheraperson oranacademicwithoutthem.Jasonwillattendthe Stephanie Patridgeforunparalleled support,guidanceandmentoring.Hewouldnot Halbert, PaulEisenstein, Alan Cooper, CharlesZimmerman,Paul Laughlinand Philosophy andIslamicstudies. HewouldliketothankDrs. Andrew Mills,Debora ThomasCraig Jason Burke Adams, whocontinuetoencourageherachieveverybest. ficult. Alison isdedicatingthisworktohergrandmothers, Alice BrooksandDelores Katie, Kelley, HaleyandPeter)whohelped her staypositivewhentimesweredif Brooks fortheircontinuedsupportandpatience,many friends(Rachel,Kristen, their help:Dr. JamesBatesforhisencouragementandguidance,Philip andGloria school. This isherfirstpublicationandshewishestothankthefollowingpersonsfor graduate from Otterbein College this coming June then anticipates attending graduate Alison Brooks her realizehowimportantitistostudywomen’s history. especially thankSarahFatherlyforherhelpwithwritingthispaperandmaking describe: GlennaJackson,PaulLaughlin,and Tammy Birk.Lastly, shewouldliketo thank afewprofessorswhohaveimpactedherlifeinmorewaysthanshecouldever well asforherunconditionalsupportandgoodadvice.Shannonwouldalsoliketo to thankherfriend,CristinaFrickforallthecrazy, funtimestheyhadtogether, as tion—most likelyinhistory, butyouneverknowwithher. Shannonwouldlike read goodbooks,andwriteforayear. After that,sheplanstocontinuehereduca Women Studies,whoupongraduation,planstotakeayeardonothingbuttravel, Bauchert Shannon They wereincrediblysupportiveandhelpful. pieces ofherprojectattheend,andhelpingmolditintosomethingcoherent. also needstoacknowledgebothDr. Ashworth andDr. Eisensteinforpickingupthe ect. She wasanamazing mentor, andshewasfortunate to haveworkedwithher. She the lateDr. RebeccaBowmanwhoinitiated,inspiredandguidedherseniorlitproj brave stepdaughter, Alexa. As farasacknowledgements,shemustforemostmention would alsoliketoacknowledgeherfavoriteminipartnerincrime,amazingand in schools.SheisalsoworkingonaMaster’s inPublic Affairs atthemoment.She the northwestcountiesofNorthDakota,providinggrantfundsfortobaccoeducation husband, an Air Forceofficer, andsheworkasatobaccoprevention coordinator for in LiteraryStudies. ShenowlivesthefrigidtundraofNorthDakotawithher Christi Amato isadoublemajorinvocalmusicandpsychologywill graduatedlastsummer(06)fromOtterbeinwithadegree isaseniormajoringinHistory, withaminorin

is aSenioratOtterbeinwith double-majorin - - -

165 aegis 2007 ------Thanks also go to Dr. Paul Eisenstein for his excel Thanks also go to Dr. is an English major with a concentration in Liter is an English major with a concentration is a senior History major at Otterbein, but it was not is a senior History major After concentration in voice. is a senior music major,

is a senior Political Science major with a minor in Women’s Women’s with a minor in Political Science major is a senior

graduated from Otterbein in 2006 with a B.A. in religion. He graduated from Otterbein in 2006 with phy Department for all of her advice and support for this paper. Nick Kiger School in Ohio where he is pursuing Theological is currently attending Methodist are Theological Studies. His areas of concentration for his master’s in his Master’s degree, he plans on When he is done with his master’s biblical studies and ethics. a applying to the Ph.D. program in the Department of Comparative Studies with State Universi The Ohio Ancient Mediterranean at specialization in Religions of the Religion and Philoso Glenna Jackson in Otterbein’s He would like to thank Dr. ty. She would like to thank the professors of the English Department who helped her She would like to thank the professors major” and realize that her from the gray area of life as an “undecided emerge be put to use. She’d also like to thank her love and talent for writing could actually confidence (when it seems there are just too parents and fiancée for reinforcing her and their unending support. many papers to write and books to read) thus like to thank Dr. Jim Bates for making her write the paper in the first place, and Jim Bates for making thus like to thank Dr. for encouraging her to submit it. Bernstein himself, for lent writing tips. But the highest accolades go to Leonard everywhere. leaving a legendary legacy for music lovers Meghan Johnson Communications and Public Relations. ary Studies and a double minor in Speech Her future plans are still up in the air, but she would like to go to graduate but she would like to Her future plans are still up in the air, is today. future. school for history or law school in the near Danielle Hickey to figure out what she’d like to do in grad graduation she plans on taking a year off history class. She would This piece was originally written for her music school. Megan Hatfield her junior year as a Spanish When she transferred to Otterbein always this way. her of her of taking a history class that reminded she had the good fortune major, her life, and she would like to thank Dr. It radically changed love for the subject. into the history her academic studies and bringing her Yntema for guiding Richard influencing her life Sarah Fatherly for to thank Dr. department. She would also like them, she would not be the person she Without in more ways than she can count. ing her write this paper in her Contemporary Theory class and subsequently looking class and subsequently Theory Contemporary this paper in her ing her write professors at to recognize those She would also like multiple times. over the paper and enriching en Halbert, who have created a fulfilling to Dr. Otterbein, in addition Ashworth, Suzanne Birk, Dr. Tammy learn and grow including vironment for her to Fatherly. Sarah and especially Dr. you” would be complete without also mentioning his parents and Adam Cottrel— Adam parents and his mentioning without also complete would be you” catastrophic. have been would surely last year of the the struggles whom without Deel Colleen a masters/ some point after graduation, plans to seek, at she Sociology, Studies and mak Debora Halbert for like to thank Dr. Studies. She would Women’s in doctorate

