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Cultural Logics of Emotion: Implications for Understanding Torture and Its 84 SCIENTIFIC ARTICLE Cultural logics of emotion: Implications for understanding torture and its sequelae Laurence J. Kirmayer,* Lauren Ban**, James Jaranson,*** on the dynamics of shame, humiliation, Key points of interest: and powerlessness. Forms of physical and • Moral emotions, like shame, guilt, or psychological pain and suffering share humiliation reflect cultural systems some common neurobiological pathways of meaning that are used to inflict and regulatory systems that are influenced damage in torture and that must by social and cultural factors. All forms be renegotiated in the process of of torture follow an affective logic rooted recovery. both in human biology and in local social • Emotions involve bodily and social and cultural meanings of experience. processes that are based on cultural Understanding the impact of specific models, social scripts and scenarios; forms of torture on individuals requires much of this knowledge is tacit or knowledge of their learning histories, and implicit and emerges in response of the personal and cultural meanings of to specific cultural affordances that specific kinds of violence. Exploring cultural depend on social context. meanings requires attention to over-arching • Exploring the cultural meaning of discourse, embodied practices, and everyday emotions for survivors of torture in engagements with an ecosocial environment. both their original and current social Restitution, treatment and recovery can contexts can contribute to clinical then be guided by knowledge of cultural assessment and the design and meanings, dynamics, and strategies for delivery of interventions. coping with catastrophic threats, injury, humiliation, helplessness and loss. Abstract This paper explores the significance of Keywords: torture, shame, humiliation, cultural variations in emotion for the cultural variations in emotion, treatment, meaning and impact of torture, focusing recovery Introduction *) Division of Social & Transcultural Psychiatry, McGill University In this paper, we explore the significance **) Victorian Counselling and Psychological Services of cultural variations in emotion for our (VCPS), Melbourne understanding the nature of torture. ***) Emeritus Faculty, University of Minnesota Medical School Our aim is to show how a contemporary Correspondence to: [email protected] ecosocial approach to cultural TORTURE Volume 28, Number 1, 2018 Volume TORTURE 85 SCIENTIFIC ARTICLE neurophenomenology can inform theory al., 2016). Much of this involves regimes of and practice (Kirmayer, 2015). In particular, shared attention that allow cooperative action. we draw from recent work in embodied and Hence, we approach culture as situated enactive cognitive science, which suggests meaning and practice. new ways of thinking about the interactions Torture manipulates, attacks and of culture and biology in experience deconstructs the familiar cultural contexts (Kirmayer & Ramstead, 2017). We do not of everyday life, substituting one that is focus on specific cultural examples because chaotic and unpredictable. In so doing, it of the risk of creating misleading stereotypes. acts to dismantle the individual’s sense of Instead, we illustrate a general approach to self, coherence, and community, which is cultural meaning through discussion of the based on ongoing participation in a shared role of moral emotions, particularly shame, and predictable social world (Breyer, 2017). in the dynamics of torture. We want to argue Yet, before, during, and after the experiential for the utility of an approach to cultural ruptures of torture, individuals use all variations in emotional experience that the resources of culture to make sense can both help to explain the mechanisms of suffering and reconstruct their lives. A of suffering in torture and point the way cultural perspective that emphasizes the toward new strategies of assessment and social embedding and meaning of emotions, intervention that foreground social context. trauma and suffering can thus explicate The term “culture”, in this discussion, crucial dimensions of the phenomenon stands for all of the humanly constructed of torture. Indeed, recognizing these and transmitted knowledge, institutions, and dimensions may be essential to engage practices that constitute a way of life. Culture clients in treatment and address the full shapes experience developmentally, laying range of their concerns. down learned associations, habits, skills, and automatic patterns of perception and Torture and the nature of suffering dispositions to respond. Across the lifespan, Torture occurs in very different social cultural influences continue to organize contexts, is directed against people from experience both from the top