84 TORTURE Volume 28, Number 1, 2018 Laurence J. Kirmayer,* Lauren Ban**,James Jaranson,*** understanding torture anditssequelae Cultural logics ofemotion:Implications for Correspondence to:Correspondence ***) **) *) meaning andimpactoftorture, focusing cultural variations inemotionforthe This paperexploresthesignificanceof Abstract • • • • • • (VCPS), Melbourne McGill University Victorian Counselling and Psychological Services Services CounsellingandPsychological Victorian Division ofSocial& Transcultural Psychiatry, Emeritus Faculty,Emeritus UniversityofMinnesota Medical School delivery ofinterventions. delivery assessment andthedesign toclinical contexts cancontribute social andcurrent both theiroriginal in oftorture forsurvivors theculturalmeaning of Exploring depend onsocialcontext. to specificculturalaffordancesthat implicit andemergesinresponse much ofthisknowledge istacitor models, andscenarios; socialscripts processes that are basedoncultural Emotions involve bodilyandsocial recovery. be renegotiated intheprocessof andthat must damage intorture of meaningthat areusedtoinflict reflect culturalsystems , likeshame, , or Key pointsofinterest:

[email protected] engagements withanecosocialenvironment. discourse, embodiedpractices, andeveryday meanings requiresattention toover-arching specific kindsofviolence. cultural Exploring andculturalmeaningsof of thepersonal histories,knowledge and oftheirlearning onindividualsrequires oftorture forms theimpactofspecific Understanding and culturalmeaningsofexperience. both inhumanbiologyandlocalsocial follow anaffective rooted of torture logic by socialandculturalfactors. All forms systemsthat areinfluenced and regulatory pathwayssome commonneurobiological share painandsuffering psychological and powerlessness. Formsofphysical and on thedynamicsofshame, humiliation, ecosocial approach tocultural Our aimistoshow how acontemporary thenature oftorture. understanding of culturalvariations inemotionforour In thispaper, we explorethesignificance Introduction recovery cultural variations inemotion, treatment, Keywords: humiliation, helplessness andloss. coping withcatastrophic threats, injury, meanings, dynamics, for andstrategies then beguidedbyknowledge ofcultural Restitution, treatment can andrecovery torture, , humiliation, SCIENTIFIC ARTICLE TORTURE Volume 28, Number 1, 2018 85 Torture manipulates, attacks and attacks manipulates, Torture complex and mediated by meaning and complex and mediated of physical Forms 2008). context (Kirmayer, and psychological and share diverse backgrounds, and varies in ways that that and varies in ways diverse backgrounds, coping reflect cultural differences in values, of self and personhood. sense strategies, While some theories portray the response to torture as biologically and determined fixed (whether as the response to intense pain, a or loss of control), conditioned , structures insists that cultural perspective of meaning and social practices reach down into the body to shape experience from Although pain and fear are its inception. universal responses to injury and the threat suffering to their relationship is of injury, of suffering and reconstruct their lives. A of suffering and reconstruct their lives. emphasizes the that cultural perspective social embedding and meaning of emotions, trauma and suffering explicate can thus crucial of the phenomenon dimensions recognizing these Indeed, of torture. to engage be essential dimensions may and address the full clients in treatment range of their concerns. of suffering and the nature Torture occurs in very different social Torture is directed against people from contexts, Hence, we approach culture as situated we Hence, meaning and practice. deconstructs the familiar cultural contexts is one that substituting of everyday life, it In so doing, chaotic and unpredictable. sense of individual’s acts to dismantle the which is and community, self, coherence, based on ongoing participation in a shared 2017). (Breyer, world and predictable social during, and after the experiential before, Yet, ruptures use all individuals of torture, the resources of culture to make sense al., 2016). Much of this involves regimes of Much of this involves 2016). al., action. cooperative allow that shared attention The term “culture”, in this discussion, in this discussion, “culture”, The term how to attend to, interpret and act on these to, to attend how humanly constructed contexts (Ramstead et and possibilities for perception and action present in particular and social life worlds A major part of culture is learning niches. moral codes and the meaning of actions, moral codes and the meaning of actions, also through but experiences and events, affordances—cues social and environmental presence of others and the environment. presence of others and the environment. Culture is transmitted not only through self and person, explicit talk about mind, discursive practices that provide narratives narratives provide practices that discursive from the bottom up, for experience and, we shape how through body practices that carry and respond to the physical ourselves dispositions to respond. Across the lifespan, Across the lifespan, dispositions to respond. cultural influences continue to organize through experience both from the top down, shapes experience developmentally, laying laying shapes experience developmentally, skills, habits, learneddown associations, patternsand automatic of perception and stands for all of the humanly constructed and institutions, and transmitted knowledge, Culture of life. constitute a way practices that toward new strategies and of assessment toward