In the Albanian Case Submitted T

CEU eTD Collection

Visualizing Virtual Borders: Identity Territorialization Shifts and Doctoral School ofPolitical Science, Public Policy International and

partialIn fulfillment ofthe requirements for the degree of “Imagined Geographies” in the Albanian case Submitted Centralto European University

Supervisor: Prof. Erin Jenne DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Budapest, HungaryBudapest,

Relations Ilir Kalemaj BY

(PhD)

CEU eTD Collection Signature ------10,2013 March Ilir Kalemaj of form the in bibliographical reference. made is acknowledgment appropriate where except person, other any by this that declare hereby I any differentother institution from CEU. at degree a towards submitted been have thesis this of parts no that declare hereby I DECLARATION

thesis contains no materials previously written and/or published published and/or written previously materials no contains thesis

CEU eTD Collection to include the degree scale and of mapmaterialization. p while limits, geopolitical on dependent largely often are clashes bits empirical many analytical policy both and in include applications general have references findings the addition, the In cases. of actions, multitude and discourse elite and spatial aswell andtemporal as compatibility/differences investigating dimensions, inmass and discourse domestic place theiron actions limits and howitinfluences mapw conditionalize which pressures, external by constrained always cost through elites, such project, map other these the or one embracing words, other recog internationally In with congruent be not may or may power. that borders virtual imagined political and map national retaining of versions expansionist/contractionary and use to elites getting competing leads mainly is this which how gains, and choices personal for environment manipulate thenecessary national(ist)create symbols to elite borders. on of constraints (re)construction international versus domestic that borders. agendas national create political building in role primary the plays elites (diasporic) ‗external‘ and nation differently time? pointin at the same of concept broader borders the imagined often have other) the on Kosovo and the Macedonia and hand one on in Albania (in expanding communities Albanian different nation why (2) and Albanian Albania", "Greater the ont periods mapping other nation Albanian and the borders with associated periods some with time over borders geographical different on takes nation Albanian the of understanding questions specific and empirical two into down broken is question make general that factors and occur? actors shifts virtual when and primary perception mapping certain the a have groups are what and changes such motivates What state? the of outside versus inside differently perceived are they why and change borders both in comparatively studied case, Albanian the is case primarily the Although ‗internal‘ between struggles power that argument the on builds dissertation, This is: addresses dissertation this that question research primary The - level axes because concurrent maps exist across states and societies and elite elite and societies and states across exist maps concurrent because axes level I construct here a theoretical model that captures the dy the captures that model theoretical a here construct I

This builds on the logic that the elites engineer and and engineer elites the that logic the on builds This

Abstract

eaving. eaving. - benefit calculations, are calculations, benefit olicy relevance extends relevance olicy

o Albania's state state Albania's o

of the Albanian Albanian the of This broad and broad This nized ones. In ones. nized h national Why : (1) how the the how (1) namics of namics

political from a a from -- 3

CEU eTD Collection awarding for me the Excellence Scholarship Albania in Science and Education of Ministry the to indebted greatly am I all for apologizing while I thattime able notbeen have tospend withthem. my me, in thank believing I for and endeavour. love their this for in brother and support parents enormous an been continuously has family My staff Fugedi. from support and understanding continuous the s as where well as CEU at studies the of course the in others and Merlingen Michael Astrov, Alex Papkova, Irina Professors with draft various tremendously of feedback and journeycomments Fumagalli`s Matteo Dr. from deal great a benefited also have I this made have support rewardingI veryand much. thankher continuous t and been has criticism endeavor constructive this in friend and mentor my as her Having Jenne. Erin Prof. supervisor, my to gratitude my express to want I all of First

pecial thanks go to Irén Varga, Júlia Paraizs, Krisztina Zsukotynszky and Eszter Eszter and Zsukotynszky Krisztina Paraizs, Júlia Varga, Irén to go thanks pecial s on progress of this dissertation. I also have learned a lot from exchanges from lot a learned have also I dissertation. this of progress on s

that Acknowledgements partlythe field funded work.

e raet oo. e openness, Her honor. greatest he

the the 4

CEU eTD Collection Chapter 3 Chapter 2 Chapter 1 Contents 3.4 Great Powers geopolitics3.4 Great andeffect its onshapingcreated thenewly Powers Albania`s 3.3 TheLeague MappingBoundaries ofAlbanian Independence from Prizren the to of 3.2 Theyears mapresulting the Albanian from elite struggles during the 1878 3.1 Albanian and identityconstruction howitmapped o 2.5 Conclusion 2.4 The twooverla 2.3 Delineating innationalist borders discoursenation`s and mapping mental 2.2 ATheoreticalBorder FrameworkofVirtual Shifts Nationalism2.1 Existing andHow Theories They Borders of Explain of Conclusion 1.6 Plan theDissertation/ 1.5 Methodology/Research Design 1.4 WhyImportant? is International1.3 The ClashesinDetermining Constraints and Argument:Border Elite of Shifting1.2 TheBordersImagination Puzzle inNational 1.1 The Focu 2.4.2 Domestic politicaland competitions (re)drawing map ofnational 2.4.1 External constraints during virtual borders themapping of Shifts borders: the shifts in the periodsborders: 1912to the theshiftsin 1911

- intersected recognized imagination with bordersthe Albanian in From nation Mapping and TerritorializationBoundary Identity of DelineatingField theImagined Playing Virtual Geographies Borders and

1912 ...... s ofthe Study : Hypotheses Predictions and

...... pping maps of theAlbanian pping nations

...... - building tostate virtual building formation:how

......

...... 1917 ......

......

...... nto territory inpre

......

mapping ......

- 1880 era ......

...... -

1899 and ......

......

5 ......

83 44 8 ... .. 109

97 94 85 81 78 75 70 66 57 44 35 26 22 19 14 12

CEU eTD Collection Chapter 5 Chapter 4 5.5 Perception oftheBorders inYugoslavia Ethnic Albanians of during Communist ofNational5.4 Consolidation 5.3 MainMap During Shifts Impact theEarlyCommunistPeriod inAlbania and its on Irredentist Struggles5.2 Elite and Outcome the 5.1 DirectInternationalIntervention and Create during WWII RedrawingMap the to of Imagined4.4 The amongst Expansionary Nation in theEthnic Kin: Map inKosovo Struggles4.3 Elite IndependenceMap OutcomeAlbanianfromto WWI and of the Interwar in4.1 External Constraints and YearsAlbanians theEffec for 3.8 Conclusion struggles,3.7 Elite underbidding ethnic andWWI mapcontraction from 1912to period 3.6 Nationalof bothsides the period borderas bordersby themasses perceived from in struggles,3.5 Elite underbidding ethnic and mapcontraction during 1912 5.5.1 Vernacularand Education Interwar Period Map Weaving amongstelite inYugoslavia Albanian 1878 tobeginning ofWWI in Albania Period Map and of Borders Visualization VisualizingBorders theNation`s ―Greater Albania‖

of PerceptionBorders Yugoslavia amongst kinin inVirtual Albanian

Communist Era FromGreater WWIItoContractionary Albania during Borders in Kin Abr Elite National Level and Albania ImaginingAmongst and in Albanian the in of Configuration Interwar VariousBoundaries Shifts Period and in

......

oad: From Viceoad: and Expansionary Versa Contractionary to ......

......

- Communism inAlbaniaCommunism Imagined and Effects its the on ......

...... Nationalizing Causing Textbooks Bottom ......

......

...... ts it Producedts it in ...... - 1917 period 1917 ...... - up Shifts up Shifts ......

......

...... 6 ....

172 13

207 203 188 184 181 173 161 142 137 135 130 120 118 6

CEU eTD Collection References Conclusion Chapter 6 6.7 Conclusion 6.6 GeneralImagined onVirtualof Perception BordersSides BelowinBoth as from 6.5 MassMedia andinReshaping Role its boundaries sides Mental inboth ofthe State 6.4 AlternativeBordersBelow:From Kosovoand AndVirtual Seen Map Configuration projects6.3 Political shaping Macedoniaamongst Albaniansand themap of Kosovo the to6.2 External Constraints Albanian theResulting Transition and (Nation Competing6.1 Elite ProjectsBoundariesNational inAlbania on during Democratic 5.8 Conclusion Ideolo5.7 5.6 Mass 6.5.1 Recent TerritorialIdentity Shaping onthe Debate and inAlbania, Kosovo and 6.3.1 TheTheirStance 1990s: Kosovo AlbaniansShiftingAlbania toward of in Borders inPost Inhabited DuringOther Regions Albanian 1990s Albania`s in Textbooks Transition and howit Impactedin Textbooks has Shifts Virtual Border ofSides theState Borders during Communism National LandscapeNational

Amongst Albanian Community inMacedonia A View Below From

Communist and TerritorialMentalReimagining Landscape BordersPost in Media in Albania andin(Re)shapingMedia Role Boundaries its in Albania Mental inBoth gizing Historyto CreateInstrumental National a Use Hero`s Map: Perennial

......

...... - Communist Period

and Democraticand Era Transition

......

...... - ...... )State Map )State ......

...... - ......

...... 7

.. 297 279 220

276 271 266 263 256 254 241 238 229 219 213 209

CEU eTD Collection paying and authority an as recognize simultaneously could peasant Polish a For example, lords. different as well as units, territorial various to bounded subjects individual ove of result abordersthat aroseas multiple 1648, co cross have concurrently, existed types border several that say to is That other. each with overlap them made identity. as well as territory, demarcate to used been always have they level, yet another In inroads. enemy sudden against fortresses as served have and defense‖ of ―towers as constructed speaking, historically addition, In differences. various across or conflict sou of sources as conceptualized simultaneously were borders that meant this Metaphorically ―singing‖. for also apt them made war,‖ of ―theatres as suitable borders narratives of expressions effective are These Other the to reference as serve etc. and conflicts border and boundaries with linked ceremonies memorials, novels, manifests it media, but the area, border education, the in only exist not does boundary “A 309 boundaries” territorial are as much constructed are speak, to so identity, of boundaries “The Chapter 1 - rces of imagination, through culture through imagination, of rces 336). huh odr hv awy eitd i cran per certain in existed, always have borders Though made that causes same the 1833, in writing Scott, Walter Sir of language the In

- cutting each other horizontally. Prior to Westphalia treaty of of treaty Westphalia to Prior horizontally. other each cutting

- sharing and stimulation of relationships that cut that relationships of stimulation and sharing ita Bres n Imagined and Geographies Field Borders Playing Virtual the Delineating rlapping loyalties, made same maderlapping loyalties,

itself in many institutions such as as such institutions many in itself iods, nested identities have have identities nested iods,

borders borders (Paasi 1999:76). (Paasi ae fe been often have

(Kook 1995: 1995: (Kook

groups

or 8 -

CEU eTD Collection noctis primae di their to ones personal most the including rights, other all out handing and duty for called whenever king of soldiers 1 principles new and empires old of disintegration following thus other, each into map and consolidate nation of source major a been has states, modern of creation levels. global and subnational the in both way volatile and interesting an in other each crisscross borders, political and cultural ethnic, national, where world complex a realthan myth a actually more is it 1996), (Gellner bordersstate with unit national of nationvia the concept of prim as borders nation of concept modern the forth brought which 1848, of upheavals revolutionary mass the possible made Revolution, Industrial the changes the Later, sovereignty. Re French nation`s by instigated of symbol a as king absolute of figure the around power of centralization continuous a of favor in lords, feudal local or Emperor the state of equality andintervention modern non territoriality, of to principles its connected and Westphalia, little After territory. of and conceptualization power of sources various amongst divided equally groups, the same included territory andwhose subjects uponthesame whose boundaries expanded lived). he realm whose in dukes the Emperor, Roman Holy Vatican, to taxes

The peasants had to obey the Church`s law and pay one tenth of their revenue to Vatican, while being being while Vatican, to revenue their of tenth one pay and law Church`s the obey to had peasants The -- rect overlord. overlord. rect

laid multiple claims over t over claims multiple laid d

(law of the first night), first (law ofthe

the notion that state borders should closely follow the ethnic/ national lines national ethnic/ the follow closely should borders state that notion the e

markers of collective identity. collective of markers An example of such conferred rights included the legendary and outrageous outrageous and legendary the included rights conferred such of example An volution and Napoleon and volution -

state after the French Revolution, whichpresupposes congruence Revolution, French state afterthe

droit du seigneur du droit 1 s, we witness a gradual erosion of power of the Holy See, HolySee, the of power of gradualerosion a witness we s,

Thus, we had a situation where concurrent authorities, concurrent where situation a had we Thus, he same people same he

- (the lord's right), etc. etc. (thelord'sright), tt ad h utmt salienc ultimate the and state king and the nobles (counts, viscounts or or viscounts (counts, nobles the and king `s However, the territorialization of identity of territorialization the However,

wars, as well as the systemic effects of of effects systemic the as well as wars, .

Mean while the loyalty of folk was was folk of loyalty the while

- ulig pro building e of national national of e cesses that that cesses ity in ity

T jus jus he -- 9 -

CEU eTD Collection du the and curtain iron of fall the after place took that changes epochal 1987). (Day states between fought conflicts of cause major the been have borders War, Cold been have that disputes leas at continuinguntil andWWII after example forrecently, continuous everlasting.Even for room provoked often have which territory, of sources main the regional instability, andleading often topoten of one being countries, neighboring many or one in reside may kin own its while etc, minorities groups, ethnic various least at or nation, one than more homeland. „natural‟ their surround that sources. external and internal from pressures to connection in shift often perception popular in boundaries bilater and multilateral by dictated are borders unit administrative the while and Japan), (i.e. borders same the share rarely practice in state and Nation reality. the that literature the ‗ in overlooked often is it role, ‗pedagogic‘ its notwithstanding accep only the as vision primordialist powe nation ―[the] that: out points Conversi what stress to important boundaries without does exist not 2006). (Tilly self of nation r, tools (media) and legally enforceable apparatus (official education) to impose their impose to education) (official apparatus enforceable legally and (media) tools r, - - determination in late 19 late in determination hs bres ae las en eta t cletv feig o atcmn to attachment of feelings collective to central been always have borders Thus, ainl as n rpbia bres ae upiigy otne t rss the resist to continued surprisingly have borders republican and maps National state‘ has actually been the aspirant goal, the fiction or ‗ideal type‘, rather than than rather type‘, ‗ideal or fiction the goal, aspirant the been actually has state‘ Without falling into the outdated debate of what comes first nation or state, it is it state, or nation first comes what of debate outdated the into falling Without By „virtual borders‟ I imply the one imagined by people as the borders the as people by imagined one the imply I borders‟ „virtual By th

century. After all as Charle as all After century.

In reality, mo reality, In al oe (ovri 06 15). 2006: (Conversi one‖ table tial conflicts. tial conflicts.

st ‗nation st

s Tilly reminds us, reminds Tilly s - - states‘ seem to have the the have to seem states‘ states‘ are composed of of composed are states‘ al treaties; ‗virtual‘ ‗virtual‘ treaties; al al illusionary belief belief illusionary al t the end ofend the t However, However,

identity 10

CEU eTD Collection domestic from change to prone be may and revision of process a in now are powers that borders overlapping where colonial former by superimposed identities, continent, other and tribal religious, ethnic, disregarded African and Balkans, East, Middle in of expense the at dominance refle particularly are progress in changes Such 2005). (Newman groups neighborhood and homogeneity territorial for struggle to continue groups ethnoterritorial of demarcator important an remain to seem be to unlikely as today looks it decreasing, as 1990s (i.e. former republicscountriesYugoslavia, Republic etc). of Soviet for of demise the in borders republican especially hardened, constantly have that borders other with simultaneously happened has This travelling. and of freedom moves capital transactions, financial of mobility to regard in especially salience, decre also relevance, border traditional in changes rapid forced have globalization forces hand, other the On regions. amongst cooperation fostering cross and at policies out pointing by significance border traditional the weakened further pre with way reminiscent a in overlapped often post the as such notions, revolutionary with associated post the maintained‖ and formed are identities territorial way the have authors nation the that Thus, it currently looks that though border‘s importance was generally seen in the in seen generally was importance border‘s though that looks currently it Thus, - 1990 era, where new political realities (such as European Union) have emerged, emerged, have Union) European as (such realities political new where era, 1990 painstakingly - state era era a oe ad post and over was

noted that: ―boundaries continue to play an important role in role important an play to continue ―boundaries that: noted - national citizenship was emerging. Various Various emerging. was citizenship national - ethla Te uoen U European The Westphalia. disappearing - national identity, the borders have have borders the identity, national (Murphy 2002; Paasi 1996). Paasi 2002; (Murphy

altogether. Instea altogether. , many of which will which of many ,

mer federations federations mer asing their their asing nion has has nion - borders borders d they they d cted cted

11 In

CEU eTD Collection international by recognized immediately and there interests Italian by recognition and secession simultaneous community,to greatly helped 1993, in Eritrea of scholarship the 2 on building 1993), Greenfield 1990; Hobsbawm nationali 2006; Anderson of theories constructivist and instrumentalist/functionalist the with generally fits its project current as The borders. well mental exclusive as and inclusive lie, corresponding nation the does where and nation the constitutes what to regard in de of processes the in focusing more socio on depending revaluated be to tend periods colle and history documented official both compares study This borders. demarcated internationally ‗hard‘, with coincide not do and congruent not are shifts such when even imagination, area‖ geographic a over control asserting and delimiting by relationships, and phenomena, people, control or influence, affect, to group or individual an by attempt ―the as defines Sack Robert which Focus1.1 The the Study of symbolic power. helps border of continuation that and past study the to references of making by realities field present understand energizing this in contribution modest a is 3 project 2005: present (Newman boundaries‖ of perception the and identities territorial as focusing recently, flourished has scholarship intervention. foreign of degree the with conjunction in pressures,

Such examples vary from unsuccessful attempt to create ‗Greater Somalia‘ to successful secession of of secession successful to Somalia‘ ‗Greater create to attempt unsuccessful from vary examples Such This study concentrates par concentrates study This tv mmre a mnfse i gnrl ulc icus, hc a various at which discourse, public general in manifested as memories ctive

(1986:19) and how it affects shifts of ‗virtual‘ boundaries in popular popular in boundaries ‗virtual‘ of shifts affects it how and (1986:19)

ticularly on understanding the process of territoriality, of process the understanding on ticularly - constructing and reconstructing history, particularly history, reconstructing and constructing

of Montenegro in 2001 ofMontenegro inter alia inter - political factors. This in turn urges for for urges turn in This factors. political

in ―boundary in .

Furthermore, borders Furthermore, - related topics, such topics, related 1. The 21). m (i.e. sm 12

CEU eTD Collection cultural irredentist claims. autonomy) toopen asking (like one cautious the from shifts, policy various of understanding our enhances borders. nation and state of congruence presupposed the junctures, critical and logic administrative during with compatible necessarily not why is boundaries of understanding investigating and maps mental bot in the perceptions concerning mass and elite in both shifts or compatibility the see to republics formerinYugoslavian lives that kin ethnic and Albaniaadministrative thediscussion,simplifies whileavoid obstruction. natural a indicating as boundaries seen while line, imaginary an as border conceptualized a former implication, the with cultural state the a linking specifically ‗boundaries‘ while connotation, political a has ‗border‘ term the that implied have 2010), Hagen and Dienner (i.e. authors Other field. the in authors (1995) Conversi like authors following qualifier), a with accompanied (unless dissertation this throughout interchangeably used are ‗boundaries‘ and ‗border‘ terms The traditions). popular and textbooks children songs, folklore, poetry, reflect (as boundaries its and nation of imagination folk in manifested as well as discourse), cultural rhetoric, political historiography, (i.e. discourse mainstream spec in analyzed case, Albanian the of explanation unorthodox an offer to tends empirically and narratives competing ifically, I try to understand ‗virtual‘ border shifts in national imagination as in elite in as imagination national in shifts border ‗virtual‘ understand to try I ifically, n diin I olw gnrl yd ewe Abnas iig within living Albanians between dyad general a follow I addition, In hv coe t flo te omr n nt h ltr esos eas it because versions later the not and former the follow to chosen have I - depth, both synchronically and diachronically. More More diachronically. and synchronically both depth, ing unnecessarydistinctions.

nd nation with the later. the with nation nd hs s valuable is This , Kürti (2001) and other notable other and (2001) Kürti ,

sds f borders of sides h ed in oral stories, oral in ed Yet others have have others Yet o o ic it since do to 13

CEU eTD Collection "Greater of borders geographical broader the on taking nation Albanian the periods other and borders state Albania's onto exactly mapping nation Albanian the with understood The least. at communities such four or three have we 1990s), post (i.e. periods other at while dichotomy, of form the in presented is era) Communist v the Iexplore Thus disintegration. Federation`s this aftermathof the there,in states differentof and Yugoslavia) (former states neighboring in living kin one the into communities Albanian the divided have I communities. Albanian between space across and community nation differently time? at the same b the imagined often have other) and the hand on Kosovo one and Macedonia in Albania (in communities Albanian "Greater different broader why the (2) on and Albania", expanding nation Albanian the periods other and proper") onto mapping nation Albanian the with associated time over borders geographical different on takes nation Albanian questions twospecificempiricalinto divided is question shifts when and perception mapping certain a have groups make that factors actors/ primary the are what and changes such motivates What state? of outside versus inside differently perceived are they why and change borders Puzzle1.2 The arious map configurations of the Albanian communities Albanian the of configurations map arious There is a variation of the dependent variable both over time within each Albanian each within time over both variable dependent the of variation a is There disser this that question research primary The

of Shifting Borders in National Borders in Shifting Imaginationof within Albania‘s administrative state borders state administrative Albania‘s within

Albania's state borders ("Albania ("Albania borders state Albania's tation addresses is: is: addresses tation : occur? studied (1) how the understanding of the the ofunderstanding the how (1) —

nation has sometimes bee sometimes has nation which at times (i.e. during (i.e. times at which how they evolved as part part as evolved they how hs ra ad general and broad This orders of the Albanian Albanian the of orders -- with some periods periods some with and

h national Why the ‗external‘ the 14 n -

CEU eTD Collection 3 narrative. innationalist aredimensions) configured virtual and inmaterial (both theborders and how nation the of size the regarding elites of claims competing two the of visualization a for shift. they why and when as well as (re)constructed, are borders how of knowledge comprehensive more a for allows the This study. this is of aim research communities primary Albanian different of perspective the from differently viewed are Albania".

http://www.novinite.com/view_news.php?id=122305

Map of the Albania and the Recognized AlbaniaMap of and its Officially 1913 Borders from

Tracing the shifts of identity maps of the Albanian nation and whythe and nation Albanian the ofmaps of identity shifts the Tracing

Original source: Encyclopedia Britannica, 2011. Original Encyclopedia source: Map 2

See t See he maps below below maps he se bordersse

CEU eTD Collection 5 4 Map Shows Maximumthe Extent of Albanian

See from: Downloaded http://www.novinite.com/media/images/2010 Territories Claimed

http://strangemaps.files.wordpress.com/2006/09/galbania.jpg

on Behalf "Greaterof Albania" by Most Albanian Nationalists

- Map 4 11/photo_verybig_122305.jpg Map 3 Territorial Ambitions

–

„Greater Albania‟ 4

16 5

CEU eTD Collection hn hfs r ntcd n ainl mgnn ad etl odrn o te nation. the of bordering mental and imagining national in noticed are shifts when interests their furthers that project national a in agenda specific a forward push to elites domestic for openings opportunity as s in produce they outcomes tandem each with other. the and variables both at look I Here, freedom. of degree external by constrained are they so, interv and doing circumstances in But below. from view the on effect everlasting an have that decisions people, of imagination the in maps it how and currency de calculated make who elites cultural and political the been have movements nationalist of force driving The 77). 1995: (Conversi soil‖ or land particular a of control the over is, that boundaries, spatial is it as all, After strategies. by informed are they as recreated and created often are e national by imagined simply not are boundaries virtual that demonstrating by co of communities behaviorof the dictate th delineation border certain how shown have that others and (2001) Kürti (1989), Sahlins by studies historical on based partially is This nation. the of frame mental and boundaries I case(s), pace, with notable fluctuations during observable critical junctures. These junctures serve junctures These junctures.critical duringobservable fluctuations notable pace,with t eie rm state from derive at I start with the proposition that mental mapping of boundaries varies in time and time in varies boundaries of mapping mental that proposition the with start I Albanian the to pertaining one the as such puzzle empirical an from Starting

arrive at broader generalizations regarding the the regarding generalizations broader at arrive - ulig ehnss dvlp eti ntoa iaiain and imagination national certain develop mechanisms, building

iin uo gorpia lcto o hmln, t symbolic its homeland, of location geographical upon cisions nin f third of ention already stated already - : at atr wo a fcltt o ihbt their inhibit or facilitate may who actors party - ethnics across frontiers. I take this a step furtherstep a Ithis take acrossfrontiers. ethnics ―nationalism is a struggle over the definition of definition the over struggle a is ―nationalism . In this case, I conceive I case, this In . deliberate constituitness

political goals and and goals political

them as moments moments as them

of virtual virtual of embedded lites, but lites, 17

CEU eTD Collection Greece, (Serbia, countries European Southeastern CEE Romania), from Evidence (Hungary, results. similar countries for see to settings other in analyzed further be of holding power. orsecuring political means ofthe ofcourseassume one byThis is only power alternative championing map. an m alternative uses elite an is this that Iargue Thus people. the on has this effect what and symbols national of manipulation with this accomplish they how words, other In use. they instrumentali and foreigninfluences and a be to appears multi and textured it Thus, latter. the with exist not does that former the wh in malleability ‗material‘, is latter the and ‗virtual‘ is former the that is borders state and borders national between difference the resides, one border influences alter thataffect, a orplay crucial direct are often most but projects, elite clashing by consideration into taken are they as borders. ‗virtual‘ and ‗hard‘ its locate to pressures domestic against weighted is intervention external the when calculation, rational a on based configuration map national the on depending split or converge decisions elite the that is below, elaborated argument, core The players. on agenda depend the elites constrain or political allow that the circumstances of geopolitical agendas domestic the above, stated as Naturally, These propositions follow primarily from findings f findings from primarily follow propositions These the of side what on depending vary might borders of understanding the Since aps of the nation in order to retain power if they are on hold of it, or to or it, of hold on are they if power retain to order in nation the of aps - faceted, rather than monolithic process. Here I talk not only of the elite elite the of only not talk I Here process. monolithic than ratherfaceted, The external constraints play not only a passive role role passive a onlyplay not constraints external The

zation of borders in this process, but also the toolsthe also process,but this ofzation bordersin

role in theshifting role ofboundaries. in ich means that there is a lot of of lot a is there that means ich rom the Albanian case, but can but case, Albanian the rom - etn o t of setting esr te ain and nation the measure - driven process that process driven hese internal internal hese

CEU eTD Collection lands Albanian toward stance their in varied greatly pol irredentist to nationalism of suppression and hostility fromopen borders: stateoutside have periods different in who Hoxha and Zog King approach conciliatory more much adopted times 7 1780 6 a is first The territorialization. identity and of thepoliticians. automatically perceptions of levels mass and elite Moreover, periods. historical different in A the in territory the of mapping mental concerned, were boundaries geographical where And ‗Albania‘. as described area an of inhabitants linguistic a in distinguish, to ‗Albanian‘ term the use did period modern early the in writers some Border Shifts 1.3 revision, especiallyand concerning boundaries. outerinternal its to subject project, political a is nation thatassumption the follow I project In this territory. imagination of shifts popular like reconfiguration, domestic with conjunction in territories), of exchange and treaties international (different circumstances geopolitical specific a after fashioned territories of (re)mapping mental borde suggest Latvia) (Lithuania, countries Baltic Macedonia),

Examples of this second point have been widespread, starting with Kosovar nationalists who at different different at who nationalists Kosovar with starting widespread, been have point second this of Examples Br As

h Agmn: lt Cahs n Itrainl Co International and Clashes Elite Argument: The itish historian Hobsbwam draws our attention in his seminal study: seminal his in attention our draws Hobsbwam historian itish There noted has Kosovo of History book his in Malcolm Noel - ethnic sense, Albanians from Slavs, Slavs, from Albanians sense, ethnic there were no universally agreed lines on the map the on lines agreed universally no were there

are two main angles from which to analyze shifts in boundary imagination imagination boundary in shifts analyze to which from angles main two are converge and we have a have we and converge

variation in policy blueprint and changing attitudes changing and blueprint policy in variation lbanian case has case lbanian in return of political and economic favors to leaders such as as suchleaders to favors economic and political of return in top others used it geographically, to mean the the mean to geographically, it used others - on approach down

f h nto ad t constitutive its and nation the of taken ‖ (Malcolm 1998: 149). The 149). 1998: (Malcolm ‖ srit i Determining in nstraints

various conceptualizations conceptualizations various Nations and Nationalism since since Nationalism and Nations

that views the domestic the views that re r inter alia inter - ofgrtos and configurations icies. that: ―[while] that:

o not do 19

CEU eTD Collection no absences structural the given place, take to failed movement root grass where here case theso not is it nation. certainphenomena, percept people how understand us help to arenecessary the of boundaries the with Furthermo coterminous boundaries territorial state`s the of logic spatial the making of goal the reach to leadership) or intervention elite by driven il widespread the or infrastructure of lack general as such structural, are Albanian of case the in approach borders. administrative with overlapped developm in element crucial a was outcome The magazines, etc. epics of newspapers, creation myths, inventing books, folklore, assembling of publishing through 1991) (Anderson vernacular mo in role crucial the thus poets, intellectuals and nationalizing writers scholars, publicists, distinguished publishers, teachers, 1990) Hobsbawm 2000, the take I sentiment. (national) mass in shift the follow just el the view, Inthis others. than salient more borders identity certain makes environment a is second The nation. their of borderlands per of shapers important most the as games, geopolitical and actors foreign as well as elite, ted above. ception of national identity and therefore determines how people perceive the the perceive people how determines therefore and identity national of ception re, although Hobsbawm is right when he points out that bottom that out points he when right is Hobsbawm although re,

ieay ae wih ok aant rsros oiiain ta i not is (that mobilization grassroots against works which rate, literacy bilizing the masses. The tools that they used were the spread of print print of spread the were used they that tools The masses. the bilizing ent of an ‗ethnocultural nation‘ (Brubaker 1996) that often often that 1996) (Brubaker nation‘ ‗ethnocultural an of ent in explaining Albanian border (re)construction, when politicians, when (re)construction, border Albanian explaining in

and et bourgeoisie petty oe f h raos o tkn te elite the taking for reasons the of Some bottom

Hoh 95 Glnr 96 pae a played 1996) Gellner 1985; (Hroch - up

one, which tries to trace how the the how trace to tries which one, elite - driven

approach - up processes up (Snyder (Snyder - driven driven ite 20

CEU eTD Collection borders. state to sitsopposition in that map 8 when actions of versions geopolitics discourse societal with conjunction andin always boundaries, its and nation the of mapping mental regardingthe political the shape actors internal the which under conditions p their bend to able not and weak is pressure external when only succeed They hand. at projects political their further to projects national different favor that ‗external‘ and ‗internal‘ both elites, competing t consideration into always take however internal the by driven largely is belonging communal of sense boundaries a perpetuate mental of creation the etc), organizations international recognize and decided resulting, primarily process constraints external of scale and degree with discourse border virtual manipulate or retain cultural and economic social, and clout political necessary the elites of clashes by engineered is map national Alba the particular. and general in context Balkan the in nationalisms engineering in had have politicians professional and elites cultural intellectuals‘, ‗nationalizing that

I use the terms ‗mental‘ and and ‗mental‘ terms the use I potnte aie Hr, dpr fo mc o te casc constructivist (classic) the of much from depart I Here, arise. opportunities

But the most important reason that justifies my top my justifies that reason important most the But reflect The generalThe proposition

of ita bres ht a o my o b cnret with congruent be not may or may that borders virtual

s h day the

cost a - .

eei cluain ht ek t miti ad ep eti gains certain keep and maintain to seeks that calculation benefit T

‗virtual‘ hese rimary interest: interest: rimary

clashing

borders interchangeably. Such borders configure a percepted national national percepted a configure borders Such interchangeably. borders /argument

lts s epnins/ otatoay map contractionary expansionist/ use elites e antd o etra pressures external of magnitude he political survival political .

that th Thus, if the creation of material borders is a is borders material of creation the if Thus,

and shape of national map national of shape and

(both internal and disapora) and internal (both d is research advances is that is researchthat advances directly - down selection is the impact the is selection down from third from .

This research identifies research This

capital and consciously consciously and capital tt borders state - 8 parties (i.e. states, (i.e. parties

ht rae and create that

in conjunction in

nian case in in case nian who possess possess who Thes . elites making of making of . s Their Their are e

that that and and the 21

CEU eTD Collection times. present in relevanceno haswhich identity (national) existent separate adjacen in brethren ethnic communities diaspora from post the in witnessed (especially question nationalist of ignorance and patriotism of lack their shift groups 9 why and occur shifts how of question the to answer an provide to natio their constituted what of different imagination a had have borders), state the outside and (within space across communities shift. by theoretical primacy, take projectmapping, border of field existing the to value added this bringing in important is contribution of aspects analytical and empirical Though territorialization of field specific the in knowledge inter these bridging by borders and identity national nationalism, on literature the to value added brings it because primarily developments similar see to benchmark a as serve can which 1.4 differently perceived communitiesdrivingthe ischange. by andwho different Rather, direction). one in goes (it consolidated is then and rooted is something that imagining in modernists and deconstructing of possibility the r about talk not do often they constructed, are borders national and shift identities that suggest constructivists while because literature,

econstructing borders in national imagination. In this, they are as teleological as the the as teleological as are they this, In imagination. national in borders econstructing Often

unpacking causal junctures when domest when junctures causal unpacking Why isImportant?Why

the people that that people the In the Albanian case, the picture becomes puzzling when we consider that that consider we when puzzling becomes picture the case, Albanian the In This project is important not only because it presents an interesting empirical case, empirical interesting an presents it onlybecause not important is project This have have my theory is about how these national borders change, why change, borders national these how about is theory my t territories t , or vice or , live

within administrative borders have been accused of fake co fake of accused been have borders withinadministrative -

versa, where main charges main where versa,

are for losing out their national distinctiveness or promoting a non a promoting or distinctiveness national their out losing for are - connected fields of study, as well as enhancing the the enhancing as well as study, of fields connected ns in different periods. different in ns ic and international factors interact and maps and interact factors international and ic

of identity and border (re)construction. border and identity of

coming from a state nationals directed to co to directed nationals state a from coming

n te cnet, but contexts, other in This project seeks project This - communist period) communist smopolitanism, smopolitanism,

they are are they first 22 - -

CEU eTD Collection to need nation a within elites ―powerful development.‖ wareconomic and oftasks the to energies popular harness when produced nationalism noxious and conflict for propensity 11 other. each with overlap often and borders administrative with coincide necessarily not do which borders, virtual plac particular such 10 in political maps purposes. political their serve to junctures crucial these etc). songs, memory folk in conceptualized as imagining the in has it that effect consequent the and institutions), cultural and rhetoric political (historiography, mapping mental and imagining national overlapping onthe other. national maps decision political of relationship correlational positive the national of out pointing by literature scarce existing the theories expand to seeks and 2) 2001: (Kürti identity‖ in boundaries and borders, territoriality, of centrality ―the point inall, All construction. nationhood narratives national for other explanation general a to not or applied be can they if findings the compare to undertakes shifts such of cause change. discourse for openings opportunity as served have that years specific in particularly focusing by shifts the of observation systematic in engaging spati in both occur shifts These nation the small or large how of perception

The term ‗mental maps‘ was first coined by two geographers Gould and White 1974. 1974. White and Gould geographers two by coined first was maps‘ ‗mental term The Other authors, like Snyder (2000) have made the argument that democratization democratization that argument the made have (2000) Snyder like authors, Other as eel o pol prev a eti ae ad ht id f etl mgs hy ae f a of have they images mental of kind what and area certain a perceive people how reveal maps

sd by used This research This terests,

e (Gould and White 1974: 174). 174). 1974: White and (Gould e h main The optn elites competing

rmrl te ed o atr or capture to need the primarily

in public discourse and textbooks, as well as elite thinking. elite as well as textbooks, and discourse public in creates theme is that elites are remapping/conceptualizing the nation in in nation the remapping/conceptualizing are elites that is theme

a conceptual apparatus that helps to understand such shifts in shifts such understand to helps that apparatus conceptual a

al and temporal dimensions. The current study does so by so does study current The dimensions. temporal and al

built on specific political agendas that serve particular particular serve that agendas political specific on built

For the purposes of this project, it simply implies symbolic symbolic implies simply it project, this of purposes the For 10

and how this is reflected both in elite discourse elite in both reflected is this how and - (state) is and border configuration changes. configuration border and is (state) ean n oe. s age n the in argue I As power. in remain 11

Thus, I carefully trace trace carefully I Thus, (

oral poetry, oral - aig o making this thesis takes as starttakes as thesis this Second, n one hand, and and hand, one n

process creates the the creates process folklore, myths, myths, folklore,

For these a these For it analyzes the the analyzes it Third mental uthors, uthors, ing ing , it , 23

CEU eTD Collection 321). opp 1980: (Wright all‖ satisfy to is inadequate whichsupply the ofsomething as defined competition, from distinguished conflict: from 12 twenty of ―[o]ut that: correctlynotes author An Balkans. the consistentlyin elites of topic presented.together effort inthis puzzles answer systematically to the join investigation under anomaly empirical the and argument theoretical of specificity the pro through identity national the territorialize that nation of development and emergence the with dealing ratherthan but nationalism, of theories general with fits It beliefs motives, (their process this affectthat action) elite domestic (i.e. the unpacking while this, for explanation parsimonious a offer to attempts im theAlbanian statefits/misfits map. map this how and reconfiguration map national for witnessed are openings opportunity scene. political „normalized‟ i national of processes critical handy stimulates during that change regime happened a is especially there when junctures, has This establishment. political existing the pressures internal incr and flux in are constraints international when transition political chapters, subsequent dentity reconfiguration, rather than when it is simply political rotation that happens in happens that rotation political simply is it when than rather reconfiguration, dentity

Quincy Wright is one of the first authors to define and operationalize competition as a distinct category category distinct a as competition operationalize and define to authors first the of one is Wright Quincy agined, ease. During such times, national identities are often used by challengers to overturn to challengers by used often are identities national times, such During ease. The main The why empirical contribution empirical ―Conflict, defined as opposition among social entities directed against one another, is is another, one against directed entities social among opposition as defined ―Conflict,

they changeandthey hoeia contribution theoretical h eie competition elite the - state, it deals it state,

rtcl ucue i ti suy r toe eid where periods those are study this in junctures Critical who

is twofold. is

plays the leading role in the process. This dissertation process.This the in roleleading plays the specifically with specifically sto aog oil niis neednl srvn for striving independently entities social among osition 12

s o understand to is s ot iey o e ire uig ie of times during fierce be to likely most is First cesses of inclusion and exclusion. Thus, exclusion. and inclusion of cesses , bord ,

the er revisions have been a favorite a been have revisions er (re) aigo mna borders mental of making how

mental borders are are borders mental

and set of values). values). of set and agency factors factors 24 -

CEU eTD Collection survival. political and calculations daily their by informed when enhancing others, over maps certain by borders instrumentalize do often politicians because important is angle In FYROM. and Kosovo in communities Albanian for salient especially is but well, as discourse societal in often and political in marginalized been has rhetoric this Albania In theory. states two nation, one support who those and nation the of version enl an support who those between divided seem population of part largest the and Kosovar the amongst (especially ongoing still are processes cases comparable to elsewhere. applied be to work, processes these how about insights general derive to used be may it context, Balkan the and case Albanian the point focal the as has affected po this how of purpose the with undertaken study discourse inmainstream and internalized was shifts, this understanding how mental border such of originality the in lies contribution consciousne national the nineteenth the of many so ―why explaining to closer come we Thus agendas. revisionist such follow mo what shifts, border symbolic seeks project This 1). 2001: (Kürti Europe‖ Eastern and War, Cold puts scholar Hungarian a as Or 35). 2002: (Misha contested‖ be to continue nineteen region, the in borders state existing three The -

century romantic nationalistic myths, stereotypes and symbols remain part of of part remain symbols and stereotypes myths, nationalistic romantic century ―contested terrains have become key elements in redesigning the new Central new the redesigning in elements key become have terrains ―contested policy contribution policy litical consequences in domestic and foreignaffairs.and domesticconsequences in litical ss of the Balkan peoples of today‖ (Garde 1994: 12). The 12). 1994: (Garde today‖ of peoples Balkan the of ss

lies in the fact that identity that fact the in lies iae pltc i ti rgr ad ht ed pol to people leads what and regard this in politics tivates it in referring to the same land same the to referring in it - formation and nation and formation -

first Albanians), where the elite, the where Albanians),

o nesad through understand to scape after the end of of end the after scape Third

addition, policy addition, , although it althoughit , - building building second second arged 25

CEU eTD Collection mains the becoming 13 indicator related and powerful Another borders. (imagined) its and nation the on narrative elite cultural y formative the in especially perception, times, different at depict analysis. offi with are they compatible much how and elite cultural mainstream and political the of influence of level the identify to analyzed duly are sources These folk. common the of mapping mental in configured are boundaries its pupils as such proxies by or epics, poems, songs, popular in directly reflected as perceptions mass at Ilook imaginingshifts, national 1. strategy orsomething inbetweenextremepolicies. seemingly these goal/ predominant as annexation territory the minds, pupils` in frame certain a cultivate o part as country ones` to adjacent country, neighboring 264) 1994: Evera (Van policy‖ annexing fel include policies Such

5 These periods are noticed based on textual analyzed evidence that shows a certain border narrative narrative border certain a shows that evidence analyzed textual on based noticed are periods These o co low

Methodology/Research Design Textbooks are examined to deconstruct the various virtual borders of nation they nation of borders virtual various the deconstruct to examined are Textbooks significance great the Recognizing

- tnc ta lv abroad live that ethnics have been tools used by competing by used tools been have tream discourse at certain times. times. certain at discourse tream inter alia inter

eas te tn t gety hp ad nlec mass influence and shape greatly to tend they because

a nationalist discourse base discourse nationalist --

ht a Eea al te rain f ―diaspora a of creation the calls Evera Van what ears of schooling. of ears ‘

textbooks textbooks

, -- n etr nesadn te rcse of processes the understanding better in

h icuin f ertre o another of territories of inclusion the

cial (national) map at the given time in time given the at map (national) cial political that

allow us to see how nation and nation how see to us allow txbos as n re to order in maps textbooks f elites to construct a particular a construct to elites These textbooks, compiled by compiled textbooks, These d on granting citizen rights to to rights citizen granting on d

26 -

CEU eTD Collection end‖ political madeservea to canclearlybe self as countries their of think to people encourage maps scale Small units. 15 itself. withreality ofreality models confuse with i.e. territories, confusemaps do manypeople territory the 14 certain on approach analytical objective an have to mind in kept be to elements necessary are it, to access have to intended is population of part which and featured it is where map, a promote territor visualizes that project to intent the with constructed politically are they often most time, given a the territory…[and] thatengenders territory‖ ( the precedes that map the nevertheless is It it. survive it does nor map, the precedes longer no Baudrillard nexus visual other and print through repeated is that outline territorial a of image the shapes which geo the of cartographies changing ―logo Imagined of concept the mentions importantly Anderson 84). 2000: reader‖ (Lloyd map the for knowledge of source a and information spatial storing for device an r observer as Thus, meaning. political with it fuse and delineation territorial its shaping area, spatial organize and classify that tools are Maps landscape. the territorializing in crucial o imagination shapes that

As T As example For

i - ei ad eoe a oefl yhcl cn f ainlt. The nationality. of icon mythical powerful a becomes and media ecie te eainhp ewe gorpy n te ecpin f it. of perception the and geography between relationship the describes Although maps can be designed in line with a particular imagination of territory at at territory of imagination particular a with line in designed be can maps Although Fu Tuan writes: ―maps in school atlases and history books show nation show books history and atlases school in ―maps writes: Tuan Fu ," ," emarks: ―[a] map can be thought of as an expression of a cartographer`s ideas, a ideas, cartographer`sa of expression an as of thought be can map ―[a] emarks: Communities

meaning has convinc has Polish -

American scientist and philosopher philosopher and scientist American that an an that , borrowed partly from Winichakul‘s doctoral dissertation on the on dissertation doctoral Winichakul‘s from partly borrowed , ingly argued in his book Simulacra and Simulation: ―[t]he territorySimulacra ―[t]he and arguedbook Simulation: ingly inhis

abstraction f people is maps that are found in geography textbooks and are and textbooks geography in found are that maps is people f y in a certain way. certain a yin

- derived from so from derived oy f hiad ltr ulse as published (later Thailand of body (Yi - Fu Tuan 1977: 178; White 2004: 86). 2004: White 178; 1977: Tuan Fu 15 mething Alfred Korzybski Alfred Baudrillard

The context and reason behind a certain a behind reason and context The is not the thing itself. Korzybski held that that held Korzybski itself. thing the not is

1994: 1). 1994: 1). - sufficient entities... Cartography Cartography entities... sufficient

remarked that " that remarked - states as sharply bounded bounded sharply as states

im Mapped Siam territory - a‖ n its in map‖ not is map the 14 - map map

As 27 ), ),

CEU eTD Collection cause through actors. construction of role/strategies and ideas structural mutualeffect of constitutive and relationship effect identity explaining in step another is borders) virtual nation`s of mapping mental of consciousness national in those (i.e. happen (re)construction identity in shifts why understanding distinct through sequential evolves that a providing formation in identity attempt such modest of a model make I processes, construction social many of nature rational construction‖ 18 to resistance occupation. foreign armed and secession, voting, of patterns subsequent for account schools, through community Loyalties convey National to Durable meant of always almost and intent psychological 17 and political quasi specific, territorially with infused places, specific cove political with 16 three these of constitution the mutual understanding in decisive is mapping visual and frame mental the reality in state, nation of concept modern the within borders ethnic and republican of congruence perfect is or nation the creates border state identity, national of constitution mutual the understand to tries which eachused such tooffset whileremaining tools and obtaining inpower. other have elites the how and maps national of shifts the reconstruct and deconstruct to order nation symbols, national the nation and education national among connection triple intrinsic the addressed have authors nation( legitimacythe of certainunderstanding establishes perceptionsand territoriality real) or (virtual certain a configure S textbooks.