aegis 2007 166 and anindividual. significant experienceinher efforts tochallenge herselfandgrowbothasastudent valuable adviceandassistance duringthewritingprocessofheressay. Ithasbeena drawing andaminorinarthistory. ShewouldliketothankDr. Amy Johnson forher Emily Starr a Mastersof Arts inCounselingMinistries. graduation sheplanstoattend The Methodist Theological SchoolinOhioto pursue Cassi Smith their support. the Westerville area andgetherMastersatOtterbein. Manythankstofamilyfor Spanish. After shefinishesherBachelorsdegreeatOtterbein,planstostayin double majoringinBusinesswithaconcentrationInternational Businessandalso Jennifer Scarbrough equally importantways. amazing andstrongwomenwhohavenurturedencouragedherindifferent, but to thankhermentors,ShannonLakanen, Tammy Birk,andSarah Fatherly—three she planstobuyacabininthewoodsandestablishwriter’s colony. Shewouldlike stalking theeditorsofMcSweeney’s foraninternship. After afewyearsofcitylife, in creativewritingattheCaliforniaCollegeof Arts. Inhersparetimeshewillbe ing and Women’s Studies.SheismovingbacktoSanFranciscopursueanMFA Jennifer Roberts she willbestudyingabroadinDijon,France. A&M Universityinmathematicalmodelingforecologyandphysiology, andthisfall Philosophy andaminorinFrench. This summershewillbedoingresearchat Texas Larsa Ramsini into a plans for after graduation include writing a book on how to forchange supporting the world her or through moving her caffeine-induced delusions aswish she theywrote did. these She’d papers. also Herlike to thank Dr. Debora HalbertStudies. and Dr. She’d Michael like toHoggarth thank Garrett Hardin and Arturo Escobar,Sarah Prindle who don’t know her but and Englishdepartmentsformoldingherintothewriterthinkersheistoday. for encouraginghertosubmitthisessayandeachofprofessorsintheHistory receive anMA inCulturalLiteratureStudies. She’dliketothankDr. McCormick Studies minor. After graduating,sheplanstoattendCarnegie MellonUniversityto Halle Neiderman

yurt. iscurrentlyasophomoreart major withaconcentrationin isaseniorpsychologyandpoliticalsciencemajor. After is a senior English major with minors in Art and Environmental isasophomorewithdouble-majorinMathematicsand isaSeniorDoublemajorinEnglishCreative Writ

is aHistoryandEnglishmajorwith Women’s iscurrentlyajunioratOtterbeinCollege.She -

167 aegis 2007 In this edition…

Facebook.com: Preparing Future Leaders with Ignorance

Jesus: Apocalyptic Mesiah or Counter Apocalyptic Social Prophet? An Alternate View of Jesus and Why the Church is Called to Serve the Oppressed

The Rise of Marxist Thought in Twentieth Century Vietnam

Resurrecting Judith: Edith Summers Kelly, Weeds, and the Politics of Gender

Social Movements and the Politics of Place: Transnational and Local Change

The Drama and the Comedy of the Commons: Rethinking “The Trag- edy of the Commons”

The Material Language of Beuys and Antoni

Is Trope Theory Viable?

The Origins of Republican Womanhood

Leonard Bernstein: I Hate Music! A Cycle of Five Kid Songs and its Cul- tural Context

Discovering Knoxville: A Biography, Analysis, and Study of Cultural Context

…and more