intervention foreground that social context. for the utility of an approach to cultural for the utility of an approach to cultural in emotional experiencevariations that can both help to explain the mechanisms of suffering in torture way and point the cultural meaning through discussion of the cultural meaning through particularly shame, role of moral emotions, to argue want We in the dynamics of torture. focus on specific cultural examples because focus on specific cultural of the risk misleading stereotypes. of creating a general approach to illustrate we Instead, new ways of thinking about the interactions of new ways in experienceof culture and biology not do We 2017). & Ramstead, (Kirmayer neurophenomenology can informneurophenomenology theory In particular, 2015). and practice (Kirmayer, in embodied and from recent work draw we which suggests science, cognitive enactive ARTICLE SCIENTIFIC 86 TORTURE Volume 28, Number 1, 2018 stress disorder(PTSD). The construct of post-traumatic the diagnosticconstruct hasemphasized clinical researchontorture but domain ofsymptomsandsuffering, much Kienzler, Afana, &Pedersen, 2010). effects areshapedbyculture(Kirmayer, andtheirlong-term torture and fearduring contexts. Thus, ofpain boththeexperience developmentally social andthrough current both these areinfluencedbyculturalfactors systems(Eisenberger,regulatory 2015), but pathwayssome commonneurobiological and massive violence canhave consequences & Naidoo, 2004). and Exposuretotorture trauma-related distressisneeded(Kagee 2016; Sales, 2016)anda broaderviewof McGregor etal., 2016; Tay etal. 2015, abuses (Bolton,human rights et. al., 2012; andmassive settings ofsocialdisruption of torture, whichcommonlyoccurin do notcapturethefullrangeofimpacts response inPTSD, andthefocusonfear 2007). However, thepictureoftrauma humans (Kirmayer, Lemelson&Barad, conditioned fearresponsesinanimalsand and itslinktoalargebodyofresearchon ofexperience fit withcommonpatterns Lewis-Fernandez, 2011). symptoms oftrauma-related stress(Hinton& alongwithspecific in eachoftheseclusters canbefound Considerable culturalvariability Psychiatric (American Association, 2013). negative cognitionsandmood; andarousal four clusters: re-experiencing; avoidance; of behavioral symptomsofPTSDinterms 2007; Young, 1995). the DSM-5describes considerations (Kirmayer, Lemelson&Barad, practices aswell aspoliticalandeconomic ofsocialandcultural byahistory determined multiple componentsinways that have been responding totraumabut joinstogether of of PTSDreflectsuniversalpatterns The appealofPTSDhasbeenbothits Trauma-related distresscovers abroad

Attachment andsocialbonds. specific socialandculturalcontexts. andwhichunfoldin experience torture emotions whichareexacerbated bythe systems isassociated withparticular as biobehavioral. Eachoftheseadaptive may bethoughtofasecosocialwell and socialprocessessothat theframework These systemsspanindividualpsychological Kirmayer etal., 2010); Tay etal., 2015). meaning (Table 1)(Silove, 1999, 2007; justice andhumanrights; andexistential safety orsecurity; socialidentityorrole; involving: attachment andsocialbonds; offive biosocialadaptiveterms systems, and massiveviolations in humanrights of thepotentialconsequencestorture research, Silove provided abroaderpicture Wilson, Droždek& Turkovic, 2006). Tol etal., 2007; etal., van Ommerren 2001; Somasundaram, 2008; Steeletal., 2009; dysfunction (Lee, Scragg, & Turner, 2001; of whichmay todisabilityand contribute shame andguilt, aswell asdepression—all distressassociated with include persistent that gobeyond fear-related responsesto 2003; Porter &Haslam, 2005; Shalev, 2007). Johnson & Thompson, 2008; Ozeretal., & Valentine, 2000; Johansen etal, 2007; trauma-related symptoms(Brewin, Andrews forpost-traumatic depressionandother risk canmitigate is evidencethat socialsupport (Maerker &Horn, 2013). However, there relationship totraumaresponseandrecovery processeshave acomplex interpersonal through andsolidarity Social support early indevelopment but acrossthelifespan. sustenance andself-regulation notonly foremotional stable attachments toothers loss, andabandonment. We dependon individual feelanintensesenseofisolation, deliberately targetsocialbonds, makingthe Based on clinical observations andfield Based onclinicalobservations SCIENTIFIC ARTICLE Torture may Torture TORTURE Volume 28, Number 1, 2018 87 - - groups community Recreating systems Re-assertover control self and environment and Recognition of status identity Opportunities for mean ingful action interventions Family Community membership Human right protection Social security Engagement redevelopment trust redevelop Family ment and reconciliation Truth Human rights protection approach, Testimonial story telling one’s Re-engagement in life projects Linking with culture, community and religious traditions activism Political Interventions Re-connection with loved ones Mourning of new bonds Creation Membership in social PTSD Suicidality Role Traumatic Paranoia Alienation Disengagement Crisis of Transgenerational transmission Psychopathology Anxiety griefComplicated refugee camps and other transitional refugee camps and other transitional settings can contribute to torture survivors’ distress and impaired functioning (Miller economic stress, material deprivation, material deprivation, economic stress, to their torturers,or proximity who may impunity and have continue to hold power The lack of safety in from prosecution. ------

meaning Powerless shame ness, and humili ation Hos Anger, tility Lack of trust Bitterness Search for Emotional Reactions Anxiety Home sick ness Nos talgia Anxiety Insecurity Hypervigi lance