It is important to stress that constructivist scholarship in general does not offer a ―causal theory of identity identity of theory ―causal a offer not does general in scholarship constructivist that stress to important is It As a noted author in political geography states: states: geography political in author noted a As In a forthcoming publication publication forthcoming a In ty a seigy aa tos n vr saes ntoaiig poet Sap einn i roe in rooted is designing Stamp project. ‗nationalizing‘ state`s every in tools banal seemingly as rtly, - - building effects of education (Darden 2012). (Darden education of effects building building. n hs rjc I follow I project this In -

geographic meaning, and, quite often, are actively produced symbols employed directly, and and directly, employed symbols produced actively are often, quite and, meaning, geographic (Hopf 1998: 196). Here, however, following Finnemore and Sikkink (1998) who point at a at point who (1998) Sikkink and Finnemore following however, Here, 196). 1998: (Hopf imilar inferences can be drawn for similar devices, such as stamps as such devices, similar for drawn be can inferences imilar

I propose that instead of a formal causal relationship where the state state the where relationship causal formal a of instead that propose I - mythical stories and cele and mythicalstories spilled over spilled

Dre epoe hw h ntoa iette iiily nrdcd to introduced initially identities national the how explores Darden , provisionally titled, titled, provisionally

- building (Gorenburg 2003), while others have stressed the the stressed have others while 2003), (Gorenburg building

primarily

as the re the as lmns hog pbi dsore Ti i also is This discourse. public through elements ―[s]tamps and stamp production are unabashedly infused infused unabashedly are production stamp and ―[s]tamps

bratory messages of achievement‖ (Murphy 2002: 40). 2002: (Murphy ofachievement‖ messages bratory Resisting Occupation: Mass Literacy and the Creation the and Literacy Mass Occupation: Resisting a sult of nationalism and the process ends with with ends process the and nationalism of sult

constructivist wih n turn in which , 17 shifts at particular periods. Analyzing and and Analyzing periods. particular at shifts

All these proxies are evaluat are proxies these All

ontology and epistemology, epistemology, and ontology

nlecs bottom influences - formation and and formation -

state). 16

that help that So ed in ed - me and and up 28

a -

CEU eTD Collection fits/m map thishow and reconfiguration map 19 proje expansionist the otherwise or not rhetorically pursue did only not Albania, map. virtual and real imposed the affected policy border of change immediate the Yugoslavs, of help through later months six power in return could S map. expansionary an for opening opportunity an expatriates, created and elites Kosovar by helped largely but Albania, in a revolution by domestic forced change regime a when 1924, in happening changes investigate I Second, borders Albania of recognition the have we when 1921 to coherent a time first 1912 to nation of mapping a for up drawing and calls awakening nationalist of beginning nation junctures. critical following the are at, looking am I periods The chapter. eit variables same the to chapter from structure for same the follow I Therefore, on. so and triggering, or contextual, accounts chapter each that ensure to needed this I of choice, Because analysis. series time qualitative a is it words other in times, different sy 1998) Todosijevic 2010; Wagner practicalrelevance. claim their press to arguments so particular, a with association strong a feel communities ―[e]thnic often because important

Critical junctures in this study are those periods where opportunity openings are witnessed for national national for witnessed are openings opportunity where periods those are study this in junctures Critical crncly Catr ae hoooia, eas i i a etn o m hptee at hypotheses my of testing a is it because chronological, are Chapters nchronically. - ald ntoa‘ ertr ad s hsoia, pseudo historical, use and territory ‗national‘ called - building period and specifically the period from 1878 to 1878 from period the specifically and period building I follow here a qualitative research design that takes a longitudinal approach longitudinal a takes that design research qualitative a here follow I

- 1913 and the state the and 1913

s to it‖ (Coakley 1993: 2), thus having both theoretical and theoretical both having thus 2), 1993: (Coakley it‖ to s in analyzing the Albanian case both diachronically and diachronically both case Albanian the analyzing in isfits the Albanian state map. Albanianstate the isfits - building and institutionalization of borders, of institutionalization and building ct of Greater Albania, seeking to seeking Albania, Greater of ct

from international community. international from - historical, or even mythical mythical even or historical,

ne h ose lae Zog, leader ousted the ince

1899, which signaled the signaled which 1899, 19

First, the initial the First,

(i.e. (i.e. her her 29

CEU eTD Collection Albanian in two leaving kin external between ethnic and proper perception Albania within border living ones the virtual communities: in changes analyzes it because shifts. such of causes the identifying tracing process careful and analysis longitudinal both for allowing axes, spatial and temporal both in seen variations the by mech causal in for allows which communities, Albanian the amongst generaliz the make and time and space across variation of lots cover to me enables which periods, lengthy not junctures, critical on focus I maps. mental such inhibit or facilitate which the while anddomestic) when flux border possible. contestation reconfigurationhasbecome or periods time main the are These Albania. in map visualized the regarding clashes project elite different forced Kosovo, including Yugoslavia, in borders of changes like changes, real when onward, that interest of junctures critical Other borders. state former to returned Albania communist independent new the where ended, war after shrank soon which intervention, direct by created fashion tangible Nazi of the forth brought period the investigate I Third, country. the of north territories existing conceded further but Yugoslavia, former in territories Albanian adjoin I have selected the Albanian case, a historic and comparative study of virtual map virtual of study comparative and historic a case, Albanian the selected have I The ations why we witness such border shifts in some periodsationswitness such why insome others. weborder butnot shifts independent dependent variable dependent anisms for such border shifts. The reason for such case selection is justified justified is selection case such for reason The shifts. border such for anisms Greater Albania Greater variables ht hv ietfe ta ba cnieae epltcl (and/or geopolitical considerate bear that identified have I that a loig o sgas f a sit ae n h 19s and 1990s the in are shifts map of signals for looking am I

under investigation here is the shift in virtual boundaries, boundaries, virtual in shift the is here investigation under

are two: the clashing elites and the external intervention, external the and elites clashing the two: are , not just just not , in its virtual shape but for first time in material material in time first for but shape virtual its in - depth analysis to find underlying underlying find to analysis depth - acs ocpto that occupation Fascist t s spatia is It

30 l

CEU eTD Collection 21 state. the new to join in order from Kosovo, Albanianby people territory inhabited particular ofa have states, 20 modern fact, In map. national symbolic with borders state of ‗nation congruence the with problem problematic general the reflects case borders: the view unit national the domestic and outside and inside communities constraints the how of terms in international fluctuation of lots with competition, both on variation interesting has it because border national of drivers the explore mapping/construction. to opportunity valuable offers variable, boundaries national explain that theories of t value added provide straightjacket to order in combined actors, idiosyncratic and factors the systemic under borders identity new relatively and the territorial in on derived scholarship be can that insights theoretical the are day. present consideration, the to relevance current its and shifts border conceptualizing border, a tobuild inorder systematic answeras to 21 early the to states. different in 20 the in later only which community particular this to regard in of fact themap that Yugoslavia (former of areas different in borders the outside Albanians consider I states. neighboring

With a process a With The most notable case of this is the creation of Republic of Macedonia by Tito in 1945 and the separation separation the and 1945 in Tito by Macedonia of Republic of creation the is this of case notable most The I have chosen the Albanian case partly because of my of because partly case Albanian the chosen have I in analysis systemic a of lack by justified is selection case Furthermore, ,

as part of one community one of part as

of redefinition of identity and borders under way in Kosovo for example. for Kosovo underway in borders and ofidentity ofredefinition st

centuries to find shifts in elite and mass perceptions on both sides of the the of sides both on perceptions mass and elite in shifts find to centuries 20

Greater Albania Greater The temporal axes analyze different distinct periods from the late 19 late the from periods distinct different analyze axes temporal The

expansively versus expansively

has most often overlapped with the institutional ones, institutional overlapped withthe has often most . This kind of operationalization is made, given the the given made, is operationalization of kind This . I adto, h vrain n h dependent the in variation the addition, In .

why happen. shifts such

narrowly

language skills, and partly and skills, language .

th On the other hand, this this hand, other the On

- centu tt‘ wih implies which state‘, ry was separated separated was ry

o the existing the o 21

Another 31 th )

CEU eTD Collection ofthe de the and outcome variables) (or process causal intervening the 22 by foreign of used view shrewdly in are actors knowledgeable which arise, changing map for opportunities when junctures ana historical comparative with fits research this and borders imagined process in the the is tradition in interpretative research empirical conducting for method appropriate most ―the that suggests thi selected sh and realities geopolitical changing with relationship complex its and borders ‗virtual‘ these of reconstruction and deconstruction simultaneous elites toserve the by place first the in instrumentalized is it while etc), maps expansionist goals, irredentist (i.e. agendas political fuels simultaneously it because matters nation the of boundaries th of borders virtual and real the where of perception different a have often most minorities/communities ‗external‘ and ‗internal‘ The 83). 2011: (Brown population‖ of percent 5 than less for account minorities a 20 than ―fewer states, 200 approximately in living kin as ethnic by well homelands‘ as ‗external divisions, administrative their within groups minority large or small have r the while paper, onlyin congruence such achieved

In a more recent formulation recent more a In - oe f h mi tere dsusd in discussed theories main the of None rcn (iro 2004) (Pierson tracing cs, hc cpue ti dichotomy this captures which case, s ir short to unpack the causal mechanisms that produce these shifts these produce that mechanisms causal the unpack to -

term politicalgoals. -

process the causal chain and causal mechanism causal and chain causal the

eir imagined homeland are. The perception of symbolic symbolic of perception The are. homeland imagined eir 22 - pendent variable pendent - et cs study, case depth

tracing o con fr uh eprl n sail hfs in shifts spatial and temporal such for account to

has been defined been has osrit. uh cos truh education, through actors, Such constraints. re ethnically homogeneous, in the sense that sense the in homogeneous, ethnically re

‖ ery states. nearby ( George and and George h nx chapter next the

yi b fcsn o seii critical specific on focusing by lysis ‖ eality is different. Most ‗nation Most different. is eality n following and I use both longitudinal lenses and and lenses longitudinal both use I

ifts in ‗hard‘ borders. Thus, I have have I Thus, borders. ‗hard‘ in ifts as the ―method [that] attempts to identify identify to attempts [that] ―method the as Bennett -

As D. Welsh notes, out of of out notes, Welsh D. As be tween an independent variable variable independent an tween 2005: 206) 2005:

Walsham (1995) who who (1995) Walsham a fly xli the explain fully can .

- . Also, . states‘ 32

CEU eTD Collection convergence.html literary or http://www.gei.de/en/research/the texts, history in continuity 23 the rather or changes the classes, geography in used were that maps of redesigning the curriculum, in changes the addition, in But national of aspect fundamental a therefore and imagined are nations way the is It countries. across case, alwaysthe almost is This elites. organicbynationalizing representedas is nation Albanian hum the concern that those when opportunitiesopened forand elites howithappened. up,whobenefited m These memoirs. and interviews materials, archival rhetoric, political including chapters, case the map in evidence Albania the of reimagining to led has level domestic the at during folk songsand tales oral textbooks various in nation Albanian focuses project dissertation This materials. educational massesshowingelites andinteract how boundaries. thereimagination ofnational in region, the in changes border ongoing with importance practical has also It realities. new ‗virt and ‗hard‘ and nested are identities (national) maps. competitive of receptive be can which environment of kind different a possible make certa a in discourse of framing manipulation, symbol

iw o mr dti o ti priua kn o mtoooy te German the methodology, of kind particular this on detail more for View oevr te td as ofr lcd miia ifrne i a ein where region a in inferences empirical lucid offers also study the Moreover, I look upon the educational venues, curriculum development and texts, particularly texts, anddevelopment curriculum venues, educational the upon Ilook content using analysis this conduct I

ism. This is why education is a critical mechanism for nation for mechanism critical a is education why is This ism. aterials illustrate why such maps were used during critical juncturesduringwerecritical used maps whyillustrate aterialssuch

- european nte a sucs f ainl n identity and national of sources as anities

different historical periods. historical different - schoolhouse/europe ,

as well as in graphic maps, museums, newspapers, museums, maps, graphic in as well as ana lysis of lysis a‘bresitriget (re)create to intermingle borders ual‘ - in way and other means in disposal, disposal, in means other and way in and inter alia inter textbooks textbooks - the 23 -

national I competition howelite show

on the representation of of representation the on and other literature and literature other and - factor/competition - French research project project research French by

using empirical empirical using - building. The The building.

- building. building. -

and - 33

CEU eTD Collection for Fumagalli Matteo thank I explicit be to mekindly and advising out to this pointing frame. positivist a with compatible equally be to epistemologies/ontologies ( mu very ― perspective: is different slightly discourses a from Seen framework. theoretical of base ground empirical literature the builds that study present 24 the shiftsand an thereinhave of explanation why offer happened. analyses content and discourse depth w and research archival conduct arguments, my of predictions the test to research study case and comparative conduct media so or decade changin been has This have. should nation the of map that shape the on ar borders the where of decisions elites` trail usually and conservative more be to tend masses Also 2004). (Tilly movements social of mass critical the create to able being not thus communities, of sides both in public mass the location of bothculturenation‖ and (Kürti 2001:6). are ―they nation, their invent simply or imagine only not they because it in role crucial a played have elites The boundaries. virtual and map mental its nation, the of ‗rememorization‘ wi creations Lynggaar

iehr with here side I has thepublicspacepolis. democratized and pluralized The way I intend to proceed is to first define and measure the concepts. I then then I concepts. the measure and define first to is proceed to intend I way The dissertation, this in analysis into taken period the of most in that remains fact The d

also at work to create a system of representation for the geographical and spatial and geographical the for representation of system a create to work at also 01. n oh ae, cnie a ehd ht s oe yial ue i anti in used typically more is that method a consider I cases, both In 2011). --

because I think that it brings added value to in to value added brings it that think I because

h srn ntoait oain atgte pae a oefl oe in role powerful a played altogether vocation, nationalist strong a th in Albania, when the combination of internet access and alternative (social) alternative and access internet of combination the when Albania, in

scholars that scholars ch the study of conceptions of of conceptions of study the ch e. Thus, people on both sides of border have generally followed elites followed generally have border of sides both on people Thus, e. on a

causal explanatory model explanatory causal

cognize the utility of discourse analyses in positivist projects, like the the like projects, positivist in analyses discourse of utility the cognize

borders have been largely illiterate and living in isolated in living and illiterate largely been have borders r wt txs a wl a aaye ulttv dt. In data. qualitative analyze as well as texts, with ork 24

are two of the main tools I use to carefully trace carefully to use I tools main the of two are --

causal relations relations causal about my position in debate. this my position about

although I admit the disagreement on this point in in point this on disagreement the admit I although

- depth depth case among a set, or sets, of agents‖ agents‖ of sets, or set, a among - study research and reinforces the the reinforces and research study

g only in the last the in only g

- foundational foundational the study of of study the 34 -

CEU eTD Collection below. manner lengthier periods. later at countries neighboring or Albanian officials, Ottoman by kept and organized mostly but generated, 25 it how as well as debates, political and theoretical various by informed is it how and 1. occurred,I strength have changes how of picture nuanced and accurate more a construct to sources many at looking by triangulation, of method the using Thus independently. sources corroborate to differ slightly each sources, various juxtaposing By etc. textbooks, history poems, maps, songs, these in variation nation. the of conceptions official with o images dominant reflect to tend they censuses, museums, maps, songs, children's textbooks, why is That periods. time certain at discourse dominant the I community, Albanian each within discourse pictureeventshow borderschanged ofthe perception andelites. of leading inthe humanities and interviews, narrati biographical Relevant textbooks. Institute), Historical Archives, State Ministry, Foreign of those (notably documents archival as such sources, proximate on mainly rely I interest,

6 Even though for the Albanian case, we have to recognize the idiosyncrasy of censuses, which are not self not are which censuses, of idiosyncrasy the recognize to have we case, Albanian the for though Even

Plan the Conclusion Dissertation/ of This openi This shifts border the measure To material published of scarcity the Realizing

censuses sponsored by central government are of much later period as it will be discussed in a a in discussed be will it as period later much of are government central by sponsored censuses ng chapter delineated delineated chapterng en my argument.subsequent

25 ing in his account of how the events proceeded, it enables me enables it proceeded, events the how of account his in ing

n ntoa pes r tkn s od indicators good as taken are poems national and

f h iaie Abna nto i te dominant the in nation Albanian imagined the of th

te nation the f ves are also scrutinized in order to have a fuller a have to order in scrutinized also are ves I also find clues of an explanation (IVs) for this this for (IVs) explanation an of clues find also I

e playing also focus on cultural artifacts that reflect reflect that artifacts cultural on focus also

s that is closely related to my research my to related closely is that s field where this dissertation is situated is dissertation this where field -- which is

xetd o hne along change to expected --

because 35 -

CEU eTD Collection irredentism), always geopolitical with intandem and realities third contractionarfrom (ranging choices policy certain informing and imagination national shaping by discourse borders` reconstruct and (de)construct elites that argument the advance I domestically. ex the ignore often elites, by analysesinto project. inthis largely is leadership the because and threats cultural or respond to insecurities, social fears, economic overcome to way a as lead elites` following positively, tend Masses situations. difficult overcoming and trust public recapturing shrewdly used often are and discourse/rhetoric public general in legitimacy political providing for mean a as serve also They reconfirmation. for need in and reinstated perpetually fluid, are borders Virtual consolidated. is then and rooted th imagining in modernists the as deterministic and teleological as are they this, In imagination. national in borders the reconstructing and about deconstructing of talk possibility not do often they constructed, are borders national and shift identities (i.e. literature that suggest constructivists while because constructivist 1996), Brubaker 1996; Gellner 1991; Anderson (classic) the of much from myself differentiate I where environme and engineer elites the manipulate that proposition the down lays it concepts, instrumentalist‘s public affects

illiterate nt for political gains. In the next chapter I delineate the theoretical argument argument theoretical the delineate I chapter next the In gains. political for nt real and virtual virtual and real

agendas and agendas

communities y map models to expansionist ones that in its most extreme form lead toleadextremeform mostits in onesthat expansionist to ymodels map

geopolitical Instrumentalists, while stressing the functional use of borders useof functional Instrumentalists, stressing the while

ternal intervention which often conditions the elites` action elites` the conditions often which intervention ternal with a large percentage of peasantry, of percentage large a with b orders

in order to create and perpetuate the necessary necessary the perpetuate and create to order in realities. Borr realities. atclry tog mns isolated, amongst strong particularly o wing

fro

m both m by politicians in need for for need in politicians by - party interventions.

such as the ones taken taken ones the as such

constructivists and constructivists at something is something at

CEU eTD Collection prescriptions. and urges political and discussions academic both givento rise has This R from Kosovo, Northern to Serbia 26 Kurdish nation, Russian the say like cases, similar explain to enough general is that and constructi by borders virtual in borders differentthe same timegroup. and over national across of segments prov is framework theoretical a and delineated fully is argument the chapter, following the In time. over changed this how and time) specific that (at nation the constituted that area particular a territorialized o to seeks project this Thus, generally. texts literature or geography history, in myths debunking unit. (state) each out and mappin new signaled has state) (Kosovo reality Balkans in has it that actuality the with do to has importance efforts disciplinary im its of because relevance empirical and theoretical both has also It well. as changes periodic t fixed particularly a in lie not does that case a of analysis spatial in like seems Itcomparative, it though also political geography,is andboundaries literature. nationalism

Border changes are not simply limited to this however, as signals for map shifts range from Southern Southern from range shifts map for signals as however, this to limited simply not are changes Border lctos n soe f td. hl, t While, study. of scope and plications The ultimate goal of this dissertation, therefore, is to systematically explain shifts explain systematically to is therefore, dissertation, this of goal ultimate The inter is project The otn osdrd o e h ‗odr e‘ f uoe wee nw geopolitical new a where Europe, of keg‘ ‗powder the be to considered often , - depth case depth

to develop a framework that captur that framework a develop -

study at first glance, because it undertakes both a temporal and a and temporal a both undertakes it because glance, first at study 26 - disciplinary and draws on insights from a variety of fields, like fields, of variety a from insights on draws and disciplinary

An additional contribution is that it aids in the processes of processes the in aids it that is contribution additional An

epublica Serbska in B in Serbska epublica ddt epantecagal aueo ainl ‗virtual‘ national of nature changeable the explain to ided ng a model that can have a broad explanatory application application explanatory broad a have can that model a ng fr n nesadn o hw etl mapping mental how of understanding an ffer g shifts amongst Albanian communities in communities Albanian amongst shifts g e hoeia salience theoretical he - H, to Western Macedonia and Northern Greece. Greece. Northern and Macedonia Western to H, e virtual border shifts, border virtual e the — in Albanian case and more more and case Albanian in oaie region volatile erritory, while tracing tracing while erritory,

is n h inter the in lies

the practical the f Western of 37 -

CEU eTD Collection Ayres is2008). and Saideman natio that the of status part being ‗unfulfilled‘ as thought often often the is which at kin to out bequeathed pointed often have authors Other designs. policy irredentist to leads consider often are kinlive ethnic where areas adjacent many and state confined territorially the overlapping as imagined often is nation The nation. a 27 in wars secessionist/irredentist and ethnic with context regional the given communism hyper of there. kin of behalf in mood on interfering from general refrained have players political the main while Yugoslavia, neighboring notwithstanding 1990s, during especially politics, Albania`s bygreat foreignallies, (invented) enemies, powers. or applied strategies different of light in itself positions which elite, domestic the of interests economic and political cultural, social, on based exclusive or inclusive be can Nation imaginatio folk in mapping nation`s the (re)configurates turn in which elites, of agenda nation the shape they that assumption the on based is and variables independent of fulfillment the enabling n or constraining and discourse in domestic critical the are determining interventions, direct particularly influence, external while nation, the wo other In nation. the is when) as well (as where of discourse nationalist dominant a constructing geo by conditioned elite, cultural relati intrinsic etc. nation, Serbian the nation, dministrative (physical) borders are not necessarily and consistently congruent with mental mapping of the the of mapping mental with congruent consistently and necessarily not are borders (physical) dministrative toa(s) designs. ational(ist)

In a way all these cases are similar in the variable that I am interested here, meaning that the the that meaning here, interested am I that variable the in similar are cases these all way a In Interesting rds, boundary engineering elites are a crucial factor for deciding the location of of location the deciding for factor crucial a are elites engineering boundary rds, - ainls reoi b Abna sae lts n h frt eae f post of decade first the in elites state Albanian by rhetoric nationalist nhp ewe bre epnincnrcin ein o te oiia and political the of designs expansion/contraction border between onship y nuh epii ntoait htrc a be te xeto in exception the been has rhetoric nationalist explicit enough, ly

As I argue in empirical chapters, the anomaly lies in the relative lack lack relative the in lies anomaly the chapters, empirical in argue I As

Thus, the project looks at both endogenous and exogenous exogenous and endogenous both at looks project the Thus,

ed to be part of the indivisible nation, though this precondition rarely rarely precondition this though nation, indivisible the of part be to ed Based on the overall findings of research, I find that the that find I research, of findings overall the on Based - oiia crusacs pas h upr ad in hand upper the plays circumstances, political

n but not a full member of it (i.e. (i.e. it of member full a not but n - building 38 n. -

CEU eTD Collection versions. enlarged or diminutive its in nation the thatconfigure 29 elections. parliamentarian after2013 landscape political 28 Some projects. political in changes to related strongly is usually community, imagined particula a to attachment and loyalty of sense the this, to related and addition In process. the in role pedagogical elites` by constrained are they as change, systems belief and values attitudes, peoples` how indicates and reflect also time, certain a elite The developments. these impacted changes have that regime pressures) international and struggles during (elite mechanism causal especially the uncovering noted replacements, subsequent the and historical different developments because different have needs. produced points, converging occasional with static, from far well, we boundaries its as trajectory different a had has it and and frontier of sides both on differently nation quite imagined the doubt No nationalism. expansionist of that was mode prevailing the where Kosovo and Macedonia neighboring in communities Albanian national the under isolation decades five than more after agendas nationalist to indifferent been generally has that opinion public mass the influenced This crises. political internal with faced when support its with relations in role internatio constructive its stress to preferred has leadership political threshold. parliament`s the passed not have and politics mainstream in presence Yu neighboring

I see regime changes as one of one as changes regime see I This seems to be changing recently with the emergence of few parties that are expected to change the the change to expected are that parties few of emergence the with recently changing be to seems This The present work systematic work present The nal partners in exchange for the carrot of integration and to get some formal formal some get to and integration of carrot the for exchange in partners nal olva Tu, ntal ntoait ate fie t mk a credible a make to failed parties nationalist initially Thus, goslavia.

- the primary indicators that give rise to contractionary or expansionist maps expansionist or contractionary to rise give that indicators primary the communist regime; while standing in considerable contrast to contrast considerable in standing while regime; communist

ally traces the important ruptures in mapping frames mapping in ruptures important the traces ally

competing frames and the resulting the and frames competing

r piece of territory and territory of piece r winner map winner 29 28

The and

of of re re at at

CEU eTD Collection Kosovo from moved has nationalism Albanian of hub the periods, historical different or strangers as variously other each perceived have Albania of borders administrative present the outside and inside Albanians that meaning variance, next? the to period one from mappings havechampioned inadjacent or inAlbania countries, living Albanians is: remainsthat question The moment. given a at balancesgeopolitical suits better that map the maintain to intervened consistently have actors foreign while level, mass majority reasons, economic of because or casual/random than rather intervention, external of scale base primarily are shifts these cross to order in Kosovo and Macedonia in communities Albanian amongst especially periods certain at replacements subsequent caref I overlapping. often and complex The Federation. are realities the where region volatile a in role of a play always not size disintegration and strength numerical of aftermath the in took communities ethnic dif the interest of particularly is It testify. Yugoslavia former in communities Albanian various of examples the as axes, temporal but dimension spatial in only not occur changes these Often, state. hosting the other yet while nation, (separate) own their create to seek others nation; indivisible same the of part as themselves imagine communities ethnic What is explored here is the national imagination of Albanians, both in eli in both Albanians, of imagination national the is here explored is What - minority rapports etc. rapports minority d on elite competition, and conditioned by the degree and and degree the by conditioned and competition, elite on d

ully trace the prevalence of each of the maps and and maps the of each of prevalence the trace ully - compare and empirically illustrate my thesis that thesis my illustrate empirically and compare h oetm vrac sad aogie spatial alongside stands variance overtime The eet otomns taetre ta such that trajectories postcommunist ferent s merge easily with other nations in in nations other with easily merge s

rtrn Frhroe in Furthermore, brethren. different territorial different

why the why also te and te

40 in

CEU eTD Collection 31 quite 30 expansionary one mapping, of versions different two (re)constructed have they how and dynamics elite the captures dissertation this Therefore, Powers. interested) (or Great the especially plans, been had borders state t notwithstanding determined the since dimension, virtual in chiefly borders, outer its and nation the constructing in leeway incredible had have they that seems it case, Albanian such the that doubt on little is decide there matters, who elites of role the Notwithstanding (1920). Lushnja of Congress or (1908) Meeting Monastir (1878), Prizren of League as such meetings during crucial ca of centrality the when analyses under centre. the from equidistance are thatborders iscommon assumingand thatit perceived, have (North,West) East South, compass the of middle the is what constitutes often but have chosen randomly not boundaries is point its focal the where words, other In determining perceived. been mapped, commonly been has nation the narrowly or centre spiritual or political administrative, the mid The nation. the of capital also symbolic but formal as only not regarded been consistently has latter The Albania. central s in Vlore Albania, northern in Shkodra or central) been Bitola of towns the daypresent(where Macedonia Pristina), or (Prizren

Of course I am not stating this as a general principle general as a this not stating am OfI course for movement nationalist Albanian of hub theprimary be to used this town Monastir, as known Previously some time, culminating with the Alphabet Congress in 1908. Congressin Alphabet with the culminating sometime,

that includes the concept of Greater Albania and one that fits the republican republican the fits that one and Albania Greater of concept the includes that

he domestic realities and primarily based on the interveners` interveners` the on based primarily and realities domestic he 31

This seems to be also the case with the shifting capitals shifting the with case the also be to seems This ir actions influence mass perceptions in turn. In the the In turn. in perceptions mass influence actions ir pital to the perceived nation`s boundaries became became boundaries nation`s perceived the to pital - point of the nation, what is mostly perceived as as perceived mostly is what nation, the of point

and there are notable exceptions to this. exceptionsto notable are there and is a direct consequence of how expansively expansively how of consequence direct a is

in conjunction of where the borders borders the where of conjunction in

outhern Albania and Tirana in in Tirana and Albania outhern 30

and Tetovo haveTetovoand

CEU eTD Collection 32 follo the up take will case Albanian I this argue isprimarily elite and time over change they why and borders national these determines what about more time. given a at projections clashing by on articulated views as boundaries incompatible national have sometimes elites national „external‟ and „internal‟ why occur. changes such periods what on depending size, to indifferent are or nation, of project larger a embrace nation( the in situated are they where depending group of explanation with deals that scholarship boundaries, smaller somewhat a and studies nationalism in theories af the together bring to seeks which imagination. popular and memory folk in is shaped it how and elites by boundaries national of constitution the of debate the in engage an as t applied are well insights these how of explanation as boundaries national addresses it as studies nationalism on trends main mapping. mental and borders virtual identity, the consideration into degree external pressures actors. from of taking other, each replaced have maps these how and borders

Coming from various areas of studies such as anthropology, sociology, or ethnography. or sociology, suchas anthropology, studies of variousareas fromComing A more detailed account of shifts on popular imagining of national borders in the in borders national of imagining popular on shifts of account detailed more A chapter Next 32

hr i ltl ta cnet te os y rig o fe a parsimonious a offer to trying by dots the connects that little is there ht rvks vari provokes what

first first In addition, I addition, In

defines and operationalizes the operationalizes and defines - driven.

contribute to elite theories of nationalism by exploring by nationalism of theories elite to contribute to oe tm ad vr pc, hr sm ethnic same where space, over and time over ation orementioned debates. Although there is a plethora of of plethora a is there Although debates. orementioned

ig hpes Thus, chapters. wing

o the selected case. Within this literature, I literature, this Within case. selected the o Second

Third , it outlines a general discussion of discussion general a outlines it , i otie te main the outlines it , main concepts such as territorial as such concepts main - state) map may be prone to to prone be may map state) hpe three chapter

ok a the at looks

hs i is it Thus, argument 42 ,

CEU eTD Collection reflected incommunity imagining. b constrained as elites, amongst underbidding and outbidding nationalist of nature the given borders, of mapping as such question volatile a with deals that argument the up wrap to tries conclusion the end, the In museums. and monuments a such (re)memorization, of sites various in manifested as perceptions, fluctuations of lots pressures. external of forms various and realities domestic different suit to maps alternative of use the and fluctuation, discourse border its rule, Communist monolithic perceived (wrongly) a created five Chapter variance.such causes systematicwhataaccountof build to and processes such understand a period war inter the in changes, Many represented. map/borders virtual and modeled was discourse (nationalist) way the impacted that shifts major of account systematic a build to order in cert of analysis undertakes building nation initial the in maps certain championed and essentialized have elites competing i understood been have processes identity these how understand to seeks It process. such shaped have that actors and factors and Albanians the amongst identity imaginary an of construction historical period de ju de Chapter six Chapter

nd the subsequent competing maps are duly traced in order to better better to order in traced duly are maps competing subsequent the nd focuses especially in the WWII period and Axis occupation period that that period occupation Axis and period WWII the in especially focuses re

in order to secure certain privileges or secure power. power. secure or privileges certain secure to order in and --

discussing them alongside changes in political realities and cultural and realities political in changes alongside them discussing de facto de deals with virtual border shifts in post in shifts border virtual with deals ain crucial years at dif at years crucial ain

Greater Albania, as well as studying the ambivalence of the the of ambivalence the studying as well as Albania, Greater n relation to territory and delineation of borders and how how and borders of delineation andterritory to relation n

ferent periods during the inter the during periods ferent - communist period communist etra pesrs and pressures external y s textbooks, media, textbooks, s hpe four Chapter war period, period, war -- -

building building prone to prone 43 - -

CEU eTD Collection Theories 2.1 Existing NationalismBorders How Explain They of and elite clashes(re)drawing and constraints external the elaborating in proceeds then It nations. Albanian the of maps overlapping shi such explains that framework nationalist factors early especially from present day. 1990sto externa and internal by motivated changes boundary of myriad the given ramifications, countries. how on have they impact and maps such of dimensions material and vir the understand to order in not, or compatible are they when dynamics, map state versus national and territorialization identity of processes the discusses which argument, Introduction Boundaries 76). 1995: (Conversi is “Nationalism Chapter 2 Tee r n budr polm, hr ae ny ainl rbes Jcus ne, egah of Geography Ancel, Jacques problems” national only are there problems, boundary no are “There Thus, this chapter first delineates the literature and engages in the debates of how of debates the in engages and literature the delineates first chapter this Thus, myown developing before field the in debates scholarly main engages chapter This

h ipiain ae o ol tertcl u as o mc practical much of also but theoretical only not are implications The schools hl mpig ita bres and borders virtual mapping while

both a process of border maintenance and creation. Hence, it is a process of definition” definition” of process a is it Hence, creation. and maintenance border of process a both

perceive (national) borders. Second, it develops my theoretical theoretical my develops it Second, borders. (national) perceive

of national map.of national

t i vrul odr. hr, t icse te two the discusses it Third, borders. virtual in fts

Territorialization of Identity Boundary Mapping and t olw wt a icsin of discussion a with follows it

people percept their their percept people

domestic domestic

tual 44 l

CEU eTD Collection 23). 1996: Stepan (Linz and percent‖ in Estonia87.6 percent, Lithuania80.1 percent, in 73.4 was nationality‖ per 9 3. Russians the and percent 3.9 Germans the percent, 7.8 Jews the percent, 14.3 theUkrainians percent, were 69.2 the Poles InPoland, percent. ―other‖ 6.7 and percent Jews1.4 percent, populati the of percent 64.8 for accounted nation 1 border constructiona on scholarship scarce still and recent this on builds thus project present The 2005:321). (Newman boundaries‖ of perception the and identities territorial as such topics, related Paasi 2002; 1996). (Murphy maintained‖ and formed are identities territorial way the in role important an play to continue ―boundaries that: noted repeatedly have authors Some state. post a that belief illusory the and curtain iron of fall the after place took that changes epochal the resist to continue borders nation. the on discourse everyday in granted for taken often is it as naturally bou virtual/cultural Thus, and borders 6). republican laden 2010: politically Hagen and (Diener century‖ twentieth the of beginning the by norm, the not although ideal, the become had nation, the of boundaries cultural the with coincide nation the of idea ―[t]he it: put recently anywhere.realized being from far actually is 1983), borders(Gellner nation The manifestations. both remains it although empirical and insights decades, theoretical its of synthesis of several terms in inconclusive and fascinating of span a covers territory with identity

As Linz and Stepan correctly note, even the states that emerged in the aftermath of WWI were not in fact fact in not were WWI of aftermath the in emerged that states the even note, correctly Stepan and Linz As - state in the theoretically assumed sense. They observe that ―[i]n Czechoslovakia, Czechs and Slovaks Slovaks and Czechs Czechoslovakia, ―[i]n that observe They sense. assumed theoretically the in state

h dbt aot ainls a mblzn fre ht ek t cnet national connect to seeks that force mobilizing as nationalism about debate The odr shlrhp ha scholarship Borders nd how itshapes political reality.nd

- state, which presupposes final congruence of nation and state and nation of congruence final presupposes which state,

s flourished recently, focusing focusing recently, flourished s - nation on in the new republic, the Germans 23.6 percent, Ruthenians 3.5 3.5 Ruthenians percent, 23.6 Germans the republic, new the in on - state, where the political borders political the where state, al identity was rising amongst the ashes of nation of ashes the amongst rising was identity al

ndaries, seem not to coincide coincide to not seem ndaries, ne alia inter cent. In Latvia, ―the titular titular ―the Latvia, In cent. As Diener and Hagenand Diener As

of the state would state the of

n ―boundary on 1

National 45 - -

CEU eTD Collection communities. national different by differently of conceived are they why and time bor state how is explain cannot they what Therefore, change. cannot and borders state and national T identities. these with up line not may or may boundaries pre of outgrowths natural are borders nation generaland specifically regarding case. theAlbanian in borders conceptualize they how and nationalism of theories main into engage I Below socio background, particular the consideration into taking while present the of perspective the from 11). 2010: Hagen histori histories, have to seem borders all Thus, understanding. political and cultural socio affect circumstances present on depending which weight, historical own their have s for exist emerge, practices, institutional various of manifestations as but, units eternal not are ―territories socio their in also but dimension physical v often are territories national example, For noted. have scholars various as existences, communities` and lives‘ individual shaping Primordialist other, each with symbiosis in (re)constructed are processes such ‗natural‘, than Rather - es affect current realities of border regions and the states they bound‖ (Diener and and (Diener bound‖ they states the and regions border of realities current affect es states is something inherent in human beings. For primordialists, nations and their and nations primordialists, For beings. human in inherent something is states s

- ome time and disappear‖ and time ome

As such, the salience of territorialized identity has to be looked upon upon looked be to has identity territorialized of salience the such, As cultural mechanisms and contemporary political debate in a given case. case. given a in debate political contemporary and mechanisms cultural maintain that nations have always existed; therefore loyalty toward toward loyalty therefore existed; always have nations that maintain can

be often incongruent, because national borders are natural natural are borders national because incongruent, often be - iewed as historical products and not only in their their in only not and products historical as iewed existing communal identities, identities, communal existing - cultural meanings. Paasi correctly remarks that: remarks correctly Paasi meanings. cultural

(Paasi 1995: 3). Moreover, borders themselves borders Moreover, 3). 1995: (Paasi

hus they would argue that that argue would they hus ethnies ders change over over change ders

―and these ―and

and state state and historical

The 46 -

CEU eTD Collection to attributed routinely 15). (1996: Brubaker is that view the holds today straw in primordialists scholar serious ―[n]o writes: Brubaker As viewpoint. 3 in the previous rooted ‗na as 2 various that perceptions different the for account cannot and structural are Modernists regions. advanced and backward between borders developmental to correspond to borders l development/industrialization, of rates differential to due current configuration their in are borders national that state They production. of mode capitalist and ba changing 2010:61). circumstances‖ (Őzkirimli to adapt or react groups as generation each in redefined and negotiated continuously are social their explain really that cannot argued convincingly been has It constructions. borders ‗frozen‘ and identities primordialist the national Also ‗given‘ capitalism. of birth and Revolution Industrial with associated mo and Revolution French wars, Napoleonic of events the nation that believe who nationalism of rival theories functionalist and modernist the from comes criticism main their and nationalism the mino in a sense generally any are make primordialists not The does world. here primordialist tracing am I that spatial) and temporal (both variation Thus fashion. consistent a in imagined always and given inherently something as proto linear contingent the of that follows them for nations of demarcation

To simplify I have merged the categories of primordialists (like Harold Isaasc and Geertz who see nations nations see who Geertz and Isaasc Harold (like primordialists of categories the merged have I simplify To vrl, h misra shlry ok n nation in work scholarly mainstream the Overall, sically hold that nation that hold sically Modernization theoreticians theoreticians Modernization tural‘ entities with perennialists (like A. Smith and J. Armstrong) who see nations as mythic and and mythic as nations see who Armstrong) J. and Smith A. (like perennialists with entities tural‘

ethnies - man setups, namely that nations or ethnic groups are primordial, unchangi primordial, are groups ethnic or nations that namely setups, man - national fashion. A primordialist sees the m the sees primordialist A fashion. national , because their similarities are more stressed than any particular nuances. particular any than stressed more are theirsimilarities because ,

- states of the 19 the of states

of nationalism, like Gellner (1996) or Nairn (1997) (1997) Nairn or (1996) Gellner like nationalism, of th

Century are byproducts of Industrial RevolutionIndustrial of byproducts Centuryare a lism and borders largely departs from primordialist primordialist from departs largely borders and lism 3

- states are modern creations that followed that creations modern are states ―far from being fixed, the boundaries the fixed, being from ―far ethnies st importantly structural changes structural importantly st

rity amongst scholars of of scholars amongst rity ie Sih 1986), Smith (i.e. ental mapping of nation nation of mapping ental eading national national eading ng entities‖ entities‖ ng 2

n a in 47

CEU eTD Collection w boundaries,‖ territorial and human segment ―the call Roeder Philip what as nations. construct elites national and/or state by created often are borders border really constructioncannot theassociatedexplain mapping. imaginary shiftsin pre and nations (modern) between distinction the overlooks and coherence of lack from suffers vague, conceptually is blend synthetic Their up. opportunityopens an that time eachreturn elites nationalist the t map Albanian of version expansionary autochthonous an perpetuating an and creating together, keepcommunity to order in times through stretches that connection Pellasgian stres the by symbolized often is link this case Albanian the In 7). 1994: (Hutchinson pre the with link the stressing by of ethnicity change and persistence formation, the in traditions and myths, values of memories, role symbols, the ―to emphasizes strong a gives 143), 2010: (Őzkirimli modernism‖ Albanianperiods case of might inparticular short time. over shift one in of those and general in borders national onlywhy to as answer an provide cannot and goes o direction teleological, either deterministic, hold, highly also might is group Modernism national subjectively. same the of segments different Institutionalist theories Institutionalist The and nationalism (Smith 2001d: 84). This approach seeks continuity with the past the with continuity seeks approach This 84). 2001d: (Smith nationalism and ethnosymbolism - Illyrian

These institutions for example, evolve around pre around evolve example, for institutions These - Arber - Albanian connection, seen as seen connection, Albanian , which has often been seen as a ―theoretical critique of of critique ―theoretical a as seen been often has which , - existing ethnies. Also by reifying nati reifying by Also ethnies. existing

(i.e. - Gorenburg 2003 Gorenburg existing ethnicity, which shaped modern day nationalism nationalism day modern shaped which ethnicity, existing hose leaders use to invent and/or reinforce a kind of kind a reinforce and/or invent to use leaders hose - tt [hc i] jrsito dfnd y both by defined jurisdiction a is] [which state ; Hale 2011 Hale ;

and that these institutions basically institutions these that and an

undivided, uninterrupted linear linear uninterrupted undivided, ;

Roeder 2007 Roeder

ons, their explanation of explanation their ons, - political entities such entities political ) hold that the that hold ) bjectively or or bjectively o which o

s on on s 48

CEU eTD Collection socially but groupclaim boundariesare notprimordial, Brown‗the that ethnic while 2000), as to referred often also is instrumentalism studies, other In 16). 2006: e the to solely fact in group, the of name the in (formally goods secular more achieving for utility strategic its to according controlled externally variable, argued: has Conversi As example. interve external like factors/circumstances, other less or more excluding elites, of incentives personal on based lie borders the where determining elites of interests the They couldhappen that it would simply soquickly. notexpect done. be can it although unconstructed, be easily cannot constructed, once borders, its and nations them, For constructed. been have nations after particularly conceptions, national in much expect not would arguments, my with inconsistent partially though theories, institutionalist Thus, remains. puzzle the altogether,and view seeminglydeterministic such building, nation these trajectories, map. national of conceptualization different d instituted were that post the in forming nation Macedonian/Albanian a and nation, Albanian Kosovar a nation, Albanian an be now would there that predict might one o acquiring and independence Roeder to prior periphery and center onesconnect that mechanisms transitional necessary are the mentions as belts transitory Such 2007). (Roeder identity national hegemonic Th en there is there en

yielding distinct and differentiated national identities. But evidence, discards discards evidence, But identities. national differentiated and distinct yielding the instrumentalist the rn te omns pro, hs he dsic cmuiis with communities distinct three thus period, communist the uring - communities would have followed different pathways in nation in pathways different followed have would communities f sovereignty from emerging states. According to this logic, this to According states. emerging from sovereignty f ―[i]nstrumentalism conceives ethnicity as a dependent a as ethnicity conceives ―[i]nstrumentalism

story( Snyder 2000; 2000; Snyder

Developing in different historical and political and historical different in Developing - WWII period around the borders borders the around period WWII Gagnon 2001), which is all about about all is which 2001),Gagnon

lites‘ advantage‖ (Conversi advantage‖ lites‘ constructivism constructivism ntion for for ntion change (i.e. 49 -

CEU eTD Collection the of images ―powerful as varieties different in manifestation nation but continuous resurgent, such calls Smith context. addresses Asia Southeast Anderson Communities, Imagined of version criticism A 20). 1993: (Smith architecture‖ th just not and arts, visual of imaginary powerful folklore…, music, dances, noticed ethnic ballads, expression, ―folk from cultural ranging and of Herder from forms other overlooks but products, literary at especially focuses Anderson 4 calls public, map mental its and or links ancestral common tra cultural on common either based society, the of members ‗legitimate‘ the construct and define to societies various in used often is it because distinction fundamental na creating in language consciously ofthe important as modern shaped most one presen with configured implicati the cases, both In tradition.‖ of ―invention as it in both as ( Anderson interactions. social constant in engaged institutions and elites of constructions and interests elites` of limitations the setting actionsconditionalizing ex its with by conditions, scope the narrow with insights of shareslots (He view‘ dominant the now is constructed

2006: 6 2006: A bone of contention between Anderson and Smith concern Smith and Anderson between contention of bone A h cntutvss n te oenss lk ietf te ioa rl o vernacular of role pivotal the identify alike modernists the and constructivists The the are least, not but Last

rpe hrceitc: bidn bok, ua aec, n nvly (oy 1999: (Motyl novelty‖ and agency, human blocks, ―building characteristics: triple -- )

political and cultural elites play a powerful role in bringing together what Motyl what together bringing in role powerful a play elites cultural and political has has herently limited and sovereign‖, and limited herently aptly pitns n supue bt f unsig, eais mtlok n aoe all above and metalwork ceramics, furnishings, of but sculptures and paintings e defined the the defined ig that ping its, thus excluding the ‗Others‘. the excluding thus its, t borders are a recent phenomenon and have been purposefully and purposefully been have and phenomenon recent a are borders t

in, otay o h prnait sai wrd Ti i a is This world. static perennalists the to contrary tions, , ‖ citing examples mostly frommostly Europ citingexamples ‖ instrumentalists

eiets h bres s eeal prevd mns the amongst perceived generally as borders the delineates nation as ―an imagined political community political imagined ―an as nation constructivists, ternal intervention/ geopolitical circumstances. ny partly only , although as it is argued in the theory chapter, I chapter, theory the in argued is it as although, whereas Hobsbawm whereas he ad kmt 20: 193). 2001: Okamoto and chter

founded because at least in his 2006 republishing republishing 2006 his in least at because founded

some who see nations and borders as social social as borders and nations see who s 4

how nation is narrated. is nation how

In the case of the ‗imagined nation‘ nation‘ ‗imagined the of case the In f hs oth these of - day identity e and Russia (Smith 1993: 20). 1993: Russia (Smith and e n s la ta nation that clear is on

(1990) r om, particularly forms, er - based units. units. based

has conceptualized conceptualized has

According to Smith, Smith, to According -

and imagined imagined and

My position position My

states states in the the in 50

CEU eTD Collection as as early created was which Museum State first Montenegro first the of witness( 1981 October 28 in only existence into came Albania of Museum National the that bear can we Therefore ru boundaries. regime Communist virtual its and nation that of is here caveat only imagination in role (re)constructive The their regarding inference limited for only allowing thus history, Albanian neighbors. their and themselves to relationship comm national imagined political‖ profoundly both are imagination, museumizing the and ―museums, nation, a of heritage the Regarding represent. themselves peo of boundaries the demarcate to seek countries Balkan all example For maps and censuses While settings. period. Communist until activities museuming no had Greece of contextual exception the with different in change can medium of type particular a 6 Albaniancase not the nation,clearly maps). political and intrig topographical foreign detailed of (fewremnants as country the in exist or museums) static statistics, (unreliable state Albanian half been have that attempts few those from aside form reliable consistently any 3). 2005: (Spark effect homogenic a create reservations 5 the as such contexts, geographical and regional other in powers European the of influence exist. previously not did 163 2006: (Anderson museum the and map the census, the domains: their over identity territorialize and control exercise to employed colonizers European the that power of institutions three emphasizing 1991: 8 ―the Minghi and in (Rumley coherence functional and boundaries‘ ‗natural ethnicity, of principles based especially are which change, boundary for proposals fundamental with const the of boundaries and rules the enforcing and internally, people the disciplining nation, role ins intellectuals to regard in claimed have field the renowned in some authors as because study, this of part important very a is agency Human 59).