down, through diverse backgrounds, and varies in ways that discursive practices that provide narratives reflect cultural differences in values, coping for experience and, from the bottom up, strategies, sense of self and personhood. through body practices that shape how we While some theories portray the response to carry ourselves and respond to the physical torture as biologically fixed and determined presence of others and the environment. (whether as the response to intense pain, 28, Number 1, 2018 Volume TORTURE Culture is transmitted not only through conditioned fear, or loss of control), a explicit talk about mind, self and person, cultural perspective insists that structures moral codes and the meaning of actions, of meaning and social practices reach down experiences and events, but also through into the body to shape experience from social and environmental affordances—cues its inception. Although pain and fear are and possibilities for perception and action universal responses to injury and the threat present in particular life worlds and social of injury, their relationship to suffering is niches. A major part of culture is learning complex and mediated by meaning and how to attend to, interpret and act on these context (Kirmayer, 2008). Forms of physical humanly constructed contexts (Ramstead et and psychological pain and suffering share 86 SCIENTIFIC ARTICLE some common neurobiological pathways and that go beyond fear-related responses to regulatory systems (Eisenberger, 2015), but include persistent distress associated with these are influenced by cultural factors both shame and guilt, as well as depression—all developmentally and through current social of which may contribute to disability and contexts. Thus, both the experience of pain dysfunction (Lee, Scragg, & Turner, 2001; and fear during torture and their long-term Somasundaram, 2008; Steel et al., 2009; effects are shaped by culture (Kirmayer, Tol et al., 2007; van Ommerren et al., 2001; Kienzler, Afana, & Pedersen, 2010). Wilson, Droždek & Turkovic, 2006). Trauma-related distress covers a broad Based on clinical observations and field domain of symptoms and suffering, but much research, Silove provided a broader picture clinical research on torture has emphasized of the potential consequences of torture the diagnostic construct of post-traumatic and massive human rights violations in stress disorder (PTSD). The construct terms of five biosocial adaptive systems, of PTSD reflects universal patterns of involving: attachment and social bonds; responding to trauma but joins together safety or security; social identity or role; multiple components in ways that have been justice and human rights; and existential determined by a history of social and cultural meaning (Table 1) (Silove, 1999, 2007; practices as well as political and economic Kirmayer et al., 2010); Tay et al., 2015). considerations (Kirmayer, Lemelson & Barad, These systems span individual psychological 2007; Young, 1995). DSM-5 describes the and social processes so that the framework behavioral symptoms of PTSD in terms of may be thought of as ecosocial as well four clusters: re-experiencing; avoidance; as biobehavioral. Each of these adaptive negative cognitions and mood; and arousal systems is associated with particular (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). emotions which are exacerbated by the Considerable cultural variability can be found torture experience and which unfold in in each of these clusters along with specific specific social and cultural contexts. symptoms of trauma-related stress (Hinton & Lewis-Fernandez, 2011). Attachment and social bonds. Torture may The appeal of PTSD has been both its deliberately target social bonds, making the fit with common patterns of experience individual feel an intense sense of isolation, and its link to a large body of research on loss, and abandonment. We depend on conditioned fear responses in animals and stable attachments to others for emotional humans (Kirmayer, Lemelson & Barad, sustenance and self-regulation not only 2007). However, the picture of trauma early in development but across the lifespan. response in PTSD, and the focus on fear Social support and solidarity through do not capture the full range of impacts interpersonal processes have a complex of torture, which commonly occur in relationship to trauma response and recovery settings of social disruption and massive (Maerker & Horn, 2013). However, there human rights abuses (Bolton, et. al., 2012; is evidence that social support can mitigate McGregor et al., 2016; Tay et al. 2015, risk for post-traumatic depression and other 2016; Sales, 2016) and a broader view of trauma-related symptoms (Brewin, Andrews trauma-related distress is needed (Kagee & Valentine, 2000; Johansen et al, 2007;
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