Torture Torture exposes Loss of sense of coherence, and purpose, for future identity Sense of injustice, arbitrary violence Impunity Loss of control Loss of social and roles occupational and status Misrecognition, significant others, significant others, and culture Uncertainty Threats Threats from Separation Adaptive systems affected by torture by systems affected Adaptive Existential Meaning Justice Identity/Role Security Attachment Adaptive Adaptive System safety or that of their familiessafety or that to due and injury in ways that are designed to and injury are designed to that in ways make the victim feel intensely vulnerable Survivors endure may and powerless. physical to their own continuing threats Safety and security. Safety pain fear, individuals to inescapable threat, & Measham (2010) Rousseau and Kirmayer, (2004), Ekblad & Jaranson 2007), (1999, Adapted from Silove Table 1: 1: Table ARTICLE SCIENTIFIC 88 TORTURE Volume 28, Number 1, 2018 destroy theperson’s socialstandingor “face.” torture, likerape, explicitlyaimtodamageor of purpose, value andesteem. of Many forms within thecommunity, asense undermining andtheirsocialmoralstatus person systematic attacks ontheidentityof Identity andSocialRole Austin &Steel, 2007). (Silove, fromtorture ofsecurity disruption their future—allofwhichcompoundthe about conditions andprolongeduncertainty detentionunderharsh may experience & Rasmussen, 2010). Asylum seekers human rights discourse and legislation andlegislation discourse human rights Ignatieff, 1998). arenas, Ininternational honor andsocialequity(Fiske &Rai, 2015; may sanctionviolenceasaway to restore ofpeopleand specific classesorcategories may differinwhat theyconsiderunjustfor specific typesofhierarchy andgenderroles & Rapson, 2005). Culturesthat accept political systems(Avruch, 2010; Hatfield with different social, vary moraland fairness 2009). However, notionsofjusticeand individuals andcommunities(Mendeloff, aim at re-establishingthismoralorderfor ofrestorativea justworld andforms justice 2015). There areuniversalexpectations for Wemmers &Manirabona, 2014; Tay etal., situation (Batson, Chou&Givens, 2009; tothe mediated bythemeaningsascribed ofangerat injustice, but thisis may tointenseandpersistent contribute wayismetedout capricious that torture Justice andhumanrights. identity andself-presentation. survivors’ controlover theirown social ofidentityundermines rape anddenigration oftorture, attached withthe experience recognition, andrespect. Ineffect, thestigma ofhonor,are shapedbyculturalnorms ofthisprocessabjection,mediators which Shame andhumiliation arekeyemotional

. Torture ofteninvolves or The arbitrary in life, anda valued socialidentity allserve asenseofjustice,Undermining meaning causedbytorture. tothe suffering contribute of fear, anger, shame, anddisgust canall Rosebrook &Litz, 2014). Intense emotions identity(Nickerson,and group Bryant, ofindividual and destruction denigration functioning, andthe in interpersonal through lossofsensecontrol, disruptions systems. Torture effects itsdamaging exerts look at theroleofseveral differentaffective andencouragesusto impact oftorture to enlargeourways ofthinkingaboutthe maximally disruptive totheperson’smaximally disruptive sense of may bedeliberately organizedtobe torture insisting ontheindividual’s powerlessness, Willis, Chou&Hunt, 2015). However, by (Barber etal., 2014; Ba mitigate theimpacts ofstressandtorture may of thethreatened oroppressedgroup Commitment tothesocialcauseorideology life andactionshave meaningandvalue. uncertainty, thesensethat one’s undermining and can create astate ofbewilderment community andculturalframeofreference seem pointlessorabsurd. The lossofastable and makecorevalues andcommitments individual fromtheirusualframesofreference Existential meaning. Kirmayer, 2012). societies (Appiah, 2011; Kateb, 2011; across social rolesandpositionsmay vary is tobeachieved forpeoplewithspecific but,flourishing again, thedetailsofhow this for dignity, realization of capabilities, and ofcommonhumanneeds framed interms (Donnelly, 2013). are Humanrights honor, orpoliticalexpediency discrimination of justicethat transcendlocalsystemsof provide andargueforforms ways toassert meaningful action. agency, order, coherenceandthepossibilityof This listisnotexhaustive but serves SCIENTIFIC ARTICLE Torture aimstoisolate the ş o ğ lu etal., 1997a,b; TORTURE Volume 28, Number 1, 2018 89 lu, lu, ğ o ş lu, 2011; Ba 2011; lu, ğ of what the event the event of what appraisal lu, M., & Salcio M., lu, ğ o How individuals appraise a particularHow As a result, emotions are grounded As a result, ş emotional and behavioral responses. emotional and behavioral they interpret depends on how situation Mesquita, & Karasawa, 2001). Emotional 2001). & Karasawa, Mesquita, response then is not directly determined by the rather but or event by a situation individual’s Thus, means and by the responses of others. the learning for example, theory of trauma, on stress and appraisal on earlier work builds 1984) to posit that (Lazarus & Folkman, to individuals appraise potential threats to determinepsychological well-being are controllable or not whether such threats (Ba Such appraisal influences subsequent 2017). a local social world or situation that depends that or situation a local social world identities, on particular cultural institutions, the emotions they give and practices, roles, rise distinctive. be culturally to may shape the in meaning systems that Because such interpretation of experience. systems depend on culture interpretive cognitive 1991), (Markus & Kitayama, theories people learn suggest that to bodily