These should be taken more as heuristic devices, together with novels, novels, with together devices, as heuristic more taken be should These Although Although rmna ―n h saig f ainl nesadn, rpgtn te aus f the of values the propagating understanding, national of shaping the ―in trumental n mgnd omnte, nesn xmns h ros f national of roots the examines Anderson Communities, Imagined In ituent people‖ (Kennedy and Sun and (Kennedy people‖ ituent - 9). Anderson‘s because because

in Southeast Asia these institution were created and served served and created were institution these Asia Southeast in le (after 1945), when the archeological frenzy also took place. It is important to note to important is It place. took also frenzy archeological the when 1945), (after le

ou lay focus nt ad r a are and unity -

4. hs isiuin cetd n disciplin and created institutions These 64). Adro 20: 178). 2006: (Anderson

hog tee he isiuin o power, of institutions three these Through lehr,hscnlsos may conclusions his elsewhere,

ple and land, cultural institutions define what the people and land and people the what define institutions cultural land, and ple

res Second, the Second, y1999:2). uc fr governments for ource Third,

Museums

three institut three because

Furthermore, elites have elites Furthermore,

1926). 1926). ly n motn rl in role important an play

h cnue hv o have censuses the

apply ions do not exist in exist not do ions

, seeking to influence their peoples‘ peoples‘ their influence to seeking , flags, anthems etc flags,anthems

to the Balkans the to - d odr wee they where borders ed they - play, they have been been have they play, heartedly produced by the the by produced heartedly i.e. i.e. only

museu ften linked religion to to religion linked ften 6 are a fairly recent in in recent fairly a are compare

, e lo e the see also we usually com usually my selected case selected my . The prevalen The . the creation of the the of creation the colonial powers to to powers colonial though ms

this with thewith this only during during only

ae with taken identity, e up up e ce of of ce 51

ue in in

CEU eTD Collection werepre and Empire Ottoman ofthe Albaniandistricts the all overrun had Montenegrins and Greeks, Serbs, the since arisen, have ever would Albania independent 8 one. of principle organizational 7 lessened, are pressures external when especially nation, the of boundaries of perception endogenous the half, other The story. the of half only us tell can power, of institutions thro geopolitical circumstances and foreignintervention But, imagination. popular in boundaries of understanding the affected deeply occupation, of centuries five its with glory secessionist re new the of boundaries the (re)mapping intervention external in resulted and Federation 313). Hungary, a tha peace Austria and Russia between peace the keep to effort an in primarily Serbia to awarded (1912 War Balkan First the after example, For region. the in interests p national of boundaries the following than Rather states. various 20 into unit homogenous a as Balkans the century,broke of decade first the to up leading period the during drawn borders state ‗hard‘ The un togetherwere Balkans the in nationalities districts, administrative various its for borders soft demarcated had Empire empires. strained own their into region the of nationalisms emerged culture, and politics Balkan in influence Their Balkans.

Tomes adds that adds Tomes the to refers case, second The ones. religious and administrative ofboundaries: kinds weretwo fact,there In

In the Albanian case, they never had a state of their own in the past, an an past, the in own their of state a had never they case, Albanian the In 8

into which they could return and various conquerors, especially the Ottoman Empire Ottoman the especially conquerors, various and return could they which into

lo e ed o eto te oe eet uolv as ht oe pr Tito‘s apart tore that Wars Yugoslav recent more the mention to need we Also publics. : ―[o]n the other hand, had the jealous Great Powers failed to intervene, it is unlikely that an that is unlikely it intervene, to failed Powers Great jealous the had hand, other ―[o]nthe : t lasted only a year only beforet lasted a theGreat exploding into (Tomes War 1999:

millet

, where nations were created based on religious affiliation and not the ethnic the not and affiliation religious on based created were nations where , opulations, these borders were designed to serve Great Power Power Great serve to designed were borders these opulations,

der the authority of the High Porte in Istanbul. in Porte High the of authority the der paring to annex the lot‖ (Tomes, 313 (Tomes, the paringlot‖ annex to attempted to subsume the newly the subsume to attempted Although the Ottoman the Although - 1913), Kosovo was was Kosovo 1913), - 4). 7 era of former former of era

the multiple the

ugh their ughtheir 52 th - -

CEU eTD Collection Primordialists Theory Prediction the in borders virtual inform they how and theories competing Albanian case of Summary 1.1 Table nation. the of borders interpret they how and theory each by given arguments main of summary S intervention. and pressures international and games geopolitical IIn such that addressas here.toignore seek addition, theythestructural tend conditions, to stories the Elite borders. grasp to fail but agency, in of role the more emphasize institutionalist) variation and (instrumentalist explain cannot primordialist) (modernization, the explain to able b be different not would they Also, forth. and back change actually borders and howthey time. change over revealbottom that on so and talesfolk music, poetry,archeology,arefolklore, important less no borders.Also territorial pol and public ofvisualization certainofunderstanding athatshape textbooks treatiesand memorandums, of analysis careful through discovered be to remains nuances of identity territorialization processes and variation in visualization of territory territory of visualization in variation and processes territorialization identity of nuances ‗virtual‘ and ‗material‘ these why explain fully can arguments these of none all, in All

res n h mns f h dfeet lain communities. Albanian different the of minds the in orders

- up perception of natio perceptionof up the closest era of former glory, with t

Borders are immutable and traced back Illyricum to times,

transcendence with an intermediary feudal state, united under an Scanderbeg`smedieval period. Thus we see a linear historical unnatural borders amongst Albanians the by forcefully or external threatuniversal protect to values (Christianity). According to this narrathis n`s virtual boundaries conceptualization boundaries n`svirtual tive, it was Ottomansthe who created he exception of ee table below for a a for below table ee

tutrl stories Structural itical discourse, discourse, itical

CEU eTD Collection question: the primarily asks second the while identity?‖ national construct elites do how and ―Why question: 9 people, by created contingent, and accidental being as borders and nations describe Constructivists Instrume Institutionalists Modernists

An author has labeled these two categories as ―hard‖ and ―soft‖ constructivists, where the first ask the the ask first the where constructivists, ―soft‖ and ―hard‖ as categories two these labeled has author An hs td das n both on draws study This

ntalists

Talk the of differential rates development/industrialization,of (National) identities are constructed by conscious elite invention communities that are carefully traced in this project. different borders thein minds the of different Albanian somewhat teleological, they unlike the other structural theories nationalismof andbeing it is utterly contingent in that is does not predict any endpoint elites,of excluding other factors does not explain rapid shifts in national identities over time. dependant variable. oi o mle sse. os o acut o sit i virtual in shifts for borders thein Albanian ca account not Does system. millet of the logic to according Islam, into people converting means indirect example. Nations and borders conceived accidental and contingent. thus becomingthus the desired homeland, while the nation itself immutable, the actions of agents (typically nationalist elites) The instrumentalist stor somewhat teleological and not accounting for perception shifts. mutual constitution. I from depart constructivists, the in their becomes territorialized, thus a two belief in the territory gets nationalized that by conscious agents, are critical in their shaping.I with share constructivists the and imagination, rather than inherently given. Thus, far from determining where bordersthe lie based on personal incentives Although it accounts for some cross period around the borders that were previously instituted. and a Macedonian/Albanian nation forming in postthe should be an Albanian nation, a Kosovar Albanian nation, administrative borders. do not really explain this case. shifts nationalin boundaries modern in Albania which is my view that take such construction as final, thus being It that holds national borders are constructed by preexisting might over shift short periods of time. Thus, it does explainnot perceptions of the three communities, why nor these borders viewpoint is overly structural and cannot account for different borders between backward and advanced regions. This leading national borders correspondto developmental to ntuetlss ad atclry constructivists particularly and instrumentalists,

Although IAlthough of am closer line tothis

Also capitalism andindustry development

Therefore, according this logic, to there y all is about the interests of elites se. would not beable to explain the

like external for intervention - way street wayin street which we face - spatial variation, it still argument,

WWII

who

CEU eTD Collection unorthodox an offer to map lenses a of other particular complexities the these grasp reality. malleable better favor to of agenda, nationalist use unfolding that and maps making identity conditions shifting am on viewpoint I the therefore at historiographies, region`s pinpoint the to primordialists/perenn (i.e. here investigation mentioned approaches other the The further engineering. for prefer and asking I internal by conditions, created 1999:67). is reality (Motyl Such nation. historically?‖ constructed constructivists identity national ―Is on is space Territorializing 7). 1991: (Sahlins another‖ formed nation modern the of component one constituted simultaneously. evolve did complementary, though processes, two these But affiliation. other some or status social religion, of instead nationality of terms in themselves to identify started primarily People fashion. gradual a in nation the of notion attachments abstract the individual toward powers, shifted concurring the to subjects the of loyalty overlapping nation principl basic the when 1648 in Westphalia the From shifts. loyalty with accompanied been often has territoriality of concept modern The centuries. even and decades many take may borders both (territorymutual shaping.a and process identity)of through of reconstruction a describing thus 2001), Kürti 1998; Anssi 1994; Kaiser (i.e. identities succinct have authors other what with complementary is This borders‘. ‗virtual and maps identity of shaping the in critical are elites) nationalist (typically agents of actions the immutable, inventi elite conscious by constructed are identities (national) that assumption the share I ideas. and institutions The process of na of process The - states is witnessed, identity and borders meaning have constantly shifted. From the From shifted. constantly have meaning borders and identity witnessed, is states y shown ly

labels, expanding on the notion of identity to include virtual borders and mental map of the the of map mental and borders virtual include to identity of notion the on expanding labels, es of territorial integrity were sanctioned, to 1848 when the symbolic birth of birth symbolic the when 1848 to sanctioned, were integrity territorial of es

-- ht ertr hs slet role salient a has territory that tion creation and the delimitation of its physical, as well as mental as well as physical, its of delimitation the and creation tion n n iaiain rte ta ihrnl gvn Tu, a from far Thus, given. inherently than rather imagination, and on

n ee Shis od, []e rain f h trioil state territorial the of creation ―[t]he words, Sahlins Peter In

external actors and cannot be simply assumed as given given as assumed simply be cannot and actors external -

state; the emergence of national identity identity national of emergence the state; - playing in the remaking of national national of remaking the in playing e of the first steps toward steps first the of e

i alists) have been domin been have alists) instrumentalist

not necessarily necessarily not ant in in ant

and and 55

CEU eTD Collection decay. outer the constituted what of boundaries o sense collective imaginary an of decades last the in one awakening national late rather was This either based are 10 that accounts rationalist formal build either to trying delimitation, Kaiser or (2001b) Yiftachel (2000); White (1999); Newman (1999); Paasi as such geography, political of field the from come ‗homelands‘ and attachments territorial with dealt have that authors main the ma which etc), 1988 Anderson 1981; Smith 1986; (Connor past the in scholars several by noted been has ‗homeland‘ imaginary symbolic, a to attachment emotional of kind This 5). 1994: (Kaiser homeland‖ ancestral subjective the as viewed c national be given a which maythrough dimension which place‘, of ‗sense the to connected strongly is it Also, 1994:5). (Kaiser behavior…‖ sociopolitical of mediator ―geographic of kind co and individuals and territory (re)configures informed inorder by empirical propertheoretical todraw inferences studies 1999), Kaplan and Herb (i.e. 2012) Toft 2009; Goddard 1993; other each constitute they ways the and identity national and territory national 8) 1991: (Sahlins territory‖ national of love by territory local of sense a replacing ―means it, puts author same the as and malleable more much is identity national whereas nation, the building starting and sovereignty claiming

For example, in example, For h nto o ‗oead i cnrl n nesadn ta eoinl ik that link emotional that understanding in central is ‗homeland‘ of notion The

the Albanian case Albanian the in fact in vn esrd gis te urudn Bla countries Balkan surrounding the against measured even the same century (Egro 2009a). Endogenously, t Endogenously, 2009a). (Egro century same the : a cultural one that one cultural a :

blnig o h sm nation same the to belonging f --

(1994), while others have dealt specifically with border border with specifically dealt have others while (1994), the is an o an is , -- idea of idea frame

a process far more interconnected that is often treated often is that interconnected more far process a y also lead to different relationships with it. with relationships different to lead also y verlooked but important dimension important but verlooked started in th in started

territorial territorial of territorial identity constru identity territorial of ommunity identifies with a certain area as its its as area certain a with identifies ommunity mmunities attitude toward it. it. toward attitude mmunities unification began to arise by the mid the by arise to began unification e years 30 years e . However, the intrinsic link between between link intrinsic the However, .

n eoeosy the exogenously and - 40 of the 19 the of 40 his was associated with creation of creation with associated was his ction . There were two kinds of of kinds two were There . , in the wake of Ottoman Ottoman of wake the in , th

Century and a political political a and Century

that

. 10 rain f outer of creation It serves as a a as serves It

needs to be be to needs - 19

Some of Some th (Lustick (Lustick

century 56 .

CEU eTD Collection itse nation The identity. of territorialization and territory of conceptualization the in paradigm new whole a dictated who patriots‘, ‗national(ist) state and nation of 18 of end by relations international of shape the states. nation modern of creation the precedes loyalty territorial and borders its without exist cann nation A projects. political competing through sustained and created deliberately Renan Paraphrasing times. different co be also may nation the of boundaries The boundaries. internal and outer its concerning especially 2.2 how their drawingborders influences theway of are borders by perceived the and maps certain shape(national) elites agency on how Imoreand focus deterministic, and in maps conceptualized various by produced shifts explains that account solid and parsimonious ones. salient most the as factors rat a build to trying 26), 2006: (Goemans state‖ the within interaction strategic the ―on exclusively focuses Goemans points‘, ‗focal as borders treated and territory over bargaining interstate dec border explain vice or interferences, external on primarily

flo te supin ht nation( that assumption the follow I A TheoreticalFramework Virtual Bo of In order for the political process of nation of process political the for order In

border delimitation. Differently from Differently delimitation. border ntingent to certain political realities of the day and may take various shapes at shapes various take may and day the of realities political certain to ntingent ionalist causal mechanism that explains borders, thus focusing on the internal internal the on focusing thus borders, explains that mechanism causal ionalist ision - building started to coalesce around the intellectual activity of of activity intellectual the around coalesce to started building - making.

o eape wie celn i 16s oue on focused 1960s in Schelling while example, For

bid n hm t cnet h dt ad fe a offer and dots the connect to them, on build I virtual borders borders virtual - tt) s pltcl rjc, ujc t revision, to subject project, political a is state) - versa, focusing in internal factors in order to order in factors internal in focusing versa, rder Shifts these accounts, which are overtly structural structural overtly are which accounts, these th -

state to revolutionize world politics and politics world revolutionize to state Century and onwar and Century r a diy lbsie, hc are which plebiscite‖, ―daily a are

lf rather than being simply an an simply being than rather lf d, parallel processes processes parallel d, population. 57

ot -

CEU eTD Collection although according around way other the not and identities, creates delineation border Thus, 1659. of Pyrenees of Treaty the in border interstate the of establishment the of result the as came valley Cerdanya the of inhabitants by ―Spanish‖ and ―French‖ label borders) Thus, ch the previous in shown As day. the of reality political solid most the toward and empires former of dismemberment to led that state and nation of congruence of ideal the despite ones, (a political Often alchemy. symbolic their had always have borders material while understanding, national soldier of perception well as interests thedomestic political ofnational struggles and private elites. geo to response in (re)invention constant for need p These nation. the of dots the connects that homeland a of imagining with coupled identities, other and/or religious local, former over precedence taken time in had that unit political same the to belonging as other each o processes concurrent witness we Thus, 74). (Billig 1995: imagined‖ be to also has homeland ―a that out points he when observes rightly people of community imagined Gradually, after the French the after Gradually,

ita bres aeotnfie o a no aeiloe (h tt/ republican state/ (the ones material onto map to failed often have borders virtual . As Sahlins has demonstrated in his in demonstrated has Sahlins As . this apter, national identities and the territorial state did not evolve simultaneously. evolve not did state territorial the and identities national apter,

is not always the case. Some identities resist material changes and are are and changes material resist identities Some case. the always not is dministrative) boundaries have not coincided with symbolic (imaginary) symbolic with coincided not have boundaries dministrative) - citizen started to imbue the boundaries with a new meaning new a with boundaries the imbue to started citizen

Revolution and changes instigated by Napoleonic wars, the the wars, Napoleonic by instigated changes and Revolution as Anderson indicates, is more than that, as that, than more is indicates, Anderson as rocesses of territorial imagination are in flux and flux in are imagination territorial of rocesses icsin of discussions - political opportunities or limitations, as limitations, or opportunities political iaiain hn epe perceive people when imagination f boundaries, the adoptio the boundaries, to Sahlins (1989), Sahlins to Michael Billig Michael

---

that of of that n of of n 58

CEU eTD Collection oflanguage. 11 the And logic. elites` nationalist the comfortablywith sat not has that something is althoughthis nation, the to relationship their differe followed have communities national virtual nation artificial an of idea the perpetuating thus nation, the artificially shaped discourse. also the hadmajor ramificationsthevisualization in borders. homeland and virtual its and conventions international and wars major as such events, borders, republican state/ of nature changing The apt. are conditions when redeemed be to need that borders for made injustices perceived for been often has Yugoslavia rump in 1990s the in wars irredentist and seccesionist with sort some of grievances to led always have revisions border discourse. nationalist themealmost everywhere,especially Central andS in elite and imagination popular in as nation, both ‗massacred‘ envisioned a rather is It all. at nation a not is borders ‗natural‘ amputated belief common a is others, not but periods, certain at across come have some of biographies ability andofinternal freedom toimp degree(elites) actors of dependent

Discourse matters because creates and perpetuates realities that cannot exist objectively and independently independently and objectively exist cannot that realities perpetuates and creates because matters Discourse

hr ae oe oiia ipiain ta flo te odr ofgrtos in configurations border the follow that implications political some are There or memorandums sources, (archival far so gather could I materials the From borders

First on

the intrinsic relationship between the scale of external interference and and interference external of scale the between relationship intrinsic the , the nationalists favored the theme that theme the favored nationalists the , ht ntrly etn mc further. much extend ‗naturally‘ that prominent figures prominent

third argument third

in the Albanian case), one important finding that I that finding important one case), Albanian the in nt historical trajectories, which have influenced influenced have which trajectories, historical nt , which follows from the second, is that is second, the from follows which , m Secondly aterial borders aterial rint their vision.

n eakby culminated remarkably and rais that treaties outheastern Europe, where 11 , different branches of of branches different ,

hs s n important an is This --

. Such resentment Such . that a nation with nation a that

following ‗great‘ ‗great‘ following have created and created have

follow, - state, with state, --

has 59

CEU eTD Collection these from territories lost of revindication for need in desperately nations‘, ‗massacred Minor in elementsconstituent lost it that argument Greek ofBessarabia loss 1995).or its (Királyand Also,the Romanianed. claims Veszprémy after poli secure to canphenomenon be of Trianon revision alsointhe Hungarian border case Treaty seen after way (easy) a as served has that rhetoric radicalization nationalist a favored have outbidding ethnic domestic of structures opportunity opening the when only discourse mainstream of part as surfaced has It nation. Albanian existing myth common a with consistence in dimensions map virtual the changing time to time from history of version officialthe as and elites nationalist of topic favorite a being to Albanian of half almost that decided was it when 1913, of Conference Ambassadors` London the to back dates narratives certain shapes vis theother,on competinggoals dependingelites` and strategy. and treaties international vis bythemselves (re)positioning continuously are processes settled discursive these conventions, position fixed a being from Far borders. ‗hard‘ a that groups ethnic communities/ national between relationship intrinsic the in used frames exclusive and inclusive of (de)construction the in help they addition, In Thes sentiment. national proper the in educated be and homeland the reference of point a as asstate semi considered are often n than often more

h ohr etr Bla cutis I m etoig t ee eas i hs survived has it because here it mentioning am I countries. Balkan Western other the e findings help us have a better understanding of shifting ground of national identities. national of ground shifting of understanding better a have us help findings e The fixation with the volatile nature of borders in the Albanian case and how it it how and case Albanian the in borders of nature volatile the with fixation The ot, ethnic kin living in various neighboring states surrounding the nation the surrounding states neighboring various in living kin ethnic ot, - developed national communities that should always keep always thatshould communities national developed keep - speaking lands were to be redistributed be to were lands speaking Asia, talk talk Asia,

strictu sensu strictu tical goals. The The goals. tical re divided by by divided re

of similar similar of of a pre a of - 60 à - - -

CEU eTD Collection 93). 1991: (Smith mythssymbols and images, in appropriate conveyed to voice given research, musingsand their through have, and nationalism and folklorists and anthropologists scul painters, musicians, poets, intellectuals the is ―[i]t observes: correctly Smith As intellectuals. nationalizing as process transformation 12 politi of educated small processes work were the movements.Both nationalist creationand of the consciousness national of formation the simultaneously: developed processes national two whom or identity national acquired old… be consciousness ―the that stressing by them between differentiates Henew. the and old the nations: of kinds two between distinguishes he when awa nationalist 133 1962: (Hobsbawm the all]… above [and intellectuals… professional largely being which of emergence the and gentry or landowners lesser ―the of role deciding the that observed rightly has Hobsbawm agitation. patriotic of calls vernacularand in education of spread bythe nationalism, driven social, and The clout capital. cultural political and economic necessary the possess who men of clusters by engineered people. grou small a case, the usuallyis it as And people‘. the of ‗feelings the match not did supposedly mappings national whose nations

The new (social) middle class or bourgeois were actually the elite in inventing the traditions or leading the the leading or traditions the inventing in elite the actually were bourgeois or class middle (social) new The cal elites‖ (Setton hs rjc tks a takes project This

kening. fore the formulation of the doctrine of nationalism. The new are those for for those are new The nationalism. of doctrine the of formulation the fore

- 12 - ntoa mdl cas n ueos onre, h soemn of spokesmen the countries, numerous in class middle national a 35; Nairn 1974: 63), which constituted the most important factor in in importantfactor most the constituted which 63), 1974: Nairn 35; Watson 1977: 6 1977: Watson

— ee sbcie o h dcooy e frh y Seton by forth set dichotomy the to subscribe I Here who have proposed and elaborated the concepts and language of the nation nation the of language and concepts the elaborated and proposed have who ptors, novelists, historians and archeologists, playwrights, philologists, philologists, playwrights, archeologists, and historians novelists, ptors, top

- on approach, down

iig orei ws e t te mrec o elite of emergence the to key was bourgeois rising - 7). p of entrepreneurs always speaks on behalf of the of behalf on speaks always entrepreneurs of p

arguing that (re)making of borders are are borders of (re)making that arguing

wider aspirations that they have have they that wideraspirations educated educated classes…‖ - Watson 61 — -

CEU eTD Collection 1994:12 (Kaiser ways different in ‗nationalis terms the themselves 402 organize Kennedy: and (Suny parties…‖ political through coffeehouses, h may through whether Intellectuals nation, the pamphlets. constructing activities other in resources as products symbolic their of use the through indirect, is consequence social whose and competence cultural to terms: 13 261). 1999: (Walicki nation‘.‖ Czech the of father ‗the called be to deserved history, Czech of meaning the defined who Palacky, Frantisek imaginati historian national of ‗organizers individual of role nation, Czech ―[t]he the of case the In nations. creating for indispensable was entrepreneurs in where context, Or 2010). (Etherington territory‖ and nation linking narrative Verdaguer Jacint poet and priest Catalan nation lay. the of borders mental the where to regard with imagination popular of shapers prime the were abroad, lives their of most lived who members diaspora and expatriates both included nation of national a in ideas their grounded who but Western), (mostly education foreign received had who elite indigenous small of case the In nation. new ofthat (Colonial) Mapping‖ ―Western external a project, clearly was an of it Thailand, Geo the of History A Mapped: side ofth the nation.second Thisis of boundaries the inventing for crucial general in were other, the on peasants of mass and

I rely here on a definition of the term ‗nationalist intellectuals‘ operationalized by two authors in following following in authors two by operationalized intellectuals‘ ‗nationalist term the of definition a on here rely I ―A nationalist intellectual is a is intellectual nationalist ―A These new elites, which broke the rigid lines of aristocracy and clergy on one hand, one on clergy and aristocracy of rigidlines the broke which elites, new These - bui Similar cases can cases almost everywhere. beSimilar found One isthatofnineteenthcentury lding and state and lding - 13). 13). t intellectuals‘, ‗nationalist intelligentsia‘ and ‗nationalist elites‘ term ―nationalist elites‖ elites‖ ―nationalist term elites‘ ‗nationalist and intelligentsia‘ ‗nationalist intellectuals‘, t

both Poland and Czech Republic Czech and Poland both

lai, h iisnrtc lmn i te rvn poes e b a by led process driving the is element idiosyncratic the Albania,

- formation. These nationalist (diaspora) intellectuals, (diaspora) nationalist These formation.

- body of the Nation (1994,) Nation the of body social actor whose claim to distinction rests primarily on his/her claim claim his/her on primarily rests distinction to claim whose actor social - romantic movement that gave rise to the main principles main the to rise gave that movement romantic e coin that ,

who largely helped to construct ―a geographical ―a construct to helped largely who Winichakul describes in the case of Siam Siam Winichakul describescase of inthe

the role of intellectuals as nationalist as intellectuals of role the - 403). While Kaiser uses interchangeably interchangeably uses Kaiser While 403).

because as he argues in the case the in argues he as because - n ws vn rae: the greater: even was on‘

as as through associations, through through associations, through uh xmls ol not could examples Such istories, poetry, or organizing organizing or poetry, istories, in t in he Central European Central he 13

which 62

CEU eTD Collection d altogether have can homeland the not may inwhich agendas, (domestic) people the contrary, the on quite Or periods. some in it by influenced be well may homeland the in kin their glance, first on nationalistic differen totally be may picture 15 weightaffairs. Albania`s in considerable a mem whose Egypt and Greece 14 pan their of inclusive are elites domestic the countries, influential and powerful legitimac moral of sources as perceived and seen are communities diasporic When urges. its on act to or discourse such absorb nation of borders republican diaspora expansinary in active country. particular a of residents more than nationalism be to tend diasporas general, In initiation. policy as well bord imagining, map popular of construction the in in diaspora The borders. virtual of construction elite ‗external‘ of proxies the of one as elites diasporic consider I junctures. critical at shifted geography intellectuals also ofpolitical maintained position power. nationalist these when especially ramifications, political further had which boundaries he as well as countries, respective their in processes nation both and in instrumental lexicographer were 181), linguist, 2007, (Clayer celebrate Karadzić Vuk most folklorist, Serbian the or Montenegro, of Njegosh th where context Balkan Southeastern in lacking been have

By diaspora here I refer to overseas diaspora, mostly in places like United States, Italy, Romania, Turkey, Turkey, Romania, Italy, States, United like places in mostly diaspora, overseas to refer I here diaspora By This may be because of the idealized picture they have nourished toward the nation(state), whose real real whose nation(state), the toward nourished have they picture idealized the of because be may This In the Albanian case, both ‗internal‘ and ‗external‘ elites impacted elites ‗external‘ and ‗internal‘ both case, Albanian Inthe - eeae iel ht visualizes that ideal generated

t. On the other hand, while their rhetoric may sound archaic and old and archaic sound may rhetoric their while hand, other the On t. bers have been forced exiles from the ‗motherland‘ but whose impact has had had has impact whose but ‗motherland‘ the from exiles forced been have bers -

be tt, s rn t hw uh nlnd oetc lts r to are elites domestic inclined much how to prone is state,

affected at all by diasporic discourse inperiods. other discourse diasporic by all at affected

y, financial support or mediating interlocutors with with interlocutors mediating or support financial y,

a maximalist map that spreads beyond the the beyond spreads that map maximalist a 15

lped establish a mental map of nation`s of map mental a establish lped The level of internal digestion of such of digestion internal of level The

er conceptualization and shifts, as as shifts, and conceptualization er ifferent priorities in setting up their their up setting in priorities ifferent e role of prince, poet and priest priest and poet prince, of role e 14

has often been instrumental been often has how the national the how

- nationalist - - building fashioned 63

CEU eTD Collection ethnography. 17 ofpost decades the lasttwo community diasporic 16 such resist others while territories, favor adjacent groups ethnic some do periods historic same the at why Also, others. a at expansively and why times some at narrowly of borders its imagine explanation might community national parsimonious a offer to tries and dots the connects that little is athat dealr scarcer somewhat and diaspora, with others myriad a studies, nationalism in theories of plethora a is there Although debates. these of universal (Conversi 1993:190). most the normally is ―language that argued has nation`s the as elites nationalist ― labels she what of use make reverberate 77 1995: (Conversi them‖ to familiar look even must it people, amongstthe must message their chord, some touch ―must nevertheless they ―masses‖, the mobilizing in hand upper the have clearly intellectuals nationalist though that argues share I perspective, this from Seen along. comes that ideologue nationalist first by filled be to awaits that vessel empty an not are ‗masses‘ that caveat the publicly. claims their support to tend least) (at or borders of expansion for push that projects map

xmls f hs i te etr Blas ein r fr xml Mln ai i Sri, h Croatian the Serbia, in Panić Milan example for are region Balkans Western the in these of Examples oig rm aiu areas various from Coming There is a gap in the existing literature that brings together the aforementioned aforementioned the together brings that literature existing the in gap a is There Both e 16

xternal and internal elites need to convince the people, though we must stress must we though people, the toconvince elites need and internal xternal which led the creation process of HDZ, the party that ruled Croatia in the major part of part major the in Croatia ruled that party the HDZ, of process creation the led which

- communist era etc. etc. era communist

f tde, uh s oiia gorpy atrplg, oilg ad or and/ sociology anthropology, geography, political as such studies, of

core values core tnc markers ethnic

‖ (Conversi 1990: 52; Conversi 1995: 76). She She 76). 1995: Conversi 52; 1990: (Conversi ‖

ln o aaaty poe them. oppose adamantly or plans esearch that deals with boundaries, with esearch thatdeals , hc my e sd eetvl ―by selectively used be may which ‖, Conversi`s idea wh idea Conversi`s eth - 78). Thus they they Thus 78). i markers nic

including including 17 en she en

there This 64 ‖

CEU eTD Collection Germany. in mobilization mass ofstudy his in phase, thisfor third masses‖ ofthe ―nationalization d a nationalist for consensus nationalist specific broad a and politics nationalist in directly involved become speaking, generally masses the when is C Phase teachings). and marches leading clubs, organizing newspapers, editing writings, organiz through movements social into ideas nationalist these turn intellectuals these when happens B Phase identities. personal and interests disparate of people among bond common a forge to seeks the among interests project: awake political to new work a in scholarly fellowmen is activity main their when is A Phase nationalisms. modern 18 and shift identities that suggest constructivists while because d literature, Iconstructivist Here, arise. opportunities when gains certain of action. course their limit and discourse domestic condition often which pressures, external peasantry arecasesanalyzed intheas population high thehere testify. of percentage and illiteracy widespread communities, of isolation of level the when easily internationally with ones. congruent recognized be not may or may that borders virtual imagined and map national of versions contractionary expansionist/ use elites competing these words, and getting mainly is which gains, political personal for environment necessary the perpetuate and create to symbols nationa(ist) manipulate other. each match necessarily nation of projects map. territorial essentialized certain a configuring while landscape, border national of agendas political building in the on builds Hroch, following dissertation,

Mi roslav Hroch has built a three phase typology of nationalist intellectuals role intellectuals nationalist of typology phase three a built has Hroch roslav Their actions thus reflect a cost a reflect thus actions Their n re t ebae n o te te mp rjc, such project, map other the or one embrace to order In

argument

The masses tend to embrace elit embrace to tend masses The - sg gauly vle (rc 19: 79 1996: (Hroch evolves gradually esign ulig n mr ipraty hi visions their importantly more and building

that ‗internal‘ and ‗external‘ (diasporic) elites pla elites (diasporic) ‗external‘ and ‗internal‘that

These competing elites may not necessarily have similar similar have necessarily not may elites competing These This view builds on the logic that logic the on builds view This 18 the nation the

nesn Glnr n ohr coas f nationalism, of scholars other and Gellner Anderson, - benefit calculation that seeks to maintain and keep keep and maintain to seeks that calculation benefit . It usually centers on language or other common bond that that bond common other or language on centers usually It . e shifts in map projections much more much projections map in shifts e pr fo mc o te (classic) the of much from epart

- retaining political power. In other other In power. political retaining 80). Mosse (1975) has coined the term term the coined has (1975) Mosse 80).

f ita bres o not do borders virtual of

lts ae no account into take elites the elites engineer and and engineer elites the

- playing in fomenting of of fomenting in playing y the primary role role primarythe y ed means (such as as (such means ed

CEU eTD Collection 270 1989: (Sahlins the other negation, territori or social the by defined is it relational: and contingent is identity, communal or ethnic like identity, national sense, this In difference. of no do structure oppositional such of on basis depend the on constructed identities National communities. local more within ―them‖ and ―us‖ between boundaries maintaining of process the of extension logical a ―enemy,‖ and 19 He 274). 1994: Evera (Van nation truncated the by expansionism to rise giving groups, oth by dominated states of boundaries the within nationalities of parts entrap they intermingling: demographic as effect same the have they because troublesome, more ―[n]ation that: writes Evera Van example, For divides. demographic borders that argued 14 convincingly 2004: (Brunnbauer excluded.‖ is territory state`s the in is state‘ ‗mother the As outside minorities issue. national of history the ―[t]he been noted: has Brunnbauer often has this historiographies, its and context European Eastern powerf a playing thus ‗others‘, excluding and ‗us‘ establishing in elements critical are ‗others‘ and ‗us‘ between Boundaries out. left is who and included is who on depending bridges or 2.3 is then and rooted is something that consolidated (itgoes inone direction). imagining in modernists the of as possibility teleological the about talk natio in not borders reconstructing do and deconstructing often they constructed, are borders national

As Sahlins puts it: ―[n]ational identity is a socially constructed and conti and constructed socially a is identity ―[n]ational it: puts Sahlins As cluded in the history of the nation, while, on the other hand, the history of minorities of minorities of history the hand, other the on while, nation, the of history the in cluded There is a is There Delineating borders in nationalist discourse and nation`s mentalDelineating nation`s bordersnationalistmapping discourse and in l dniy osrcin oe oh noeosy n exogenously. and endogenously both role construction identity ul

the existence of any objective linguistic or cultural differentiation but on the subjective experience experience subjective the on but differentiation cultural or linguistic objective any of existence the

lot o lot f discussion surrounding borders. They can be conceptualized as walls as conceptualized be can They borders. surrounding discussion f

al boundaries drawn to distinguish the collective self and its implicit implicit its and self collective the distinguish to drawn boundaries al - 271).

a bsc ntoaiis o my olw nationa follow may or nationalities, bisect may

nal imagination. In this, they are as as are they this, In imagination. nal . n diin i hs been has it addition, In ). nuous process of defining ―friend‖ ―friend‖ defining of process nuous - bisecting borders are are borders bisecting 19

n ead to regard In

r ethnic er

66 l

CEU eTD Collection moregeo to am I referring 20 25 1969; 1994: (Barth circumstances‖ of change the in inherent thus are identity in change a to incentives ―[t]he that: noted has direction, this in analysis invigorating and new for way the paved grou ethnic on workpioneering whose Barth, Fredrik 601). 2000: Oras and (Berg groups‖ social and people of organization spatial the to fundamental what to leads turn discourses‖ and practices social in reproduced and produced are that symbols and institutions as understood are ―[b]oundaries authors, other For 4). 1989: (Sahlins context‖ social broader, a and qualities, ―zonal more invoking as ‗frontiers‘ while context‖, political restrictive, a within division, linear ―precise, a as ‗boundaries‘ evoke usually geographers, Political mental. and physical function: double identity, themselves because of the aret indicators borders national in shifts of causes uncovers borders in analyzingshifts that myargument with line in is polit This Revolution. Orange the of events the of in Januković versus some Yushcenko/Timoshenko fueled actually it and countries both in borders Russian/ adjust to movements for the potential the creating nationalities, both Also, bisects border Ukrainian Romania. and Serbia, Slovakia, surviv neighbors still its but against dormant revanchism (now a to rise giving nation, Hungarian the truncate) (and bisect which borders Hungary`s of example the this, of illustrative as takes

Barth was referring more to borders between groups, often within a single society single a within often groups, between borders to more referring was Barth

Some authors agree that they are clear divisive lines, referring simultaneously to their their to simultaneously referring lines, divisive clear are they that agree authors Some ; Brubaker 2006; Tilly 2006 - tes ae pointed have others ide

ntity boundaries, but the same logic applies nonetheless. nonetheless. applies logic same but the ntityboundaries,

20 ht ―th dmrain f onais is boundaries of demarcation ―[t]he that:

he national identities. ps and boundaries in late 1960s,late in boundaries and ps

Pai 98 60. hs in This 670). 1998: (Paasi

(Barth 1970: 1 1970: (Barth ical feud between between feud ical

ing) Hungarian Hungarian ing)

understanding understanding

- 3), while 3), 67

CEU eTD Collection affili religious to according nations pre a nation, of concept the 22 21 to sought that role pedagogical‘ ‗patriotic a played Albania, in earlier much consolidated 75). 1999: (Anssi importance‖ vital of are connected narratives that and institutions.., inter and formations institutional and cultural with associated shapegreatlife… socialand andattached narratives practice has importance topublic tobe also but representation of modes as only comprehended be the fits This border. wher and were they Albania on remained that people inter religious ethnic, sidestepping pre were state common a under together lived ever communities these that say to not is This Albanians. Albanian ha only included which Albania, sovereign to and free Londona of independence in the recognize decision Ambassadors` of Conference 1912 the after case the was This states different ―to belonged have borders by cut background ethnic same of people Often, border. borders physical the conflicting

Quoted from P. Vilar in the foreword ofSahlins` book. foreword in theVilar from P. Quoted Within the state the Within h cntuto o mna borders mental of construction The - ie niy ecp fr h ognztoa frs f toa Empire Ottoman of forms organizational the for except entity, like - - speaking communities, leaving out chunks of territory inhabited by ethnic ethnic by inhabited territory of chunks out leaving communities, speaking ainl niis gopn pol aogie diitaie ocrs and concerns administrative alongside people grouping entities, national - -

like borders of Ottoman Empire that ignored ethnic, religious, cultural logic and opposed opposed and logic cultural religious, ethnic, ignored that Empire Ottoman of borders like tts hs dvlpet mroe, a poedd ey differently.‖ very proceeded has moreover, development, whose states e the borders of the nation lied, compared to compared lied, nation the of borders the e narrative construction narrative - national religious affiliation was used as criteria to form the the form to criteria as used was affiliation religious national

ation and overlooking language and other differences. other and language overlooking and ation

-- `s

side of border developed different narra different developed border of side - shape identities of people living on either side of the the of side either on living people of identities shape ru dfeecs r n ohr cleavages. other any or differences group --

oeie cmlmnig n a ohr times other at and complementing sometimes

with institutions of state, nations and territory and nations state, of institutions with that Anssi points out: ―[n]arratives should not should ―[n]arratives out: points Anssi that h sae n ohr ntttos ht were that institutions other and state The

s icuss ht crucially that discourses as -

subjective networks and and networks subjective the ethnic kin across the across kin ethnic the

tives about who about tives vilaye Millets, 22

hs the Thus, ts, which which ts,

grouping lf of lf two two 68 21

CEU eTD Collection through other each outbid ethnically and power maintain to struggles elite of outcome o source the been not have borders The shape. map the of determinant were and choices domestic constrained often that considerations geopolitical the Albanian differences, vision case changed have notonly toelite also but because due of 2002). (Megoran visions‖ geopolitical own their imprint to and power of control retain or gain to struggled elites where site discursive and material o Megoran what to situation different somewhat a have to seem we case Albanian the in But, contraction. expansion/ map and territory of understanding certain shaping in role salient is which pressures, f manifested external and gains political on depending nation, the of mapping alternative on debates discursive involves often process This period. historical specific (198 Smith 48). (Megoran 2010: consequences onpeople‖generally maypeople,elites, enormous and have by produced are They entities. cartographic and legal as exist simply not do boundaries comp by power grasp of retain helps that discourse particular a favor to order in domestically engineered often are geo in shift major a follow and conventions consolidategrippower theiror ruling inthe infirst secure place. to tried that elites by tool useful a been has map This borders. virtual enlarged with map ab narrative a together weave bserved in his study on Uzbek bserved on study inhis hl ‗ad amnsrtv borde administrative ‗hard‘ While r xml in example or ) es nation sees 6) eting elites. As N. Megoran puts it, ―it has been underlined that underlined been has ―it it, puts Megoran N. As elites. eting

the Albanian case, where the elite struggles played the most most the played struggles elite the where case, Albanian the out the indivisibility of nation and creation of an imaginary an of creation and nation of indivisibility the out - -

ulig s n non poes ht os o ed n a in end not does that process ongoing an as building Kyrgystan borderline, where ―‗The border‘ acted as both a a Kyrgystan where actedas ―‗The borderline, border‘ both rs are often decided by international treaties or or treaties international by decided often are rs - political circumstances, the ‗virtual‘ borders ‗virtual‘ the circumstances, political

Quite the opposit the Quite f clashes per se, but the result/ the but se, per clashes f

e, the borders in borders the e, 69

CEU eTD Collection junctures. critical certain at that change narratives different produces clashes continuous order nation for importance mythical (K nation‖ an produce to elites in nation‘s how the helped and has mentality it turn Hungarian the in culture border faraway a of meaning the acquired has Transylvania in center the serve turn in that symbols and meaning, characteristics, specific with clothed is region a which in ways the to points it and others; neighboring the and self national the remake to ideal and images powerful fashioning of purpose that: writes He Transylvania. of mapping mental 23 politics/ ‗normal‘ during predominates normally which and state the of borders the traces which that is map first The leaders. state by championed be can borders expansive which the limit times at which constraints, international is driver second The politicians. incumbent the unseat thereby and support popular greater attract to order in map national these times, At challenges. environmental to respond to leaders by manipulated variously been overlapping two 2.4 The maps thenations Albanian of and breaking that borders mental making in manifested are elites of clashes often and glance first at seem they as compact as not are elites national(ist) that seems It 165). 1986: (Mikić South‖ the toward hostile Riza and Tsur Bairam interests. Albanian larger and own their to them tie to government] of location [the south the in Albanians Kosovo the in leadership Albanian ―[the] calculations openings. and opportunity power with accordance in map national to indifference showing or schemes expansionist

A case that bears similarity is what is similarity bears that case A

to create a homogeneous narrative goes opposite way from my argument that elite action and and action elite that argument my from way opposite goes narrative homogeneous a create to hlegs r dmsi, s hn optn pltcas oiie pn different a upon mobilize politicians competing when as domestic, are challenges There are two main mental maps of Albania over the past a century, which have have which century, a past the over Albania of maps mental main two are There ü t 20: ix). 2001: rti its argumentation for entitlement for that land. The Transylvanian case illustrates how how illustrates case Transylvanian The land. that for entitlement for argumentation its

hs setaiain f priua rmt bre zn edwd ih quasi with endowed zone border remote particular a of essentialization This

- building processes, kept and nourished in a cohesive manner by elites in in elites by manner cohesive a in nourished and kept processes, building

serve their political gains.serve their political ü rti rti ( 2001 23

Forexampl ) describes when referring to Hungarian elites involved in in involved elites Hungarian to referring when describes )

i rvas how reveals ―it enduring, p enduring, - be vilayet , edr fo Daoia wr especially were Djakovica, from leaders y,

e, Mikić writes when he mentions that:mentions e, writes Mikić he when t hs ie poe al teps by attempts all opposed time this at owerful message abou message owerful elites elites

ae mgnd hs reg this imagined have t its importance for the the for importance its t

ion for the the for ion extent to extent 70 -

CEU eTD Collection Albanianstate. (forthcoming) visualized in their include ( archives Vienna in retrieved 25 geographers. political by used is form complex that more the in than rather elites, by theyengineered are t mapping of visualization general‖ inethno ethno of (Gould place particular 24 started.unit Albanian unify to movement nationalist where below map of example the from manifested is this of nation change, regime crises, of periods (i.e. junctures‘ ‗critical during state, the beyond spread that borders virtual with nation policy

Since these maps reveal how people perceive a certain area and what ki what and area certain a perceive people how reveal maps these Since This map as many others in the text have been kindly provid kindly been have text the in others many as map This - - -

making. The second is the revisionist, expansionist map that map expansionist revisionist, the is second The making. territorial studies: individuals‘ attitudes towards territoriality and the process of homeland of process the and territoriality towards attitudes individuals‘ studies: territorial

(A politics, borders and nationalism because they represent ―qualitative assessments of two key issue key two of assessments ―qualitative represent they because nationalism and borders politics, kçali 2010). But for this project I use this term as a simple heuristic device that helps to grasp the grasp to helps that device heuristic simple a as term this use I project this for But 2010). kçali 25

and White: 1974: 174), I sharethe I 174), 1974: White: and he territory at a given time and space and processes of identity territorialization as as territorialization identity of processes and space and time given a at territory he

H vj 1891 vj H

). It shows the maximalist scope of what the nationalists wanted to to wanted nationalists the what of scope maximalist the shows It ). - building or institutional build up). build institutional or building

- speaking territory in a single administrative administrative single a in territory speaking

view that they bring interesting insights to the field field the to insights interesting bring they view that ed from ed

which dates back from 1891, a time a 1891, from back dates which personal archive of Artan Lame and and Lame Artan of archive personal nd of mental images they have of a a of have they images mental of nd

envisions an imagined imagined an envisions 24

An example An - making in makingin

71 s

CEU eTD Collection Albanian. in etc, ofnames ofcities 26

Private collection of A. Lame A. of collection Private

originally retrieved from Vienna archives. Interesting because the spelling spelling the because Interesting archives. Vienna from retrieved originally

Albanian 1891of Map of Map 5 -

dominated vilayets 26

CEU eTD Collection onw abstract and an toward 1948 approach from claims of withdrawal change unequivocal an was swiftly followed What ideal. cosmopolitan to WWII, the after right unification Kosovo a advocating from went that regime communist the of ambivalence the as pressures, internal was it But kaleidoscope. geopolitical m various of articulation any not was there Albania, in communism during that say to not is using This political competition. real ofat othercompeting lackof exclude frames, because times from benefit could anyone where menta subordinated internally, competition political real no states other on du time the of most fromnationalists bothsides ofthe border. of wrath the drewing thus irredentists, the punished and aims maximalist any reversed coope and Yugoslavs to concessions through later because period geo a asAlbania were, whereverthey Albanians represent to claimingBy 1924. of revolution the topower return contributedfact had tohis which in and especially Montenegro Serbia countries, neighboring the infuriated that move a Albania, than rather Albanians, the of aps at certain critical junctures, where Tirana regime saw any openings in the the in openings any saw regime Tirana where junctures, critical certain at aps - political (closed) entity was enlarged to that of the of that to enlarged entitywas (closed) political At King as Zog A. of declamation the with as such abruptly, shifts map the times, At r vis ard other --

periods there is only one predominant map in the political domain, such as such domain, political the in map predominant one only is there periods because the international constraints were too high too were constraints international the because - à - l maps to gain political points. political gain to maps l ring communism in Albania, when there was there when Albania, in communism ring vis the Albanian inhabited regions in Yugoslavia. While some some While Yugoslavia. in regions inhabited Albanian the vis is

elaborated in detail in Chapter Four. Chapter in detail in elaborated

rarely

done

In other words, the dominant frame may may frame dominant the words, other In

n srtgc manner strategic a in Greater Albania Greater Thus we note in this period this in note we Thus not easy not -- ain ih hm Zog them, with ration

and where there was there where and , albeit for a shortafor albeit ,

to make claims make to

o epn to respond to - Albanian Albanian

after after 73

CEU eTD Collection (i.e. change 1992). political Weir 1998; Sikkink and Finnemore domestic affecting in norms international of role the for argued polit when and flux in are constraints international when transition political of times during used in the respective chapters. care as perception public in changes nuanced process thoroughly a and linear so not is imagination, national in borders shifting of story The Macedonia. in community Albanian sizeable the amongst among noted is nation, the of map virtual the configuring in variation sharp period, this In one. Albanian consolidated more the of ally (natural) junior partner a as state, independent Kosovar a for call strong a with follow to we then state, single a in brethren Kosovar their joining finally Tirana regimeinthe 1980s. (thus groups nomin Marxist former were leaders) political the and financers the ideologues, (the Army Liberation Kosovo the of founders and predecessors the Furthermore, regime. indire the place took 1980s, late the In five. chapter in accordingly identified are that years crucial at ambivalence some was there Belgrade, with open remained channels communication cl optto icess domestically. increases competition ical ly ompltn) fnne ad ev ifune b te national the by influenced heavy and financed cosmopolitans), ally The model presented here presented model The post the in continues story This t niig f h ie o Ksv rpbi, olwn te it ih Belgrade`s with rift the following republic, Kosovo of idea the of inciting ct

predicts that the competition is more likely to be fierce fierce be to likely more is competition the that predicts -

communist era, with the first opposition call for call opposition first the with era, communist