interpret their physiological signals, in contexts and environmental sensations, across cultures (Kitayama, different ways expected, and how to respond behaviorally, behaviorally, to respond and how expected, . the initial physiological beyond interpretations and These attributions models or schemas maps, reflect cognitive and This process of appraisal of situations. interpretation is crucial more complex for which reflect social scenarios and emotions, particular follow predicaments that cultural 2006). & Jenkins, Keltner, scripts (Oatley, only be understoodSuch emotions can by current context the history, appreciating and future consequences embedded in that the extent these scenarios describe To script. determine what counts as danger, what what determine as danger, counts what are to be feared or future consequences Torture survivors reluctant are often Torture & Biven, 2012). However, emotions also However, 2012). & Biven, appraisal processes that cognitive involve emotions are shared with other animals and patterns organize reflect biobehavioral that (Panksepp behavior adaptive motivated, basic adaptive responses of fight or flight basic adaptive into the nervousbuilt systems of animals Such basic are predators and prey. that rooted in biological, psychological, social psychological, rooted in biological, At the biological and existential realities. anger and fear reflect for example, level, Emotions reflect both putatively universal Emotions reflect both putatively and culture- human systems of adaptation specific scripts rooted in particular forms of There are universals of social life. (Mollica, 2004; 2008). 2004; (Mollica, Emotions in cultural context on the person can guide practitioners survivors’ sense of trust, in rebuilding their lives and control over self-efficacy, dimensions of experience that are attacked dimensions of experience are attacked that by torture and the intense emotions with these kinds of attacks associated of increasing their symptoms, or a lack of or a lack of of increasing their symptoms, help (Jaranson, about available knowledge Understanding the broad 2001). et al. developed (Jaranson et al, 2001). They also They also 2001). et al, (Jaranson developed their trauma be unwilling to talk about may experiences in due to lack of fear health care staff, feelings of shame, or unwilling to tell their storiesor unwilling to tell of trauma before basic needs are met and trust is implications of the violence for the survivor, for the survivor, of the violence implications and for others in the for their family, 1995). community (Rousseau, survivor on the functioning of family and broader meanings of The and community. torture exploring by can be elucidated the to impair survivors’ ability to exertsurvivors’ to impair control others’ time, At the same their world. over of the history awareness of torture have may they view the the way corrosive effects on ARTICLE SCIENTIFIC 90 TORTURE Volume 28, Number 1, 2018 on thefoundation ofbasicemotionsbut Culture-specific emotionsmay bebuilt and community(Lutz& White, 1986). specific culturalnotionsofperson, family orpredicamentsthat dependon scenarios kindsofsocialsituations,particular to theextentthat emotionsreference Moreover, emotionsdifferacrosscultures events etal., acrosscultures(Moors 2013). in how peoplevieweven apparentlysimilar result, theremay besignificantdifferences andculturalmeaningsystems.history As a oftheirpersonal its significanceinterms & Kitayama, 1991). This isreflectedin (Markus more individualistic inorientation relational orcollectivistic, are while others asmore cultures canbecharacterized extensive literature showing that certain self andothers. For example, thereisan think abouttherelationship between culturally isconnectedwithhow people symptoms, andfunctioning. over ofemotionalexperience, timeinterms unfold andsequelaeoftorture the suffering will influencehow the processesthat mediate 2014). These culturaldynamicsofemotion temporal unfoldingoftheemotion(Prinz, qualityand the experiential which determine configurations, andfutureconsequences— their developmental history, current about theirsocialcontexts—including more of emotionsrequiresthuslearning & Kirmayer, 2016). Gettingaclearpicture emotional responses(Ramstead, Veissière social affordancesthat elicitandelaborate 2012). of These interactionsarepart actions andreactions(Boiger&Mesquita, that involve sequencesofinterpersonal in specificsocialandculturalcontexts emotions areembodiedandembedded andsocialconsequences.contours Ineffect, give emotionsnewmeaning, experiential that extend themthroughsocialscripts One way cross- that appraisalsvary

and reinforcing feelings of guilt for engaging and reinforcingfeelingsofguiltforengaging may bemaintainedmore oftenbycreating more individualisticcultures, socialcontrol concomitant threat ofsocialexclusion. In be theinculcation of shame, withthe device formaintainingsocialordermay In morerelational cultures, aprimary for socialcontrol(Wong & Tsai, 2007). the relative emphasisonshameorguilt ofculturaldifferencesin framed interms anthropology,psychological thishasbeen and other. Inculturalpsychologyand the perceived relationship between self social controlmay alsobeinfluencedby Fles, 2015). that involve (Dean& moraltransgressions respond tosocialsituations, includingthose influence thewaysof self-construal people Ellsworth, 2006). modes These preferred disengaged(Mesquita,as interpersonally & independence tendtothinkofthemselves those fromculturesthat morehighlyvalue themselves inrelationship toothers, while emphasize interdependencetendtothinkof et al., 2014 of basicemotions( the ways that peoplerespondtomeasures needed to capture multiple facets oftheself needed tocapture multiplefacets down and morecomplexaccountsare distinction between shameandguiltbreaks thegaze oftheother,self incorporates the To theextentthat individuals’ senseof norms, andtheexpectations ofothers. insocialmodels,direction aregrounded which allself-experience, evaluation and perspective that downplays theextentto contrast isframedfromanindividualistic tonote,It isimportant however, that this moralstandards.their own internalized whenindividuals violate is experienced violations intheeyes oftheother, guilt inresponsetoperceivedexperienced moral in prohibitedbehaviors. Whereas shameis The ways inwhichsocietiesexert ). People fromculturesthat SCIENTIFIC ARTICLE Özkarar-Gradwohl TORTURE Volume 28, Number 1, 2018 91 lu (2017) cites evidence suggesting ğ Through knowledge of what constitutes a of what Through knowledge o ş from inability to act on anger and Guilt, treatment. by such aversive generated other have may shame and humiliation control, shame and humiliation to destroy to destroy shame and humiliation control, the dignity of the individual and nullify their sense of self-efficacy and self- social standing, torturersThe particular that ways do respect. from psychological but this draw universals of cultural systems knowledge also employ especially of meaning and social contexts, tap into moral emotions. that those situations Ba impact of humiliating the traumatic that on personal or attacks treatments integrity, or religious beliefs morals, cultural values, in partis mediated by helplessness arising of torture will involve transgression of of torture will involve be rape may example, For multiple codes. of personalseen as a violation autonomy, This and purity. social bonds and identity, be expected to differentially elicit would and , shame, feelings of anger, all of these In most instances, respectively. with varying but emotions will be evoked depend on that intensities and implications cultural meaning and explanations. the torturer or transgression, moral violation seeks to cause maximal suffering, loss of The experience of specific moral emotions of meaning and value gives cultural systems their cogency and bodily-felt immediacy. the logic of Moral emotions and torture variations on cultural These considerations we for how implications in emotion have Moral emotions play think about torture. The logica central role in the of torture. are transgressedethical or moral codes that in specific acts of torture rise give may to context any In general, particular emotions. systems but are based on cultural systems of based on cultural systems are systems but meaning and grounded in social practices. Ethics where in which revolves in which morality revolves Ethics of community, , in which morality is viewed in which morality is viewed , Björkqvist (2017) discusses how shame how Björkqvist (2017) discusses the negative emotions may be self-directed. be self-directed. emotions may the negative These codes are not arbitrary or abstract and violations of the ethic of divinity evoke of the ethic of divinity evoke and violations made is victim, When the violator disgust. as partto violate of the regime of torture, ethic of autonomy tend to provoke anger; anger; tend to provoke ethic of autonomy it when the ethic of community is violated to the violator; leads to toward Rozin and colleagues (1999) found that Rozin and colleagues (1999) found that of each of these codes produced violation of the Violations specific moral emotions: with their role in the community; and 3) with their role in the community; Ethics of divinity, around concerns about purity or sanctity of things. order” “natural and the perceived violations; 2) violations; in termsmorality is conceived of the duties to perform in accordance individuals have kinds of moral codes or “ethics”: 1) “ethics”: kinds of moral codes or of autonomy in terms of individual freedoms and rights in different parts tend to use of the world their different kinds of moral codes to guide moral judgements and distinguish three harmful and transgressive) values, goals harmful and transgressive) values, and Research by Shweder and behaviors. people colleagues (2003) emphasizes that function as a moral emotion (Frijda, 2004). 2004). function as a moral emotion (Frijda, (or socially valued Moral emotions locate prohibited) behaviors within a larger cultural matrix of desirable and appropriate (or code (Morgan, 2011; Williams, 2008). In 2008). Williams, 2011; code (Morgan, linked to emotion any though, a sense, particular and outcomes may social events emotions of shame and guilt have been guilt have emotions of shame and because they are “moral emotions” termed of a moral violations linked to perceived social shaming and exclusion can cause social shaming and by mediated be which may intense pain, The self-conscious systems. attachment and their influence on cultural variations in variations on cultural and their influence 2007b). emotion (Kirmayer serves regulatory social how functions and ARTICLE SCIENTIFIC 92 TORTURE Volume 28, Number 1, 2018 shame, anddisgustallcanplay arolein and powerlessness. Intensefeelingsofanger, lead toprofoundfeelingsofdemoralization is sufficientlyintenseanduncontrollablecan those towhichtheyreturn. comeand communities fromwhichsurvivors inrelation tothe meanings ofthetorture therefore requiresknowledge ofthecultural effects itsimmediate andlong-term exerts Identifying thepathways bywhichtorture loss ofvalued socialidentityandposition. corrosive effectsrelated totheindividual’s emotional responses can exert profound profound