Thus national identities are used by chall by used are identities national Thus

fully engineered by the elites is going to be be to going is elites the by engineered fully hs s n ie ih te atos ht have that authors other with line in is This h pbis n lai, n ooo and Kosovo in Albania, in publics the witness sort of ambiguity, ambiguity, of sort witness - tracing to observe the the observe to tracing - communist communist engers 74

CEU eTD Collection nation( the de much a offer to tend elites domestic blueprint), their impose which countries neighboring powerful more even (or region the in stakes interest the involve realities geopolitical certain if that third by inflicted pressures complywith to tend agendas domestic 2.4.1 Externalthe mappi constraintsduring as asort ofremedy toweakness ofthatpresent situation. maximization map applying by capital social and coherence communityincrease to elite of up opens This flux. great in are changes international and domestic the when or periods transition change, regime thi to we as activity, political and discourse ofthe utilization nationthrough whatsymbol This is Katherinepolitical calls: Verdery ―the out. left is who and included is who of barrier mental and physical the constitute borders t nation The community. new the in inclusion of sense nation found newly the to loyalty their giving for exchange In tradable. is that loyalty symbolic a carry beco often boundaries national the Macedonia), like states contested periods. post and interwar the in as establishment, political existing the overturn to s symbol`s use‖ (Verdery 1993). This becomes particularly a necessity in times of of times in necessity a particularly becomes This 1993). (Verdery use‖ symbol`s s n h frt hpe, psd h hptei that hypothesis the posed I chapter, first the In nation new during (i.e., times turbulent politically During

- tt) ih odr cicdn wi coinciding borders with state) - state and respecting certain borders associated with it, people are offered a a offered are people it, with associated borders certain respecting and state the opportunity for masses to be much more receptive to appeals to receptive more much be to masses for opportunity the ll as the sentiment that draws people into responding into people draws that sentiment the as ll ng of virtual borders of ng th the official administrative unit. When When unit. administrative official the th - escalated (national) map that envisions that map (national) escalated

hen becomes a trademark and its its and trademark a becomes hen o cran oefl tts with states powerful certain of s hn oeg lvrg increase leverage foreign when - party actors. This means This actors. party - ulig rjcs r in or projects building

e oiiie and politicized me - communist 75 s ,

CEU eTD Collection f room provided have specialization of degree high elites. least competing at or sometimes antagonistic, a and powers of separation clear concurrence, and profit on based capitalism of spirit a where countries developed other and US Europe, the example, European Eastern of characteristic For disputes. resolving in 27 play actors that roles third the powerful captures and that interested framework conceptual a built have authors other Some occur. changes such why and time of point particular a at imagined is nation small or large how of conceptualization various affecting by visualized also are borders but how 39), upon touches 2007: (Jenne argued convincingly has author the as discourse domestic ―lo bygreat foreignallies, (invented) enemies, powers. or elite, interests domestic ofthe politi cultural, social, clashing on based exclusive or inclusive be can nation The imagination. folk in nation the of mapping the shapes turn in which elites, of nation the shape factors these of both that assumption the on based is and exogenous and endogenous both at looks project the Thus, designs. national(ist) of fulfillment the enable or constrain and discourse domestic the condition that factorscritical na the of location the deciding for factor primary the are elites engineering boundary words, other In maps. outbidding‘ ‗ethnic such through power in come to or power, in remain to trying either This enlarged. nation the see that map national greater a of visualization invokes that discourse nationalist on focused more becomes agenda national the priorities, emerging other to due decreases leverage foreign

Here I mean homogenous elite divided on various interest representations. In my view, this is a general general a is this view, my In representations. interest various on divided elite homogenous mean I Here bby actor‖, intervenes not only in minority in only not intervenes actor‖, bby The external intervention, which in her study, Jenne (2007) has aptly defined as as defined aptly has (2007) Jenne study, her in which intervention, external The tion, while external influence, particularly hegemonic interventions, are interventions, hegemonic particularly influence, external while tion,

countries where such cleavages are more noticeable than say, Western Western say, than noticeable more are cleavages such where countries

which positions itself in light of different strategies applied differentstrategies inlight of itself which positions

happens because of political calculation of elites that are that elites of calculation political of because happens

- majority relations and how it is framed in framed is it how and relations majority

or more complex and and complex more or a ad economic and cal - building agenda building caus 76 es

CEU eTD Collection dismemberment federation`s a of advent the in up open opportunity of windows when Or s extreme that goals articulate in states small will conditions Only aim. legitimate as recognized or supported get to improbable highly is that since schemes, irredentist of kind any non advocating or kin of behalf and on aggressively sovereignty of sanctity as such norm, long of because Furthermore, area. the in interest invested multi even and internati (state, actors external those of recommendation and advice the follow closely and listen they Thus, region. particular that in stake a with Powers‖ ‗Great or neighbors powerful more antagonize to wanting not risk, to sensitive highly be to tend the Also, security. overall their to add that designs geopolitical certain embrace to prone are and aid foreign on dependent highly are countries these of governments the since way, degr the constrain but abide tocertain norm violence to resort not do powers interested though, usually Most schemes. military even arm to guise, institutional actors local decision domestic influence interveners mingli their by and 2004), James and (Carment them suits it when only intervene the power and on interests with light interveners confront shed that choices to difficult used is (1997) Winters and Watkins of grid‖, role ―intervention n ml cutis n wa sae, ie n h cs o Abna i i es to easy is it Albania, of case the in like states, weak and countries small In

Pta 1988) (Putnam - ainl oprtos ta hv a eti arm certain a have that corporations) national ee of freedom of agenda of freedom of ee - - developing or persuasion. developing orpersuasion. twisting and outright sanctions, which may in may which sanctions, outright and twisting . The tools they use range for pointed rhetoric under some some under rhetoric pointed for range use they tools The . - making. They do so by constraining the choices of of choices the constraining by so do They making. - setting of local players, in a relatively low relatively a in players, local of setting eek to antagonize a more powerful state. state. powerful more a antagonize to eek

- interv - lasting tradition of international international of tradition lasting ention, they tend not to act act to not tend they ention, - wsig aaiiy n an and capability twisting . In other words, they they words, other In . onal organizations, onal clude economic or economic clude ng, the the ng, - cost 77 y

CEU eTD Collection irredentist into itself transform can criti designsduring triggers certain upon that nationalism expansionary of kind such foster 29 memoirs: published recently his in Milosević, ally of staunch (1990 Montenegro of the in goods necessity joint a in Serbia with together Serbian Yugoslavia unificarump of possible part time on the (at based Montenegro with was cooperation amiable that discourse a and goals nationalist supporting 28 up. parochial, when vis radicalize and version enlarged an in borders nation`s the imagine that maps expansionist on primarily based are that schemes nationalist up backing are elites the environment, in Croatia and Serbia of case the in like nationalist vociferously becoming by other each outperform elites where 1972), Shepsle the to referring by discussion this inform are pressures external when especially proper, Albania versus Albanians diasporic between differed geography national struggles why elite explain competing The junctures. critical at shifted has geography national the of2.4.2 Domesticnationalcompetitions (re)drawing map and political pretensions onsomebargaining otherwise thatoffset deals the risky undertakings. w comply to tend elites domestic the kind, any of intervention external with faced When 1989. in ones the like changes, epochal or

This may well explain why for example the first post first the example for why explain well may This In my master thesis, I developed an explanation that focuses on the strength of domestic institutions that that institutions domestic of strength the on focuses that explanation an developed I thesis, master my In - 29 à

- i ec ohr n re t inc to order in other each vis - Montenegrin federation), to break the (economic) sanctions of UN and furnish gasoline and other other and gasoline furnish and UN of sanctions (economic) the break to federation), Montenegrin The other working hypothesis is that is hypothesis working other The cal moments (Kalemaj 2007). moments(Kalemaj cal windows of opportunity of windows - midst of Yugoslavian wars. All this is recorded in Momir Bulatović, former president president former Bulatović, Momir in recorded is this All wars. Yugoslavian of midst 98 ad rm mnse o Fdrl eulc f uolva (1998 Yugoslavia of Republic Federal of minister prime and 1998)

rease the support base. Such elites tend to be more more be to tend elites Such base. support the rease

pressuresspring meaning external when soften up,

concept of ―ethnic outbidding‖ (Rabushka and and (Rabushka outbidding‖ ―ethnic of concept

ith their imposed will imposed their ith the 1990s (Gagnon 2004). In such a loaded loaded a such In 2004). (Gagnon 1990s the

elite - communist government in Albania went from fully from went Albania in government communist

ek r isn ad t s motn to important is it and missing or weak interests The Rules of Rules The

have a primary impact on how on impact primary a have

Keeping Silent. Keeping ,

or else they trade their their trade they else or tion with Kosovo toward toward Kosovo with tion

- 00 ad a and 2000) 28

CEU eTD Collection factors. political domestic other and factors international the antagonize to prone less are ones ruling the parties/lea opposition often that is period postcommunist the in particularly witnessed is that trend general A other. each with tandem in not often although elites, external and internal by championed been time each Albania was surviving leaders. existing by power the operating an became a soon but rhetoric, of level the in remain not did it since ground, the on effect powerful had mapping Such Federation. doomed the of ashes‘ the in phoenix to case that in redrawn quickly were borders Thus, matters. salient more other or reform economic ethnic inciting and of context the (Gag conflict Yugoslav in opposition the outbidding‖ active ―ethnically while from participation masses political the discourage elites (conservative) the where "demobilization‖ purposefully by for aand quest symbols in occasion to jump magnets powerful into them turning and and attitudes and emotions (ethnic) instrumentalizing circumstances such under profit usually opportun when change to prone pparatus and driver of policy, informed by rationalist calculations, where the main goal main the where calculations, rationalist by informed policy, of driver and pparatus

n h Abna cs, h elite the case, Albanian the In malleable, usually are groups amongst boundaries that argued has (2000) Horowitz immediately create a a create immediately This may be because the opposition forces have nothing to loose and and loose to nothing have forces opposition the because be may This - that based violence in order to shift political discourse away from issues of issues from away discourse political shift to order in violence based

has found it conve it found has non 2004). They did so by constructing images of external threats external of images constructing by so did They 2004). non

power ders tend to be more in favor of such (expansionist) map, while map, (expansionist) such of favor in more be to tend ders rae Serbia Greater ities proliferate due to political context. The domestic elites domestic The context. political to due proliferate ities . V. P. Gagnon for example, has introduced the concept of theconcept example, of hasfor introduced Gagnon . V.P.

ae osrce a epninr mp f Greater of map expansionary an constructed have nient and with little bearing costs. Such map has map Such costs. bearing little with and nient

or or rae Croatia Greater

that would ‗rise like a a like ‗rise would that 79

CEU eTD Collection 31 30 quobordersversus ofhypotheses ambiguousintheform orstatus as can listed f be former prospective members. in experienced both were fo the which in or Yugoslavia, intervention military direct or sanctions economic of form in come sometimes pressures Such pressures. external by constrained fr gain to much

By ambiguity I mean map vagueness which can be interpreted slightly different from different angles. angles. fromdifferent slightlydifferent interpreted be which can vagueness mapmean I Byambiguity unchanged. largely remains projection map that neutralimply I remaining map By contractionary versus expansionist to lead together that conditions the all in All 5. 4. 3. 2. 1.

competition, we expect map ambiguity inter both When remains neutral; map then competition, elite internal is so but low, are constraints external When ethnic to outbidding and as a result leadswe face mapexpansion; it high, struggles elite and low are constraints external When contractionary borders and map get we low, struggles elite and constraining, is intervention international When domestically struggles are we low, expect expansionist borders; elite and expansion encouraging is intervention international When m doaig xasoay odr, hl te oenet s always is government the while borders, expansionary advocating om

rm of ‗sticks and carrots‘ policy that European Union applies to its to applies Union European that policy carrots‘ and ‗sticks of rm

national constraints are high, but so are elite struggles and map and struggles elite are so but high, are constraints national 30

extraction . 31

;

ollow:

CEU eTD Collection the by 1913 in formalized were that borders of sides both in shifts mapping national the sta nation the in interest of junctures pre in Albanians tha actors and factors at looks chapter next The others. in not and places and periods some at (strategically) used are maps such why of account parsimonious and general a offer to able a on builds o study argument systematic the chapters, empirical subsequent the in show will and above interventions. external of degree and scale the account into taking receptive, ma competitive chapter this in elaborated argument thesis The group. ethnic same the by unit, national administrative the of outside versus understanding of question general chang borders (national) more the answer to In informed. undertakes was it project addition, this which from puzzles empirical the answer to needed is conceptual are they how dissertation this with make to seek I contribution specific the outlining and field the reviewing thus studies, nationalism itself situating borders, virtual of construction 2.5 te t have shaped the historical construction of an imaginary identity amongst the the amongst identity imaginary an of construction historical the shaped have t

Conclusion - formation period of 1912 of period formation This chapter sought chapter This

ps in order to secure power gains when domestic environment seems seems environment domestic when gains power secure to order in ps - 1800 era as background information, before it goes to analyze critical critical analyze to goes it before information, background as era 1800 te eetd ae n eprl n sail iesos i odr o be to order in dimensions, spatial and temporal in case selected the f e and why they are perceived differently, at different times, inside times, different at differently, perceived are they why and e ized by various various by ized first to introduce the phenomena of mental mapping shifts and shifts mapping mental of phenomena the introduce to first . After engaging into a particular debate, that of borders, and and borders, of that debate, particular a into engaging After . - 1914 and WWI period of 1914 of period WWI and 1914 - ulig eid o 1878 of periods building uls n h lgc f lsig elites clashing of logic the on builds approaches

in the broader constructivist scholarship in scholarship constructivist broader the in , I built up a theoretical apparatus that apparatus theoretical a up built I , - 89 n 1911 and 1899 - 1918 are analyzed to study study to analyzed are 1918 - 92 Then 1912.

As argued As that

why why use 81

CEU eTD Collection securecert i periods different in maps certain championed and essentialized have elites competing how and borders of delineation and territory to relation in understood been have international r broad and legitimacy acquired but Conference, London in Powers Great ecognition only in 1921. Overall, chapter three uncovers how identity how uncovers three chapter Overall, 1921. in only ecognition ain privileges or secureprivileges power.

- building processes building odr to order n 82

CEU eTD Collection generateactors/ these factorsthat differenti primarily the are what and changes such motivated what (4) lastly, And border? of sides both in map certain a configure to shaped memory was how and developments modern di How (3) community? imagined Albanian the post pre the in constructed geography main the from follow that questions proxy following the answering of aim specific the with done was analysis to well continued 19 of decades last the in elites by weavedwas map certain a how of evidence give that sources ethnographic other and folklore law, customary as such sources, primary concerns here analyzed is that evidence The earlier. introduced I model the closely following and hypotheses the testing chapters, Introduction (Dien and oppositional are 76). 1995: (Conversi otherness” borders on rely definition, By opposition. is conservation border of mechanism crucial “The Chapter 3 “…all borders and territories, even those that appear “normal” or “natural”, are social construction.” construction.” social are “natural”, or “normal” appear that those even territories, and borders “…all - er and Hagen 2010: 4). 2010: Hagen er and sovereignty one? (2) What role did the did role What (2) one? sovereignty This chapter delineates a structure that constitutes the basis of consequentempirical of basis the constitutes structurethat a chapterdelineatesThis

( post (empirical) (empirical) ) -

sovereignty - research question research

independence period and what changes took place in the the in place took changes what and period independence

era of Albania of era

some of the earliest textbooks to date, additional date, to textbooks earliest the of some al perceptions of the masses? al perceptions ofthe masses? demarcation of demarcation in the in Albanian imagination intersected recognizedwith borders formation: how virtual mapping From nation h itrcl akrudifr these inform background historical the d (s) . The selection of the sources and their their and sources the of selection The . : (1) how was the Albanian imagined Albanian the was how (1) :

border - building to state s

play in reconfiguring in play

centuryand

CEU eTD Collection and/or expanding borders (Yugoslavia), tothe conclusion. prior the of evidence gives contracting). that else anything and songs imagination. agreed internationally with creation state new the and 1912to nationalmap of delineation initial the 1878and in Prizren Leagueparticularlyofat concentrate periods Such happened. shifts major when ruptures important delineate that struggles. elite and constraints, international on focusing while predictions, and hypotheses model`s the states then chapter The WWI. to c 1878 from continuous shifts map to discuss I prone before openings, opportunity was rising with it conjunction that so constructed later was map national geopolitical signal them. constraints pressure direct upon scale they while threats, external the of in absence part upper the plays instrumentalization elite how show that predictions its and vice ex or calculations perceived the whenever occurred have changes reign Zog King during variation map of example the like elite, ruler/political same the within v expansionist the have to tend We policy. state inform to used afterwards are that nation the of maps different produce interventions, external

n ae 90 ad hogot 1930s throughout and 1920s late in I briefly delineate I briefly active of presence/absence with combined struggles, elite how shows chapter This

The last section is drawnfrom is section last The The section that follows does the same the does follows that section The - versa. Tracing such events longitudinally is important for my model model my for important is longitudinally events such Tracing versa. a pre a - 1880 history, which is important for understanding how the how understanding for important is history,which 1880

a i i boe dw i dti blw Such below. detail in down broken is it as , the

hs hpe i boe i broken is chapter This public sphere public on htrc n rsrc atos when actions restrict and rhetoric down

analysis on Albanians outside Albania outside Albanians on analysis

demarcation and impacts on border border on impacts and demarcation ternal threats overtook domestic domestic overtook threats ternal ersus smaller national maps even even maps national smaller ersus

-- poems, literature, textbooks,literature, poems, nto several sections sections several nto ags in hanges 84 `s

CEU eTD Collection published. 1 which isprobablytraced theearlier record ofmax Austro mid in maps recorded earlier the one below See expansive. thebut territoryoccupytodayin theyAlbanians present to Illyrians ancient from lineage uninterrupted of view perennial a maintains which Albania in historiography official the with contrast stark in is This 2000:431). (Doja Albanians] Shqiptarëvet‖, e ―gjuhë expression the face we documents Council 18 early from dates meaning ethnic modern its in label 18 second in Kamberi Zyko Hasan of poem a in documented first is ―Shqipëri‖ word the Internally 2006). (Xhufi South the in Thunmann and North the in Zmajević scholars, entity label common The 9). 1976: (Zojsi borders administrative the other, called identity constructionhowitmapped3.1 Albanian territory and onto pre in

tak . ae o poiig hs map this providing for Lame A. thank I th century. It is also of interest to note here that even the first usage of the ―Albanian‖ the of usage first the even that here note to interest of also is It century. Gegënie, the the Shqipëri - There are two main ethnographic groups that make up the composition of what is is what of composition the up make that groups ethnographic main two are There Hungarian Empire Count Fedor Karaczay as it is imprinted within the map itself, itself, map the within imprinted is it as Karaczay Fedor Count Empire Hungarian

Al banian nation. The first is first The nation. banian

Abna wr mnind o te is tm cra 74 y w foreign two by 1774 circa time first the for mentioned were [Albania] Albanian the including North, the in is

n hs aube omns eadn te ie hn t was it when time the regarding comments valuable his and Toskërie

and lies south of present of south lies and imalist Albania.imalist - th inhabited lands that lie outside of outside lie that lands inhabited

Century, where from provincial from where Century, assuming that it was much moremuch was it assumingthat - 19 shqiptar shqiptar th

1 of colonel a by century, and the name o name the and - [language of the the of [language day Albania. The Albania. day - 1880 era

half of of half f the f 85

CEU eTD Collection green. in Serbia and Bosnia 2

Albania`s boundary line is in yellow, while the boundary line ofAustro line whilethe boundary yellow, in is line boundary Albania`s

Map (H 6 vj 1842) - Hungarian Empire is in red and and is in red Empire Hungarian 2

CEU eTD Collection pre regarded highly a from comes borders northern state Albanian of sides both in Albanians of case the in that for evidence themapchanging power. of based of variation onelite calculation the and purposes political for Albania of borders historical construct to effort modern them. from taken unjustly were neighbor which claim territories to right the have they that implying land their occupied and came, others the before here were region, the in autochthonous are Albanians that claim political politico not ones, mental albeit borders, fixed with reality imaginary an project to order in past), de constructions, tobe seem de to north the of nationals co their helped South the of Albanians that argues he when well as territories northern politico earlier ethn the in included were present Greece Northern include that Albania of south the in territories ―that mentions he example, For he addition thes from meaning ethnic its in existed has label this that argues he and centuries,‖ XIV and XIII the in Albania ―Byzantine and Anzhu‖ II and I Carl and ―Hohenshtaufen of rule the during ―Albania calls he what for chapters 11 early the in back term ethnic the of origins the The importa The time. in further and earlier much origins its trace Others - administrative units. This kind of perennial map is then used to support a certain a support to used then is map perennial of kind This units. administrative argues that Medieval Albania had at least twice as much territory as present. as territory much as twice least at had Albania Medieval that argues - administrative notions‖ (Xhufi 2006: 305). He uses the same arguments for for arguments same the uses He 305). 2006: (Xhufi notions‖ administrative nce of boundaries is also reflected in popular memory and the strongest the and memorypopular reflectedin also is boundaries ofnce feat the Turks in the battle of Kosovo (Xhufi 2006: 323). Such 323). 2006: (Xhufi Kosovo of battle the in Turks the feat - contextualized (i.e. applying today`s terminology way into the the way (i.e. terminologyinto applyingcontextualized today`s - oiia sca isiuin te au. au i the is Kanun Kanun. the institution, social political o - geographic notion Albania that substitutes for substitutes that Albania notion geographic Ery ide gs Xui 2006). (Xhufi Ages Middle Early e hs aa enocs y hss f a of thesis my reinforces data This th

etr. h ato hs several has author The Century. For example, Xhufi example, For

puts ing ing 87 In -

CEU eTD Collection of age golden ―the called have field the of scholars what with line in is This other. di the erase to and hand, one on vernacular of use the promote to efforts nationalists` with hand in hand went unification territorial toward move first the why is This 9). 1976: (Zojsi dialects different of because differences, the also emphasizes 14 centuries(Magocsi 2003). 1993, and onwards the in characteristics similar had have etc Thessaly Macedonia, as such f exclusive been not has factthis In community. the of norms and behavior shape to centuries for continued has ethics of code customary this where Kosovo, and plateau Dukagjini Albania, of northeast in people the non and given perennial, are they which language, This 74). 1989: dead‖of(Fox the bones the movinga like boundarymove is To equal. boundaryare stones Kanun, the of view the moved ―[i]n continues: 243 never Article again.‖ are they fixed, are boundaries ―Once states: explicitly 242, article Then Movable‖. not are Boundaries ―Land title: the in states it boundaries, the of sanctity and deals exclusively 13,which In chapter Kanun, the rule.under Ottoman was territory the of rest the when time centuries, hundred five than more for Albania of north i of highlands in particularly existed people Kanun government. local or central of a of absence life collective the regulated It 1989). (Fox settlements‖ Albanian of areas all almost in Ages Middle the in employed law customary fundamental the presents tradi tional pre tional The Albanian language, which testifies the bond between Tosks and and Tosks between bond the testifies which language, Albanian The - political customary law of the Albanians. In the words of Leonard Fox, ―[it] Fox, Leonard of words the In Albanians. the of law customary political essentializes the boundaries the essentializes - or Albanian territories, because other Balkan territories, territories, Balkan other because territories, Albanian or changeable

has proved to be very influential amongst influential very be to proved has

the bones of the dead and the the and dead the of bones the , fferences in dialects on the the on dialects in fferences lutaigtetei that thesis the illustrating with the importance with the importance th

n 15 and Gheghs, the n 88 th

CEU eTD Collection s ‗Albanian chara 3 concentrated epics same share also they hand other the on But Kosovo. of those with music. in example, for venues, different in manifested is This day. present the to easily observed be can and 1989).Pipa partner important most the Yugoslavia, in leaving kin ethnic the with ties ethnic break to regime Tirana of aim deliberative a was dialect Geg Austro awakeni cultural Albanian the influenced highly had it though Vatican, of influence heavy under as regarded country, the of north in clergy Catholic of persecution the Second, Albania. of south from coming primarily was elite communist the for done was exclusion Geg Montenegro. and Macedonia Kosovo, three of language literary and spoken the was Geg although dialect, Tosk the on agreed regime, communist the by up set congress literary a when 1972 in only syntax and grammar of codification a had Albania 2010). literary count of the of all codification than later much The happened Albania in 268). language 1989: Sahlins 69; 1991: Anderson (Seton 1977; parties‖ nationalist Watson of claim the became languages ―submerged‖ of recovery definition the in [where] element essential litterateurs, the became language and philologists, grammarians, lexicographers, vernacularizing

out h gnrl ok ui i te ot o North the in music folk general The h erners T cteristics. - But the main differences were that of Volk Kultur, a legacy which is region based based region is which legacy a Kultur, Volk of that were differences main the But Hungarian Kultursprotektorat. Third, various scholars argued that repression of of repression that argued scholars various Third, Kultursprotektorat. Hungarian -

h hr‘ gis te ‗Slav the against hero‘ the used the flute as the main instruments and lyrics were more widespread here (Zojsi 1976: 10). 1976: (Zojsi here widespread weremore lyrics and maininstruments fluteas the usedthe

he North used to sing its epics, which centered on popular myths such as battles of of battles as such myths popular on centered which epics, its sing to used North he 3

Physical b Physical

arriers, such as mountains, separate Albanians of Albania of Albanians separate mountains, as such arriers, - cuty s mo is country f

the enemy‘ with with enemy‘ the - orh o Alban of fourths ohnc wie S while nophonic, lahute in the region and a strategic ally (i.e. (i.e. ally strategic a and region the in

or or of national identity, while the the while identity, national of cifteli ians, including ethnic kin in in kin ethnic including ians, outh ng under the influence of of influence the under ng ries in the region (Skendi (Skendi region the in ries

sr o mnoi] whereas mandolin], of [sort erner several

music has polyphonic polyphonic has music

reasons. First, reasons.

89 -

CEU eTD Collection Monteneg of leaders renowned the of most that In remarks she 43). addition, 1985: 1909; (Durham so‖ been always not have they names, show Serb Popovich, but notably Albanophone and Moslem, or Catholic now all ―are frontier, of side tri other the Meanwhile previously. Catholics and Albanians ethnic were they research her in traces Durham as though Orthodox,‖ and Serbophone ―entirely become had border, of side Montenegro`son lived which tribe KuchiThe soil. Albanian in Montene in one north, mountainous in tribes particular two of writes Durham territories. frontier the Lands‖, ―Debatable calls author the what in especially the reflects This 254). 1985: 1909; (Durham it‖ forgotten almost had now and child, a as only birth by Serb a was Djakova at priests Albanian patriotic most the of one Debatable Serb The the Lands. in it is ―[s]o observes: Durham ways. many in nation the dissected that borders existing internal the erasing while Others‘, ‗the with borders erecting thus the frontier, official eradicate to trying r simultaneously and language multilayered while done Serbian was and Montenegrin This the neighbors. between lines dividing the constructing in role major w their and Albanians the glorified only not that epic main the became which Fishta, Gjergj Priest Catholic the of Lute] Highland [The Malcise‖ e ―Lahuta poem the is this of example prime A legends. be has and territories both in lies which Mountains), (Accursed Nemuna e Bjeshket like venues, common primarilyto

shifts of identity boundaries which (re)constructed virtual borders in everyday life, life, everyday in borders virtual (re)constructed which boundaries identity of shifts s have a converted Albanian as head of their monastery, and conversely, and monastery, their of head as Albanian converted a have s rir kls bt ot motnl fr u dsuso, t lyd a played it discussion, our for importantly most but skills, arrior en the primary source of most of the epic oral poetry and and poetry oral epic the of most of source primary the en eligious borders amongst the Albanians on both sides of the of sides both on Albanians the amongst borders eligious be that lies in Albanian in lies that be -

o n Northern and ro had spoken Serb Serb spoken had gro, the other other the gro, Furthermore, 90

CEU eTD Collection 69). 1985: 1909; (Durham Turk‖ turning before wereCatholic Krasnichi Albanophone that the said is It adhere. to choseeither Serbo mixed of were they probably into two and Sh Serbs into Catholic. tribes two Roman turned other the Moslem, is Al one the tribes, to Albanophone foe ―bitter are who and side, Montenegron 4 remembered been have could which unit, territorial politically single a in lived never have amongst tradition and heritage common a reflecting simultaneously while neighbors, Slav with animosities living as such epics, oral transmitted establishing perpetually, reconstituted exclusive and inclusive imaginary and constituted are borders mental way such traditions of tradition Montenegro, especially neighbors, Slavs South the with share characteristic This Europe. Western in trends to contrary border, the of sides both belonging).may This thanearlier more process been have plastic believed. their of frame mental the (re)constructed turn, in and both), accordingarisi to loyalties newclaimed people where plebiscite‘, ‗daily a truly were identities that seems It national). to local/religious (from direction one in only loyalties shifting with process inevitable linear, a as nations contradicts frames mental Serbo mixed of were Albania

In page 68, Durham gives a full picture of four large tribes of common origins, two of which lies in in lies which of two origins, common of tribes large four of picture full a gives Durham 68, page In oty a be te an iain n literat in fixation main the been has Poetry

and serve to distinguish between who is part of the group and who is left out. In out. left is who and group the of part is who between distinguish to serve and

the generalizations made generalizations the oral poetry and cultivated folk cultivated and poetry oral

and redefinition of borders was not uncommon in daily practices, though it it though practices, daily in uncommon not was borders of redefinition and

the Albanians, notwithstanding the fact that the two sides of borders of sides two the that fact the notwithstanding Albanians, the

Illyrian blood, and their language was influenced by the Church to which to Church the by influenced was language their and blood, Illyrian - lain lo (uhm 99 18: 44). 1985: 1909; (Durham blood Albanian Eposi i Kreshnikeve i Eposi

Albanians, and which was their original tongue, I cannot say; say; cannot I tongue, original their was which and Albanians, boundaries, which serve to reinforce each other. Long other. each reinforce to serve which boundaries,

often

by historians while discu while historians by myths banophone tribes on its borders‖. While of the two two the of While borders‖. its on tribes banophone ng opportunities (domestic and geoand(domestic opportunities ng ,

which in many ins many in which r bt o Abna cmuiis in communities Albanian on both ure

or Mujo and Halili and Mujo cnlds n h nx pg: ―[w] page: next the in concludes e habitat habitat rw fo te long the from draws ssing the formation of of formation the ssing (nation/community of of (nation/community tances recall heroic recall tances , tell tales of long of tales tell ,

uh shifting Such

- that political

they but hat hat 91

CEU eTD Collection sa the Montenegrin or historiography, by governed were Montenegro and Albania of north the reign Albanian) (in Serbian)/Balsha (in Balsić of family ruling the during example, 6 life.for brotherhood tribes/ 5 b statement a in expressed is neighbors Slav their with South. of those and North of Albanians the than highlanders Albanian and Montenegrin among visible more lifestyle, and customs popular in had regions these similarity The ones. Montenegrin some with dayKosovo, presentincluding Northernterritories, Albanian the united Ottomans, the under principality vassal Bushatllinj the where entity, political noted inanother (Berg context 2003:9). has Berg Eiki as limit‖ outer its redefine or define to attempt state`s the to response in or hav may they or identities, social shape to started state ―the Thus, borders. of projection certain a engineer socially helped science of social and ideologizing humanities ultimate through elites political the where rule communist the during peak its processes reached building state Zog`s instrumentalization King the Such during especially 557). 1995: (Elsie Balkans the in rarity Kreshnikeve titled: Kadare by study subjective a example, For day. the of logic political vellam, inter of tradition the about talk epics same although time, same the At glory. former of era an as

This is also because at certain historical periods, administrative borders were different from the present. For For present. the from weredifferent borders administrative periods, historical certain at because also is This rte b choice by Brother - ethnies marriage between Albanian and Montenegrin or Serbian, as well as the tradition of tradition the as well as Serbian, or Montenegrin and Albanian between marriage 5 os as gvs n neetn acut f h frain of formation the of account interesting an gives also Zojsi

ae ciia suis tn t dlbrtl srs dfeecs i ln wt the with line in differences, stress deliberately to tend studies, critical later

decided to drink a drop of blood mixed with wine from each other and this signified their their signified this and other each from wine with mixed blood of drop a drink to decided gt it h omny on agmn I o tee is! hc s o a not is which first!‖ there got ―I argument found commonly the into gets ,

cmo t te rdto o Suhatr Erp we to aros rm different from warriors two when Europe Southeastern of tradition the to common , 6

The extent to which Albanian people recalled these close relationships close theserecalledpeople Albanian which to extent The

-- by Montenegrin counterpart (Rastoder 2004: 212). 2004: (Rastoder counterpart Montenegrin by

e esn wih s lie ete a Albanian as either claimed is which person, me

y one Albanian, which was noted by noted was which Albanian, y one

n 1920s in

e emerged as a result of, result a as emerged e more often than not was was not than often more

- 30s Gegënie

a nd culminated culminated nd

Mbi Eposin e e Eposin Mbi --

by Albanian Albanian by s geo a as 92 -

CEU eTD Collection going manyover toshift times the following century. i was Ottoman the enemy: Thisthe newlyEmpire section onthe neighboring other. and onone established states hand double the against battle common forging in two these between f communities authority. Ottoman established the of frontiers the expanding reasons. main two for important were they fact in framework, Ottoman the within feuds territorial as viewed often most were and breeding nationalist with do to nothing having as scholars long nation in had effects lasting which legacy a created and Ottomans to decades for resisted that epicenters Shkodra differences withtheir cocompared towhat were they minor had Gegënie Turkish against ti efforts blood even had often they mutual authorities; their in and history, past of awareness and traditions, customs,common numerous in expressed similarities social strong shared Theypeacetime. Albania the others, and Miljanov Marko of writings family one form we Serbs the with ―together Albania: through journey his on Obradović Dositej mportant to introduce the basis of identity construction and early map weaving that is that weaving map early and construction identity of basis the introduce to mportant ro t ntoait g, h t the age, nationalist to Prior n clan and

First, ee uiid niy ih o ifrne aog t vros ein. u these But regions. various its among differences no with entity unified a were vilayet

irst amongst the territorially cultural units of Gegenie and Toskerie and then then and Toskerie and Gegenie of units cultural territorially the amongst irst beca

‖ (Tucović 1914). Furthermore, as Mikić observes ―… according to the the to according ―… observes Mikić as Furthermore, 1914). (Tucović ‖ ne te uhtln rl ad l Pse eeea f onia s the as Yoannina of Tepelena Pashe Ali and rule Bushatllinj the under use they challenged both the administrative borders of Ottoman Empire Ottoman of borders administrative the both challenged they use Second - buildin , because they left a legacy in forging imagined national national imagined forging in legacy a left they because , g later on. Although these periods are largely ignored by by ignored largely are periods these Although on. later g wo earliest protonationalist manifestations were the the were manifestations protonationalist earliest wo es‖ (Mikić 1986: 113 1986: (Mikić es‖ vilayets n and Serbian peoples had close ties in in ties close had peoples Serbian and n o nrae hi pwr vis power their increase to

- 114). This is not to say that that say to not is This 114). - nationals in the South. nationals - à - i the vis

CEU eTD Collection nati 7 tide. the with complied just elites Albanian and play GreatPowers and foreignintervention strictly of Or Ottomans. the against Albanians radicalized etc., schooling rights, language in autonomy of suppression continuous the where ones, cultural include explanations potential Other expansive with state new a of creation the whereas folk, Albanian common and elite both to costly be would framework Ottoman the within stay further the and Empire declining the with worse even becoming approach These junctures. different at taken was them over negotiate to or terms practical in congruent borders state and national the make to action different why explain to well as apply may theories rival years 1911 at perception mass and thinking whythe of explanations possible th establish to 1912 in initiative the over took and discourse nation new the of nature inclusive and shape the over competition elite fierce that junctures critical 1911 of of national inconceptualization processes as stateimportant borders, shifts building well as 1911 and 3.2

I am excluding the decade from 1900 from decade the amexcluding I onal map, nor in efforts to get it materialized through political or military acts. or political through materialized get it to in nor efforts map, onal

T he map resulting from the Albanian elite struggles during the years 1878 years the during struggles elite Albanian the from resulting map he ee dsus h iiil eid f nation of period initial the discuss I Here - 92 n is fet o Abna iaie geography. imagined Albanian on effects its and 1912 - 1912: Hypotheses P and - - 1912 when of proclamation 1912 tt ad t crepnig odr frt tre t gi fohl i public in foothold gain to started first borders corresponding its and state exogenous nature, meaning that internal shifts were decidedly influenced by influenced decidedly were shifts internal that meaning nature, exogenous

s ag fo eooi ad oil onun hc was which downturn social and economic from range es

borders would create the potential feasibility of the new unit. new the of feasibility potential the create borderswould - 1910 does not signal any shifts either in conceptualization of a virtual a of conceptualization in either shifts any signal not does 1910 perception of a certain a of perception eti cttcl ucue sc a Lau o Pirn or Prizren of League as such junctures crtitical certain redictions independence of Albania was made possible wasindependence ofAlbania made

- ulig n er 1878 years in building

map gained the upper hand in elite elite in hand upper the gained map e

new state. There are many are There state. new 7

t s n the in is It

e particular se - 89 and 1899 . These - 1899 1899 94

CEU eTD Collection Albanianterritories. from Antivari got showsMontenegro Lame, A. of archive Private Albanians. 8 of region, influenceBalkan including inthe Albanian spher respectivetheir andGreatPowers geopolitics of of are indications below maps The

Eastern Europe as divided by treaty of Berlin. Albanian territory recognized under the naming: Illyrians or or Illyrians naming: the under recognized territory Albanian Berlin. of treaty by divided as Europe Eastern

originally retrieved from Vienna archives. As the legend of the map the of legend the As archives. Vienna from retrieved originally

H Vj 1878 Eastern Europe

Map 7 - speaking territories.

95 es es

CEU eTD Collection Al projected A in often names place 9

1 882 Map from the private archive of A. Lame A. of from archive private Map the 882 bania to foreign cartographer. cartographer. foreign to bania lb, Greek, Slav, thus demarcating territory). In addition, outer borders delineate the the delineate borders outer addition, In territory). demarcating thus Slav, Greek, lb,

Map 8(HVj1882) , originally retrieved from Vienna archives (English map, but map,but (English archives Vienna from retrieved originally , 9

CEU eTD Collection with representatives Albanian together brought that Prizren of League the Independence of Boundaries Albanian Mapping 3.3 The from Prizrenthe League of to sidesmaps inboth ofborders. contractionary/expansionary produce to combine them of two the pressures/ how external and of constraints degree the and (2) competition elite of level the (1) measure to Ea possible. become has contestation or reconfiguration border when and flux domestic) (and/or geopolitical considerate bear that identified have hypotheses. my confirm to order in investigating critical and periodization the down break I Below way. chronological of other throughout 20 the and expansionary of one maps, contra rival two of creation the and events the explains best that factor motivating main the were pressures, external with conjunction period this during junctures critical at why and 1911 until course action ambivalent an pursued it why nation Albanian the whenand how of timing entirety in exact the explains a ctionary nature that have continued replacing each other in various junctures junctures various in other each replacing continued have that nature ctionary majority of Albanian population Albanian of majority I first start the empirical discussion with the period from 1878 from period the with discussion empirical the start first I a in time over nation Albanian of shape shifting the explains model My these all While

e oie lcutos n lt pstos n mp hp. lt srgls in struggles, Elite shape. map and positions elite in fluctuations notice we th

century beyond. and atr my ae lyd t es a ata rl, oe f them of none role, partial a least at played have may factors

to provide a response to the Treaty of San Stefano San of Treaty the to response a provide to

These are the main time periods, which I which periods, time main the are These ch of these periods is thus treated thus is periods these of ch

from the four four the from , with the meeting of of meeting the with , junctures that I am am I that junctures - building started, started, building vilay ets ets 97

CEU eTD Collection t sought that thinking political a of development the see map of the nation. calls awakening nationalist re that h e symbolic meeting symbolic e - modeled the modeled In this period this In See map below for a visualization. belowfora map See

Balkan borders (Jelavich 1983) and 1983) (Jelavich borders Balkan , the influence of Ottoman Empire and its pressures were high and we and high were pressures its and Empire Ottoman of influence the ,

Priz , while , ren that ren

drawing up for a first time first a for up drawing took place amongst Albanian elite, to discuss the idea the discuss to elite, Albanian amongst place took

to unify to that

signaled the beginning of first of beginning the signaled ,

a coherent and contiguous and coherent a Albanian territories. Albanian Th us, us, 98

CEU eTD Collection cultural and policy as well as ramifications onthe long intellectuals, nationalizing by conceptualized was ( map initial wher Monastir, and Shkup Shkodra, Yoannina, (vilayets): regions four the of composed and territory, present the times three almost km2, 80.000 in spread be to Albania of state new the for was proposal Frasheri`s eth Albanian by dominated ethnically regions administrative four the in located cities Preveza, and Gjirokastra Yanina, Kosturi, Korcha, Berat, Tirana, Elbasan, Dibra, Monastir, (Skopje), Uskup Prishtina, Prizren, Ipek, Shkodra, h nation, Albanian proposing eventual while an 1899, as for early divisions as administrative be?‖ will it what and is, it what been, has it what politico the wrote that scholar the Frasheri, Sami borders. exi the overlooking entity, new the of borders‘ ‗symbolic the delineate autono of my for Albanian inhabited lands, inhabited Albanian for my see below see ) has had long had has ) - term.

e Albanians constituted a majority of population. This population. of majority a constituted Albanians e - term implications for the way the new nation new the way the for implications term

was nic kin (Frasheri 1924: 101 1924: (Frasheri kin nic accompanied with a process that started to started that process a with accompanied - ideological platform ―Albania platform ideological d oae ter etr at centers their located ad sting administrative sting - 2). Furthermore, 2). - state state 99

CEU eTD Collection 10 reconfiguratio and dismemberment national a was this nationalists, Albanian For deal. compromise a in countries neighboring to handed were centers regional these of most when 1913, in Conference Ambassadors Yugoslavia!‖ or happened This Greece 337). either 1995: (Jacques to awarded were eight identified], had Frasheri [that

Retrieved from: from: Retrieved But as a French scholar observed: ―[h]ow ironic that of these 15 Albanian centers Albanian 15 these of that ironic ―[h]ow observed: scholar French a as But The 4Ottoman Vilayets ( in aSinglein Administrative Autonomous Unit by the

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Al

Kosovo n of its natural borders, though such a nation a such though borders, natural its of n

fe te eonto o te e sae y London by state new the of recognition the after , Shkodër banian_vilayet.jpg Map 1 , Monastir

and

League of Prizren Janina ), ), Proposed to Merge

in in

- (state) did (state) 1878 10 100

CEU eTD Collection 11 inward transfer a witness we when these state, Albanian the all the of creation with from 1912 until delegates lasted This the alphabet. that common a Congress on agreed this districts administrative at was It Sea. Adriatic of shores Albanian by predominantly inhabited vilayets four the included that nation Albanian the of center (geographical) the as nationalists bythe regarded was it because place symbolicallychosen I Macedonia. day present in lies which Bitola/Monastir, in place took vernacular under Sultan`s authority. regions four majority a created that byWestern influenced deeply wasand intellectuals Southern of combination a minority, the by only defended was Albania sovereign a of view competing The 2007). (Clayer Sultan of authority the under Albania autonomous an of image their part c landowners, most rich conservative, its in were they and Albania of territories northern from majority its in was leadership the Since started. Empire Ottoman against revolts main the there and Kosovo at thatmembers the time statebordersshouldcoincideof nationality. with agitators nationalists of views upheld the with line in was This predecessors. any have not

For a similar argument with reference to the early German nationalists see Diener and Hagen 2010: 7. 2010: Hagen and Diener see nationalists German the early to withreference similara argument For n 98 a iprat etn t dcd fr cmo apae ad written and alphabet common a for decide to meeting important an 1908, In 19 the of end the Toward - speaking folk, which extended East to Thessaloniki in Gree in Thessaloniki to East extended which folk, speaking of Albanian of - minority bridge at the League was the issue of borders, where the where borders, of issue the was League the at bridge minority

- and expatriates that had embraced romantic ideals of nationalism of ideals romantic embraced had that expatriates and speaking population agreed to join in a single autonomous unit autonomous single a in join to agreed population speaking

lerical and with strong links with Istanbul, they imposed imposed they Istanbul, with links strong with and lerical th

Century, the hub of Albanian nationalism was in in was nationalism Albanian of hub the Century, Enlightenment . One of the most important elements important most the ofOne . ce and West up to the to up West and ce n a hfig f the of shifting a and 11

t was a a was t

101

CEU eTD Collection this tim shifted, again once 12 is nation the small or big how and lie boundaries the where about the prevailinggeopolitical constraints ofthe time. de border particular that favored choices nation the conditioned Albania in activity formation state because is This periphery. the to nation the of ‗heart‘ the being from shifted Kosovo th Albania sovereign the in in governance leaders of political charge by redeemed be to waiting and trunk‘ ‗mother the from separated against any foreign in measures security better of because less risk would they thought leaders prominent where nation new the of center the with new from constrained who contra to tried elites, realities, geopolitical domestic of calculations strategic rationalist on happened This complex. were th for were borders outer nation`s the where nation, the geo the of shift continuous a witness we decades, two approximately admini new the in posed it that centrality the on based was Tirana of choice The state. Albanian the of capital the became Lushnja of Congress after which 1920, in Tirana later and Albania of south Vlora, in ‗motherland‘ of centrality

In the post the In The symbolic nation`s center, often being the geographical middle point, tells a lot a tells point, middle geographical the being often center, nation`s symbolic The unjustly territory the as to referred was not than often more Kosovo Although 12 - 1990s, some authors have convincingly argued that the epicenter of Albanian nationalism has has nationalism Albanian of epicenter the that argued convincingly have authors some 1990s,

which enables us to draw some inferences about the imaginary proportion of proportion imaginary the about inferences some draw to us enables which terventions, thus seen thus themas safeterventions, havens. e from Tirana to Pristina (Kola 2003). (Kola Pristina to fromTirana e

first - state of Albania. Albania. of state , because territorial imagination was reinvented based based reinvented was imagination territorial because , t h a n hf tecne fnto o coincide to nation of center the shift and map the ct sign that best suited its interest, obviously within within obviously interest, its suited best that sign e average folk. The reasons for such shifting shifting such for reasons The folk. average e

og evsoe irdnit schemes, irredentist envisioned rough Second

strative center. Thus in a period of period a in Thus center. strative - ulig rcse, hr elite where processes, building , the selected sites were places were sites selected the ,

imagined by elites and and elites by imagined - symbolic center of of center symbolic 102 -

CEU eTD Collection Inst Shqipërisë: të Shkencave Akademiae Albania. formed ― this, Albanians 1.330.000 From which of inhabitants, 1.550.000 with km2, thousand 52 approximately of composed 13 ―Enslaved of areas shaded those displayed walls office post Albanian on maps thereafter, neighbors. immediate Albania`s to awarded was community Albanian the of space living with associated territory and kin ethnic of half playgroung contestation. ofGreat Power re volatile a in is location geographical whose Albania, like states weak in particularly constraints, external with comply to tend elites The day. the of geopolitics by constrained and complying fully boundaries, its and engine who agents crucial therefore are elites cultural political/economic/ The time. the at power in be to happens whoever by instrumentally used are that identities competing of function a is ambiguity seeming This perception. bo in Albania administrative to only limited is scope territorial Albanian of all include to borders fitting internationall state`s national the with one realistic a or markers, ethnic on mostly based territories adjacent of inclusive either been has map (projected) resulting The competition. internal and pressures third of degree the up measure that calculations rational on shifts decisional such based have leaders The follow. people and decision such takes who former the usually is it though public general

vn h ms rcn ofca hsoigah suc i Abna anan ta ― that maintains Albania in source historiography official recent most the Even A few noteworthy critical junctures start with post 1913 era when approximately when era 1913 post with start junctures critical noteworthy few A extends that homeland a of configuration a takes sometimes map national the Thus, o l 2.0 k2 ih pplto o ol 7000 naiat wr hnld o h newly the to handled were inhabitants 740.000 only of population a with km2 28.000 nly ‖

See - at itretos n hw rn t prone how and interventions party Historia e Popullit Shqiptar III. Periudha e Pavarësisë 28 Nëntor 1912 Nëntor 28 Pavarësisë e Periudha III. Shqiptar Popullit e Historia

- speaking communities territories, while in other periods the the periods other in while territories, communities speaking

ituti i Historisë, Toen Historisë, i ituti y demarcatedones. gion (Western Balkans) that has often become the the become often has that Balkans) (Western gion

a 2007. P 2007. a s n ato rmrs ―fo years ―[f]or remarks: author one As er and shape the mapping of nation nation of mapping the shape and er

e hv be vis been have hey . . 4

th elite discourse and mass mass and discourse elite th h ethni the - à - vis domestic domestic vis - 7 Prill 1939 Prill 7 c trunk was was trunk c 103 ‖. ‖. .