emotional responses canexert cognitive influences onmemory, conditioned & Duarte, 2012). Inadditiontothese and depression(Matos, Pino-Gouvela toanxiety functioning andcontributing social be intenselypreoccupying, impairing can on shameful experiences rumination toorganizesalientmemories, serve and anddisability.suffering Emotionslikeshame responses inways that leadstocontinued memory, andcoping conditioned learning reorganize behavior through processesof ofintensenegativeexperience emotionscan shame andhelplessness. in ways that addtotheperson’s of experience (e.g. trembling, urination; fainting; retching) cognitive, emotionalandbodily responses 2003) but also signal lossofcontrolthrough quality(Levinas, oftheirexperiential in terms disgust notonlymay beinherentlydistressing difficult tosuppress, emotionslikefear, shame, responses canbeintense, derailing, and recovery. Becausesuchconditionedemotional and despite individuals’ at mastery efforts orrecur to trauma-related cuesandpersist noxious emotionscanalsobeconditioned anger canbeequallydisorganizing. These interactions; coping andinterpersonal intense shame candisorganizethinkingandimpair causing emotionalinjury. For example, intense Beyond causingimmediate distress, the Any noxious sensation oremotionthat

notions of impurity andmoraltransgression. notions ofimpurity complex socialcuesassociated withsymbolic is elaborated and becomeslinkedtomore pork. Moreover, culturedisgust inevery of nauseaanddisgustwhenforcedtoeat of rules Thus, Muslimdietary whoobserves aperson ofexposures. andculturalhistory personal What countsas disgusting, then, reflects a be readilylinkedtoothersymbolicstimuli. 2013). Butthisbasicbodilyresponsecan difficult tosuppress(Russell&Giner-Sorolla, much cognitive mediation, andbeextremely canoccurrapidly,transgression without responses ofdisgustinresponsetobodily or parasiticdisease(Curtis, 2013). Thus, of avoiding potentiallytoxic, infectious functions evolutionary and likelyserved stimuli. The capacityfordisgustishardwired to associate nausea anddisgustwithsalient fact, wepreparedtolearn arebiologically evoke feelingsofqueasinessanddisgust. In can cuesassociated withnauseacometo fear inanticipation offuturepain, sotoo just ascuesassociated withpaincanevoke an individual’s consciouscognition. Thus, functioning inways that occuroutsideof effects onaspectsofbodilyandpsychological of the effects of trauma both in the acute stage of theeffects trauma bothintheacutestage mediator argued that shameisanimportant oftorture. Budden(2009)has in mostforms (Khan,torture 2010). sacred hasbeenusedtodeliver faith-based symbols ofthe ofreligious transgression in Guantanamodetainees. Deliberate was usedtoinduceshameandhelplessness examples ofhow violation ofculturalnorms helplessness. Koenig(2017) provides clear feelingsof leadtoenduring persistent—may sufficiently intense, uncontrollableand disgust andeven nausea, which—when canthenbeusedtoevoke of purity intense Symbolic actsthat violate culturalnorms Shame andhumiliation play majorroles halal mightdevelop intensefeelings SCIENTIFIC ARTICLE TORTURE Volume 28, Number 1, 2018 93 lu et al., 1997a,b; 1997a,b; lu et al., ğ o ş People have implicit causal theories they have People Punamäki et al., 2008). However, given However, 2008). Punamäki et al., the transgression torture that often involves are moral explanations of moral codes, Explanations of complex events often use of complex events Explanations from multiple frameworks concepts drawn in and a range of ontologies invoked can be response to torture based on the context in In the case of torture in thewhich it occurs. socio-political explanations context of war, Understanding torture as a be relevant. may political commitments risk to one’s related help individuals to prepare to endure it, may the experience of control over confer a level consequence of politicala as framed is it since and help to make choices or resistance, sense of suffering (Ba consequences also depend on specific confer meaning and that cultural frameworks modes of explanation. provide to explain both actions and afflictions. invoke ofThese theories from cultural systems draw 2006). practical and moral reasoning (Tilly, The psychological and social consequences depend on larger of specific explanations are embedded in systems of meaning that particular reference of life and that ways of kinds cultural ontologies identify what that entities or processes can act as causal agent. others. Moreover, in torture individuals Moreover, others. both bodily functions control over lose may of self as a and the social presentation and deprivation consequence of violence social be forced to explicitly violate or may norms coercion actions under by their own integrityleading to a loss of moral and While these rupture of social identity. forms logics of violence rely on universal of emotion and psychophysiological make them just as intense mechanisms that pain or physical involve as processes that their initial impact and long termterror, abrogation of basic social expectations for for social expectations of basic abrogation from and cooperation predictable responses refers lajja refers inferiority to both status malu In torture, intense feelings of status intense feelings of status In torture, personal loss of control over circumstances personal loss of control over also because of the but and behavior recognition, cooperation, care, reciprocity care, cooperation, recognition, Victims experience and respect from others. not only because of their powerlessness actions but by eliciting cooperative responses by eliciting cooperative actions but The whole context of torture from others. social normsviolates for and expectations persistent and profound leads to feelings we In ordinary social life, of helplessness. exert control not only through our own inferiority by acts of domination are created This results in acute subjugation. cause that which when a loss of agency and control, that maintaining the status hierarchy is a key hierarchy the status maintaining that lower reminders and that of one’s servestatus a social regulatory function. Indonesia, Indonesia, and failure to conform (Röttger-Rössler et al., reflect the factThis conjunction may 2013). and some other Indian languages, and some other Indian languages, primarily with shame associated to a sense of In 2013). inferioritystatus (Sinha & Chouhan, the word “shame” tends to be applied mainly “shame” the word of failureto feelings in situations to conform In Bengali to social norms and expectations. behavior. However, cultures vary in the However, behavior. the extent to which they distinguish between offered by take the examples To forms. two American in North English, (2004), Fessler to norms or leads to loss of social status impedes the status when diminished social appropriate capacity to maintain individual’s to maintain social order through conformityto maintain social order be closely and may respectively, and hierarchy, when failure to performcoupled, according expectations; and 2) loss of social status or and 2) loss of social status expectations; inferior (Fessler, status experienceof one’s These forms serve of shame may 2007). 1999, and in later coping. Moreover, shame is central Moreover, coping. and in later Two of trauma. to the social consequences can be distinguished: broad sources of shame 1) failure conform to to social norms and ARTICLE SCIENTIFIC 94 TORTURE Volume 28, Number 1, 2018 the torturer aims to make the survivor feel feel aimstomakethesurvivor the torturer moral order. However, inmany instances, inways thattorture maintainasenseof in situations of helplessnessorreframethe tomaintainanillusionofcontrol may serve avoid adverseoutcomes. This attribution that onemight have donesomethingto ofone’sin terms own actionsortoconsider misfortune tounderstand general tendency moral boundaries. Inpart, thismay reflecta perceive themselves ashaving transgressed may oftorture toward thetorturer, survivors commonly used. Inadditiontoangerdirected deflect, reject andresistabuse arenolonger relationships withothers. to strategies Normal maintained bycooperative andreciprocal (Gallagher, 2014), which areordinarily the person’s sense ofidentityandcontrol destabilizes relationships andsupports socialinteraction, cut-off fromordinary ofbeingforciblyconfined and experience engagement withnewsocialsituations. The ways that aftertheirreleaseand may persist in andmoralworth sense ofself-efficacy control, works todismantle theindividual’s ofloss torture, withrepeated experiences psychologically. Indeed, of the structure and defenselessbothphysically and Torture theindividualhelpless renders helplessnessandlossofcontrolLearned of justiceandcoherence. have acorrosiveeffectonthesurvivor’s sense may ofthedeliberate design oftorture is part ofviolencethat and responseinthedelivery between action orproportion of correlation suffering. Finally, andlack thearbitrariness see themselves asthearchitectsoftheirown that thisattribution succeeds, victimsmay loss totheirown loved ones. To theextent and suffering blaming thevictimbringing on thelargercommunity. This may include or oftheattack onsocial personhood as part himorher responsible forallthat hasbefallen

& Salcio behavioral controlandthesameattitudes ofloss individuals endure experiences by controllingone’s own mindmay help hand, traditionsthat emphasizecoping that impairfunctioning. Ontheother also leadtoineffective copingstrategies some individualstoendurebut theymay that liebeyond anyone’s controlmay help or forces oragencieslikefate “God’s will” controllable. of Explainingevents in terms kind ofevent isviewed as(potentially) andexplanations.ontologies Notevery controllability alsodependoncultural this byrepetitive attacks, coercion, pervasive moment but intothefuture. Itaccomplishes of controlandself-mastery, notonlyinthe Torture thesedomains works toundermine choices ofaction, andself-presentation. controlincludebodilyfunctions,personal orpotentiallyundertheindividual’snormally asbeing that arecommonly understood & Teasdale, 1978; Ba helplessness(Abramson,learned Seligman, of ofthetheory interms been understood the impactofshameandhumiliation, can as adehumanizedobject. being forcedintopassivityand “acted upon” feelings ofutterhelplessnessthat comefrom follow fromsuchsubjugation to contribute dignity. The shameandhumiliation that “voluntarily” and leadstoalossofagency transgressiveacts forcing themtoperform Breaking down individuals’ resistanceand integrity.coercion aimstodestroy personal inconsistent withhisvalues andidentity. This toactionsutterly andtoagree tormentor tocomplywithhis unbearable suffering, toendure and violenceforcetheperson possible. This confinement, domination efforts tore-establishcontrol. efforts uncertainty, of anddirectundermining The domainswhereindividualsexpect Many oftheeffectstorture, including ğ lu, 2011). life Aspects ofeveryday SCIENTIFIC ARTICLE ş o ğ lu, 1992; Ba ş o ğ lu lu TORTURE Volume 28, Number 1, 2018 95 Taking local meanings of emotion local meanings Taking Lack of understanding of others’ cultural cultural Lack of understanding of others’ Discussions of culture in mental healthDiscussions of culture political and clinical responses. measure we seriously for how has implications