CEU eTD Collection 91). 1999: (Kosonen 1899‖ especiallysince impact the strong maps newspaper into a medium, another arrangements ―had how out territorial points author of Another 2004:64). understandings (White citizens particular their of inculcating minds for medium appropriate an are 88 state 2004: during used Fahrer tools and the testify (Glassner British not Argentinean, fact in are they that slogan a gov Argentine the of that other the and Peru into deep extending boundaries Ecuador`s showing map a with stamp postage a issuing government 14 where borders, the over struggle hegemonic a witnessing start we Here Albanians. ethnic inclu would that borders with entity Albanian single a develop to order in rebellions inciting and agitation patriotic raising with combined evolved elite Albanian the amongst Empire (Kemal 1920 high a was who Kemal Ismail as such administration, Ottoman in posts high maintained elite nationalist newly most that is reason second A sovereignty. sink was ship Ottoman that saw they when later, Only entity. single a under majority claimed Albanians where oft their Thus, Sultan. a in possibly communities, Albanian the of preservation the secure to but Albania, independent an creating political openings/ opportunities. be to soon situation, temporary a was it that hope false the nourishing maps) official office post (such as state institutions maintainedcountry in deliberately were south‖ the to Greece by ( and east and north the to Yugoslavia by occupied Albania‖ Jacques 1995: 338). 1995: Jacques

This brings in mind at least two other examples from a different context. One concerns the Ecuadorian Ecuadorian the concerns One context. different a from examples other two least at mind in brings This Therefore, with the gradual degradation of the Empire, the political thinking thinking political the Empire, the of degradation gradual the with Therefore, interestednotwas in 1911 centuryto up 19th of towardend elite the nationalist The

on defining Finland, its territory and borders in the minds of the general public, public, general the of minds the in borders and territory its Finland, defining on 14 ).

Thus, perpetuation of mental borders of this twice the size imagined size the twice this bordersof mental perpetuationof Thus, repeated demands on autonomy would have included four four included have would autonomy on demands repeated ing fast did their rhetoric turn overnight toward calls for full full for calls toward overnight turn rhetoric their did fast ing

- formation periods for nation for periods formation ernment which accompanied a map of the Malvinas/Falkland islands with islands Malvinas/Falkland the of map a accompanied which ernment ige oeie ertra ett udr h nmnl ue of rule nominal the under entity territorial cohesive single

- building becaus building e as White reminds us: ―they ―they us: reminds White as e - akn fgr i the in figure ranking

- corrected by new new by corrected 89). These examples examples These 89). - speaking vilayets de all de 104

CEU eTD Collection 15 were heads community the that believe to reasonable is it Thus, Sultan. of sovereignty single afor autonomyofgreatdegree a seek (present (present North South the in the Nish and Greece) in Chameria as other each from far as communities speaking Monasti Prizren, (Gerce, above mentioned ones the as such memorandums their of texts original the to in support finds demands This Instanbul. continuous through pursued that unification of goal clear a had and stage imagi meaningful politically a crated already had communities, Albanian of parts various representing Empire, Ottoman the against revolt the of headmasters the that meant it importantlybecause more but peninsula, Balkan the of mixing population the when time a at meaning vague its from underlined I 111). 1973: Pollo and fromthe inhabited Albanians territories auton administrative territorial ―the was twelve) the (among point main the where authorities, Empire Ottoman the to demands several send to decided which 1911, so the with started point turning ha each they while side, Western the supported who have we and those side Ottoman who supported the theones half between Albanian in elites divided context, this In Balkans). the over Powers Western stru the the and Empire (reflecting Ottoman borders the over battles proxy domestic of because elite and high are constraints international the

A small village in present day Montenegro. day present in village A small

- called l h ertre naie rm Albanians from inhabited territories the all

, under the warranty of the Great Powers‖ (Frasheri , underwarranty Great the ofthe Powers‖ - day Serbia), agreed on common texts that would that texts common on agreed Serbia), day eoadm f Gerce of Memorandum

ec, hr rpeettvs rm Albanian from representatives where etc), r administrative - led map contestation becomes more likely likely more becomes contestation map led ning of an enlarged ‗motherland‘ at this this at ‗motherland‘ enlarged an of ning e hi on preferre own their ve - territorial unit under the formal formal the under unit territorial

was very vague at this part part this at vague very was , 15

ind n 3 June 23 in signed omy for omy ggle between between ggle border. d

o only not all the all

- The The 105 day day -

CEU eTD Collection to due state new the founded he after months fourteen resigned he because is This of positions po previous loss he after minister and prime independent first its an became and Albania state proclaimed sovereign He fortune. of change Ottoman of in leaders because opposition politics, the of one became later governor, and affairs foreign of minister former deputy, a Kemal, Ismail is first The examples. distinguished most the of few a mention can We lead. the in incidentally quite not themselves found prominence, in anewproclaim was context), a to (albeit privileges power their retaining while unity, territorial preserve to way best the that deciding in quick were elites nationalist these coalition, Balkan a from away driven was Albanian of fraction onlya Albanian of majority was then back what of independence the achieved they when a 1912 In population. speaking with vilayets four previous the all include to borders virtual invented, purposefully was map territorial a Ottomans, the depicted withinclusive po of positions slowly thus former retain could theythat out hadfound elite political The dimension. political a emergedin era Rennaisance of legacy cultural The terms. political in embedded patrioti through masses educationthe well asas time, in point this atconstituencies their of wishesrepresenting the wer, as his own memoirs testify. The Kemal case is interesting also for another matter. matter. another for also interesting is case Kemal The testify. memoirs own his as wer, Western the of hand upper of gaining the With These elites, having served the Ottoman Empire for all their life in places of of places in life their all for Empire Ottoman the served having elites, These wer by reinventing themselves in the suddenly found homeland, which they which homeland, found suddenly the in themselves reinventing by wer national national aiain tu dlbrtl cetn a iae f h nation the of image an creating deliberately thus agitation, c - speaking territories and ag and territories speaking borders.

sovereign Albania. sovereign Albania.

ain in 1913, when the Ottoman army army Ottoman the when 1913, in ain -

leaning nationalists and sinking of of sinking and nationalists leaning

hc hd led extended already had which 106 -

CEU eTD Collection coming. was that established was it after and tasks his completed he because office of out stepped voluntarily 16 well a Prishtina, Hasan from ranged Kemal, and Permeti to addition in Examples, Albania). one new a embark to Empire) rump (the a ship jumped who sinking nationalists other the of many were cases Similar Kemal. of departure the after deal compromise a in 2002) (Macmillan Conference Versailles the at country the prime a as appointed when Albanian know even not did He administration. Vid Prince during Albania in primer elected was and Empire Ottoman government headquarters, hadits so the by Albania in represented which Powers,were Great Because of Serbia. oftimelyintervention a Greece Northern include to south extend would that Albania an with 1913, in Conference London from recognized borders ‗hard‘ its with Albania of map areplace to conspired hebecause deposed was Albania ministerof prime first the that agreed. had Powers Great the as prince Western a than rather official, Turkish a be would prince crown the that consent to had Albania aid, foreign such receiving for exchange In 2009). (Puto nationalist Albanian an and officer army Ottoman simultaneou was who Grebeneja, Beqir called somebody was key affair the this and in person join could it if North the in Kosovo and South the in Chameria of region the promised was Albania Balkans. the in revindication border sought that alliance Turkish Bulgaria the of part became he that discovered they after Powers, Great from pressures

New archival evidence has shown the briefly described events described briefly the shown has evidence archival New - known deputy of Ottoman parliament who later served as minister and prime minister prime and minister as served later who parliament Ottoman of deputy known Another example was Turhan Permeti, who served as foreign affairs minister for for minister affairs foreign as served who Permeti, Turhan was example Another - ald nentoa Cmiso Committee, Commission International called

such design fai led and toresign. was Kemal forced , juxtaposing , -- minister and chosen to represent to chosen and minister

n h mkn (e sovereign (new making the in also based in Vlora where the the where Vlora in based also 16 nd north to include Southern include to north nd

Thus, w Thus,

previous stories that Kemal Kemal that stories previous e can safely argue safely can e

Prince Vid Prince sly an an sly 107

n -

CEU eTD Collection years. those in politics Albanian in times turbulent the of moves political frequent of panorama general a and episode this (19 Jacques See 1921. December in minister prime decreed was day next and letter resignation a offer to him threatening night, of middle the in sleeping was Evangjeli Pandeli minister prime politics domestic Albanian 18 in active were they other body. legislative and government in functions state important having the on while Kosovo, of liberation for fighting were in representatives B 17 mapping maximalist of rid get to had they although out, worked it and earlier decades Th context. new a in privilege and power of positions former the regaining of opportunity Empire an with obscurity wh situation a 1914. resignin to minister forcingprime after another onlyweeks), for(albeit two minister prime mini a been Having Kosovo. as such Serbia, of province a in served be possibly not could which demands, power their accommodate would that Albania of version enlarged an for vocation this shared whom participatio full for advocated and Mitrovica. or Curri Boletini, as such period, the throughout politics Tirana in players key were who leaders Kosovar other clearl name last his As ‗mainland‘. the in power for strived continuously who elite ‗external‘ the of member typical the was he because telling especially is Prishtina of case The 1914. in regime Vidi`s during Affairs Foreign Empi the serving after who Toptani Esad to Albania, in

ajram Curri and many others created the created others many and Curri ajram The story goes that he went with some with went he that goes story The t s eln ta i that telling is It ey decided to take the second route like their Greek, Bulgarian and Serbian counterparts Serbian and Bulgarian Greek, their like route second the take to decided ey 18

Thus, the Albanian the Thus,

en alternatives looked grim. On one side there was the option of sliding into into sliding of option the was there side one On grim. looked alternatives en

several European metropolit European several 11, oe Kosovar some 1918, n

- in - speaking former Ottoman elites clearly stood to gain a lot from lot a gain to stood clearly elites Ottoman former speaking - the

ster in the first Albanian government in 1912, he became became he 1912, in government Albanian first the in ster 17 -

breaking ready to dissolve, while on the other stood the stood other the on while dissolve, to ready breaking He frequently used the alternate map of of map alternate the used frequently He fellow supporters from his native town to the hotel room where the the where room hotel the to town native his from supporters fellow n of ‗external‘ elites in the homeland politics, most of most politics, homeland the in elites ‗external‘ of n Committee for the National Defense of Kosovo of Defense National the for Committee - lain edr, uh s aa Pihia Hxë aru and Kadriu Hoxhë Prishtina, Hasan as such leaders, Albanian an centers. centers. an y shows he was from Kosovo, similarly as as similarly Kosovo, from was he shows y It is int is It eresting to observe how on one hand they they hand one on how observe to eresting

re, became Minister of War and War of Minister became re, 95), or Fischer (1984) for (1984) Fischer or 95), Greater Albania Greater

and had their their had and 108

CEU eTD Collection suited that map the processes engineering boundary the through achieved Albania), (of Control Commission through leaders. local sovereignty Albanian of control international direct of degree high a see we 1914, to 1912 from period the in findings expected with line In mingling. foreign of absence presence/ the in other each with interaction elites‘ of ex some saw we chapter, previous the In elites. parochial and local of power limited the or beyond go threats which schemes military geopolitical interventions, military sanctions, or incentives economic take can forms Such disguises. to pathway jingoist a thei increase taking elites to impediments main the But politicians. by shrewd used often regimes, new even or states contested states, new in handbook political pressing more (i.e. from matters attention their divert and emotions, beliefs, peoples` manipulate strategically to way a as engineering map Using power. retain to have they incentives and territor its in visualized theborders: in the periods1912 shifts 3.4 for. the that rule to Albania reduced much a with satisfied be and way, the on schemes

ra Pwr gooiis n is fet n hpn te el cetd Albania created newly the shaping on effect its and geopolitics Powers Great It was in this initial period that Great Powers, which had created the International the created had which Powers, Great that period initial this in was It is nation that way the affect which boundaries‘, ‗virtual that assertion my is It cacs f ucs ae the are success of chances r cnmc sus f h dy, a b oe f h ms efcie en i a in means effective most the of one be can day), the of issues economic their purposes. From 1912 to 1914, because of a combination of high of combination a of because 1914, to 1912 From purposes. their

ial dimension by people, is foremost influenced by elite struggles struggles elite by influenced foremost is people, by dimension ial to 1917 xenl interventions external

and territory control, exercised chiefly chiefly exercised control, territory and pected outcomes as the result the as outcomes pected

that come in various various in come that ylonged 109 `s

CEU eTD Collection room allows this and interests their suit to borders manipulating for served ‗imagination‘ Ottoman the of Empire. rule official the under leadership local for autonomy greater only but sovereignty for call to decision political bold a not was itself in which League Prizren the with nation homogeneous continuous borders.the choicewasimmutable capitalof Prizrenas probab Also the a than rather day, the of realities geopolitical to refer often which sources dubious such of context the ignore to tend historians These Pu and Zamputi 35b; p. 126, 114, (dok. Albania‘ of part was ‗Kosovo that consideration [Austrian] their Albania‘, of capital the is Prizren 129); (dok.3, Albania in located is ―Pristina that: things other amongst reveal sources Such ‗Albania‘. concept the that in data included were they and population Albanian by inhabited were lands Kosovo testifythat brings which documentation Austrian the cite historians Albanian example, internal justify which sources, foreign of use selected made have historians the often However, another. or reason one to due shifts demographic and processes assimilation or Powers design border they protectioncouldBalkan the ruleofcountries. under one ofneighboring wi extraction Albanian map a witness we appointed struggle, elite presenceofactive and Vid Von Wilhelm Prince, Crowned newly the to transfers power of result the as constraints, external t s motn hw ra Pwr iaie te lain ain bcue their because nation, Albanian the imagined Powers Great how important is It elites domestic for interferences real the Kosovo, border,in the of side other the On

claims or provide grounding for such simplified versions of official history. For For history. official of versions simplified such for grounding provide or claims

th some local leaders fighting to create their own small principalities where principalities small own their create to fighting leaders local some th ing has continuously come from external sources, like geopolitics of Great of geopolitics like sources, external from come continuously has ing ly due to the fact of tothe fact of lydue

aa 1990). laha 110

CEU eTD Collection 19 intervention external when so less much and conditions geopolitical favorable with compatible is it when successful more much is (re)construction border elite that evidence aspira nation Albanian the wing under take to was Vienna that stated which declaration, a sign could who Durres, city native his in delegates some find to Kacorri at support found raising, flag and organization its possible the facing and council national Albanian an to support vice The Albania. created newly vice became who Kaçorri, Nikoll Dom or Vlora Syrja as such Austrians, workin was and Albania sovereign and independent an the creation Albanian of stateallowing an autonomous and of proclamation sovereignty. its j finally revolts, Albanian the crush to attempts futile kings…‖Turkish from princea with Albania autonomous an of creationthe on insist Turkeywill that me told Vezir Grand Alb ―…For one: limited a albeit sovereignty, Albanian to concede to theGreatPowers of will the revealsclearly 1912 November25, Istanbul, in Albaniaversus Empire Ottoman of stance the regarding Vienna, in Ministry Foreign for Istanbul from own their Austro for of telegram territory a example, of For purposes. mapping strategic certain using least at or influence of sphere own their in territories these including either of intention the with moved Powers the of Each vis witnessed is discrepancy or compatibility when of analysis for See

Pallavicini From the documents we see that Austro that see we documents the From

AIH. Vienna AIH.

. 22 .

- 19 25 -

council of Vienna, Rudnei, caught in the frenzy of giving giving of frenzy the in caught Rudnei, Vienna, of council The Istanbul position shifted in 1912, when after yearsof after when 1912, in shifted Istanbulposition The - 2515 (HHSt.A.PA.A, Nr. 4610.Nr. 651) 4610.Nr. Nr. (HHSt.A.PA.A, 2515 tions (Verli 2012). (Verli tions - Hungarian Empire was steadily supporting supporting steadily was Empire Hungarian oined in Austro in oined - Hungarian ambassador Hungarian

er ht ab i wud o be not would it maybe that fear twr ti ga wt pro with goal this toward g All this serves as empirical as serves this All - à - vis the national el national the vis - anian Question, the Question, anian Hungarian idea for for idea Hungarian

- rmr f the of primer

Pallavicini ites. 111 -

CEU eTD Collection on thestrength ofeach Power strategicinterest. andconsidered for it ‗vital‘ how its Albani favorite of version its had Powers Great the of each how us tells This study. this in identified have I that junctures critical various at state Albanian the of mapping Powers Great alternate of t of freedom of degree the narrows

an map that suited its interests and the result was often a compromise based based compromise a often was result the and interests its suited that map an he internal players. internal he

See maps below for a graphic view view graphic a for below maps See

112

CEU eTD Collection 20

With the kind permission of A.of kindpermission theWith

Lame, (private collection). (private Lame,

Map 9 Vj(H 018)

113

CEU eTD Collection

lai: lent budre (s rpsd y aiu Get oes n h frt two first the in Powers Great decades of the 20 various by proposed (as boundaries alternate Albania:

Century).

Sources: Helmreich (1938: 256); Lendvai (1969: 174)

Map 10

114

CEU eTD Collection 1974. 21

Cooper Hall, Hall, Cooper

F. 5. F.

Austria Austro - ugr ad h Nrhr Abna Fote 1912 Frontier Albanian Northern the and Hungary -

Hungarian Map of Northern how that Map of Albania national Hungarian shows border

should have followed linguistic/ethnic have followed should borders

Map 11

- 1913.

Ohio State University, University, State Ohio 21

115

CEU eTD Collection 22

Ibid , f. , 21

Austro -

Hungarian Map Hungarian Map12

116

CEU eTD Collection 23

Ibid,

f.41

Austro -

Hungarian Map Hungarian Map 13

117

CEU eTD Collection ‗Gre of concept the Thus national(ist) growing pan create to outbidding ethnic toward witnessed is shift smal scoring was side which on depending elite of presence witness we struggle, active and Vid Von Wilhelm Prince, Crowned Albanian appointed constraint external low of boundary combination the through achieved a of because 1917, to 1914 From purposes. their suited that Albania), map the processes engineering (of Control Commission International th in was It leaders. local chiefly through exercised control, territorial and sovereignty Albanian of control international the p under rule could they where principalities small own their create to fighting leaders local some with constraints, international of because mostly maps, competing of contraction nation of form expand. to autonomy, nati opposing leaders local many borders,with its and nation of visions over clashes elite of because graduallyshrank, Albania period in 3.5

lt srgls ehi underbidd ethnic struggles, Elite rotectionBalkan neighboring of countries. one of In line with expected outcomes, from 1912 to 1914 we see a high degree of direct direct of degree high a see we 1914 to 1912 from outcomes, expected with line In 1912 In Bernd Fisher aptly describes this period as one where ―local pride was the only only the was pride ―local where one as period this describes aptly Fisher Bernd because the newly created Albanian state did not have the capacity or incentive incentive or capacity the have not did state Albanian created newly the because alism existent in most of the country‖ (Fisher 1984: 306). Thus we see a a see we Thus 306). 1984: (Fisher country‖ the of most in existent alism - 93 wie state while 1913,

border expansion border map map ater Albania‘ becomes one of the dominating themes in the WWI the in themes dominating the of one becomes Albania‘ ater contraction onal - scale projects. Instead they were rather favoring local local favoring rather were they Instead projects. scale - building in Albania was taking place, the virtual map map virtual the place, taking was Albania in building is period that Great Powers, which had created the the created had which Powers, Great that period is

versus map expansion projects clashing regularly clashing projects expansion map versus as prevalent rhetoric from 1917 until end of WWI. of end until 1917 from rhetoric prevalent as s, as the result of power transfers to the newly newly the to transfers power of result the as s, ing ing l political victories of the day the of victories political l n mp otato drn 1912 during contraction map and

- nationalist visions and we see a see we and visions nationalist .

In this period, a a period, this In - 191 118 7 ,

CEU eTD Collection (1912 Albania in Situation 1.PredictionsTable border for outcomes fromsovereignty of to proclamation WWI presented sche effects the produce would factors external and internal the of combination the chapter, and ne Ina of neutralchange,as clashes. didnot these theoutcome map elitewords, other the map projecting thus victory, down knock asecure not couldcamps rival two the championedby of period because ambiguity this la a have we Then place. and WWI) of (because intervention external by conditioned strongly elites, of ambivalence took intervention external direct where period - ither version of the mapgainedborder. ofeitherither version much the side popularity onofthe 1914) previous the in presented model the by offered predictions to accordance In

matically below. matically pan outbiddingof and creation directionethnic toward struggle, toa leading the upper hand ininternal nationalist competitiveness, the High of level Competing Elite games - nationalist visions. sted for at least three years (from 1914 to 1917), each map project eachyears map 1914to1917), (from at three sted for least leadershipgains

to attain. soughtnationalists territories that including half of independenc to recognize Conference agreed Ambassadors period. pressures inthis medium external Generally lowto Constraints International

dominating themes. one ofthe ‗Greater Albania‘ 1914, theconcept of from early 1912to prevalent rhetoric asexpansion National(ist) border Border Outcome

119

CEU eTD Collection all in Code), Civil French after (modeled 1928 in Code Civil first of introduction of era the with the to Zog, Up King armies. Ottoman from impenetrable regions, mountain the all on text guiding the been has 24 rules. customary ancient of preservation and epics national of hotbed the being as well as Albanians, amongst agenda political the dictating in influence highest the had Kosovo border 1 end border. Upimagining of tothe sides of inboth influenced that map mental a of configuration certain witnessed have Albania, of sovereignty of declaration the with 1912 to Prizren of League of meeting the with 1878 noticeable ruptures WWI period 1878toof beginning 3.6 (1914

The most important being the Kanun of Lek Dukagjini Lek of Kanun the being important most The

ainl odr a prevd y h mse i bt sds f odr rm the from border of sides both in masses the by perceived as borders National - 1917) Some historical events are more salient than others. others. than salient more are events historical Some

he himselfhad established. governmentAlbania which for autonomy ofMiddle Albaniaexisting inreturn concede muchof the several Esad Pasha, who had done for as thelocal leaderssuch opened uptheopportunity international commission removal of by Kemal local autonomy. projects. Rather favoring opposing national with many leaders local the nation and borders, its Elite clashesof over visions in public imagination of national map national imaginationof public in

deals with Serbs, to Serbs, with deals

The The

- scale scale

(Albanian main source of customary law customary of source main (Albanian Commission. Border Control by and bordercontrol Albanian king, appointment as Vidi`s culminating with direct pressures, High international

9 International th

century, territorypresent the of can b can

e discerned. discerned. e In these critical junctures, junctures, critical these In Balkancountries. of neighboring the protection of one theycould rule under principalities where turfs/small create their own leaders fighting to map, with some local A contraction of The years from The ) , which , - 24 these these 120 day day

CEU eTD Collection to journey arduous 25 rule rule main the was Kanun the side), Kosovo and Albanian on both lies plateau (Dukagjin regions lan territorial of unification and future common minds peoples` the in borders o visualization and construction homeland of understanding the affects education how m of examples prime as understood be can periods various in event this of representations Textbook Frasheri. Abdul chairperson, its like Albania, territory, Kosovo and Albania 1996: 123). Danta and Hall 223; 1978: (Prifti sentiment‖ nationalist Albanian expressing in one active most the certainly was Prizren domination, nati Turkish pursue of centuries to five after will and freedom, political and inspiration literary of an of seat cradle the the rebirth, as Albanian emerged Kosovo century, nineteenth the of decades later the ―in Prizre Kosovo a population. with Albanian vilayets of four majority all included Powers, Great to leaders nationalist the of petitions tosubdue. impossible itmade which geographic position, particular its to independencedue full retain Balkansto that neighboringMontenegro cult both including aspects, many

For example, during the communist era, Prizren League was portrayed as a culmination of a long and and long a of culmination a as portrayed was League Prizren era, communist the during example, For - enforcing authority. enforcing n as the epicenter of the nationalist activity ( activity nationalist the of epicenter the as n I T the n e is dlnain f mgnr budre, s shown as boundaries, imaginary of delineation first he

Prizren

free itself from foreign yoke foreign fromfreeitself

League

was an exception to the Ottoman rule, the only country in the the in country onlythe rule, Ottoman the to exception anwas . 25 the bulk or representatives representatives or bulk the although

Thus, this occasion was depicted as a first step toward a toward step first a as depicted was occasion this Thus, rl n socio and ural .

oe high some

vilayet ds of Albanian of ds

see map below map see

- - evd s hb f ainls and nationalism of hub a as served rfl mmes ee rm ot of South from were members profile cnmc odto ws similar was condition economic ental mapping since they impact impact they since mapping ental ee ulm fo Northern from Muslims were - speaking community into a a into community speaking ). It has been noted that: that: noted been has It ). ne alia inter

rm various from - making and and making onal 121

to f

CEU eTD Collection 26 together gathered first the where Shkodra, Leagueand Yoannina Monastir, Kosovo, vilayets, Prizren four of representatives the and North in Kosovo of all and East in Skopje Sout in Yoannina and nationalist movement,theinspiration of a Risorgimento‖(Boerner 1986: 35). the ―… 31 1988: (Frasheri approach maximalist a advocating thus group, ethnic by inhabited territories i of foundations ethno the defined which moment the as manifest This 2007). (Clayer ques national that argue views contemporary some memory, collective in established clearly is League Prizren although But resided. groups ethnic Albanian where territories the all include possibly sovereign full independence, Albanian of goal clear a with movement opposition national a as reconceptualized later was time, single a only met actually which League, The 89). 1973: Pollo and (Frasheri Albanian the unifie single a as territories inhabited all from delegates ―[Albanian] the gather to projected was League this notes, schools high for textbook history 1973 a As state. sovereign and independent single

Territorial parts of Northern Greece of Northern parts Territorial trig ih 88 nto` mxmls vrul apn epne a fr s Arta as far as expanded mapping virtual maximalist nation`s 1878, with Starting

- bet tt [a] iey o eoe h fcs f n identity an of focus the become to likely [was] state absent 32). Since nationalism preceded the formation of the state, it seemed likely that that likely seemed it state, the of formation the preceded nationalism Since 32). s dooia porm a te rnil ta ntoa mp nlds all includes map national that principle the was program ideological ts h, 26 tion did not emerge until 1899 with S. Frasheri political manifest political Frasheri S. with 1899 until emerge not did tion

including the Chameria with its compact Muslim population, to population, Muslim compact its with Chameria the including o ty and an elite vision of a much enlarged nation that would that nation enlarged much a of vision elite an and ty

has been described by mainstream Albanian historiography Albanian mainstream by described been has .

d political body to oppose the cutting of the country‖ the of cutting the oppose to body political d - cultural essence of the nation, because in the the in because nation, the of essence cultural -

the dream of a a of dream the

122 o -

CEU eTD Collection 28 intime. bottom a offer to tend nation imagined people ethnographer in included (not territories northern and their gave and gathered Himara‖ to Brizden ―from song: 27 They person. in also materialized meeting the when then and writings the through first other each know to got and nation imaginary this of parts various from came originally agitators that role ‗patriot the bymade was decision The leading nationalism. Albanian the fomenting in had Kosovo the reinstated it second, and 9) 1994: (Hall aspirations…,‖ political pointed it First, the mountainouslocation which could get not easily penetratedOttoman armies. by the a have not did neighb they [Catholic] because mainly identity, national of sense stronger a developed concept. political joint a around the Greeks, Orthodox the while countries, neighboring from Turks called millet, a which from symbols and myths common developing in neighbors its of most behind lagged Albania five than more outside lie three

The Autocephaly of the Orthodox Church did not come u not come Church did Orthodox Autocephaly of the The In popular memory, the national imagination about League of Prizren, Prizren, of League about imagination national the memory, popular In Kenge popullore te Laberise Laberise te popullore Kenge

where nation and religion were fused and the Albanian Muslims were commonly were Muslims Albanian the and fused were religion and nation where The decision to hold the meeting in a Kosovar town had two major implications. major two had town Kosovar a in meeting the hold to decision The ‘, who were the nationalist intellectuals that lived in the most part abroad. They They abroad. part most the in lived that intellectuals nationalist the were who ‘, brings together such oral such together brings

lain ain eand iie ad odr cud o esl configure easily not could borders and divided remained nation Albanian

common sense of national belonging could emerge. Helped by the notion of notion the by Helped emerge. could belonging national of sense common - hundred years and the last Balkan country to gain independence from it, it, from independence gain to country Balkan last the and years hundred

the present Albania state borders. state Albania present the u a ―h sgiiac o te ooo ad fr lain utrl and cultural Albanian for lands Kosovo the of significance ―the at out oring country that could easily assimilate them. Also in their favor was was favor their in Also them. assimilate easily could that country oring - up perspective of peoples` imagination of the boundaries of nation at a specific point point specific a at nation of boundaries the of imagination peoples` of perspective up `s geography `s

where the anonymous folk author writes that Alb that writes author folk anonymous the where

and its border in early twentieth century (Rrapaj century twentieth early in border its and ly Albanian state Albanian 28

transmitted stories stories transmitted

h ecpin a te ahlc omnt which community Catholic the was exception The Besa ) ,

there there [code of honour] that without Chameria in the South South the in Chameria without that honour] of [code ntil mid ntil 27 and songs and could

Being part of the Ottoman Empire for for Empire Ottoman the of part Being -

inter not be one not be about national memory to show how how show to memory national about warperiod is millet

free independent country freeindependent witnessed for example in the the in example for witnessed .

ee eerd o as to referred were anians of three of anians

1991). Such sources sources Such 1991). vilayets . The The .

123

CEU eTD Collection 12 1878: Pulaha& Montenegrins…‖ (Pollo of brigandage facethe to united been always have br Muslimans, write they where protest, a 08.05.1878 French in the ambassador to send Tivar and Grude Hot, Ulcin, as such regions Montenegrin today`s want be to Albanians‖( into us turn to like would who anyone might our all with oppose shall we so Turks, be to want not do and not are we as ―[j]ust announcing: Berlin, of Congress the at representative British the Disraeli, Benjamin to memorandum page Leag the 1878, June 13 On units. different four into divided than the of identification primarythe hand one on stressed that move political nat rare a and awakening for call first a was League The myths. expansionist various by nourished and enemies common against fight the in region foremost the as Kosovo with united, all were be Empire Ottoman under the in counterparts their to compared autonomous relatively were they because Empire, Ottoman organizing and revolts leading by people, Albanian the to agreegenerala for actiontoerase onfuture blueprint and substantial differences. routes, communication build to need the of because meeting generala such hold to wanted cause it served as a perpetual remembrance of an ‗era of golden ‗era whentheAlbanians age‘ an of remembrancea of perpetual servedcause as it - 13). The same authors record also the protest of Prizren citizens on the 24 the on citizens Prizren of protest the also record authors same The 13). ethnos n h sm sii, ersnaie o Abna ppltos rm hor and Shkodra from populations Albanian of representatives spirit, same the In amon voices nationalistic active most the were elites Kosovar regards, many In , not religion and second the territorial contiguity of Albanian territory, rather territory, Albanian of contiguity territorial the second and religion not , tes rm etre ta lv i sae itrss n cmo customs, common and interests shared in live that centuries from others Pollo &Pollo Pulaha 1978: vilayets

40 down South. This had long term implications term long had This South. down - 48). 48).

Slavs or Austrians or Greeks. We We Greeks. or Austrians or Slavs ne alia inter kachak ue submitted an eighteen an submitted ue

movements against the the against movements ―e ahlc and Catholics ―We : th

of the same same the of

ional ional 124 g -

CEU eTD Collection 29 the in shown clearly was view This time. the at solutions impracticable of illusions have than rather goal, obtainable minimum a achieve to path realistic a took which time, the at the as Sultan highestauthor the of legitimacy the meantime the in recognizing affairs, domestic run to Empire Ottoman from autonomygreater a for asked that 89) 1993: (Pollo state Albanian Stefanaq historian the nation at exercise first Albanians` the of end ―the as moment this called has Kola Paulin army. Ottoman the of ‗Ethnic Albania‘. perceived the include would that map maximalist a advocating consciousness political own 37 1978: Pulaha & (Pollo aw give than die rather people, Albanian the We, us. for Preveza, our and Narta Yoannina, like of being, national places sacred of lost The fatherland. our of dismemberment the against protest preten territorial Greek against Congress Berlin to sent letter a Istanbul Albanian1978: 16).Whereasin community protestdiasporic in of thatlived inthe Pulaha & (Pollo again‖ and time enmity their demonstrated have and us to relations ethnic ―that people of hands the to territories these leave to unjust is it that and territories large committed have Bulgarians mont

All three of them were left to G to wereleft ofthemAll three h and year which writing to the French ambassador in Istanbul say that Serbians and and Serbians that say Istanbul in ambassador French the to writing which year and h Nevertheless, the ‗Pri the Nevertheless, ity. This was done mainly because of the pragmatism of the Albanian leaders the of of thepragmatism mainlybecause done Thiswas ity.

Pollo, has written that this moment gave rise to a new autonomous new a to rise gave moment this that written has Pollo, - building since the epoch of Scanderbeg‖ (Kola 2003: 10). While, 10). 2003: (Kola Scanderbeg‖ of epoch the since building

- 38). These were first steps toward a unified nation unified a toward steps first were These 38). reece by the Great Powers. Powers. by Great reece the zren League‘ was short was League‘ zren

- cl arcte i te eety cuid Albanian occupied recently the in atrocities scale 29

is nothing else but capital punishment capital but else nothing is - lived and soon crushed by the might the by crushed soon and lived ay even a sole piece of our land‖ land‖ our of piece sole a even ay sions they write: ―[w]e ―[w]e write: they sions - state with its its with state

have no have 125

CEU eTD Collection co neighboring 32 to of territories Congress ofthe time. Power Great another or of one the the had backing Albanian and politically that out are here hand implications do The text. should this Berlin in featured is Congress Berlin the after Balkans from: Downloaded Europe. Southeast 31 30 on want ―[w]e nation: of parts ‗dismembered‘ the of reunification for need the expressed they when Or identities. religious on based them claimed that state other any in included not thus and Berlin of Congress the to identities religious strong andreligious multiconfessionality its for particularlynoted And we want freedom… (Brahimi, p.62.) areWe just Not even Montenegrins areWe not Greeks, Bulgarians or wereAs if it an orphan Don‘t tear it up piecesin Of Albania Please be careful show: author anonymous an by below texts the as such poetry oral in traced be can developments Albanian the up carving from states neighbor newly the prevent self of right the defend to Europe throughout offices political different to memoranda several of sending possible made which League, youdevil withthe Empirethe Balkan fought againstarmies.‖(Vickers know‘.., 1998:76). the dogma ‗better old the ―[f]ollowing Albanians, the when War, Balkan first the of advent

I thank the director of Tirana State Archive, Dr. Nevila Nika for drawing my attention to this to point. mydrawingattention for NevilaNika Archive,Dr. State ofTirana thank theI director unit. recognized homogeneous single wasa As already it Nations and States in Southeast Europe. Workbook 2. Center for Democracy and Reconciliation in in Reconciliation and Democracy for Center 2. Workbook Europe. Southeast in States and Nations

ln te ae ie i a eiin ht h ihbtns f Shkodra of inhabitants the that petition a is lines same the Along leaders notable some of resolution the also here show to important is It

Albanians y ht vr nto wns a eaae tt fr usle, hr al the all where ourselves, for state separate a wants: nation every what ly

organizers to firmly express their desire to ‗remain Albanian‘, ‗remain to desire their express firmly to organizers

http://cdsee.org/pdf/workbook2_eng_ed2.pdf 31

- determination and most importantly to to importantly most and determination untries which were more consolidated consolidated more were which untries

- speaking terri speaking

p.24. Also a map of of map a Also p.24. tory. These These tory. --

city a -- of the the of

sent 126 32

CEU eTD Collection country/ e divine, one Ve in signed Treaty Trianon at decided 33 multi the of because divisible, as ur an asduring Communism), line found commonly (a Albanianism‖ is Albanian the of ―faith the about earlier, mentioned lines the contained also poem This classes. literature Albanian in schools secondary andprimary one still is It time. that at imagination popular in borders national mental was shaping in crucial been has and it so folk, country common the by memorized the in Renaissance of anthem an like became It literature. Albanian probab is This Greece. Northern of part is (Preveza) second nationalism‖. The linesfollows: thatclose poem this areas instil ―gradually us, informs Elsie as which ruptures withidentity associatied and nation thema recurrent a is borders political and ethnic of congruence the on stress The 126). p. (Kondo, home‖ a in gather family a of members the as around gather blood same the of people

n h ohr ad i hand, other the On tic reference that we find it dominating the public discourse, especially during during especially discourse, public the dominating it find we that reference tic Hungary united is Heaven. Amen‖ (Pearson 1983: 176; Kaiser 1994: 23). 1994: Kaiser 176; 1983: (Pearson Amen‖ is Heaven. united Hungary It should be noted that Bar cited above lies in present in lies above cited Bar that noted be should It And bring not shame uponourselves before God! us Let die like men our as forefathers once did nooneLet touch us we for This ouris land, left usto by forefathers, our Everywhere letthe sun spend its warmth and rays, From down Bar Preveza to Albania‖ poor Albania, ―Oh poem Vasa`s Pashko in evident also becomes This enl Truth/ ternal sud vr sim very sounds t blee n h rsreto o Hungary of resurrection the in believe I

are allare to die! rsaille: ―I believe in one God/I believe in one Fatherland/ one in believe God/I one in believe ―I rsaille: - confessionalism of the Albanian the of confessionalism lr o the to ilar ge to get rid of the religious factor which was seenwas which religious factor the of getrid geto

Magyar Creed, following loss of territory after WWI, WWI, after territory of loss following Creed, Magyar building. led in the Gegs a sentiment of Pan of sentiment a Gegs the in led

of the required texts to be memorized in memorized be to texts required the of 33

ly the most oft most the ly - day Montenegro, while the the while Montenegro, day / Hun -

ay dismem gary speaking communities. communities. speaking - quoted poem in poem quoted bered is no no is bered - I believe in in believe I Albanian Albanian 127

CEU eTD Collection 34 Under Albania`s flag O brothers close your ranks, unite Shall keep usundi Our common tongue, our common will One folk weunited are Geg andTosk from plain and hill single Toquote sovereign Albania. Mjeda below: Albanian of unity and independence complete toward autonomy deman sudden to led that rebellion general for inciter powerful a became is which years1910 around written Literature and ―Freedom‖Albanian of History the in length in quoted cycle poetry his of part as poem, Language‖ Albanian ―The His Empi Ottoman the of aftermath the in territories most cover to stretch would that map virtual a conceptualizing borders, ‗hard‘ and administrative ‗internal‘ erase to tried startedFirst to shed. There the blood Albanians of The first weapons went off And Pristina in beforehand, and keeps fighting your for freedom. Kosovo is in your forefront `cause your sons are alive! Ah, Albania notis over, of The time. verse period this at Pristina in popular very was and sang was but time the at living was he when Istanbul in it published He end‖. your not is this ―Albania, title the with song a as also cal poem a wrote who Education, by written was verse influential Another

My translation. Mytranslation. Also N. Mjeda, a politician, legislator and poet wrote some interesting verse that that verse interesting some wrote poet and legislator politician, a Mjeda, N. Also

vided…. 34 below is atellingbelow example:

led ―Kosovo in war‖ in 1910, which was later composed composed later was which 1910, in war‖ in ―Kosovo led

Hil Mosi, a poet, and later a Minister of of Minister a later and poet, a Mosi, Hil

- paig ad no a into land speaking ds changing from from changing ds re demise. demise. re - 1911, 1911, 128

CEU eTD Collection state havenation should inorder compatible been for the and nation of borders maximal) (the where Albania‘, ‗Greater of concept the favored that t in other each outbid to elite political the drove and unification potential for called that race irredentist the alive an of memories recent the because is This L the seeing projects, unification neighbors. the Slav context, this in ‗Other‘, the with borders new up building systematically were other the on and an between borders divisive of removal the for calling were agitators‖ ―patriotic these hand one on that motherland seems a it Thus, of making. defense in rise to duty patriotic erasi their also (while but lie lines), borders dividing outer nation`s the did their where only of not view affected imaginary they and 2003) (Blumi centers village or cafés town in aloud read verses similar and poems these heard people The borders. administrative ‗material‘ u for calling divisions, other and religious tribal, overlooks here author the and nation In side border either of you live (Bihiku 1980: 50 A common tongue you speak, asingleheart beats your in chest A common originyou share, - state does not include all territorial parts were Albanian were parts territorial all include not does state General popular mood after 1913, in both sides of state borders initially was pro pro was initially borders state of sides both in 1913, after mood popular General new the if enough not are sovereignty and independence clear, is message the Thus he process. As a result, we seem to have a border expansion rhetoric expansion border a have to seem we result, a As process. he

ondon Conference border outcome only as temporary. temporary. as only outcome border Conference ondon ethnie - tnc Albania Ethnic 51). that shared a langua a shared that

- state tothrive.

survived and served to keep keep to served and survived - speaking communities live communities speaking ge, but not much else, much not but ge,

ng domestic domestic ng nity across across nity - in - the 129 -

CEU eTD Collection graphic it. representation of consistent a weaving in successful Alb in than kin Albanian more the amongst map maximalist was nation Albanian the of epicenter as Kosovo of idea fictional partly on based version map expansionary the seeking coherently acco there imagining national the shaping in persisted a depicted that those were discourse and in textbooks dominant the Kosovo in 1917, to 1912 from continuouslyperiod the in struggles elite of level went map the Albania degree in and level the to according phases shrinking/expansionary While, decades. or years several next the for etc., anthems textbooks, poetry, using Albanians ordinary of minds the in borders beco to borders preferred own their getting elites notice we this, of result a As goals. irredentist advocating from lose to little had and Belgrade from repression the of because constraints, external to impervious seemed leadership Kosovar durin map expansionary consistent more a have we Kosovo in above, noted period amongst elite Yugoslavia in Albanian 3.7

lt struggles, Elite While in Albania we see the ambivalence of elites and shifts in national imagining national in shifts and elites of ambivalence the see we Albania in While tnc nebdig n mp contraction map and underbidding ethnic

rae Albania Greater

rdingly. Therefore, Kosovo`s elite, elite, Kosovo`s Therefore, rdingly. ania proper. See maps below for a a for below maps See proper. ania

as a political ideal which which ideal political a as e h dmnn national dominant the me

of external pressures and and pressures external of from 1912 to WWI WWI to 1912 from g this period. this g 130

CEU eTD Collection 35

http://www.toulangues.org/artpubli Albanian territories Albania,in Kosovo and Macedonia

c/bibliotheque/Image/Cartes/800px Map 12

- Albanian_language_map.jpg 35

131

CEU eTD Collection 36 the of some fact, In decade. a almost for cease not did Albania join to quest a in leadership we

http://farm2.staticflickr.com/1133/5107101636_963fc5b743_z.jpg re allocated to Serbia, the national liberation movement, incited by Kosovar by incited movement, liberation national the Serbia, to allocated re lhuh af f Albanian of half Although Maximalist scope of „Greater Albania‟ thisin nationalistic territories Serbiaof in North, Macedonia thein andEast Greece in Souththe

- speaking population and the territories they inhabited inhabited they territories the and population speaking

Map 13

- loaded map that includes - Albanian Albanian

132

CEU eTD Collection effe the schematically below. produce would factors external and internal the of the In chapter, combination previous period. the in presented entire model the this by offered during predictions to ‗motherland‘ accordance with unification consistently was goal l Kosovar the politics, own their minding and versions map reductionary 1914 from especially struggles elite domestic in caught neighboring who Albania, from Differently elite). military and (political warfare (mostl with agitation elite) cultural patriotic combining were they that meaning action, into words putting were They diaspora. adjacent from coming were lands Albanian of unification the realize to order in again outcome shift would borders Conference that belief expressed had London and temporary of thinking were that leaders nationalist renowned

- 1917, thus adopting thus 1917, eadership`s main main eadership`s cts presented y the the y 133

as as

CEU eTD Collection (1914 (1912 Albanian kin - -

1917) 1914)

mechanisms. was ofpower out emigrated, or exiled was previous elite had either resulted because many of Lackelite clashes of that only as temporary. Conference outcome border projects,London seeing the also prounification General popular moodwas single political entity. which sought a conceive to maximalist map project Elite unifiedaround a Competing Elite games

allies such as with nationalists, with Al as away todeal adopted repression Belgrade which coming from combining those pressures, High external intervention. international in respect to particularly noted period, nothing constraints inthis Lowexternal Yugoslavia. Albanian kinin leadership of amongst fuel resistance (in)directly helped Austrians which Constraints International

banian

of resistance of congruent, because would become nation and s where of borders ‗Ethnic Albania‘, maximalist goal of against the contraction thatwent Thus, border Border Outcome the ground. de facto in situation WWI, changed the extracting the until enlargingwithout or Map remains neutral, international actors.

tate 134

CEU eTD Collection the nation. imaginary and process imagination national the influenced inevitably which effects borders; of sides two the in effects different much produced it activities, formation such co the amongst period 1912 toWWI. interve international junctures. critical various in ruptures certain had we why and when how, analyzed and map virtual of perception proclam to Prizren of League politics Power Great by conditioned and clashes repeated by caused levels, elite in shifts border traced we Then, chapters. other the as well as followed, T people. the by perceived is territory how and territory of essentialization of precondition a is turn in which with values, symbolic imbued and borders imagined with land specific a to linked intrinsically become 3. 8

Conclusion shifts and what actually happened. This period, which is strongly identified with state state with identified strongly is which period, This happened. actually what and shifts Nex a delineated part first chapter`s The

catr el wt te inter the with deals chapter t

ntion in Albania and Albanian kin in Yugoslavia in the period from period the in Yugoslavia in kin Albanian and Albania in ntion - ethnics in sides of borders, how the model captures and predicts predicts and captures model the how borders, of sides in ethnics The chapter then continued with an analysis of elite clashes and clashes elite of analysis an with continued then chapter The ation of independence. Afterwards, we measured we Afterwards, independence. of ation i sre a bss o te te scin that sections other the for basis as serves his a period, war historical background of how identity had had identity how of background historical ht hfs ok lc i inter in place took shifts what

is i te eid from period the in first

boundaries of boundaries the public public the 135 war

CEU eTD Collection and nation of mapping of kind the through power political assuming that seems it Thus context. different a in albeit positions, former their securing in succeeded they since off nation of process project, venture new a into embark to tried and collapsing suddenly power of structures existing the saw Parliament), the of deputes or governors serving lev high were in Empire that Ottoman individuals mostly were who diasporas ‗overseas‘ included which elites, ‗external‘ The power. political secure to order in elites competing of argument the c best the and 1912) of beginning 1911, of end the (around later much started sovereignty full for demands political first the expansionary/contractionary the dictate werethe Introduction PaulValéry war.” Chapter “The existence of neighbors is the only guarantee a nation has against perpetual civil civil perpetual against has nation a guarantee only the is neighbors of existence “The hs hpe sos ht h mi dies f etl hfs n the in shifts mental of drivers main the that shows chapter This competing elites competing 4

- bui

lding that culminated with the new Albanian state. These efforts paid paid efforts These state. Albanian new the with culminated that lding , who through various through who , els of power (including such positions as foreign minister, minister, foreign as positions such (including power of els ausal explanation based on empirical analysis, leads to leads analysis, empirical on based explanation ausal maps Vice Versa Abroad and Expansionary to Contractionary Kin and Albania Imagining in Boundaries of Configuration the in and Period Interwar

of the Albanian nation. As it is shown here, shown is it As nation. Albanian the of

projects lt Lvl and Level Elite

that suit that

mns Abna in Albanian Amongst which was the was which

their

political calculationspolitical Various Various interwar

leading National :

Shifts From period period of 136 the the

CEU eTD Collection the conceptualized that value symbolic with laden was and separation physical strictly 181). 1986: (Mikić Serbia‖ and Albania between ties political of nature the on and Adriatic, the to access Serbian of issue the on fut a of borders the on stand his of proof written a requested and Albania of support staunch Serbia`s of verbally Kemal ―informed 1913, early in Albania out, roll to started events neutrality, declaring toward pushed was Albania Thus afterwards. Albanian carve to was countries Balcanother wide a creating Balkanfront again of way the in already were countries surrounding the because is This of because interest of is independence relat processes national of development overall constructions the in imprint its left role and diplomacy gunboat econo through parties all on wishes their imposed and conferences diplomatic at territories adjusted and borders ―defined that actors main the were Powers Map Weaving in Produced it Effects the and Albanians for Years Interwar in Constraints External 4.1 the elite asdetail isargued below. it in borders ionship to some of the neighboring countries immediately after proclamation of of proclamation after immediately countries neighboring the of some to ionship i arm mic n h ery akn rcse o nation of processes Balkan early the In that would facilitate such goal, has been the main drive of rhetoric and actions of of actions and rhetoric of drive main the been has goal, such facilitate would that ih long with - wsig (aoe 20: 95 2002: (Mazower twisting‖

st the Empire thatexcluded st the

aig tef hig itself making - atn effects. lasting Balugdzić, who was Serbian special emissary sent by Pasić to Pasić by sent emissary special Serbian was who Balugdzić,

l vleal. t s rnc ht just that ironic is It vulnerable. hly it tells a lot about power struggles and map shifts map and struggles power about lot a tells it In such light of events, the Albanian new state state new Albanian the events, of light such In

hs dmrain f odr wn byn the beyond went borders of demarcation Thus, -

Albania 96). Their undisputed and often conflicting conflicting often and undisputed Their 96). - ulig n state and building

because part of the deal because of part the amongst the ure autonomous Albania, autonomous ure - formation, the Great Great the formation,

before these these before and border border and 137 .

CEU eTD Collection of all onlylost not Empire, Ottoman while Bessarabia, lost but Bukovina and Transylvania cherished much the gained Romania Treaty. Trianon the with Romania and Slovakia to (MacMilla with joined were Italy Ora new the formed example, For order. relations international new a and Versailles of Treaty of auspices the under possible w which gained, others while states, neighboring to territory lost alliance, defeated the in positioned were that countries the WWI After events. later and WWI by unaffected shari in dismemberment Austro time, the of Powers self its Despite victors. its for tag t with because not of choice state fatal be to proved border, existing the least at preserve to Albanianway a as war the with interfering The cleavages. religious and ethnic of irrelevant units Ottoman during past, the In intheregion. realpolitique bordersas new as as identityofthe crucial feature well markers, va , while ,

and ng some of the territorial spoils of Albanian of spoils territorial the of some ng Thus, the Balkan triple alliance of Serbs, Greeks and Montenegrins were successful were Montenegrins and Greeks Serbs, of alliance triple Balkan the Thus, northern and southern southern and northern n 2002). On the other hand, Hungary lost approximatel lost Hungary hand, other the On 2002). n Spisz Bosnia and Herzegovina Bosniaand Bohemia he triumph of the Balkan coalition, Albanian lands were viewed as a price price a as viewed were lands Albanian coalition, Balkan the of triumph he ,

Czechoslovakia although some borders sacrificed lands were inthe process. were transferred to transferred were Serbia , - Moravia rcamd etaiy only neutrality, proclaimed

o om the form to - Empire five Empire Hungarian Empire and Italy saved the new state from total total from state new the saved Italy and Empire Hungarian . neighbors, according to the logic that logic the to according neighbors, , Galicia Slovakia , Croatia Poland - century rule, borders simply meant administrative meant simply borders rule, century , the eastern part of part eastern the , igo o te eb, ras n Slovenes and Croats Serbs, the of Kingdom , . Carpathian Ruthenia Carpathian - Slavonia Bolzano - speaking communities which they kept kept they which communities speaking

h itreec o to f h Gre the of two of interference the , - Bozen Dalmatia

Cieszyn and , y

Slovenia and adjoining territories territories adjoining and Trieste one third of its territory territory its of third one , parts of parts ,

spoils belong to the to belong spoils

were granted to to granted were , and ,

Vojvodina County of of County as made as 138 at

CEU eTD Collection mo and Island Naum Saint prized highly the and villages several included that territories of Pasić to gift a rather or territory, of exchange an was result The office. to back coming as soon as swiftly bargain the through followed he and Yugoslavia that was deal Kin The the with line frontier Albania. a to agree of would Zog power, seizing after position immediately ruler`s the again once secure to aimed that action deliberative a in ranks supporter own Zog`s joined irregulars Army White Russia`s and remnants troopers regularBelgrade. TheYugoslav Pasić`s of through thedirect help year, that later comeback a made Noli, Fan Bishop by led revolution a of result a as 1924 and byexternal borders. securing channels diplomatic multiple through credentials its increasing generally and institutions Nation of League of member full internationa consolidatingits as seen was Albania that period same very the in happening were mapping territorial to regard in particularly and sovereignty to limitations these Paradoxically, elite. political internal of action of freedom times, different in degrees various in which geopolitics, shifting to prone b a surprise be notto rewarded withastate as came it victory, Allies the supported generally had Peninsula Balkan the in and Albanians duringneutral WWI officially been had a state as Albania Turkey. Although t he remaining possessions, but also was dismantled in a move that gave rise to modern modern to rise gave that move a in dismantled was also but possessions, remaining he The continuously was state fragile yet and new Albanian the period, interwar the In

turmoil of these years culminated when the former primer Zog, ousted in early in ousted Zog, primer former the when culminated years these of turmoil

s , teghnn is tt cnoiain n reforming and consolidation state its strengthening ), - nation thatwouldinclude historical its nation territories. l recognition (i.e. getting accepted as as accepted getting (i.e. recognition l nastery (which today is today (which nastery

constrained the constrained gdom of gdom itter itter 139

of of

CEU eTD Collection subm 3 two rhetoric. and aims fromirredentist any away shied Zog although speakingpopulations, the where point last of exception the with 2 treaty this Yugoslav of Pasić. to werehanded areas aforementioned by obligations all abroad from represented backtracked been Zog that have would and Albania Naum Saint of Belgrade, areas and emissaries in Al counterpart effect, their take should of direct union authority the under be custom should Community full Muslim and a Church Orthodox the Army, abroad, representatives National Yugoslav and War of Ministry the abolish should Albania date, inlater a Yugoslavia join should Albania Tirana, in power Zogsecure to helping dossier 251, (p. Archive State Albanian co when 1 for exchange in But 93). 1984: (Fisher agreement or conflict wars, by forced were shifts t if Albania‖ into incorporated be would areas speaking Albanian that guarantee Mussolini, with signed Zog treaty military th to Italy, Mussolini`s toward turned order Zog supporter, financial and backer new In a secure quickly disturbing. more and more becoming was interference whose Yugoslavs, Albanians, the of King a himself national map shape simultaneously inAlbania. and choice leadership dictating in states surrounding of effect and degree the showing thus financia considerable received Prishtina, Hasan like irredentists, the while irredentism of cry the to opposition consistent his of because movement). irredenti and nationalists Albanian the fight jointly to Pasić with again cooperate to and rebellions internal quell to time enough him gaining Macedonia). of Republic of part

In fact the deal was much bigger than this, although it never materialized, because Zog was a private citizen private a was Zog because materialized, never it although this, than bigger much was deal the fact In It was secret because it happened through an exchange of letters between the two leaders and Zog never never Zog and leaders two the between letters of exchange an through happened it because secret was It dsue lbl rm egae ic ‗King since Belgrade from label disputed A us becoming increasingly dependent on it in the due course. due the in it on dependent increasinglybecoming us itted it to ratification from Parliament. See Fischer (1984) for details. details. for (1984) Fischer See fromParliament. ratification it to itted - After he had already fully secured the internal power and having proclaimed proclaimed having and power internal the secured fully already had he After signed and once in power did not follow suit. According to the full treaty text of 1924 found in in found 1924 of text treaty full the to According suit. follow not did power in once and signed s ihr claims, Fisher As

1 Zg hd las en osdrd o e pro be to considered been always had ―Zogu

This helped secure the northern border of Albania while Albania of border northern the secure helped This

no. 105), Zog and Pasić had agreed that in exchange for Belgrade Belgrade for exchange in that agreed had Pasić and Zog 105), no. Vermosh should be ceded to Yugoslavs. The events later indicate indicate later events The Yugoslavs. to ceded be should Vermosh 2

Zog turned the back to the increasing demands of of demands increasing the to back the turned Zog

f lain‘ i)iety ae rfrne o l Albanian all to reference makes (in)directly Albanians‘ of 3

mns ohr atr, tl ws on ―to bound was Italy matters, other amongst

spot rm oe (ihr 94 87), 1984: (Fisher Rome‖ from support l t i Ksv (h so (the Kosovo in sts

He went as far as in a secret a in as far as went He

bania should have have should bania - called - Belgrade erritorial erritorial Kachak 140 -

CEU eTD Collection after modeled police, and army professional a of training the way, centralized increasing an in privileges 4 dominance political predicts. model my as otherwise behave to Albania of elite ruling the for irrational completely seemed have would it Thus abroad. Alb than powerful military and stronger economically much were claims, diasporic or territorial any stake could Albania which Second, and political that map expansionist an voice to elite cultural of rest the and Zog for impossible it made Rome, by later and Belgrade, consideration. primarily that could possibly beIllyrians traced tothe 1921). (Chekrezi Albanians present of line ancestral interrupted an at hinted that acts commemorative other d highly a through rights foreign all down closing as: steps such took he internally when manifested example for was ambiguity Such support. popular get p he often although Albania, of map choice. personal reductionist a advocating continuously than by skin political save to able not was he rather Therefore, intervention external by influenced directly were exile, main state institutions. and resources natural territory, its to Italy access unconditional offer to had Albania that

This happened because of a combination of factors that included clan loyalty, a system of granting granting of system a loyalty, clan included that factors of combination a of because happened This hs n nraigy otatoit ma contractionist increasingly an Thus 193 in occupation Italian resulted The ree n epcal uolva h w meit odr onre, against countries, border immediate two the Yugoslavia, especially and Greece,

with relative with

iscussed and disputed national census, erecting monuments and monuments erecting census, national disputed and iscussed First,

the imposed limitations of internal maneuvering by by maneuvering internal of limitations imposed the ease, layed ambiguity with the nationalist card in order to to order in card nationalist the with ambiguity layed 4 -

language schools in Albania, restricting minority restricting Albania, in schools language Third, he ania, and with much more friends and allies allies and friends more much with and ania, was not much interested in attracting popular attracting in interested much not was 9 and Zog`s abdication before fleeing into into fleeing before abdication Zog`s and 9 would seek a redrawing of existing borders. existing of redrawing a seek would

because Zog had already secured domestic domestic secured already had Zog because ws ie peeec bsd n three on based preference given was p

141

CEU eTD Collection nation homogeneous the of Greek part were they case later the In Turkey. and Albania to deported collectively were Chams the WWII, relig Muslim mostly of Albanian 7 intervened within Powers Great not when shrink later to going year was a design than expansionist such longer below, argued is it As time. the at nationalists Albanian sho This an Kosovo advocating of city in capital interested less much was Zog Albania, 6 northern from woulddeeply mapin that expansionist Geg a although Thus, power. to back came he as soon as Curri and Prishtina as such leaders main its of some killing way, fierce very a in Kosovar the persecuted Zog while 1924, of revolution the after power to come could government his and Noli that help their of because chiefly was It there. elite nationalist their and Yugoslavia of Albanians o South from were leadership political opposition key 5 factors. similar other institutionsand gendarmerie French and armies Italian and British of head the and Agriculture of Minister the Defense, of minister the example, For proper. government the in and convention of aftermath the in representation proper a received Albania, of p the state to recognized corresponded newly the outside left were Conference London Ambassadors` the after which Convention, the attended that Albanians ethnic of percentage c delegates Skopje from Kosovo, from 16 delegates, 63 its amongst had 4 Governmentin Provisionalthe of constitution the independenceand the4.3 Elite StrugglesOutcome and Map Albanian from of Independence to WWI than supporters to more include actually would that map expansionist an the through sympathy

Skopje became officially the capital of a new Macedonian entity only after WWII. WWII. after only entity Macedonian new a of capital the officially became Skopje It is clearer below, when I discuss Zog`s powerbase. It seems from evidence that although Noli and some and Noli although that evidence from seems It powerbase. Zog`s discuss I when below, clearer is It Chameria is a region geographically located in present day Greece, which was inhabited by ethnically ethnically by inhabited was which Greece, day present in located geographically region a is Chameria - uks areet o a as eotto ad inter and deportation mass a for agreement Turkish the administrative borders where it exercised effective control. control. effective whereit exercised borders administrative the s mxmls mp f ita bres f ht osiue te mgnr nation( imaginary the constituted what of borders virtual of map maximalist a ws The m fo te Albanian the from ame lr Cneto, hc md psil te rcaain f Albanian of proclamation the possible made which Convention, Vlora -

states (Vickers 2007). 2007). (Vickers states his regime. vilayet ercentage of the ethnic kin of those territories. Moreover, they they Moreover, territories. those of kin ethnic the of ercentage

has been Pristina, while from 1893 to 1912 has been Skopje ( Skopje been has 1912 to 1893 from while Pristina, been has o. fe te Greek the After ion. 5

crease the number ofhis opponents. number the crease

- paig ein f Chameria. of region speaking

that sent their own instructors to help modernize these these modernize help to instructors own their sent that - uks Wr n h inter the in War Turkish f Albania, they generated much more support from from support more much generated they Albania, f

and decided to recognize the new Albanian state state Albanian new the recognize to decided and

- ethnic exchange in in exchange ethnic

and other cities, while seven while cities, other and - war period, and later after after later and period, war th 7

From 1879 to 1893, the 1893, to 1879 From

re t cet stable create to order of December1912, of t em ta the that seems It

- İnalcık adversaries tt) o the for state)

leadership leadership

1969) 142

CEU eTD Collection Shqiperia 6.645km2, Presheves) (Lugina its with (Macedonia) Ilirida km2, 9 Institutearchives. from collected History are Albanianstate of outside districts 8 axes. external and internal Dome in both evolve of gradually declaration to of starting moment were the independence), at elite unified seemingly of out (born struggles elite and facts. data on based interpretations various draw can we and discussed vividly be to started lied nation new the of shape and fate the where later year a London in Conference Ambassadors` the to up 1912, form. national Albanian the t in united ante ex being they than rather power, of positions to preserve pact political a on agreeing elites, „diasporic‟ and „internal‟ of choice deliberate a more was ones, „material` the overlapping borders‟ „virtual with entity, homogeneous one Albanian from resistance any pacify to need the been have might this for justification One elite. political ‗internal‘ the Second, day. the (officially of realities political created newly the to correspond not did that borders virtual with nation the of mapping expansionary an of persistence consultativ the

A nationalist thesis persistent topic in Albania has been that that been has Albania in topic persistent thesis nationalist A The data regarding the number of delegates in the Convention and the political appointees that came from came that appointees political the and Convention the in delegates of number the regarding data The the natural length of the nation includes includes nation the of length natural the tcly Kmls oenet a fecl opsd y st otn` parallel Toptani`s Esat by opposed fiercely was government Kemal`s stically, Thus, in the immediate period that followed the proclamation of independence, the the independence, of proclamation the followed that period immediate the in Thus, is 9

- 87.981km2

cgie) lts ee rig o co to trying were elites ecognized) - bd al ee oig rm Kosovo. from coming were all body e speaking territories outside Albanian state. Albanian outside territories speaking - state would be sealed, different accoun different sealed, be would state .

Interview with Koco Danaj, November 2011. Danaj, withKoco Interview 15.074km2, Mal 15.074km2,

h ls to en pr o present of part being two last the In the meantime, meantime, the In

esi with its with Kosova after the reality of the new Albanian state in in state Albanian new the of reality the after

6.482km2, Sanxhak 6.482km2, ih its with - opt distinguished members of ‗external‘ ‗external‘ of members distinguished opt while administrative Albania had only had Albania administrative while

10.887km2, Cameria Cameria 10.887km2, 8

- hs hw to hns frt a first, things: two shows This

ts of where the Albanian nation Albanian the where of ts a Sri. h woe of whole The Serbia. day Thus, fusing state and nati and state fusing Thus,

with its with

4.504km2, 4.504km2, heir conception of conception heir with its 15.674km2, 15.674km2, its with and and

―Natural‖ ―Natural‖ Toplice 28.750 28.750 on in in on 143

CEU eTD Collection openly was it Externally Kemal. by headed government 1973). Pollo and (Kristo etc militarytrainings wellas as in both financial Belgrade, Vlora to opposition open in was had It Albania]. Middle of [Government 10 a In events. later on significance symbolic and political legal, a had 1913 in community nation. the of frame mental the regarding views competing often their and elites „external‟ versus „internal‟ of argument my with line in is This opportunities. entrepreneurship political pl a occupy to trying elites, clashing by engineered process, under were imagining national of stories fragmented that impression the getting Thus, 165). 1986: (Mikić South‖ the toward Tsur hostile especially were Bairam Djakovica, interests. Albanian larger and own their to them tie to Kemal Ismail by and South the in Albanians by attempts all opposed time (AAS 2007). le political of interests the with clashed that map expansionist an pursuing actively were and time the at rulers Albania`s the with differed leaders Kosovar The goals. undistu irredentist unobtainable advocate territory than rather autonomy, of territorial maximizing piece safe and small a control to wanting each Albania, in centers power other the with case the also was This map. reductionist a pursuing thus r self of tradition a had Albania‘ Middle of ‗Government ecognized

h ofca nm i Albani in name official The

h ceto o te e nation new the of creation The Kosovo the in leadership ―Albanian that: observed has author An

government of Albania of government

- governance ( governance

an of this parallel government was ‗Pleqnia e Shqipnise se Mesme‘ Mesme‘ se Shqipnise e ‗Pleqnia was government parallel this of an

10 de facto de ,

and the half the and Myzyri 1994). Thus, the legitimate the Thus, 1994). Myzyri had no choice but to pursue a limited territorial policy, territorial limited a pursue to but choice no had -

power on most of present of most on power state in 1912 and recognized by international international by recognized and 1912 in state - autonomous principality of Mirdita, which Mirdita, of principality autonomous c fr hmevs n hs eid of period this in themselves for ace

n Riza and - day Albanian state territory and and territory state Albanian day adership in the homeland the in adership

e, edr from leaders bey, and internationally and vilayet

upre by supported rbed and and rbed we start start we

at this this at 144

CEU eTD Collection neighbors, Yugoslavian his of enmity the him earned leaders uprising Kosovar for support his also but borders, any reverse to failed Noli only not However, 241). 2004: (Austin more a promote to 1918 in Albanian aggressive formed was border, the of sides both from membership its drew ―which organization clandestine a Committee, This Kosovo. and Albania both of members from drawn were power, to him brought which revolution the his in of especially bulk supporters, the that fact the by explained is Noli of support The forums. international s voicing in leader profile highest the was Noli, Fan bishop, educated Harvard the I, War World after and very vi nation today even why is that fulfilled, be to yet process a is it all, After statement. above the with part in agree I witnessed, was Albanian the of inter the in elites political weakening the Considering 14). 2009: a been (Konomi has process‖ Kosovo] [in then even awakening, national The Albanian. than Yugoslav Lubonj F. As face. to had they that realities different two the of because this and proper Albania of Albanians a completelythe trajectory different from example hasargued for identity had Kosovar that dep also nation of homogenization the although imagining, national uninterrupted an of cohesiveness the shattered it way vid in Kosovo`svid in sphere, public asiselaborated inchapter six. it From the Albanian political elite that succeeded each other in the period prior to prior period the in other each succeeded that elite political Albanian the From the Kosovo Committee created in Shkoder, Albania by notable leaders from from leaders notable by Albania Shkoder, in created Committee Kosovo the ome concerns for the fate of Kosovo and tried to raise the issue in the in issue the raise to tried and Kosovo of fate the for concerns ome a puts it: ―The Albanians of Kosovo for a period were feeling more more feeling were period a for Kosovo of Albanians ―The it: puts a policy on Kosovo. It sought the national unification of all Albanians‖ all of unification national the sought It Kosovo. on policy - war period until early 1970s, when a national(ist) reawakening national(ist) a when 1970s, early until period war ended on engineering of the of engineering on ended - building and identity formation debates are still still are debates formation identity and building

Other

. Some critics have have critics Some . - speaking 145

CEU eTD Collection movement.‖ liberation national a as Albanians the by and organization outlaw an as Serbs the by to referred was and Kosovo, from 13 12 11 these prominent Kosovo all on, Later 100). 2004: (Vickers failed‖ but government, Tirana the overthrow to tried leader, Kachak important an Isufi, Elez and Prishtina Hasan Curri, ―Bajram 1922 March His power. his to adversaries dangerous most the as leaders their saw he but of 101) 2004: (Vickers Albanians fate,‖ their to the Kosovo ―leaving Kosovo, in kin ethnic its rescue to bother not Zog did only the to end an put to Serbs radicalize to Zog led turn in This 241). pro as Zogu judged and Tirana, from concern more expected who Kosovars ―disgruntled by led opposition the was power to threat main His benefit. te Albanian the of parts ceding by rewarded soon the he of whom help Yugoslavs, crucial the with power in came Albanians, the of king elected as then and mappi Galica movements separatist guerilla and hel significantly could which way any in Albanians, Kosovo behalfof on properlyintervene to out. forced once was went who

Later crushed by Yugoslavs with the help of Z ofhelp with the Yugoslavs by Latercrushed by led Noli. Revolution a by heading, was hewhich Ministry Internal from the firstwas ousted Zog Ahmet Vickers (2004: 99) writes that ―the Kachak movement was made up predominantly of Albanian emigrants emigrants Albanian of predominantly up made was movement Kachak ―the that writes 99) (2004: Vickers p them out in the long run. His help would have consisted in financing both education education both financing in consisted have would help His run. long the in out them p ng ofthe nation. Zog, who then maintained the power for the next fourteen years, first as a President a as years,first fourteen next the for power the maintained then who Zog, kachak to help his adversary, Ahmet Zog to recapture the government from where he where from government the recapture to Zog Ahmet adversary, his help to

oeet shows movement

Hence, Noli government lasted only for a few months, thus failing thus months, few a for only lasted government Noli Hence,

Albanian by leadersZog`s were orders.agents killed his on kachak

er i fc, a well was fact, in fear,

uprising 12 -- --

as the example of open support for Azem and Shote Shote and Azem for support open of example the as

n wud ae eiiey nov cagn the changing involve definitely have would and og. his 13

that was taking place in Serbia at the time. Not time. the at Serbia in takingplace was that Kosovars the toward stance - one, eas nt ute that further not because founded, - uolv (utn 2004: (Austin Yugoslav‖

and even help the the help even and rritory to their their to rritory

146 -

CEU eTD Collection show clearly actions deliberative of 1974:366). theAlbanians (Rothschild King himself portraying formally beyond Greece and Yugoslavia against cause irredentist Bo and notable the of some exiling or killing the crushing by warfare irredentist of sources last the eradicate mostly affected educated was Yugoslavia, in elite cultural and political new the example, For multiple. post the in borders other conceptualiza homogenizing ofsuch onbothsides theborder. by common folk the effe tradition an was affair antagonistic whole this like looks it hand, other the popular in nation and congruence ofstate the of aswas fragmentation conceptualized with motherland which relationship of perception different a to lead later would rivalry This time. the at Albania not entity, distinct and a different as perception its in active more becoming were elite ‗Kosovar‘ new the that assume ct on changing (mass) perceptionct(mass) of onchangingan atperceived Albanian imaginary as least nation, letini Thus, the symbolic of the above label was no was label above the of symbolic the Thus, the with break a signaled ground the in unfolding events that view the share I may we First perspectives. different from analyzed be can here evidence The , fought for simply achieving political power by competing elites and with little with and elites competing by power political achieving simply for fought , , paid off paid ,

y egae O te te hand, other the On Belgrade. by imagination amongst ethnic Albanians that lived in Yugoslavia. While in While Yugoslavia. in lived that Albanians ethnic amongst imagination .

Zog antagonized some Albanian nationalists by never pressing an an pressing never by nationalists Albanian some antagonized Zog - 1925 era with Zog`s return to power. The reasons for this were this for reasons The power. to return Zog`s with era 1925 in f h nto. ain n sae apd lsl t each to closely mapped state and Nation nation. the of tion .

n ie ih antem oiia cnetaiain in conceptualization political mainstream with line in In addition, it cannot be denied that once Zog resumed resumed Zog once that denied be cannot it addition, In

irredentist

leaders such as Curri, Gurakuqi, Prishtina Prishtina Gurakuqi, Curri, as such leaders

h da efrs f ai ad o to Zog and Pasić of efforts dual the t translated into political actions as his his as actions political into translated t

kachak invented and instant instant and invented

oeet and movement 147 and and

CEU eTD Collection scheming. Vidi, Wilhelm Prince German the with replaced himself g not did Kemal policy. this of result the as much gain not did country the war, Balkan first the during Kemal neutral Albania Although keep to protectorate. managed international an under Albania putting favored which the of one by politics Topt Esat time, the domestic of politicians Albanian shrewdest in both challenged was he because power, to came he after long not resign to forced was who history, its in premier Albanian first the Kemal, of One cause. nationalist any pursuing in uninterested but strong, were they or brethren, Albanian Kosovo their of rights the of behalf on act to weak too either were leaders Albanian the rule, Ottoman the of aftermath the in While, feeding. neighbors powerful the more given Albania‘s ‗evil‘, that lesser ambitions the territorial as Ottomans the saw which time, the at leaders Albanian the of calculation rationalist a from flowed purpose of limitation This authority. Sultan‘s un autonomy wide a for only asking goals, limited rather had Empire Ottoman Germancame invasions which a later. decade nations` perceived folk common way the affected greatly turn, in This, hill. the down go to doomed was Kosovo in elites strategic such nationalist thefate Albanian of were nationalists/irredentists, the time), which Kosovo initial an maintained he whom perceiv common the with with coupled partnership, Yugoslavs, of help the with power The historical evidence thus shows that Albanian nationalist movement under the the under movement nationalist Albanian that shows thus evidence historical The

borders in the subsequent years, until the Italian and and Italian the until years, subsequent the in borders

ed enemies (of both Tirana and Belgrade at at Belgrade and Tirana both (of enemies ed ain anything either, when he soon saw soon he when either, anything ain ani and new geo new and ani s h rsl o Get Powers` Great of result the as h oeotoe ws Ismail was ones foremost the

eba and Serbia - political conditions, political

Greece, der the the der

were were 148

CEU eTD Collection territories. adjacent kinin toward behavior their in expectation theopposite 14 in center its ―having as it defines He Kosovo. of prefecture the with starts author the accou angiving while hand, other and the On 52). Prizren 1939: (Como Albania…‖ Dibra, of part historically Skopje, been have that Monastir, Mitrovica are: cities important most other The Danube. textbo geography one in writes author an 1939, in back example, For pattern. repeated a in myth which particular a shows texts, geography new and old in criteria, population on based territories nearby ‗Greateraway. orfull sovereigntyKosovo, faded Albania‘, independenceand of of cause nationalist the exile), into fled others died, (some elite nationalist the of demise of weakness general a esp Kosovo, in agitation‘ ‗patriotic brought this turn, In 1998). (Malcolm forces Zog`s King and army Serbian of forces joint by elimination its later and Kosovo in movement nationalist long the adversaries, potential the eliminating and power to grip the holding of calculation political simple by driven mainly up. them back than rather Kosovo, in movement nationalist chose he Therefore, Albania. in rule his to threat direct a were leaders whose movement, nationalist of hub a as Kosovo saw decade, a than more for power exercised who Zog, contrast, In kin. Kosovo the of rescue m thus pressures, national and international

The fact that Kema that fact The e a se wwr repr awkward see can We constant under and time of periods brief for only power in were Noli or Kemal l and Noli were from South of Albania and Zog from the North would normally lead to to lead normally would North the from Zog and Albania of South from were Noli and l

ok: ―[t]he capital city of Yugoslav Kingdom is Belgrade over over Belgrade is Kingdom Yugoslav of city capital ―[t]he ok: nt of the 10 Albanian prefectures Albanian 10 the of nt

ecially of thesis of unification of the nation and with the the with and nation the of unification of thesis of ecially snain o te ains it ad iet lis to claims direct and width nation`s the of esentations em fet wr a ioain f h resistance the of isolation an were effects term o oprt wt Ygsas n rsig the crushing in Yugoslavs with cooperate to aking them unable to come in any way to the the to way any in come to unable them aking 14

at the time, very interestingly interestingly very time, the at

Although Zog`s policy was policy Zog`s Although

149

CEU eTD Collection school. elementary for primarytextbook usedas school be to ofEducation of Ministry approval 16 Kosovar 15 early 1924) (1918 to Albania in Situation 2.PredictionsTable border for outcomes interwar period the in below. inter the in constraints byexternal conditionedbeen configuration o in references expansionary reign.‖ Yugoslav under remained has that Kosovo litteram vice includes Kukes,

What makes it even more paradoxical is the fact that this textbook has a note upfront that clearly states the the states clearly that upfront note a has textbook this that fact the is paradoxical more even it makes What These highlands normally would have lied under Yugoslav jurisdiction, since Gjakova is one is Gjakova since jurisdiction, Yugoslav under lied have would normally highlands These In way this thetable have shifts domestic how and games elite competing the by offered Predictions cities.

ht ―t that:

war period going up to the end of World War II are presented schematically presented are II War World of end the to up going period war

unification goal much urging of thepursuit irredentist nature, in and theother vocally byZog Kryeziu) and with Yugoslavs (headed strongly cooperating unification projects and opposing any with onepart of elite competition escalated domesticPolitical Competing games Elite f national map that is not compatiblemap that not f national is withthe political reality. i peetr i ntig le u a ml pr o te ra Peetr of Prefecture Great the of part small a but else nothing is prefecture his - prefecture of Luma and the highlands of Gjakova‖ of highlands the and Luma of prefecture

consolidates thedata and presentedabove. that clarifies was col texts school

pursuit of boundaries and notin country with settled L admittance in borders in1921and recognition ofAlbanian international Versailles, then such as Congress of constraints, events with High external Constraints International in Albania in

can no doubt create and perpetuate a certain certain a perpetuate and create doubt no can an , thus leading to certleadingto thus ,

16 irredentist

Cm 13: 3. hs repeated These 33). 1939: (Como oN as its

The mapvisualization happened inAlbania. regime change 1924 when a force sight, atleast until with noclear leads a to from external powers, coupled with limits strugglesat home, becauseelite high Map ambiguity, Border Outcome

ain borderoutcome ain 15

and he ads he and situation situation

end at end of the major major the of d 150

CEU eTD Collection 125 2002: (Mazower Yugoslavia‖ and in Greece its irredenta to looked early1920s, uponin the 17 aim, primary the Great Powers. as have would that agenda perceive intransigenc becauserevindicationcontinued of which lost to they of territory, political a advocated relentlessly who and politics Albania`s in involved directlybecame who Albanians Kosovar were exception authority. its extend to institutions state of weakness 1920s the and 1986) late (Fisher in only recognized internationally and delimited finally were borders state o maximization than rather stability internal maintaining toward directed was energy of bulk the and goals Interwar in AlbaniaShifts in Period 4.3 1939) (1925

Mazower

Imagined National Borders National Imagined -

rm 92 o 90, lai` pltcl lt wr futaig n hi mapping their in fluctuating were elite political Albania`s 1920s, to 1912 From

captures well this dynamic when he writes that ‗Albania, whose borders were formally agreed agreed formally were borders whose ‗Albania, that writes he when dynamic this well captures recognized borders. internationally based onexisting single project that is political class around a amongst of members more uniformity de competition Political politics). lobby inAlbanian and therestKosovar of Fan Noli,H.Prishtina v f territorial scope. This was particularly motivated by the fact that Albanian Albanian that fact the by motivated particularly was This scope.territorial f igorously (headed by - escalated. Thus,

: Bottom :

recognition. line withofficial boundaries in of nation theouter limits conditionality that High external agenda. - up Changes up

of (Map) Perception and Mental and Perception (Map) of contraction witness a map predictions, we In line with during period. this bottom - up also fuzzy 17

here. The notable The - 126). 126).

y of 151

CEU eTD Collection pan as such projects territorial of radicalization all expansionist on based were intervention of external patrons. a led Albania, of royal house the to prince German a of appointment the opposing who 1914, in Qamil Haxhi of movement reactionary the with later bit a and Albania, Middle of government parallel co of five than centuries more of because well knew they system a Empire, rump the back to request their in grouping were masses opposing Kemal, under existence into came government Albani unitary a of idea new this about vernacular in educated be to had first that elements foreign as seen were elites nationalizing these how of era, that of figure intellectual an from coming evidence, n of activists the only calling ―Albanians‖ Albania, created newly this to indifferent actually were people of majority the century, twentieth of beginning of Tirana in that writes Dalliu Ibrahim cleric renaissance closer illiterate. them part most the bring for were and would together that infrastructure little with communities isolated in lived agrarian, largely was population the because simply goals, and writings nationalists` with receptive. very not was Albania in perception public the origin, Albanian of officials Ottoman former Thus, the newly emerging elites were competing with nationalizing projects. Some projects. nationalizing with competing were elites emerging newly the Thus, power by motivated primarily rhetoric nationalist despite But

This was mainly because the absolute majority of majority absolute the because mainly was This - existen e Ti opsn ntr, umntd is wt Ea Toptan`s Esat with first culminated nature, opposing This ce. an nation an asv sre ht a dfae wt get ifcly ih the with difficulty great with defeated was that surge massive

- nlsv mp ad e t a ehi outbidding ethnic an to led and maps inclusive - state. Other evidence shows that shortly after the first the after shortly that shows evidence Other state. toa mvmn (alu 00. hs s first is This 2000). (Dalliu movement ational

- his memoirs, (re)published recently, the the recently, (re)published memoirs, his Albanianism with the ultimate goal of of goal ultimate the with Albanianism the people were out of tocuh of out were people the - optto o the of competition -

hand 152 and

CEU eTD Collection state. Albanian fragile the of themuch detriment to state, and 18 of expanse on expansion Serb supporting of case the in Russia like patrons, external geopoli by influenced heavily were Balkans because happened simply This lands. inhabited Albanian the of half out leave to was juncture this at pay to had state new Albania‘s that one the and pay to price th of state pow not was states territorial ambitions. neighboring the limiting while schemes, expansionist (preventingterritory delimited newly an years testify. here traced contr see often we then rises, intervention external when while low, limitations foreign and high are struggles elite when win maps Expansionist short Toptan`s of example the as satisfied appetite power the where principalities small create to sought Albanian of unification the goal ultimate the as had peri which 1912, immediate in independence the of declaration in government recognized) (officially Vlora the by single a into lands Albanian of reunification

Not to mention the already established presence of the Serbs the of presence established already the mention to Not ad hoc , e Ambassadors in London in 1913 in London in Ambassadors e 18

was officially drawn and recognized as such by the Control Commission, which was was which Commission, Control the by such as recognized and drawn officially was

The first Albanian government that emerged after the declaration of independence of declaration the after emerged that government Albanian first The although it it although -

speaking territories. Others parallel and local initiatives were very parochial and and parochial very were initiatives local and parallel Others territories. speaking commission created by Great Powers, wi Great createdcommission Powers, by erful enough to defend and include all the Albanian territories in a single single a in territories Albanian the all include and defend to enough erful

secure The version of the map that attracted the m the attracted that map the of version The

d the d

tical games that Great Powers rivalry produced and various various and produced rivalry Powers Great that games tical

internationally recognized independence, in the Conference the in independence, recognized internationally . Nevertheless, the international recognition had a a had recognition international the Nevertheless, . - ie gvrmn o Mdl Abna shows. Albania Middle of government lived political

th the sole purpose of supervision of the supervision of the th theof sole purpose

in the area and the strength of Serbian army army Serbian of strength the and area the in unit. This was especially manifested manifested especially was This unit. cin f a a te examples the as map of action ajority of populace in WWI WWI in populace of ajority of some chieftain would be be would chieftain some of d fe the after od 153

CEU eTD Collection 19 revisions border political possible allowed that nation undivided same part as kin ethnic referri consistently by it radicalize and Curri) and Prishtina of case (the politics domestic Albanian in involved fully get to either was out way only the conditions, positi same the retain normally not could Prishtina H. or Curri B. Boletini, I. as such leaders periphery, nation`s the from Coming opportunities. accommodation power missing the was divided forcefully be to thought Albania enlarged an in borders virtual included that map mental (re)emerge. single community and national cohesive imagined an alongside thinking of patterns decision, Ambassadors` Conference After 85). 1998: (Vickers forget‖ to much too suffered have Albanians come spring ―[w]hen Boletini: Isa time, the at leader renowned most their of words the In eyes. their in decision unjust this revenge to promised and temporary as only Conference Ambassadors` Great the by Neverthele more Powers. once betrayed and ignored felt who Kosovars, by felt resentment the is remarkable Especially 16). 2003: (Kola century‖ ensuing the throughout Europe the that ensured had powers big ―the state, Albanian new this of creation the with that argued has Kola Albania.

This situation resembles among others Hungarian case after Trianon. after case Hungarian others among resembles situation This on of power in their still ‗occupied‘ territories as their brethren in Albania. In these these In Albania. in brethren their as territories ‗occupied‘ still their in power of on The energetic protest against such division and the continuous perpetuation of a a of perpetuation continuous the and division such against protest energetic The 19 , e il aue h pan o Ksv wt te oe o Srs fr us for Serbs, of bones the with Kosovo of plains the manure will we s, done at least partially by the by partially least at done

ss, the embittered Kosovar elite saw the solution offered by the the by offered solution the saw elite Kosovar embittered the ss, Albanian nation was cut in half, with consequences that were to haunt haunt to were that consequences with half, in cut was nation Albanian a Abna nto dvdd nuty n w prs se to seem parts, two in unjustly divided nation Albanian an ,

external elite, external

which was soon confronted with with confronted soon was which

ng to Albanian Albanian to ng 154

CEU eTD Collection points these of none and afterwards. over contested greatly haswhich been Saint Naum, sovereignty agreement of exception sole this the with signed assistance, Yugoslav with when power in Albania came he when in materialized power from ousted was Zog secondly fro ofit citation butitself a Agreement not the is archives Custom 3. dynasty; 1924. 105, Karagjorgjevic of authority the under but a police state unification, of head Albanian the would still Zog 2. been Federation; a have in Yugoslavia join should Albania 1. were: to agreed he points important most 20 Albania in recently only republished Memoirs his in Commision, Border International the of member Albanian the as appointed was who Frasheri, Mehdi recognition. international their support. for earlier exchange in Yugoslavs the to gift a as given were villages, other several and Naum St. when primer, Yugoslav the Pasić, with agreed exchanges border for responsible ac been consistently has Zog importantly, Most followed. Kosovo in Albanians of persecutions several this, After regime. Belgrade`s support to there send forces Zog`s and again Kosovo, in Albanians of rebellion a organized Curri and Prishtina 1923, February of end the In position. power own his to threat and liability a be to proved who elite, ‗external‘ Croats Serbs, of the with goodrelations establishing Afterflight. Tiranatook powerin of position Koso power, mostof Yugoslavs camein back revolution supported by 1924 six Noli`s When regime. help Zog`s overthrow to to decided revolution government Albanian in deputes remained that others their and Galica Shote and Azem or Boletini of case as uprising the orby innearby territories organizing violent apt, when conditions were

Zog has been straightforwardly accused for a so a for accused straightforwardly been has Zog st the Serbian troops installed there. This uprising was crushed, jointly by Yugoslav by jointly crushed, was uprising This there. installed troops Serbian the st

But this material has been widely disregarded from historians because the text founded in the the in founded text the because historians from disregarded widely been has material this But 20 nd army joint forces, similar forces, joint army nd and Slovenes and

hs eae te ia dlmtto o bres n as and borders of delimitation final the delayed This

of 1922, Zog started to openly persecute these members of of members these persecute openly to started Zog 1922, of

foreign policy etc. etc. policy foreign - called Memorandum co Memorandum called m an Italian observer in Albania in those years. And years. those in Albania in observer Italian man

kachak - ot ltr Zg hog a counter a through Zog later, month State National Archive, F. 251, dossier dossier 251, F. Archive, National State mov ement. - signe d with Pasic in which the the which in Pasic with d

vo Albanians in high Albanians inhigh vo ur, rstn and Prishtina Curri, eut lo their also result Kingdom cused as as cused 155 -

CEU eTD Collection on Serbia in soreness the the and and bands Serbia Albanian of between territory relations Serbian hostile into The incursions (1) the to 1912. owing to Albanians previous one the from problems two inherited comm international an by lines Its ethnographic Italy. on and established Austria be of to were instigation boundaries special the at Ambassadors of Conference London the at powers the of Service Historical for Board National evidence some have ― we the fromentity, sovereign Bal Albanian of in recognition influence‘ the of concerning ‗spheres decisions and to power‘ regard With of ‗balance the maintain would that compromise a reached 21 states, Albanian the of half approximately left which of consequence The figures. leading diaspora of names few a only mention to etc, Frasheri brothers the Veqilharxhi, Naum Luarasi, P. were later the of Examples themselves. agitations patriotic the doing and disciples diligent among native the to back them bringing and abroad periodicals and books alphabets, printing were that people same the were elite political/cultural these not, than often more that fact the from comes opinio this for evidence The news. public neutral of readers simply of shapers more were they words, other In ambitions. territorial their maximizing thus perfectly, together matching ideally state and nation see would that liter nation Albanian single a in united getting of chance the having finally as reign colonial of end the perceived leaders, popular such by led who 95 its with time, the at population of feelings general the were these that doubt little is there above, cited words g could recognized (Frasheri 2005). Albania when year the as 1925 as far as date the pushes

The London Conference of Ambassadors was a secret meeting of representatives of Great Powers which Powers Great of representatives of meeting secret a was Ambassadors of Conference London The ates were more of a transmission belt of new patriotic ideas and nationalist agitators nationalist and ideas patriotic new of belt transmission a of more were ates 21 Although the historical texts refer only to elite discourse and rhetoric, as Boletini`s as rhetoric, and discourse elite to only refer texts historical the Although

was perceived as a betrayal to the Albanian cause and fight for freedom and was and freedom for fight and cause Albanian the to betrayal a as perceived was Handbook for the Diplomatic History of Europe, Asia, and Africa 1870 Africa and Asia, Europe, of History Diplomatic the for Handbook percent illiteracy rate that existed (Myzyri 1978; Blumi 2002: 54 2002: Blumi 1978; (Myzyri existed that rate illiteracy percent

, whic , h states that: ―[t]he principality of Albania was established by act act by established was Albania of principality ―[t]he that: states h - speaking communities out of the new new the of out communities speaking -

state (Vllamasi & Verli 2000). Verli & (Vllamasi state London Ambassadors Conference Ambassadors London land, distributing them distributing land, et its borders finally finally borders its et ission. The new situation situation new The ission. - 1914 , ‖

p repared for the the for repared , than n,

Such Such kans. kans. - 156 55)

CEU eTD Collection of source a constituting and Albania in included provisionally Epirus, in the and powers.‖ Albania, Greece, Greeks difficultybetween the of status The (2) refusal the of account expansionist somewhat were rhetoric. their in revision border any evoke not did day, the of realities political with correspond not did that map virtual a rememorize to trying were intellectuals nationalist Thus, intervention. external to due them lost unjustly had it how w homeland the map to need a with up opens language, native in Albanian an by written textbook history ‗professional‘ is first that It surprise, no powers. therefore belligerents various by occupied was status, neutrality its kept although state of effort when period a was 1920s, early surfaced, text such when period The 190). 1921: (Çekrezi region‖ Toskerie of part most the take to right the recognized was Greece Vranje; and Albania. would Serbia of Triepshe; and lands Plave Gusinje, receive them would Montenegro giving Greece, and Serbia Montenegro, of lands the enlarge to decided Congress ―[t]he that: says literally Berlin, of Congress the of ramifications the w Albania, of History called is and 1921 from dated is which pupils, for text such first the Forexample, circulation. in historytextbooks first the fromcomes period this saw theirfamily tribesuddenly or states. divided indifferent epic his in wh Fishta, as such poets national by verse in expressed A detail that is important in our discussion of mental envisioning of the nation in nation the of envisioning mental of discussion our in important is that detail A where mainstream political mainstream where Lahuta e Malcis e Lahuta - ulig ee ne wy imdaey fe te W the after immediately way, under were building

of the Conference of Ambassadors to grant her access to the Adriatic through Albania. Albania. through Adriatic the to access her grant to Ambassadors of Conference the of

(Elsie 1995) to the simple borderlands folks, many of which which of many folks, borderlands simple the to 1995) (Elsie ifune a te were they as influenced ,

acti vities were directed primarily to state to primarily directed were vities

This means that popular conceptions popular that means This o called Europe ―an ageing whore‖ whore‖ ageing ―an Europe called o

ith its ‗natural‘ frontiers and frontiers ‗natural‘ its ith h ntoait intellectuals nationalist the I we Albania when WI,

take Krumsheline Krumsheline take

hen discussing discussing hen - building and building 157

CEU eTD Collection traditions common 2009). (Konomi word‖ ofthe sense id have distinct and two created language has this same and the histories different speak we because identity same the 22 (political) boundaries. supra thus about imagination popular strong a maintain to served and cultivated between, in centuries the notwithstanding axes, temporal perennialin 159 1921: (Cekrezi Pasha‖ Ali under other the and Pasha, Mustafa of reign the under was part one 105 Eu in countries powerful most the of one as recognized was Albania takendifferentof imaginary a this trajectoryparts thatis various in nation. socio historical, that fact the despite map, expansionist an championing by masses the mobilize to order in junctures, specific at only elites nationalist by activated been has that dream A unification. national of dream unobta an forging and victimhood of that myth, another consecutively developing political the in (unju nation a of reality the creating by citizens future and pupils the amongst mapping mental external interferences. conce elite political against