predicaments. This failure of and and This failure of empathy predicaments. imagination is seen both in public policy In and in the microcosm of clinical care. to begun countries have many recent years, renege on their commitments to receiving and those who make it to the refugees, shores of a safe country face may systemic as skepticism as well discrimination, and disbelief when they recount their Mapping 2007a). experiences (Kirmayer, the social and emotional meanings and consequences of torture can foster better understanding and more appropriate social, understanding and rapport. Moreover, understanding Moreover, and rapport. is most central this approach hides what namely the taken-for-granted to culture, From this assumptions of the observer. are most the cultures that perspective, important in clinical practice include those and the practitioner, of the receiving society, the which provide of the profession itself, background and implicit norms knowledge is unusual, used to judge what are that about others. or clinically relevant interesting, leads to inhumane responses to their worlds impact of specific forms of violence; and impact of specific forms of violence; it where current of adaptation, contexts of hope and recovery. shapes the dynamics or characteristicsoften focus on traits of ‘non-Western’ othersdesignated (usually as different inpeoples) who are depicted norms to the tacit or explicit relation of of and Becoming aware societies. Western is supposed to these differences "sensitive" 2016). et al., care (Kirmayer to improve this sometimes results in practice, However, in crude impede clinical may stereotypes that with vulnerability and resilience; the context and resilience; with vulnerability where it can help explain the of torture, To more fully grasp patients’ experience, experience, more fully grasp patients’ To torture context, where it can elucidate it can elucidate where torture context, structures are associated of meaning that this information require discussion with may or community home, others as family, as well the pre- This mapping can include: visits. avoidance, or dissociation or unsayable or unsayable or dissociation avoidance, and because they are hypocognized Eliciting embedded in external affordances. may not be able to describe but only show. not be able to describe only show. may but Important aspects of cultural meaning may remain unsaid because of suppression, body practices, scripts, and contexts that and contexts that scripts, body practices, give moral emotions their meaning and This map includes the tacit consequences. dimensions of experience individuals which psychological dynamics of emotion. psychological dynamics of emotion. clinicians need to map the social spaces, meanings are interpretedunderstood and and through systems of cultural knowledge which contribute to the social and practice, of torture involves not only its physical and not only its physical of torture involves psychological but effects on the sufferer These its social meaning to all involved. emotional pain, threat or injury or threat to loved emotional pain, hopelessness, loss of social bonds, ones, The impact and humiliation. helplessness, Conclusion forms many of violence, involves Torture in targeting multiple systems involved and physical the response to intense fear, of estrangement from others (Khan, 2010; 2010; othersof estrangement from (Khan, 2015). Kirmayer, injury, blocking efforts to give meaning to injury, suffering, and damagingsocial identity their lead to persistent may feelings that in ways individuals to transgress cultural and religious norms then constitutes and values causing direct multiple forms of violence, may help with subsequent adaptation adaptation help with subsequent may Jesperson, Carlsson, Elsass, 2015; (Agger, Elssass & Phuntsok, 2008; & Phuntsok, Forcing Kohrt 2010). & Hruschka, 2009; ARTICLE SCIENTIFIC 96 TORTURE Volume 28, Number 1, 2018 functioning, and psychological well-beingfunctioning, andpsychological physical health, cognitive-emotional has consequencesnotjustforindividuals’ Rousseau &Measham, 2010). Torture Jaranson &Popkin, 1998; Kirmayer, the humancommunity(Campbell, 2007; of theworld, of andthetrustworthiness in theirown capacities, inthepredictability ofindividuals’terms abilitytofeelconfidence but alsotobroaderadaptive functioningin only at physicalsymptoms andpsychological advocacy.human rights We needtolooknot outcomes inresearch, clinicalassessments, or Elizabeth Anthony advice. foreditorial on earlierversions of thispaperand anonymous reviewers forhelpfulcomments We thank MetinBa Acknowledgements prevention oftorture. andforthe for effective treatment ofsurvivors isessentialboth anditsaftermath of torture violence. theculturalcontexts Understanding overand contributes of totimecycles andcommunities families disrupts torture to considertheways inwhichtheimpact of Beyond individualimpacts, then, we need andcommunities.ramifications forfamilies itself (Ba experience thanthe torture survivors torture ofPTSDamong may bestrongerpredictors and amongeveryone trauma-related disorders andsocialbonds, of trust increasetherisk andcommunitiesthat disrupt to families as well: ofpoliticalviolencedirected forms But thecausalprocessworks theotherway mayrelationships alsoimprove. with others treatment improves individualfunctioning, functioning. Hence, whenpsychological closely related to individual’s psychological relationships and socialinteractionsis 2014). Ofcourse, thequalityofinterpersonal (Maercker &Horn, 2013; etal., Nickerson but alsofortheir relationships withothers

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