As N. N. As -

stly) divided in several parts. Thus, a Thus, parts. several in divided stly) 106), or ―[a]s is easily seen, in this time, Albania was all free, but separated in half: in separated but free, all was Albania time, this in seen, easily is ―[a]s or 106), Spahiu has put it recently: ―[i] recently: it put has Spahiu Such clichés can be found throughout this text, such as: ―under Scanderbeg reign, Scanderbeg ―under as: such text, this throughout found be can clichés Such T extbooks - 160). Thus, talking about a unit called Alb called unit a about talking Thus, 160). - diitaie es, tre t b iaie, orse ad perpetuated, and nourished imagined, be to started sense, administrative

uh s h oe etoe above, mentioned one the as such

tos f otatos ittd y iiain ipsd by imposed limitations by dictated contractions of ptions

n terms of ethnicity, we [the Albanians in both sides of borders] have borders] of sides both in Albanians [the we ethnicity, of terms n - economic, cultural and polit and cultural economic,

Greater Albania Greater entities entities – ania through time, imagining that it is is it imaginingthat time, through ania

separated from one another in the political political the in another one from separated are crucial in developing a sort of of sort a developing in crucial are

- that has never existed as such as existed never has that ertra sae ih reduced with state territorial ical factors seem to have have to seem factors ical rope‖ (Cekrezi 1921: (Cekrezi rope‖ 22 .

u w hv had have we But

inable inable 158

CEU eTD Collection sovereign. 24 23 in (Bitola) Monastir and Montenegro in Tivar and Hoti to Greece northern in Preveza ambition territorial an creater to agitators patriotic weThat have inherited from forefathers our (Fishta 1921). This Albanianis land, Because in all these lands The black andred flag Albanians, of In Kaçanik From Tivar Monastir.to From Preveza Hoti, to makeWill again Albania free Tomorrow with helpthe of God, n Gjergjpolitician HeFishta. writes: and of poet father, Franceskan example the of Albania‖ An ―Free poem the pressures. at see can external we intellectuals of aware was that elite political from resisted were but apt be would conditions when patrons external of help possible with realized be would that map expansionist new a e build to started cultural intellectuals, notable These designs. maximalist fulfill to strove that one concurrent the and state new the of symbols republican around borders nations` the mapped that position cultu nation( the of map greater a around consensus evolving gradual a witnessing start we understanding, political general of level a reached and Lushnja of

My translation. Mytranslation. Implying indirectly that an Albania without these ‗lost‘ territories would never be completely free and and free completely be never would territories ‗lost‘ these without Albania an that indirectly Implying ral elite. Thus virtual borders once again were fluctuating between the institutionalist the between fluctuating were again once borders virtual Thus elite. ral ee e e a epnins mp ht eciae te l ntoait ras of dreams nationalist old the reactivates that map expansionist an see we Here i the When

will fly

nternal of the country started to stabilize around 1920 with the Congress the with 1920 around stabilize to started country the of nternal

of what he calls in the title symbolically ―Free Albania‖ ―Free symbolically title the in calls he what of

Ethnic Albania Ethnic

. Fishta is careful to give to careful is Fishta . 23

- state) first amongst the the amongst first state) an exact map of map exact an 24

ationalizing that ie and lites ranges 159

CEU eTD Collection from. were homeland with imagined the unification that sought leaders 25 activit and nation of identity talk and dogma old Romantic any from movement nationalist new this famousof articles hismost clearlyexpresses view this whenwrites: he Merxhani example, For descent. of myths or glory‘ former of ‗era an of that as such nation ―Neo called movement started Frasheri Mit`that or Merxhani Branko Koça, Vangjel as such publicists, educated foreign Young, flourish. to started proper Albania in press the Butflourished. communities i expatriates by published materials scarce only with Albanian, native in develop to starting yet not were science andLiterature early30s. and 1920s late in scene political in witnessed Kosovo, asof new theepicenter this redeemed nation Kaçanik, in raised be will flag national flag black and red the Symbolically Macedonia. n United States, Romania, Italy, Greece, Egypt and elsewhere where diaspora diaspora where elsewhere and Egypt Greece, Italy, Romania, States, United n

aai i ntd s pae w place a as noted is Kaçanik e. hs w se sit oad a cnrcin ht ol coey ou o the on focus closely would that contraction map toward shift a see we Thus, ies. - ulig n state and building Merxhani and his fellow his and Merxhani reawak Cultural - ulig rcse a srnl cnetd o tt ad ntttoa building institutional and state to connected strongly as processes building we are a new nation (Merxhani 1933: 154). mind rational a tim long forgotten with have Romans Even predecessors. national their with Greek connection linear or direct about Turkish myths old single believing a find cannot we day, hypothesis, Albanians are we ofIllyrians: ancient descendants or Pellasgians, mythological of nephews grand either not are We - ening was a precondition for a different kind of nationalist renewal nationalist of kind different a for precondition a was ening Shqiptarizem‖ [New Albanianism] in which they proclaimed that that proclaimed they which in Albanianism] [New Shqiptarizem‖

- an absurdity. We should feel only contempt for this sophism. To the To sophism. this for contempt only feel should We absurdity. an formation should clearly be separated from myths of origins, origins, of myths from separated be clearly should formation here many Albanian resistance movements had started and some notable notable some and started had movements resistance Albanian many here

- in - arms go on to fully express a need for a separation of separation a for need a express fully to on go arms e now their origin… Yes! We are Albanians and Albanians are We Yes! origin… their now e -

a new nation. The pellasgical folktale is a null a is folktale pellasgical The nation. new a - state.

in one in 160 a

CEU eTD Collection Bosnia in Croatians and Albania, Serbs in the Bosn notwithstanding (where Serbia in Sanjak identification, religious their preserved of case the is Such well. as identity national distinct a remain minorities to helped has preservance such when or pressures, the t testify when hindered can others happened and has Macedonia either and opposite Kosovo in was Turkish of case both the in identification Albanians Greece, Orthodox and of Macedonia cases national The successful. been has assimilation often of process the society, when host the and th nationality whenever that seems It dictated. instrumentally with 760 religion 914, to deliberately increased conflated often wascensuses these number only not their because here 1961 stressing needs in caveat and a However Communist 245 121). during (Schöpflin: 754, censuses were Albanians from the given 1953 data in to when this period, Compare 203). 1974: (Rothchild 3.63 percentage of perce 3.67 or 657 439, were 1921 in numbers official post only of creation a was Macedonia 28 27 willbelow. argued be motionas it publication 26 (Albanians lords feudal Muslim of party mixed a was Yugoslavia, in organization cultural Albania. administrative within Albanians the about info no or little had zones, border the in ones the of exception the with period, Interwar Period 4. political rhetoric briefand moment oflucidi beforeafterthis in used variable constant a been had which nationalism anachronic to barrier natural a as serve would Theyprogressivism. new of forces as developments scientific and to moving and consciousness societal new the fomenting in play to part criticala having as education of role the Instead,theyprofessed territories. lost such (re)unite to right the had Albanians descendants, direct as and rule Pellasgian or Illyrian un united were territories these of all when days glorious former of myth a on based been has that Albania Greater of ambitions false nourish not and unit, territorial present

It was established in 1918 and it preceded Yugoslavia. It changed the name to the later only in only 1928. the later to name the changed It Yugoslavia. it preceded and inwas 1918 It established 4 Right after this discourse rose to prominence and established itself as the mainstream one in press and and press in one mainstream the as itself established and prominence to rose discourse this after Right At the time there was not a political division amongst Albanians of Yugoslavia, since Republic of of Republic since Yugoslavia, of Albanians amongst division political a not was there time the At

The Imagined Nation amongst ImaginedThe Expansionary Map in Nation theKin: Kosovo Ethnic in h Abnas n h Kndm f Serbs of Kingdom the in Albanians The s and policy and s

- making, Albania was invaded by Italy and design of a Greater Albania were put in put were Albania Greater a of design and Italy by invaded was Albania making,

iaks have retained their distinct identity), Turkish Pomaks in Bulgaria, Greeks Greeks Bulgaria, in Pomaks Turkish identity), distinct their retained have iaks

- WWII period. The official numbers about the Albanians vary but the the but vary Albanians the about numbers official The period. WWII - Herzegovina etc. Herzegovina e minority group shares same religion with the majority of of majority the with religion same shares group minority e nt of total population and 505, 259 in 1931, or in terms in or 1931, in 259 505, and population total of nt

- 28 ras n Slovenes and Croats ty.

The only active political, militaryand political, active only The 26

ward rationalist thinking rationalist ward 27

n h inter the in o this. The The this. o rmation rmation

161 war der der

CEU eTD Collection 30 469 pp. Pa the in leader Albanian vocal most the Draga, N. of death the after 1921 in Congress Party Second its after especially identity), religious with ethnic fusing Albanians Pasić of help the 29 with 1924) (in Tirana in Zog of return second from decade the Especially granted. for taken or today, conceptualized chiefly is it as nationhood modern did they show periods different of leaders political some of biographies and archival put, stayed immutably have that bonds unbreakable of speak often books history Although homeland. th to 1927), prior migrated or killed were ones primarily (the elite, cultural and political of lack becomingwider. characterizing was that gap the radicals.thesefrom eye benevolent a with seen been have not could Albania secular A period. interwar the and Party Radical pol low the shows ofclearly which Xhemiyet, voters joint the by elected paradoxically was regime, Belgrade behalfof on Kosovo in cleansingethnic for used later and Kingdom tripartite ofparliament Radić Stepjan killing for infamous Montenegro, from depute a Racić, Punisa that is this of evidence An organization. particular this in feelings Albanians. the amongst awakening national called Turks) and

For a similar argument see also Krasniqi 2009. also see similara argument For Although it was first created as an Albanian political party in December 18, 1918 with 64 delegates from from delegates 64 with 1918 18, December in party political Albanian an as created first was it Although - 473. In the absence of the historical precedent of a unified Albania and considering the the considering and Albania unified a of precedent historical the of absence the In

of Yugoslavia, with time a large proportion of its members declared themselves as Muslims (thus (thus Muslims as themselves declared members its of proportion large a time with Yugoslavia, of not share the sense of a unified imagined community in a mental mapping of of mapping mental a in community imagined unified a of sense the share not e Albanians of Yugoslavia had a rough imagination of their connection to to connection their of imagination rough a had Yugoslavia of Albanians e

Xhemiyet 30

Thus the falling out of Albanians in Albania with their ethnic kin andkin their ethnic with Albania in Albanians of fallingout the Thus

Rtcid 94, u i dd o play not did it but 1974), (Rothchild

hi clua ubign ad oiia frain was formation political and upbringing cultural their rty. See for more History of Albanian People, Vol. 3, 2007, 3, Vol. People, Albanian of History more for See rty.

itical consciousness of Albanian community in community Albanian of consciousness itical 29

The religious element took over the national the over took element religious The , a Croatian nationalist leader in the in leader nationalist Croatian a , n sgiiat oe in role significant any 162

CEU eTD Collection suppo their between long fighting after shot were finally inKosovo leaders irredentist and nationalist leading the Galica, Shote and Azem while imprisoned, was Yugoslavia, in agents, Zog`s by Thessaloniki in I in killed killed Gurakuqi Luigj was who minister) Albania` former and (Kosovar Prishtina c Hasan irredentist and nationalist crush borderland, in Curri Bajram were killed to were that leaders notable most the of Some Albania. order with unification in government newly his Belgrade against while opposition vocal regime, most the found were they since them persecuted Zog stability. regimes` both intel shared often who one Yugoslavian 31 in and domestic both elite, cultural and political the from differently who population, government central by crushed was it and weeks few only lasted it short, very was borders confined with map reductionist a of creation the sought that life revolt`s the and rule the reinforces lim a only of authority self the sought that agenda parochial a with rebellion bottom only the is this Furthermore, ask and and government legitimate recognized Vidi`s the overthrowing Albania, central in Qamili Haxhi of upheaval ceased t suddenly which country home the as Empire Ottoman old the despair in remembering still were them of Most 1930s. late until dormant lay to feelings nationalist for possible of lack with combined Kosovo, in informa breed nationalist of extinction near the as well Albania, and Kosovo of zones border in operating nationalists Albanian against fight government

Some of the prominent nationalists were either shot or imprisoned by either Albania`s army or or army Albania`s either by imprisoned or shot either were nationalists prominent the of Some Thus we witness a sharp divide between a large percentage of Albanian Muslim Albanian of percentage large a between divide sharp a witness we Thus the with culminated that feelings mixed such had people the Albania, within Even tion about Albania there and lack of education in Albanian vernacular, made made vernacular, Albanian in education of lack and there Albania about tion o exist and were goldenin despairthis exist a for age. return o of

swiftly. in the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (Yugoslavia after 1929) and the the and 1929) (Yugoslaviaafter Slovenes and Croats Serbs, of Kingdom the in

taly and Avni Rustemi. Nehat Draga, the most prominent Albanian political leader leader political Albanian prominent most the Draga, Nehat Rustemi. Avni and taly td ic o trioy n h mdl o Abna Te exception The Albania. of middle the in territory of piece ited

n fr Trih rne o ae h Abna throne. Albanian the take to prince Turkish a for ing ligence sources to fight what they perceived as common enemy to to enemy common as perceived they what fight to sources ligence - up initiative when the self the when initiative up - rters and Zog`s and Pasić`s armies. Pasić`sarmies. Zog`s and and rters governance under formal Turkish Turkish formal under governance - organized masses started a started masses organized

alls for possible possible for alls

31 163

CEU eTD Collection frame. time this massduring elite), and (both discourse Kosovo inthe internal seems It 1939. in Albania of occupation Italian of until arrival continuing homeland, perceived the with unification of source any and ambition territorial maximalist of lack total almost the logic: theopposite on based thesis such derive can I withBelgrade. cooperation reinvigorated 32 and marginal for external by a engineered deviceartificial as treated was real than more frontier the and porous very Kosovo was the border 1920s, early In border. of sides two the of alienation growing a continuing a andso primary the as identity religious with affiliation mobilization nationalist of Lack exiled. or imprisoned killed, were inter the of most the make would that Albanians thereaware a homeland of towhichthey tojoin. would seek mobilization significant little was there literates, of percentage spread that organizations political and cultural small by done work the and Belgrade in office consular Albania`s the by them to distributed information limited of exception the With it. to attachment the loosing gradually were ev the of information much had have to not seem Yugoslavia in Albanians the Thus, period. interwar the during one, nationalist the over identification religious prevailing the and government Tirana from support state little Albania, in affairs ab information no or limited vernacular, written a about knowledge of lack of because ideas, nationalist with unacquainted largely were who Yugoslavia of Albanians in mood prevailing the for argument same the make can We entity. independent an opposing point the to Empire Ottoman the toward feelings amicable deep nourished diaspora,

It was very hard to find much, if any primary sources (i.e. songs, poetry or maps) that reflect a a reflect that maps) or poetry songs, (i.e. sources primary any if much, find to hard very was It

mobilization amongst Kosovo Albanians in the late 1920s around a project that would seek seek would that project a around 1920s late the in Albanians Kosovo amongst mobilization large a to belonging ofsense limited rather a hadThey war period, because after 1924 most of their (Albanian) nationalist leaders nationalist (Albanian) their of most 1924 after because period, war

ces and thus, interaction was very much habitual habitual much very interactionwas thus, and ces

that Albania was mentioned rarely and figured little little figured and rarely mentioned was Albania that urce of identification, made possible for for possible made identification, of urce

nationalist ideas amongst the small small the amongst ideas nationalist ents going on in Albania and and Albania in on going ents r pan r

- Albanian nation during nation Albanian 32

out state of of state out - Albanian Albanian 164

CEU eTD Collection a in possible made in were motion institutions in religious set and time. short relative were state of processes separation similar clear Also of law. principles by where established education, were dress of code Westernized new a 34 reasons. the combat to with Yugoslavs forces joined Austro by past the in opened were that schools Albanian factors Such change. such for possibility were the up opened that factors certain of combination the with 1930s fo allowed This 33 powerful this with relationship solid a maintaining donor, financial biggest also but Zog, of ethnic supporter political main just not was Yugoslavia Since above. Albanian mentioned as gone were between connection eve than the weaker were border of where sides both in communities period time the with coincided That 24). 1998: (Čanak Borders‖ on Protocol Commission`s International an by 1926, [which] Albania and Slovenes and Croats, Serbs, of Kingdom the between borders final ―the on agreement an to came he afterwards soon counter the powerin cameto import high of matter a became frontier northern its in of delineation border the settling result Wilson, President to lobbyists the diaspora Albanian successful as mostly 1920s, in Nation of League the in accepted was Albania After leade domestic and constraints international by both stimulated secularizationorder process toWesternize. in fro them alienated hand other the on assimilation, resist to them enabled that identity ethnic the of preserver ultimate border. of sides both between

Such programs became especially noted under Zog`s reign when explicit when reign Zog`s under noted especially became programs Such I am indebted to Gezim Krasniqi for driving my attention to this fact (email correspondence June 2011). 2011). June correspondence (email fact this to attention my driving for Krasniqi Gezim to indebted am I inter alia inter

Furthermore, Albanian state at the same period had different objectives and goals and objectives different had period same the at state Albanian Furthermore, : the forced exile and persecution of Alba of persecution and exile forced the : r a persistence of a map expansion that would reverse only in the late 1920s and throughout throughout and 1920s late the in only reverse would that expansion map a of persistence a r

- m kin in Albania who in this period were facing a large a facing were period this in who Albania in kin m revolution of December 1924 with the help of Yugoslavs and Yugoslavsand of help the with 1924 December of revolution

hs tog tahet o h rlgos dniy s the as identity religious the to attachment strong This

Kachak

irredentist movement in Kosovo and other less im less other and Kosovo in movement irredentist 34

- nian nationalist elites of Kosovo, the closing of any any of closing the Kosovo, of elites nationalist nian

Hungarian Empire, the Zog regime in Albania who Albania in regime Zog the Empire, Hungarian

were arbitrated in Florence, on July 2, July on Florence, in arbitrated were ance. This was realized after Zog`s after realized was This ance. r and most nationalist leaders nationalist most and r

rules against against rules rships` power struggle. struggle. power rships` hijab hijab and enforcing and portant portant - scale 165

CEU eTD Collection the of most where Turkey, with treaty exchange Turks. than rather Albanians, were persons population ‗exchanged‘ the in done had Serbs that cleansing‘ th The ‗ethnic did 123f). Power 1973: Axis (Schöpflin by Germans supported the Kosovo, in of Albanians support with power seizing regime collaborationist Ustasha 35 a envisioned that project cultural mobili in success of rate significant more a had Albania south and central in elites cultural and political Orthodox and Muslim as well as country, the of north Catholics the especially Albania, administrative within Albanians the years, interwar of map alternative the possible made which awakening nationalist general a had Albanians that territorial the sought that congruence and state. between nation principle a as nationalism from far were case any in which identification), supranational(religious or based) tribal villageor belonging(local, ofsense long. last not did Austro betwee of notion the contraction follows. are agendas nationalist pushed sidelineselite into from increase, constraints external when that hypothesis my with territories. of revindication seek would that map expansionist an advocating Albanianpol panacea better for neighbor a was

This sit This - n the Albanian speaking communities in the two sides of borders. The impact that that impact The borders. of sides two the in communities speaking Albanian the n Paradoxically, it was with the I the with was it Paradoxically, on based belonging of community village and local a with identification Auxiliary Hungarian schools in native language had language native in schools Hungarian Greater Albania Greater uation is similar to Croats trying to drive Serbs out of Krajina region, seizing in the opportunity of of opportunity the in seizing region, Krajina of out Serbs drive to trying Croats to similar is uation fis , a resemblance with Montenegrin Montenegrin with resemblance a , Thus we can safely deduce a confined sense of community with a limite a with community of sense confined a deduce safely can we Thus

to gain widespread consensus in a short span of time. of span short a in consensus widespread gain to

s because of perceived costs that outrun benefits and border and benefits outrun costs that s because ofperceived Greater Albania Greater

talian and later German occupations during WWII during occupations German later and talian

itical elite than risky costs of engagement in of engagement in costs thanrisky itical elite e same and tried in frenzy to reverse the previous previous the reverse to frenzy in tried and same e

than their co their than in Albania in zadrugas , was too small because they because small too was , frhr nrae te gap the increased further , - ethnics in Yugoslavia. The The Yugoslavia. in ethnics zing Albanians around a a around Albanians zing This is in line in is This 35

While in While 166 d

CEU eTD Collection Hungarians, minorities Germans, of Yugoslav of issue removal country.‖ this in rights civil their lose to ―deserved who Romanians, and Italians, Albanians, the the for because calls pure,‖ Cubrilović countries. ―ethnically neighboring be with conflicts must Yugoslavia peace, establish ―to that, memorandum, another yet writes Communists 36 and thefollowingcourseof policy state a became soon memorandum this that records evidence Historical 97). 2002: Elsie 1938; (Cubrilović Yugoslavia from Albanians of expulsion on memorandum 1937 mas the is factors objective vis variation such constructing in hand a played socio mean, I this By factors. in variation of lots known has border chapter. next the in explained is it as populations local by backed selectively only were projects (especi countries neighboring to cost a with came ‗Greater short as Croatia‘, existence in ‗Greater came Albania‘ projected ‗Greater the and Bulgaria‘ that time this at was It Europe. Southeast cre to tried which WWII, with culminated which interference, non

n 94 uolv itra Vs Cubrilović, Vaso historian Yugoslav 1944 In - optblt o vsos uig newr eid a fclttd y external by facilitated was period interwar during visions of compatibility ship easternto Turkey... Skopje the on deported are Most Ekisehir. and Kocaeli, Izmir, Tekirdag, Istanbul, Bursa, in settle Some left. deportees the Anatol areas the of parts of population than agriculture the for worse are which Yozgat, and increase Elazig,Diyarbakir, especially Kurdistan, and to them Kosovo use from to wants Muslims Turkey and Turks, Yugoslavia. in speakers Turkish Albanians, 50,000 only counted census 1921 the 200,000 though Macedonia, accept to agrees Turkey its outside homeland perceived a toward attitude Albanian Kosovar the Overall,

events place: took s expulsion of Kosovar Albanians to Turkey after Cubrilović after Turkey to Albanians Kosovar of expulsion s 36 -

political variables, both objective and subjective which have have which subjective and objective both variables, political

( Vickers 1998:Vickers pp. 117

the interwar period, due to the real or perceived perceived or real the to due period, interwar the The Problem of Minorities in the New Yugoslavia New the in Minorities of Problem The gi i te oiin f oe atr aig ie wt the with sides taking after power of position the in again

- Thessaloniki rail Thessaloniki ally Serbia and Greece), although such such although Greece), and Serbia ally - - à 120 - i Abna Oe f h foremost the of One Albania. vis ; Kola 2003: pp. 21 ate perplexing realities in the in realities perplexing ate - ie pltcl elte that realities political lived road, then by another train or train another by then road, -

102

a n around and ia ).

, and says says and ,

creates creates 167

CEU eTD Collection affi the be may reason second A Slavs. Southern to common characteristic whicha is epics oral customary prose. than exercises repeated through verse memorize easy could more population illiterate much generally a because is this analysis, my In published. rarely and scant 37 3 Table the Albanian per kininthis amongst map of visualization and interplay factors exogenous and endogenous of Albania. toward detached increasingly grow people the of socio kn no or faint a poor with coupled and elites political local forceful of lack migration, mass forced policies, centralized Belgrade the from pressure growing to due However, the of most comprised who Kosovo toTurkey‖ 2002:97),when 1938;Elsie asks i in (Cubrilović he from Albanians ethnic of thousands of hundreds of expulsion the for called which 1937 March 7 of Memorandum Cubrilović infamous the of hearing on 1938 in written ―was us which fault?), Albanian`s the it (Is shqiptari? fajtor asht ―A Mekuli`s Esad as such poetry in else amongst reflected is which regime, Belgrade from the population Albanian of majority the of alienation growing a to led practices and blueprints policy Such

Robert Elsie points out at numbers that show a show that numbers at out points Elsie Robert illiterates by even memorized was and period the in uncommon not was verse Such Under this sky, the in land ancestors?of (Elsie 1995, vol. 2,: 635). Is Albanian`s the it fault that he lives under this sky, . Pre dictions for border for dictions outcomes kin amongst iod.

owledge of state of affairs in neighboring Albania, made most most made Albania, neighboring in affairs of state of owledge

ouain n hd ite r o otc wt Albania. with contact no or little had and population

much larger percentage of poetry over prose, which was which prose, over poetry of percentage larger much

the interwar period See table below for a summary summary a for below table See

- cnmc conditions, economic ts beginning:

as Elsie tells Elsie as

nity to the the to nity

168 37

CEU eTD Collection 1939) (1925 early 1924) (1918 to Albania in Situation -

recognized borders. internationally based on single project that is political class around a amongst of members more uniformity de competition Political politics). lobby inAlbanian and therestKosovar of Fan Noli,H.Prishtina v unification goal much urging of thepursuit irredentist nature, in and theother vocally byZog Kryeziu) and with Yugoslavs (headed strongly cooperating unification projects and opposing any with onepart of elite competition escalated domesticPolitical Competing games Elite igorously (headed by - escalated. Thus, existing existing

pursuit of boundaries and notin country with settled L admittance in borders in1921 and recognition of Albanian international Versailles, then such as Congress of constraints, events with High external Constraints International recognition. line withofficial boundaries in ofnation theouter limits conditionality that High external agenda.

irredentist oN as its

happened inAlbania. regime change 1924 when a sight, atleast until with noclear leads a to from external powers, coupled with limits strugglesat home, becauseelite high Map ambiguity, contraction witness a map predictions, we In line with during period. this bottom The mapvisualization Border Outcome - up also fuzzy

situation situation here. forced end at end

169

CEU eTD Collection territoria by possible made was which Albania‘, ‗Greater the of creation the for possibilitythe up opened Albania, ofItaly`s occupation with 1939 in with Belgrade feasible as theonly way cooperation of path the saw who Zog, of policy contraction borders` to regime Noli`s Fan under attempts irredentist covert from fluctuated which well, as critical especially were internati and games elites` to according expanded or shrunk times at sinceimagining national of map ethnic the with overlapped and affected 1912 period rath came state the Since lands. Albanian of understandably case that the affected fluctuations notable with change, constant of state a in remained regard amongst tomap imagination theco with noticed were changes interesting where borderlands, the in those the including country, of areas remote to extended process This identity. national cohesive a of that with sub and local of sense the replace to sought which propaganda, political and education the army, the as such institutions various through infrastructure, its expand states. own self of concept the by mostly affected contexts, European and regional the in periods unstable 4.5 - Conclusion determination of small nations that broke away from former Empires and created their created and Empires former from away broke that nations small of determination The next chapter, focuses particularly on the Axis power occupation, which started started which occupation, power Axis the on particularly focuses chapter, next The which borders, for telling especially is Versailles, of Treaty the after period The pre the in focused chapter This - To use a modernist` parlance, this was the period where the state started to to started state the where period the was this parlance, modernist` a use To 1928 was a period where the territorial/state map saw multiple changes which which changes multiple saw map territorial/state the where period a was 1928

to return to power.to return to - WWI and interwar periods, as two of the most most the of two as periods, interwar and WWI - ethnics livingethnics with onal intervention. The years 1924 years The intervention. onal

l (re)adjustments and joining of of joining and (re)adjustments l in oroutofhomeland. r ae o Abnas the Albanians, for late er - n ational identities identities ational

- 1925 1925 170

CEU eTD Collection chapter next shows. the in cited evidence as populations Macedonian and Kosovo in popular support mass widespread no found Pavelić, Ante of geopolitical certain Croatia‘ ‗Greater the for with fashion similar a in Power, created Axis the of part the by Albania‘ calculations ‗Greater This Kosovo. in town Mitrovica collabor whose regime, Tirana puppet a to sovereignty formal returned who Germans, the under well continued This rule. autonomous formal a maintained who Albania, to Macedonia Western and territory Kosovo`s of part most the

in Albania proper but was hugely hugely was but proper Albania in toit rm mnse ws from was minister prime ationist 171

CEU eTD Collection change constitutional 1974 after as such junctures, critical certain map In of form expansion. any at aimed directly least at that action any of not though discourse, of geo of change perceived the times, other at While pretensions. territorial assumed that rhetoric any down scaling leadership Albanian with form, interesting an takes map the honeymoon, a very form. concrete of creation the to led party other the versus one of dominance the and struggles elite The here. traced dur amplitudes several saw however clashes elite These emissaries. Tito`s especially and Allies, the of help the with forces, occupation the fighting firstly were Communists while Berlin, and Rome to wit loyalty their switching clash, elite renewed a provoked Germany, later and Italy first Powers, Axis the by occupation direct with culminated which intervention, Introduction the regi to these in territorial discourse the of fore boundaries identity again, yet bring, and world borderless supposedly our in symbols ethnonational post of slogans only not are Albania Greater and Serbia “Greater Chapter 5 political conditions, coupled with domestic calculations, has made possible a reversal a possible made has calculations, domestic with coupled conditions, political uig al Cmuit er, hn h Yugoslav the when years, Communist early During outside extreme by caused destabilization regional how shows chapter This Greater Albania Greater

and not only in its symbolic and imaginative angle, but also in in also but angle, imaginative and symbolic its in only not and ons” (Newman 2005: 334). 2005: (Newman ons” ing a span time of five years that are duly duly are that years five of time span a ing Borders Communistin Era WWII From Albania Greater during - ntoait i ter majority their in nationalists h

World War I era, but remain relevant remain but era, I War World to Contractionaryto

- Albanian era

a i its in was

in s 172

CEU eTD Collection unification inasingle albeit ofRome. state, under directcontrol ha comingin Albanians and Balkans the dominate to territory geographical crucial a as served Albania light, such in Viewed rule. fascist Mussolini`s under Empire Roman renewed the building general Italy`s goals. Albania Greater ever the because happened culminated which Albania, in influence Italian of presence raising the by motivated primarily was This imagination. expansionist an nourishing thus Albania, with unification possible a for longing started bord imaginary the harden to started the “Greater Albania” Create to Map of Redrawing and WWII during Intervention International Direct 5.1 aims. its over map of version certain a discourages or urges it how and map national of manipulation through goals its maximize to competition elite allow that openings restrictions/opportunity external versus internal the about hypotheses my with This concessions. additional get or security internal optimize serve strategically framework map larger of cultivation deliberate a have to seem we Yugoslavia, oad h ed f 90 ad h avn o WI, h Abnas n Yugoslavia in Albanians the WWII, of advent the and 1930s of end the Toward

ndy as natural allies if the Italians would properly appeal to the opportunityof the to properlyappeal Italians would the if allies natural as ndy

icus i odr o aiy n Abna rssac t is annexation its to resistance Albanian any pacify to order in discourse

Tirana in case it needed to mobilize its external minorities as a way to to way a as minorities external its mobilize to needed it case in Tirana

expansion blueprint envisioned Albania as a stepping stone toward toward stone stepping a as Albania envisioned blueprint expansion

- growing presence and impact of Italy, which used the carrot of carrot the used which Italy, of impact and presence growing

with the 1939 occupation of the country from Italy. This This Italy. from country the of occupation 1939 the with r wt ter eba co Serbian their with ers

the other in order to secure to order in other the ambival -

iies n increasingly and citizens ence s n tandem in is

that would that 173

CEU eTD Collection lirueme‘). e (inAlb. ‗tokat parts‖ liberated 1 liberatedforeign from (Serb)occupiers. Alba Albanian the a how of indications and this for of manifestation Albanian) (in below map Italian the See 91). 1991: (Hibert Europe in elsewhere sim a in Albania of trunk administrative the to united themselves saw Yugoslavia of Albanians the ever, time first the for when borders, ‗virtual‘ the matched that borders ‗hard‘ of redesigning Macedonia current from Western and South in Saranda to North the in Mitrovica from extended that state Albanian enlarged new the ruled regency, collaborationist the when occupation German in form constitutional

I thank A. Lame for providing me with this map of the day, which in its yellow parts has indicated ―the indicated has parts yellow its in which day, the of map this with me providing for Lame A. thank I inlnswr cle lbrto ad‖wt tecerasmtos htte were they that assumptions clear the with lands‖ ―liberation called were lands nian a took which map, expansionist an encouraged further itself occupation of act The ilar fashion with that of other quisling regimes, loyal to the Axis Powers Axis the to loyal regimes, quisling other of that with fashion ilar

in East to Durres in the Adriatic Sea. This made possible the the possible made This Sea. Adriatic the in Durres to East in the trait of a materialized a of trait the

Greater Albania Greater - speaking territories added to the to added territories speaking . It continued under the under continued It . 174

CEU eTD Collection Vu Podujevo, the for 2 (except Kosovo of part larger A swing. full in was Albania‖ ―Greater a of project the of realization the Yugoslavia,on attack Axis subsequent the and War World Second the of outset the ―[w]ith that: adds historian Serbian A format. unit a in existence into came entity administrative an such that time first the was this 1939

Map of 1941. Priv of1941. Map - 1944 that the project of Greater Albania... was conceived" (Zolo 2002: 24), because because 24), 2002: (Zolo conceived" was Albania... Greater of project the that 1944 Thus, as Zolo summarizes: "[i]t was under the Italian and German occupation of occupation German and Italian the under was "[i]t summarizes: Zolo as Thus, ate archive of A. Lame, originally retrieved from Vienna archives. fromarchives. Vienna originallyretrieved Lame, ofA. archive ate

Map 14 Vj(H 1941 Albania WWII ) 2

citern, and and citern, 175 ed ed

CEU eTD Collection map contractionary a favored consistently and designs such opposed version. fiercely counterp but Yugoslav body, the from political supported single (openly border of sides both in Communists geo German later and bo of elites political of here Kombetar that was difference Legaliteti 3 he Belgrade in the ambassador with correspondence Italian the in example, For region. the in point focal a into Albania occupied the turn and influence of sphere its expand to order in Sudetenland, Hitler`s to Alba ―Greater that correspondenceand memoirs his in states clearly He observations. interesting some come occupation, during policy Albania Italy`s for responsible official primary the and Italy of minister foreign the Ciano, diffe altogether was shifting) border (for cause the time, collaborationists expansionistfulfill (toAxisPower),this tohelpmap. inorder (in nationalists the suited reality geopolitical created newly this Thus, Greece. of occupation attempted their in forces Italian the by loss suffered a to due retrieved be not could that territories Southern minus goals, nationalists` pre of materialization the basically was This it. with satisfied drawn, was Albania Greater and Bulgaria Greater between line demarcation a Agreement, Vienna 1941 April 199 (Čanak Albania‖ ―Greater the givento also were Naum, St. and Struga Debar, Kicevo, Gostivar, Tetovo, including Macedonia, western in Regions Albania… Greater fascist the to joined were Metohija of whole the and counties) Mitrovica Kosovska

The nationalists in both Albania and Yugoslavia formed unified political groups and parties, such as as such parties, and groups political unified formed Yugoslavia and Albania both in nationalists The

huh h efc ws ht lain ainls eie wr wiig o a long a for waiting were elites nationalist Albanian what was effect the Though

and and supported a republican form of regime for the new expanded Albanian state. Thus I am talking talking am I Thus state. Albanian expanded new the for regime of form republican a supported al Kombetar Balli Legaliteti - strategic plans, were quick to embrace the new expansionist map. Meanwhile the the Meanwhile map. expansionist new the embrace to quick were plans, strategic

n xes o Yugoslavia, of expense on th Albanians in Albania and the ones in Yugoslavia who encouraged by Italian Italian by encouraged who Yugoslavia in ones the and Albania in Albanians th

sought such unification under the already exiled monarch King Zog I, I, Zog King monarch exiled already the under unification such sought Ntoa Fot, hs ga ws o rae n Ehi A ―Ethnic an create to was goal whose Front), (National

xlcty rts ht ooo ouain reaches population Kosovo that writes explicitly nia‖ was an Italian political project similar similar project political Italian an was nia‖

evn ol te ugras o entirely not Bulgarians the only leaving

both sides of border), of sides both rent.

- From the diary of Count Count of diary the From 191 3 Albania maximalist maximalist Albania 3 arts), also acted as a a as acted also arts), 8: 31). With the With 31). 8: lbania‖. The only only The lbania‖. 3

who became became who

Balli Balli 176

CEU eTD Collection 167). 1999: (Fischer achieved‖ be the Albania with of union coming real the Kosovo`s would with Germans, now, only that impression the created Germans The shore‘. colonialist of long act a simple of culmination a the as annexation, dismissed was role ―Italy`s it: puts (1999) Fischer As Albania Greater inevitable the when Yugoslavcrisisa 1953:112). camehead‖Ciano (Fischer to 1999: 71; moment the for ready be to organization military clandestine (3) o management the to as same (2) religion, and culture on stress laying propaganda broad general ―(1) border: of sides both on Albanians unite would that phases Alban the of one threeof consisting irredentismdetailed of program a with up to come collaborators, Koliqi, asked Ciano where Affairs, Albanian for Undersecretariate the at Irredentism Balkans‖ for Office the creating by words his of good made Ciano 209). whole 1939: (Ciano the dominate will that [roccaforte] castle a Albania make to program about enthusiastic is ―Fuhrer that mentions he when Hitler with meeting a recalls also Ciano 306). 1939: (Ciano Albanians‖ the of feelings national the alive keep ―to order in l weak the reinforcing of issue the in interested particularly be to seem himself Mussolini Also 287). 1939:286 under pressure‖ (Ciano Yugoslavs Albanians as question, tothis well as tokeep ―thi that adds He Balkans.‖ country mother the and stable morally physically, strong ―very inhabitants, 850.000 On the other hand, the Germans seem to have been more genuinely interested in a a in interested genuinely more been have to seem Germans the hand, other the On inks of Albania to territories of Chameria in the South and Kosovo in the North North the in Kosovo and South the in Chameria of territories to Albania of inks

project than the Italians, or at least they tried hard to build that perception.that build to they hard Italians,tried least at thanorprojectthe … and this will serve to maintain alive a problem of irredentism in the the in irredentism of problem a alive maintain to serve will this and … s will be twofold important: to keep alive the attention of the the of attention the alive keep to important: twofold be will s - tnig tla plc o controll of policy Italian standing nhsatc o joining for enthusiastic

f public welfare, and and welfare, public f ing their ‗fifth ‗fifth their ing 177 our ian ian -

CEU eTD Collection Alban in Mission 4 independent an nominally remaining Croatia while Germany, and Italy between divided and Serbia, of provinces northwestern of d was Macedonia couple a took Hungary Italy, to handed was Montenegro Albania, occupied Italian the in incorporated was Kosovo Nedić. Milan fund were epicenter. its occupy, to country first the Albania make and Kosovo, incorporate to Italy Mussolini`s the over control gain to started Power Axis the When Croatia). Greater (i.e. projects similar through Balkans the in inroads making of strategy term long their and Power Axis of policy consistent the by reconfigurati border of driver main the Balkan Peninsula. in base loyal initial an establishing in step secure a be would thus Albania (Greater) and follow quickly the would time), for the at population up of majority made absolute which peasantry (especially masses that optimistic highly were and d attracting in successful side, intheir diaspora Albanian and inAlbania culturalmembers political and leadership of were Germans and Italians Both Reich. Third the to support open and full a be would border, of sides both from nationalists Albanian of goals unification of realization borde for of way only redrawing the that any built of gradually was issue perception the on silent was coalition Allies the Since

See for more on this the archive files: PRO.HS.7.70, S.O.E.History, File number 37/B, Allied Military Military Allied 37/B, number File S.O.E.History, PRO.HS.7.70, files: archive the this on more for See Thus it looks like direct intervention, based on geopolitical calculations, was the the was calculations, geopolitical on based intervention, direct like looks it Thus 4 amentally redrawn. Serbia was made a protectorate under the rule of General General of rule the under protectorate a made was Serbia redrawn. amentally

In addition, after the occupation by Germany, Yugoslavia was divided. Borders divided. was Yugoslavia Germany, by occupation the after addition, In ia, 1942 ia, ivided between Bulgaria and Albanian ‗protectorate‘. Also Slovenia was was Slovenia Also ‗protectorate‘. Albanian and Bulgaria between ivided - 1945, p.3. 1945,

Balkan Peninsula, Hitler`s Germany agreed to give a free reign to to reign free a give to agreed Germany Hitler`s Peninsula, Balkan

on and Albanian map expansion in early 1940s, helped helped 1940s, early in expansion map Albanian and on their leaders‘ support support leaders‘ their istinguished istinguished rs, the the rs, 178

CEU eTD Collection d 6 of5 B8/GSP/6?68 133`s 5 was which preservingGreater after thewar. the Albania end of same, the remained strategy the tactics, Nazi of the change denouncing the toward Despite occupation. Germans the with alliance from shift quickly to seems elite Kosovar of position the and war of theatre European broad the in ground loose to 1944 January National Albania, while haveinthe Yugoslav theother two before been deputes parliament.‖ vice been has Agushi Iliaz Italy, with armistice the Before Agushi. Kos for ―Committee the and recruits Kosovar Albanian of made Previzi, Prenk of command the under Guard‖ National ―Albanian the created also Albania‘, ‗Greater this of administration Herzegovina and Bosnia entire the it within incorporating and Pavelić of rule the under (NDH) country

ecember PRO. WO.204.9428, From Captain Vandeleur Robinson to Miss Barker, 20 March 1944. Reference: Force Force Reference: 1944. March 20 Barker, Miss to Robinson Vandeleur Captain From WO.204.9428, PRO. From the R the From ovo Protection‖ under the collective presidency of Ferhat Draga, Bedri Pejani and Iliaz and Pejani Bedri Draga, Ferhat of presidencycollective the under Protection‖ ovo This Conference was taking place in early 1944 where Germany had already started already Germany had earlystarted 1944 where in taking place This Conferencewas for secession through self people Albanianthe including Yugoslavia],thus [of nations the all end, the in and allies domestic its and occupation Nazi the the against with Yugoslavia of war people common other the is Albania join to plateau Dukagjin and Kosovo of people the suchonly The forward. way the people the tell should we that feel we why is This most the people, in Albanian the inhabited by regionpart a is Serbian) in (Metohija plateau Dukagjin and …Kosovo of meeting the witness we that time this during was It

1943 - ieain rn fr ooo n Dkgi Paeu 1 eebr 1943 December 31 Plateau Dukagjin and Kosovo for Front Liberation esolute of First Conference of National of Conference First of esolute

- 1 (Crampton 2002: 11:12). The Italians, under the guise of encouraging self encouraging of guise the under Italians, The 11:12). 2002: (Crampton , when was it decided - 2 -

J anuary th

March. Enclusire, Draft ―Kosove‖. ―Kosove‖. Draft March. Enclusire,

1944

- determination (Korkuti 2003: 190). which as always want to join the rest of the mother country mother the of rest the join to want always as which inter alia - Liberation Front for Ko for Front Liberation

that:

sovo and Dukagjin Plateau 31 31 Plateau Dukagjin and sovo

First Conference of of Conference First - rm mnse of minister prime

can effectively ask can

5 way for way

- 1 179 - 2 - - .

CEU eTD Collection albania.png 7

Downloaded from: from: Downloaded

The Italian Protectorate Albania of established by Italy Augustin 1941

http://kosovoholocaust.com/page66/files/page66

Map 15

- kosovo - as - a - part 7 -

of - greater 180 -

CEU eTD Collection pan non with Albania. o made acceptance growing there, a possible symbols state (Albania`s) all install as well as region, Kosovo in schools of thousands open and Albania‘ ‗Greater a create to map administrative the of redrawing dur minister prime Albania`s as partisan behind ranks close warfare. to youth of mobilization a get and division) Scanderbeg milit joining from people the prevent to difficulties such overcome to had Tirana and Belgrade from both Communist propaganda and Hungarians), and Bulgarians and Croats the with (together region the amongs were Albanians Kosovar elite. cultural of generation new a by spurred Albania, re a and folk common the of minds the in there picture idealized neighboring Albania. in affairs of state about information of lack and circumstances, economic socio poor Turkey, toward deportation forced as such policies, [Yugoslav] discriminatory f the in reawakening slow a witness the5.2 Elite StrugglesIrredentist and Outcome - - ainls one nationalist nationalist Communists had the largest appeal. Thus, the prevailing mood was not a not was mood prevailing the Thus, appeal. largest the had Communists nationalist While in Albania, the situation at least during WWII was different, because the the because different, was WWII during least at situation the Albania, in While we Yugoslavia, in Albanians amongst period interwar the in passivity the After

The fact that a prominent Kosovar, R. Mitrovica, was appointed by the Germans the by appointed was Mitrovica, R. Kosovar, prominent a that fact The This produced domestic produced This

, but rather a parochial one, where majority of the people joined the the joined people the of majority where one, parochial a rather but , ary divisions under German command (like the infamous infamous the (like command German under divisions ary t the most friendly populations toward the Axis Powers in Powers Axis the toward populations friendly most the t f an expansionist map that sought unification of Kosovo of unification sought that map expansionist an f

ing war, and this move was rapidly accompanied by by accompanied rapidly was move this and war, ing resonance amongst the Albanian kin by constructing by kin Albanian the amongst resonance ollowing decade, which was helped a great deal by by deal great a helped was which decade, ollowing

uig WI nt surprisingly not WWII, During - wknd neet in interest awakened 181

an -

CEU eTD Collection i successful more the were communists the Albania in although USSR and communists communists by was one first The time. same the at on two the were there fact, In Yugoslavia. from in public general Albanian different much was which ways, expansionist in think to citizenry Albanian nation. the of conception intervention foreign that argument my for occupiers. foreign the as fervently as nationalist the fought communists priority top their as war after borders of redrawing the had secondly, Italia and Germans the toward passivity general a shown had first which element, nationalist the with compromise any accept to not Popović Miladin and Mugosha Dushan emissaries show evidence archival Recent 2011: (Fevziu horizons in occupation of end seemingly the after communists by power of monopoly the preserve to attempt an in albeit cause, liberation the to treason outright an as leadership communist by rebuked soon wasmeeting the front, common a for a to principle in agreeddelegates the After occupiers. fightthe forcesto join at element nationalist the with the by creation its who Yugoslavs, in helped was party communist Albanian that fact the by affected Nazi the defeat to warfare guerrilla liberation

also appointed its leaders. Communist forces failed to reach a consensus a reach to failed forces Communist leaders. its appointed also

- In Albania itself the foreign intervention did not in fact lead the lead fact in not did intervention foreign the itself Albania In

n lai. hl te eod a b te tlas Germans Italians/ the by was second the While Albania. in Mukje meeting Mukje

that ne Hxa a udr rsue y h Yugoslav the by pressure under was Hoxha Enver , an Albanian village where they had met to met had they where village Albanian an , evl ifune te pa the influences heavily - acs ocpes Ti ws especially was This occupiers. Fascist -

xenly upre b Tito`s by supported externally

foreign interventions going going interventions foreign saig h national the shaping n This is important is This aees of rameters modus vivendmodus 100

and the the and ns and and ns - 103).

182 the i

CEU eTD Collection Italo the to welcomes warmest ofthe one whilegiving Yugosphere Yugosla of supporters less the were Kosovar general In army. Germans 8 opening the after recently, only revealed been has effort joint This 2011). (Butka front war deliberately to counterparts Yugoslav the with cooperated knowledgably and fully has Communists Albanian the Archives, Ministry Interior Albanian and Archives State Kosovo in found (Fevziu rebels irredentist the of most imprisoned or killed and movement resistance Albanian ethnic an ( forces partisan joint the by persecuted and killed surrounded, were backers nationalist its and Polluzha Sh. when Drenica of that followed which 186), 18, 2003: Hoti 209; 2003: (Bislimi 1945 466). 1995: Germans (Jacques the with confrontation direct into engaging actually than resistance Kosovar territory Yugoslav in Germans Alba When Yugoslavia. in kin ethnic Albanian regarding one Yugoslav the to approach similar a adopt to as far as Albanian leadership communist went and showsthatHoxha it propaganda. Furthermore, support Albania one thatgot local sympathyfrom populace. most the was intervention Italian/German the Kosovo, in time same the at whereas imagination,

located in located hs xlis h i Ksv w hv te rain f cnebg iiin wih a a axlay of auxiliary an was which division, Scanderbeg of creation the have we Kosovo in why explains This h eprcl vdne lo hwd ht h aslt mjrt o pplto in population of majority absolute the that showed also evidence empirical The present day Montenegro), the Albanian communist military units helped crush helped units military communist Albanian the Montenegro), day present and treacherously kill half of Kosovar recruits that were in their way to Trieste Trieste to way their in were that recruits Kosovar of half kill treacherously and

2011: 175). As an author has observed recently, by referring to documents documents to referring by recently, observed has author an As 175). 2011: f lain n Ygsa Cmuit (uk 21: 50 2011: (Butka Communists Yugoslav and Albanian of d h cmuit wih ee uh oe cie n obt and combat in active more much were which communists the ed

The most evident move of this was the was this of move evident most The nian military divisions joined Yugoslav ranks to fight the fleeing the fight to ranks Yugoslav joined divisions military nian

n al 1945 early in , Tito shrewdly used them more to crush crush to more them used shrewdly Tito , 8

- German ‗liberators‘. ‗liberators‘. German v communist party in the whole of of whole the in party communist v Tivar Massacre Tivar

- 52). In Tivar Tivar In 52).

of April 1, April of 183

CEU eTD Collection incorporating ultimately of talks when later few a only process. were under happen Yugoslavia to Albania to going was what from proposal of kind 11 WWII. after immediately waschange to which 10 National of Archives the as by 9 criticized fiercely later were that projects alternative Yugoslavia, and Bulgaria with Federation tripartite a or Yugoslavia of republic seventh a as in joining of enthusiastic be to leaders Albanian for opportunity the created This roots. cosmopolitan supra a on concentrated were publishing and speeches anti an was undermine leader, its as Hoxha support strongly and party Communist the constitute helped that emissaries Yugoslav of pressure increasing of and referendum. a of outcomes the on depending war, the after lands Albanian of unification a for calls backed Albania territory, Kosovo in Yugoslavs the alongside fighting while troops its for support increase to and groups political nationalist the from away power an constant something not was power the Visualizing on Nation`sBorders Impact its and Albania in Period Communist Early the During Shifts Map Main 5.3 yearsBelgrade theimmediateliberation. in after relationship archives secret of

See for the full documentation: documentation: full the for See

At the time, Albanians of Macedonia were still united with that of Kosovo in a single administrative unit, unit, administrative single a in Kosovo of that with united still were Macedonia of Albanians time, the At This was Tito`s promise to Hoxha during WWII, based i based WWII, during Hoxha to promise Tito`s was This

Kacanik Meeting, Kacanik h ntoait icus ta cmuit wae drn te fou the during weaved communists that discourse nationalist The

any expansionist nationalist projects. nationalist expansionist any - nationalist one during the first years after the end of WWII. Many texts, texts, Many WWII. of end the after years first the during one nationalist 9

in the post the in - mentioned above, which came out with such resolutions. As a result a As resolutions. such with out came which above, mentioned Liberation War of Yugoslavia, nr. 9 War Yugoslavia, of Liberation

11 Albanian State Archives, The General Headquarters, 1944, d. 136, as well as 136, d. 1944, Headquarters, General The Archives, State Albanian

It also indirectly backed the results of the the of results the backed indirectly also It

- communist period. It has thrown a different light different a thrown has It period. communist

d without variation. During variation. without d

the ruling elite in Albania gradually Albania in elite ruling the Also n the principle of self of principle the n - 4. K.1411. 4. , the prevailing rhetoric prevailing the , - nationalist Communist ideal, with ideal, Communist nationalist 10

the Comm the

WWII, - determination. A different different A determination. unist leadership of leadership unist Bujan Conference Bujan tln (Mazower Stalin in order in

r decades of of decades r domestically

to Tirana to started to started to grab grab to 184 -

CEU eTD Collection Lambertz1958. view see critical a 13 Archeology, of Institute Ethnology, 12 of (King) Krajl the against powers Montenegro. supernatural with brothers, two the of struggle are tales folklore This 75). neighboring 1980: of that to similar epics(Skendi switched roles their with indicates, scholar a as Alia‖, but epics, Bosnian or Montenegro Elez Gjergj of ―Legend the or Halili‘, most The elite. cultural and political and Party the of backing getthe to started Montenegrin, or Serb a of shape the in often ‗Other‘, Slav the projected quickly that epics nationalist on especially folklore on concentration Albania. in began nation Albanian of and ancestry Pellasgian Illyrian the prove to excavation archeological frenzied a was there that period this in was It borders. territorial present despite Balkans, the in Albanians amongst politic oft the of weaving the justify would which neighbors, Slav the the with stress relations friendly than to rather animosity order in texts ethnography geography, history, of altering and revisiting Yugoslavia of agents infiltrated others several and Xoxe Koci Party, the in two number with secured the new supportofpromisingsupporter, Soviet the the quickly and internally discourse nationalist the increased designs, Titos` against abruptly turned steps, such any from backed quickly Tirana position, Stalin`s new After 2002).

See for a detailed vi detailed a for See This evolved around new ‗scientific‘ institutes that were that institutes ‗scientific‘ new around evolved This This period was associated with the purge of some notable political figures, starting figures, political notable some of purge the with associated wasperiod This 13

uh tngah sre a a as served ethnography Such ew of this: this: of ew - eetd hm o atctoy rssac an resistance autochthony, of theme repeated

Academy of Science of Albania. 1998. 1998. Albania. of Science of Academy

Institute of Anthropology and Cultural Studies Cultural and Anthropology of Institute . This is one of the ‗critical junctures‘ junctures‘ ‗critical the of one is This . a cycle of lengthy epic poems that describe the continual the describe that poems epic lengthy of cycle a

notable of these were the cycles of ‗Muji and and ‗Muji of cycles the were these of notable

urgently created, such as Institute of Folklore and and Folklore of Institute as such created, urgently

manifestation of of manifestation 12

rm hs floe a newly a followed this, From Albanian Folklor Issues Folklor Albanian

Union. that were blamed for being being for blamed were that snuaiy f body of singularity d

etc.

a supposed supposed a

that opened up up opened that . Tirane . eternal . 185 For

CEU eTD Collection was what against line defense new a create to sought that policy deliberative a was attire, symbolic much without ground‘ the on ‗lines simple as borders recognized internationally divisi territorial some stressing by divide, that myths of legitimization and recreation This unmovable. be to thought and sacred were borders where earlier, mentioned law customary the to referred in after reconstruction, border 20 of novel modern books socio the of literature mainstream and textbooks history mainstream by up picked quickly were immemorial, times from a continuous and never inter even andeating music, customs, similar centuries for shared have Malesia of people mountainous the whom with s the where people borderline on had they impact utter the of because First, reasons. several for masses, the of perception on effect deep a had nationalism, newborn the of characteristic (re)constructing imagination ofAlbanians while other and self conceiving as (speculatively) that antagonism ource of these epics had assumedly generated. The old The generated. assumedly had epics these of ource

uh as such eody tee pc, hc peual pse dw truh rl transmission oral through down passed presumably which epics, these Secondly, kin This

―Broken April‖, when highlanders` old epics were transformed into the the into transformed were epics old highlanders` when April‖, ―Broken n, uh s h ehi lns ht eae setaie, hl dismissing while essentialized, became that lines ethnic the as such ons, o ivne fllr, n h foses of footsteps the in folklore, invented of d ifrnits on differentiates centuries th

century. These former oral myths became very important in mental in important very became myths oral former These century. - ending battle has fighting. been .

- - married, were suddenly depicted as the eternal foe with who with foe eternal the as depicted suddenly were married, og tuge This struggle. long corporation in official historical narrative, because they they because narrative, historical official in corporation -

re eth alist writers. Ismail Kadare was one such writer, with writer, such one was Kadare Ismail writers. alist nic ie in lines n tef a perpetuated has itself in w sds f borders of sides two

ita bres n h collective the in borders virtual

- time Montenegrin neighbors Montenegrin time netd traditions invented

and new a

s portrayed is a of way

as a a as 186 m

CEU eTD Collection of Orthography 1973, of publication standardized the in resulted there, reached decisions The Italy. and Yugoslavia Albania, from delegates 87 ―attracted Congress This Tirana. re additional went it After 3). 1989: (Dielli schools and publications their all in form Tosk official the only use and dialect Geg of use literary the abandon to decided Yugoslavia in Montenegro L on Consultation a ―[a]t year, next the by because quickly rather unfolded events The 2000). Dalipi and (Myftiu orthography its and language literary the of unification the for Kosovo in made also were Republic the territories, Albanian all in applied was draft ―[t]his encyclopedia, recent a in stated is it As Linguistics. and history of Institute the by published was Language,‖ Albanian the of Rules ―Orthography fi the in important witnessed more and were new developments government, the by distributed and marketed packet, such growing arena. ininternational isolation neighboring with breaks subsequent of advent the in needed they backup and legitimacy the with regime the provided turn in This elite time. of span short this a in widespread population, the among feelings xenophobic build to regime Communist the by sponsored myths, nationalist fabricated new these with Yugoslavia. p revd s h ―oten tra i te ae f break of wake the in threat ―Northern‖ the as erceived In addition to the resurgence of folklore, pop traditions and other mechanisms of mechanisms other and traditions pop folklore, of resurgence the to addition In people and students pupils, new the Thirdly,because

visions, it was finally adapted in 1972 Congress on orthography held in in held orthography on Congress 1972 in adapted finally was it visions, anguage in Prishtina, the Albanians of Kosova, Macedonia and and Macedonia Kosova, of Albanians the Prishtina, in anguage of Albania, Kosovo and Montenegro. Meanwhile, efforts efforts Montenegro.Meanwhile, and Kosovo Albania, of

eld of language. In 1967, a new draft on on draft new a 1967, In language. of eld en masse en - p f eain wt Tito`s with relations of up - led narrative became became narrative led were being educated being were countries and and countries in order order in 187

CEU eTD Collection rite Eastern of 507). 1995: (Jacques used‖ Greek the pres of ―the place that 1977 in in liturgy and 484) its 1995: of (Jacques language the as Albanian adopting by world Albanian 14 the and Soviets the with break the after especially federation Balkan with Pact Warsaw and COMITERN socialism, of values Visualization Map and Bordersof 5.4 cahub was University ofPristina the (i.e. changes territorial for main whose 1981, of demands protests the at students amongst one popular to a was thesis unification led turn in which frame mental its and create This time. real in Pristina reach to production literary nationalist widespread a produced combined factors two the and Kosovo of Albanians by gained freedoms constitutional granted newly the years of couple dialects. various used moment that to up that overseas and countries neighboring in Albanians ethnic including thus citizens, not people, Albanian the on understatement clear the with language,‖ (standard) literary was Congress of resolutions t of One 2000). Dalipi and (Myftiu Language‖ Literary National the of Unification the of Congress the as culture and language Albanian the of history the in down gone has ―[i]t Alba the

For example, the old Albanian diaspora of Italy in 1968 ―expressed its ethnic identity with the rest of of rest the with identity ethnic its ―expressed 1968 in Italy of diaspora Albanian old the example, For Consolidation of National of Consolidation uig omns era, communist During nian Language‖ (Jacques 1995: 494). This congress has major ramifications and: ramifications major has congress This 494). 1995: (Jacques Language‖ nian became became

da a te ie f h honey the of time the at ideas

srn spotr f int of supporter strong a ne alia inter , as well as supported as well as , -

Communism in Albania and its Effects on the Imaginedthe Effects on its and Albania Communismin Albania started out building on cosmopolitan ideas and and ideas cosmopolitan on building out started Albania mpus). mpus).

a el iaie rcnetaiain f nation of reconceptualization imagined newly a d ent literary form would be the only form of Albanian to be be to Albanian of form only the be would form literary ent

ht ―h Abna pol nw ae unified a have now people Albanian ―the that: 14

This 1972 event in Albania preceded by a by preceded Albania in event 1972 This Chinese supranationalist goals that culminated that goals supranationalist ergovernmental agencies, such as as such agencies, ergovernmental on ih h Ygsas Later, Yugoslavs. the with moon ,

it grew increasingly isolated isolated increasingly grew it

diasporas diasporas 188 he he

CEU eTD Collection b in reflected as outlook nationalist the and internationalist/ 15 follo not did discourse, nationalist the notwithstanding regime Communist the point, state fact In impoverished) nation stages, invented various at discourse and inter landscape by conditioned where dimension, spatial a to related also was It autochthony. its show to axes temporal in narrated only not was nation the R in Ceausescu of that with par on Europe, in regime Communist discourse national the m find could One 125). 2004: (Sulstarova era Renaissance of nationalism romantic of ideology the to regimes previous than faithful more and fulfiller successor, the nation du and boundaries its perceived society the on of segments had other it and that students how impact below, the from perception on concentrates section next the while behavior, elite for disc section This fashion. autarchic national a being up ended It accordingly. grew xenophobia and rhetoric nationalist the this, with par on and

I recall here one discussion with Florian Bieber in one of his seminars, regarding the Communist period period Communist the regarding seminars, his of one in Bieber Florian with discussion one here recall I - building processes, nationalis building processes, ,

Thus it seems a speculation to actually paint this in a linear, black and white way. way. white and black linear, a in this paint actually to speculation a seems it Thus the as itself show to tried regime communist Albanian the ideologically, Seen there has been great variation in the five decades of Communism regarding the the regarding Communism of decades five the in variation great been has there instant traditions instant etc - communist spirit in the imprint that it left in architecture, monuments, public monuments, architecture, in left it that imprint the in spirit communist Acrig o oe coas Hxas lai ws h ms nationalist most the was Albania Hoxha`s scholars, some to According . - socialist regime, paranoiac of outsiders and committed to survive in an an in survive to committed and outsiders of paranoiac regime, socialist - - state. state. lt cmeiin n etra interferences/ external and competition elite

while nourishing ideas of a unit greater than the current (and (and current the than greater unit a of ideas nourishing while

ring period. this

t propagandaaction and usses the (nationalist) politics of the regime, as a proxy proxy a as regime, the of politics (nationalist) the usses

oth discourse and landscape. Spring 2009. Spring landscape. and othdiscourse

discrepancy. discrepancy. umania. epltcl situation, geopolitical Regarding 15 anifesta

Furthermore,

tions of tions this last this

w up w 189 -

CEU eTD Collection Miladin and Mugosha Dushan emissaries, Yugoslav of help the with established was intervention thatcondition internal changes. policy/discourse external (lackof) andenvironment geopolitical openchanginganeyefor with competition, of story our of telling very is regime, Hoxha`s perceived and looked Kosovo in Albanians ethnic way ‗Janus These model expansionist an about couldgrowing speak Hoxha openly isolation, due economic developmentandmore toslow grew frustrations domestic when hand, other the On afterwards. sought were often was regime Belgrade by rights human Albanian of violation the example, For layers. international and domestic the ambivalence s be could that there element Albanian the of satisfaction general a needed it other the on while Kosovo, in population speaking Albanian from revolts secessionist open encourage to not careful was Hoxha hand, one helped territory of scope the of imagination different a to led have would that feeling nationalist expansionist of kind a domestically create help to not have remained it blueprint irredentist concrete any with mismatched mismatched The Communist regime that took h took that regime Communist The (in) directly these processes in Kosovo to to Kosovo in processes these directly

miaet n orsig n priua hsoia itrrttos ht would that interpretations historical particular any nourishing in ambivalent - could serve the regime to play a two a play to regime the serve could faced‘ deliberate policy, which has led to a lot of ambivalence regarding the regarding ambivalence of lot a to led has which policy, deliberate faced‘ a epnincnrcin ht evs r oe a a eut f elite of result a as comes or serves that expansion/contraction map with the factual border situation border factual the

that would treat Kosovar ‗brethren‘ as natural part of Albania. Albania. of part naturalas ‗brethren‘Kosovartreat would that used by Tirana in international forums when concessions when forums international in Tirana by used , hrewdly used at opportune moments. This moments. opportune at used hrewdly given the incapab the given old of power after the end of the World War II War World the of end the after power of old . In other words, words, other In . serve its geopolitical interests. Thus, in in Thus, interests. geopolitical its serve - level game level

and ility to materialize it anyhow. B anyhow. it materialize to ility its outer its

(Putnam 1988) (Putnam the regime was careful was regime the boundaries, though it it though boundaries, , in each of each in , in extremis in strategic 190 ut ut -

CEU eTD Collection neighboring in Albanians 20 million three the gene towards policy consistent occasions those a On Yugoslavia. had never Tirana 1960s, early national though Even Kosovo. of problem the towards 19 85). 1997: (Shehu existed‖ it by characterized was nationalism lacked version Albanian the communities that Albanian large for was concern or claims nationalism territorial bourgeois ―classic‖ and nationalism Albanian new this to led that isolationism of process a began regime 18 17 Party. Communist Albanian members ofthe founding the to an adviser only served as 16 understand not could leaders ―[th]eir period; this at betrayed felt Kosovars that wonder in partisans his way the sent prepare ―to Kosovo even Hoxha that notes observer An ‗comrades‘. Yugoslav their on had associates his and Hoxha that reliance great the to due mostly before, as continued and collaborationpossible the local of Albanian inhabitants. sympathies the gain to way a as Albania, Greater of claims the of supportive very Communis the of side the on fight alia self Communist the to Kosovars the draw to inception. its from Kosovo, toward policy irredentist or nationalist purposes, mobilization for mostlywar, during beginning, influence of sphere Yugoslavia Popović.

For a similar argument see Costa 1995: 59 1995: Costa see similara argument For memo MilovanDjilas See A Nevertheless Hoxha himself has disputed this, by writing that Mugosha had no role at all, while Miladin Miladin while all, at role no had Mugosha that writing by this, disputed has himself Hoxha Nevertheless

hh wie hr: ―[t] here: writes Shehu

- ral and always based upon alleged abuses ofMarxist abuses uponalleged based always and ral to willing be would Kosovars the conditions, such under Only secede. to right the , writer has argued in a post a in argued has writer eemnto prpcie bsd n Marxist on based perspective, determination fe te war, the After 16

hs apnd eas Sai are ta Abna hud al n Tito`s on fall should Albania that agreed Stalin because happened This

he Albanian communist regime exhibited different attitudes at different times times different at attitudes different exhibited regime communist Albanian he

irs

the cooperation among Albanian and Yugoslav communists communists Yugoslav and Albanian among cooperation the - Meeting with Stalin with Meeting 1990 essay 1990 --

for the resumption of Yugoslav control‖ (Pano 1968: 18). No 18). 1968: (Pano control‖ Yugoslav of resumption the for hn iaa i vnue o rtcz Belgrade criticize to venture did Tirana when s promotion of national exclusiveness and superiority and exclusiveness national of promotion s

n atog th although and ts against the German aggressor, who in fact has been been has fact in who aggressor, German the against ts

that - 60. :

―[s]

side, the Yugoslavs offered Kosovo a potential a Kosovo offered Yugoslavs the side, for more details on this. on details morefor a ince the 1961 break with the Soviet Union, the Albanian Albanian the Union, Soviet with the break 1961 the ince sui generis sui ism had permeated Albanian communism since the the since communism Albanian permeated had ism - Leninist ideology‖ ( Leninist ideology‖ -

eiit ideology. Leninist in the neighboring countries. Instead, countries. neighboring the in r wr sm vge rmss n the in promises vague some were ere

nationalism. The main difference main The nationalism. 20

Tirana

refrained from any openly anyopenly from refrained Shehu 1997: 1997: Shehu 18 --

19 Nonetheless, in order in Nonetheless,

t cnentos were condemnations its

This implied implied This

within borders that that borders within 87).

Albanian Albanian between between inter 191

CEU eTD Collection 18 Party, Communist Albanian 22 182). 2011: Fevziu (i.e. Kosovo‖ on pretensions any had neveractually ―Hoxha s mention not does 21 (Malcolm 318). 1998: Yugoslavs‖ the with brothers become Kosovars the that ensure to possible is whatever Th Kosovo? for ask to interests our in it ―Is said: 1946 December in Party Communist the of meeting a in Hoxha whereAlbania, in leadership Communist with correspondedview This must it this, favor factors domestic nor foreign neither because but Albania, with united be to were Kosovo if be ―would meeting, Committee Central a told he solution,‖ best ―The Kardejl: Yugoslav the of proposal documented further A 261). the 1982: (Hoxha meantime the inside on borders Yugoslav Albania joining Kosovo with republic, seventh a as Yugoslavia join would 260). 1982: (Hoxha understand‖ not ―would which Serbs, the convince to hard been have would it because appropriate, not was timing the right, all sounded request his while that replied the join to Kosovo allow on based tostate, Albanian leader Yugoslav the asking 1946, in Tito with meeting had agreed to Albania with uniting not were they why

Original quote cited from Enver Hoxha in a referee kept in in kept referee a in Hoxha Enver from cited quote Original oee Hxas con o sc cnesto i nt orbrtdb Ygsa hsoigah, which historiography, Yugoslav by corroborated not is conversation such of account Hoxha`s However at is not a progressive thing to do. No, in this situation, on the contrary, we must do must we contrary, the on situation, this in No, do. to thing progressive a not is at 21

Hoxha himself, in his memoirs, writes that he brought up the issue of Kosovo in a in Kosovo of issue the up brought he that writes memoirs, his in himself, Hoxha remain a compact province within the framework of Serbia‖ (Malcolm 1998: 315). 1998: (Malcolm Serbia‖ of framework the within province compact a remain On the On

fight with thePartisans‖fight with 101)inthe (Vickersfirst place. 2004:

iw ae y ios ih hn ad ubr w i Pltuo Edvard Politburo, in two number and hand right Tito`s by came view contrary, Tito mentioned the idea of a Balcanic Federation, where Albania where Federation, Balcanic a of idea the mentioned Tito contrary, uch conversation to have taken place. Other authors have gone to the firm conclusion that that conclusion firm the to gone have authors Other place. taken have to conversation uch 22

pre - 20 December 1946 December 20 - war discussions (Hoxha 1982: 260). Tito, according to Hoxha Hoxha to according Tito, 260). 1982: (Hoxha discussions war

to achieve this, after all, was the reason why they they why reason the was all, after this, achieve to . Albanian State Archive. Albanian State . Extraordinary Plenum of Ce of Plenum Extraordinary

ntral Committee of of Committee ntral

192

CEU eTD Collection were bases main communists. ofYugoslav help undeserving with the in power wereplaced communists whose period war in nationalists, adversaries main their the that consider were we if so, more even becomes which power, of position see Tosk the (nation) the of outcome map (desired) the dictates competition elite that thesis my with of elite governance which the in elite, share proportional Kosovar its ‗external‘ sought naturally incorporated have would the from competition direct faced have would elite ‗internal‘ Gegs size the twice by threatened 23 me from away Yugoslavs keep to is goal such One exchange. in goals political limited achieve could he when 1948, in Yugoslavs with break his after issue Kosovo the press did he because be, that show not does this 2003: 95).Furthermore, samewrites: author the non leader‘s Albanian late the of proof ―ample as it put has existence, political his to threat a as it seeing proposal, the of skeptical traditional the to end an put 1962: (Djilas Albanians‖ and Serbs between finallyconflict and intolerance also would but Albania, and Yugoslavia both leaders Albanian the of agreement voluntary truly

One of the fears was that in such scenario, the predominantly Tosk leadership of Albania, would be be would Albania, of leadership Tosk predominantly the scenario, such in that was fears the of One the two parts joining in a single republic. Quite the opposite, they viewed it as a direct threat to their to threat direct a as it viewed they opposite, the Quite republic. single a in joining parts two the - I agree with this authors` viewpoint about political survival as the ultimate goal. Howevergoal. ultimate the as survivalpolitical about viewpoint authors` this with agree I the On nationalism. but anything single motive: political survival 2003: (Kola 1995). resembled which time, the at contr position his of the in hollow ring a whole, light a was as rule his it over nationalism hence, of mantle a nation; throw to attempting Albanian the of half nearly tru of abandonment the meant turn, in that, Europe, of map the from disappearing from Albania saved also project Federation F ―uni that considered leaders communist Yugoslav many fact, In ruling communists of Albania did not have any interest at all in expansionary projects that would that projects expansionary in all at interest any have not did Albania of communists ruling r ee i oe ee o cet oh` agmn ta te eeto o te Balkan the of rejection the that argument Hoxha`s accept to were one if even or, ctd r afa fr o ntoaim Hxas usqet lis a wl as well as claims, subsequent Hoxha`s nationalism. of form halfway or ncated ary, underlying Hoxha`s decisions and political somersaults there appeared to be one be to appeared there somersaults political and decisions Hoxha`s underlying ary, ddling in Albanian domestic politics where they used to play a pivotal role role pivotal a play to used they where politics domestic Albanian in ddling

Hoxha has not been the nationalist leader that he later claimed to claimed later he that leader nationalist the been not has Hoxha

in case such idea was going to be put into effect. Also, the communist communist the Also, effect. into put be to going was idea such case in

north of the country, while Hoxha himself and other other and himself Hoxha while country, the of north

would not only be of direct value to value direct of be only not would

- nationalist leanings.‖ (Kola (Kola leanings.‖ nationalist

the country. This is in tandem tandem in is This country. the

144). But Hoxha was was Hoxha But 144). 23

- fication state and in this case, case, this in and state

which a scholar a which -

with the with 193 ,

CEU eTD Collection 26 surfac also in po changes all at challenges internal affected than rather leader patriotic a lingo as appear Hoxha whenthis make to and However consumption domestic for interest. only used was national 1970s, to ‗blind‘ the being of responsibility in the them delegating Chinese by immediately the and 1960s, the 25 interview. 2009 Institu Albanian the of Lani Remzi to indebted am I request. reasonable a as seem would nation, Albanian the of reunification possible a for used be that could precedence Germ two the of 24 weak look Hoxha made have would turn in This enemies. as labeled already had Hoxha - Kosovo of issue the raise not did government Albanian the Kullashi, to According time. the of geo the account into took that one rationalist simple a as Kosovo, p Albanian Khrushchev. with ties severed already had he when even stances, Moscow‘s with line in always were UN the in claims policy foreign Hoxha`s that stresses fore Hoxha`s internationalpressure, have attention or costsbeen would because high. arouse, challenges when home at support points political him gain would that map visual a perpetuate nationalist and create the to use question could he although because side, his on ambivalence as interpreted ev Nations United the in like forums, international in question Kosovo the bring to not careful was he hand, other the On 1948. by good for confidence their lost had Hoxha and

Interview with Hysamedin Feraj, the chair of political science department at the Tirana University. theTirana at department science theof political chair Feraj, withHysamedin Interview Especially after each of the breaks with powerful partners, such as Yugoslavs in the early 1950s, Soviets in Soviets 1950s, early the in Yugoslavs as such partners, powerful with breaks the of each after Especially Moreover, Hoxha remained adamantly opposed to national unification elsewhere, such as the reunification reunification the as such elsewhere, unification national to opposed adamantly remained Hoxha Moreover, because that would have implied a series a negotiations with foreign powers, which which powers, foreign with negotiations a series a implied have would that because idence shows that it did not raise the issue up, even in bilateral talks. This may be be may This talks. bilateral in even up, issue the raise not did it that shows idence ifrn pltcl bevr hl dfeet pnos bu te esn ta drove that reasons the about opinions different hold observers political Different

up in the international forums international the in up olitical scientist, Muhamedin Kullashi, explains Albanian policy toward toward policy Albanian explains Kullashi, Muhamedin scientist, olitical

ign policy toward Kosovo. For example, Albanian analyst, Hysamedin Feraj, Feraj, Hysamedin analyst, Albanian example, For Kosovo. toward policy ign

an states, which in the face of the deteriorating relations with Soviet Union and the the and Union Soviet with relations deteriorating the of face the in which states, an licy or course of foreign policy. offoreign course licyor

especially after it had became completely isolated completely became had it after especially

e i nt ed r eie t atat much attract to desired or need not did he te of Media for pointing this out to me. April 12, 12, April me. to out this pointing for Media of te - political circumstances political 26

hl, h Kosovar the While,

ed, but were crushed crushed were but ed,

194 and and -

CEU eTD Collection 29 28 France. the of one 27 Kosovo supporting vis Question‖. position linear and abstract some not calculations, geopoli in openings opportunity with Belgrade. in Tito meet to through passing when opportunity such had he although power, of reign whole his during H F. as Furthermore, leader. patriotic great a maintain to sought he although the and Belgrade, to disclosure full had Hoxha that of front in put and betwee place Kosovo taken had that conversation to back returning upon Police) Secret (Yugoslav textbooks‖, o usage for machine printing a and Kosovo to Albania from language Albanian of teachers 100 of ―sending for asking and 1945 in Enver with Kosovo leaderin political highest the Hoxha, Fadilas alsoKosovo cause, comesfrom Koso or indirect the support to against theregime. and

Ibid at interview Hoxha, Fadil Interview with Muhamedin Kullashi, professor of political science at the University Paris 2 in France, and and France, in 2 Paris University the at science political of professor Kullashi, Muhamedin with Interview

vulnerable in the eyes of his constituency and might have incited a domestic revolt domestic a incited have might and constituency his of eyes the in vulnerable

The only period during Communism that Albania started getting involved in in involved getting started Albania that Communism during period only The direct any in interested little strategist political a was Hoxha that evidence Further founding members of the Kosovo Committee in Paris. Actually serving as Kosovo ambassador in ambassador Kosovo as serving Actually Paris. in Committee Kosovo the of members founding

o ol dd o fud n spot rm oh, u ws ald y UDB by called was but Hoxha, from support any found not did only not 27 --

albeit in a limited way limited a in albeit Opinion

This shows that political competition at home in conjunction in home at competition political that shows This

in TV ―Klan‖, December 2000. 2000. ―Klan‖, December inTV

his cult amongst Kosovo Albanians that regarded Hoxha as Hoxha regarded that Albanians Kosovo amongst cult his tics were what counted mostly in Hoxha`s Hoxha`s in mostly counted what were tics n the two of the of two the n -- oxha adds, he never actually visited Kosovo visited actually never he adds, oxha

was during the years 1979 years the during was

was

not interested in any nationalist goals, nationalist any in interested not - Metohija region who after a meeting meeting aftera who regionMetohija f Latin letters for printing of school school of printing for letters Latin f

m, word by word. This word. by word m, - à - i Ksv ad ―Albanian and Kosovo vis var communist leaders, communist such var - 1981, when the when 1981,

showed showed 195

CEU eTD Collection Yugoslavian (the TANJUG citing 1981, of 10 June in reported (ATA) Agency Telegraphic Albanian The Albania. neighboring with territory of exchanges or revision border possible any su against madesteadfast remained Tito Kosovo, of jurisdiction the changing and governance in sit comfortably to him allowed that balances Serbia`s Kosovo, lessening while on movement, grip nationalistic Albanian potential a both weakening In sides. system both federal the from securing of way a as Ranković, purge and constitution new the introduce to other, the in 30 Federation. the in dominance Serbian against mechanism taken have might that unrest unnecessary any quelling of way a as this saw who Tito, of encouragement the with done curriculaand a Universityto befoundedinPristina. schoo in introduced freely be to language Albanian the for allowed also It Yugoslavia. in Republics other the with system federal the in vote of right same the with sovereignty, cons the importantly, most But 180). 2004: (Vickers functions‖ public for made were nominations when appliedwere strictly quotas national and parityabasis; on Albanians the forreserved emp a for became condition bilingualism Kosovo: in Albanians the of favor in discrimination ―positive a caused Constitutions the in changes argued, has Vickers Miranda as Moreover, 178). units autonomous two these th in without impossible, intervention Serbian made Federation, the in Serbs autonomy. wider made partly was This policies. educational new its with Kosovo helping was government Albanian

Such unrest had already taken place in 1968, which led Tito on one end to firmly to whichend oneon Tito in led 1968, place already had taken unrest Such The University received an enormous amount of support from Albania, but this was this but Albania, from support of amount enormous an University Thereceived titution helped making Kosovo, together with Vojvodina, an equal unit short of of short unit equal an Vojvodina, with together Kosovo, making helped titution osbe because possible Tito in a way was strengthening the federal Yugoslavia, Yugoslavia, federal the strengthening was way a in Tito h cags n h Constitution the in changes The omn i pbi srie; four services; public in loyment e prior consent of their respective legislative bodies (Vickers 2004: (Vickers bodies legislative respective their of consent prior e

place in Kosovo, as well as to create a counter a create to as well as Kosovo, in place of

94 uolv osiuin wih granted which constitution, Yugoslav 1974 his position as head of state of head as position his

that - its f h aalbe ot were posts available the of fifths

re that at least in the rhetoric level he he level rhetoric the in least at that re 30 ekn h dmnn pwr of power dominant the weaken

According to the Tirana Vice Tirana the to According .

While allowing Albanian self Albanian allowing While while keeping the necessary necessary the keeping while suppress the uprising, and and theuprising, suppress -

hegemonic ooo a Kosovo 196 ls` - -

CEU eTD Collection circumstances. given the independently, suchsupport exercise to able theprofessors Tira from were Nor given Kosovo. in unrest incite wayto a was as professors these sent Tirana that knowledge, speculations some to referring his from to coming support, were other no that that professors explicit Serbian was the Mejdani counteracting However, of Belgrade. way a as Kosovo, in sent be to professors mentions He 2005. in Kosovo (1977 University Pristina the in teaching of experience 32 ethnics. vis policy Tirana`s in signal shifting a was economy Albanian with good particularly not period a in funding high such of level 31 Kosovo.‖ irredentism in and nationalism Albanian waragainst determinant Bro News from secession for ask to as far as went that protests with 1981 in culminate would which Lalaj 1993). 1998 (Čanak Albania‖ Hoxha`s Enver from imported were schools, Metohija and Kosovo the in used humanities, the in especially textbooks, all of percent 20 Over Pristina. in studied proper Albania from colleagues of 62 while Albania, in degrees higher their obtained University Pristina the from researchers scientific 183 Albania. to continuously traveled turn in Metohija and Kosovo from teachers and professors Albanian sixty Over lectu 1975 the ―[i]n that authorities. Belgrade by leave to asked were professors the and erupted hundred three than more addition, In University. Pristina fledgling the in need great a was there which budget. annual University from funding regular of flows receiving was Pristina of University the Kraja, Osman Professor time, the at Rector

Interview with Osman Kraja, the former vice former the Kraja, Osman with Interview h fo The e a te rsia nvriy n ohr col truhu Ksv ad Metohija. and Kosovo throughout schools other and University Pristina the at red

The University itself soon turned into a hub of Albanian nationalist re nationalist Albanian of hub a into turned soon itself University The mr lain rsdn, rfso Rxe Mjai gvs vvd con o hs or year four his of account vivid a gives Mejdani, Rexhep Professor President, Albanian rmer adcast) that ―Tito and Kardejl were especially vocal after 1968 of emphasizing the necessity of a a of necessity the emphasizing of 1968 after vocal especially were Kardejl and ―Tito that adcast)

professors were sent on short on sent were professors - à - vis Kosovo that sought to be more inclusive and attentive toward adjacent Albanian co Albanian adjacent toward attentive and inclusive more be to sought that Kosovo vis - 1980 period, 237 university professors and teachers from Albania Albania from teachers and professors university 237 period, 1980

Albanian government that equaled to some 60 percent of Tirana Tirana of percent 60 some to equaled that government Albanian inter alia inter 31

The aid consisted of books and other logistical materials, for materials, logistical other and books of consisted aid The

that the Albania the that - Rector of University of Tirana for the for Tirana of University of Rector - term contracts, up to 1981, when the protests the when 1981, to up contracts, term - 1981) in an interview for the periodical periodical the for interview in an 1981) n government of the time made possible for the best best the for possible made time the of government n

period 1978 period 32

It is estimated is It Epoka e Re e Epoka - awakening - 1984. The 1984. : 40; 40; : 197 na,

in -

CEU eTD Collection etc Bakalli Mahmud later and regime) Hoxha`s of supporters also default 35 (by devotees Marxist KLA. membersof founding UP, at students time that at 34 http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2004/jul/28/internationaleducationnews.highereducation?INTCMP=SRC 33 multi and co of ideas and model supranationalist Yugoslav lead (communist) central the by trustworthy be to deemed were who ones the power of position in left basicallyThat latent. went nationalists called Belgrad from had latter the that support the and groups these Yugoslavia. in integration full Kosovo`s of supportive openly were and Belgrade by authority (official) delegated were who ones the project‘, federative‗artificial the to solution rational and feasible only a advocated 1981) (i.e. junctures particular in which students, other. the offset to trying side each other, against elites of group a posited or agenda, political certain a served that transformations way:this in onward and creation its fromexistence Pristina`s of University of rationale the describes lecturer, sociology a Berishaj, Anton articulation. political and nation the of imagination a borders redrawing thus Albania, with unification and Yugoslavia

Interviewed from the Guardian. Shala and Gjuergjala (2 Gjuergjala and Shala theGuardian. from Interviewed Such leaders included the mainstream political establishment of Kosovo at the time, such as Fadil Hoxha, Hoxha, Fadil as such time, the at Kosovo of establishment political mainstream the included leaders Such were establishment, cultural and political current the of members other and Thaci, minister prime Current irredentists uh eaopoi gap te asn ‘te f t ceto ad h continuous the and creation its of d‘être raison the grasps metamorphosis Such a into turned it century, last the of fortress of resist decade last the In nationalism. of fortress a became itNineties early and Eightiesthe enlightenment,in whileofinstitution an was it 1981 until the 1974, until foundation its From

- eiiu csooiaim Ta cetd h poest fr h ceto o a of creation the for propensity the created That cosmopolitanism. religious .

to leave the country or face imprisonment, while the more moderate moderate more the while imprisonment, face or country the leave to ance.

P a a ainl rmni isiuin Fo 1974 From institution. romantic national, a was UP n n sd tee ee hs p those were there side one On 35

h cnetto ta to pae between place took that contestation The 004), - existence and multi and existence ership and who were much in line with line in much were who and ership Kosovo losing its Faculties losing Kosovo e, made possible for the so the for possible made e, Greater Albania Greater lat n h lvl of level the in least t - 34 ethnic, multi ethnic,

while on the other, the on while . 28 July. . 28 rofessors and and rofessors

map as the as map -

cultural 198 H -

CEU eTD Collection an poverty in population Kosova the keeping of Yugoslavia ―accused and brethren Kosovar their of rights the of behalf on position defensive a take to forced way a in was Tirana movement stage. atthis irredentist any support alone let movement, nationalist Kosovar any support openly to 205). 2004: (Vickers one single a in join to countries two the for possible was it if even regime Communist Hoxha`s the to threats as perceived were religion their of expression free and travel of freedom Kosovar`s the Also, 205). 2004: was nationalism intensifying (Vickers control.‖ their to subject not was it whose because Tirana in authorities the to unsettling ‗purists‘, ―national as viewed were Albanians main its was Yugoslavia when time a at Tirana, for inconvenient been simply have would This Kosovo. inside movements irredentist potential create to as far as pushing further without s and education forenergetic new leadership. way the open or lingo their reverse either to elites the forcing thus nationalism, Albanian infamous envir mass the where 1986, of and Memorandum power to coming Milosević`s with changed all That border. co across their with links of severing a favoring thus quo, status the with satisfied be favor not would that map contractionary msr ad ervn i o is oil n pltcl ihs (oa 03 18. In 158). 2003: (Kola rights‖ political and social its of it depriving and misery d trading partner, however the ambiguity in political relations. Moreover, Kosovo Kosovo Moreover, relations. political in ambiguity the however partner, trading But after the 1981 protests of Kosovo Albanian students of Pristina University, University, Pristina of students Albanian Kosovo of protests 1981 the after But of subsidizing to limited exclusively almost was help Albania‘s However, nig f rfsos rm iaa nvriy o h Pitn counterpart, Pristina the to University Tirana from Professors of ending

any secessionist/ irredentist schemes and would and schemes irredentist secessionist/ any onments become more supportive of a renewed a of supportive more become onments Therefore, Tirana l Tirana Therefore, acked the will will the acked - ethnics 199

CEU eTD Collection 36 4 Table and clarifying presented thedata above. period communist to leading thus constraints, external by conditioned been have shifts domestic how and games elite competing the by offered con in considerations political the informs it give to convenient it found sometimes that support moral the of spite in period, Communist the during Kosovo, with Although period this in elite`s calculations Communist ruling in factors motivating most two the were scene, international the in growing isolation with coupled opposition, domestic with faced when needs survival com a that seem It research. this of course the during claims such exclusively, least at up, back nationalist can that evidence credible no found have I However, agenda. a toward country, the in problems economic from attention constituency‘s press its radicalizing by reciprocated Tirana foreign from even speculation some indeed been has when there fact, of matter a As accusations. low, times all an at arrived countries th between relations and Pristina in protests the instigated have might Tirana that Belgrade, suchperceivedevidence was a from interference Albania aspiece of thatshowed

See Kola (2003) footnote on p.159. on footnote (2003) Kola See 36

that Hoxha might have helped incite the protests in Kosovo as a way a as Kosovo in protests the incite helped have might Hoxha that . Predictions communist borderWWIIand for outcomesperiod during

Tirana has never has Tirana

in the Albania`s case Albania`s the in

-- ,

all this evidence i evidence this all

officially at least at officially ht n un hpd a projec map shaped turn in that

certain border outcome in the World War II and and II War World the in outcome border certain

are presented schematically below, schematically presented are -- s important for my overall argument because argument overall my for important s

structing national boundaries. boundaries. national structing requested an outright an in aogt h people the amongst tions

desire for unification unification for desire iain f political of bination

consolidating to divert its divert to Predictions

two e 200 .

CEU eTD Collection Albania (1939 Situation In - 1944)

occupation forces. with resistance against taking place simultaneously culminated inacivil war Elitestrugglescommunist. the nationalists frames thatled to Two m Competing Elite games ain competing and

civil war: civil war:

the

support for sympathy, was Albanian which tried togain argument main pacifier Italy`sbyItaly. Direct occupation Constraints International with Italians,after the continued Yugoslavia territories of inhabited with Albanian while unification w Chameria claim defeat Greece, by Albania. Afterthe (Chameria)with those of N.Greece Yugoslavia and speaking in lands Albanian unif as withdrawn ication of the Germans. - ,

even through

Albanians inboth inhistorytime that Powers. The only created by Axis came intobeing, ―Greater Albania‖ the reality of Border expansion as political entity. sharedcommon a sides of borders Border Outcome

201

CEU eTD Collection intervention foreign realities, political different regimes, of Changing shocks. exogenous chang fact been has discourse cultural and political the how and border the of sides both in era Communist (1945 - 1990) h floig etos otne wt pltcl n clua raiis during realities cultural and political with continues sections following The

n ad ih but aitos de o oh oetc leain and alterations domestic both to due variations, abrupt with and ing projects. pressed any for unification However Tirana never Albanian community under pressure through occasionBelgrade keep to 1974, where sawHoxha an Third period, started in Kosovo and Macedonia favorably toethnickinin regime started tolookmore all way 1989,though until dominant elite inAlbania witness neutral Albanian leadership we Yugoslavfraction in 1974 aftera pro purge of mass levels. From 1948to elite andKosovo bothin separationAlbania and of relationship broughta excellent Tirana junctures. 1945 From three maincritical This periodin divided is

ity. One - Belgrade - there. 48, 48, - then the Soviets expansionism, place WWIIwhich years to pursuant Yugoslavs inthree pursued. First conceivedand how map was geography‘and ‗imaginedon its also various limits which placed foreign influences, Three main kin. inhabited by its the adjacent areas Albania`sgoals in mostly neutralto which were and Chinese

d limits to to d limits professors and universitytextbooks, of distribution is shaped through imaginedgeography expanding and new 1974 very limited. neutral, still contact 1948 of border. contacts twosides in shrinking; no 1945 intermingling. foreignwith limited struggles,coupled a l period and therewas passed away inthis and both Hoxha Tito ambiguous since 1981 Kosovo. penetration in Albanian massmedia ackelite of - - - - 1981: map 1974: map 48: map 1989:

202

CEU eTD Collection of ofRepublic recognition for preconditions wasthe it and of one in2009 resolved finally was issue border The Yugoslavia. of disintegration the after especially resurfaced and other lasting long had This Macedonia. with religi clan, multiple border of because effects engineered newly the to compared minor rather were these but withMontenegro, border thewith and joined) municipalities Serbian few a (when Serbia with boundaries newly the to joined and no the in changes minor province weresome Kosovo affected that changes Other this ofMacedonia. republic formed from separated was Kosovo of part western Albanians the because Federation`s Federation, the The and Federation Moscow. the in rule from and Tito`s secure territory independence further Macedonian would that over map claims a recreate Bulgarian to and therefore people and identity national Bulgarian the alienating 37 and literate been generally had elite the that Considering period. this during Albania toward attitude ambivalent an showed have Albanians Kosovar the variables, political different of variation the with accordance in that hypothesis initial I day, the of be considerations political to to need adaptable highly in and reinstated always fluid, is identity national Since borders. mental corresponding republics the political in and marks condition their left all have Europe), Central in especially (felt Union Soviet from afterwards, Albania took. territory of visualization such that shifts and period communist during Yugoslavia in Albanians ethnic border certain Period Communist during Yugoslavia in Albanians Ethnic the of Borders of Perception 5.5 imagining o of processes and

From 1945, we have the creation of Republic of Macedonia, which was done with the dual purp dual the with done was which Macedonia, of Republic of creation the have we 1945, From

h geo The 37

and their perception of national identity, as well as mapping of territory and the and territory of mapping as well as identity, national of perception their and or their re their or f boundaries and saliencef boundariesthe indifferent ‗Nation‘ periods. of time ofgrtos n paig iis n o nto ws mgnd amongst imagined was nation how on limits placing and configurations - oiia crusacs o ob hv pae te ao rl i shaping in role major the played have doubt no circumstances political rememorization - approachment during early 70 earlyduring approachment - utrl ihs f tnc lain lvn i dfeet Yugosl different in living Albanians ethnic of rights cultural

- uolva oemo drn 1945 during honeymoon Yugoslavia

on and national ties that co that ties national and on

l ifune te aito o dsore different discourse, of variation the influenced all

were affected by such remaking of borders within the the within borders of remaking such by affected were - s to jointly confront the threat coming threat jointlythe confrontto s - ethnics on both border sides had with each each with had sides border both on ethnics

Kosovo from FYROM. from Kosovo well versed in Albanian as as Albanian in versed well - 1948, the subsequent rift rift subsequent the 1948, ae oe the posed have

ose of of ose rthern rthern 203 av av

CEU eTD Collection was what from situation different complete withfull concentration. forces fightingthe thanoccupation rather withother, each war civil A matter. the this during proper in Albania in nationalists happening the from much differing not thus defeat, Germany`s after even kept be to design temporal such for asking were Kosovars Communist that Albanian ―Greater the a joining created forcibly had by that Albania‖ Powers Axis by enforced change border major a was there when WWII geo during the given time, the at demand high in was that map virtual a with comply to order in borders ‗material‘ the shifting on interest elite‘ ‗external‘ of telling K of assignment 39 period. this during unemployment of levels highest this. like felt important population An 1980s. wa early of in reason claims percentage irredentist of voicing small to led a have to seems only naming such probably Paradoxically although media, Belgrade by irredentists la the was example second A Yugoslavia. in third the were numerically vis them downgrading as it perceived which community, Albanian the of part main the nation, of bits ―displaced were entities these of both that was justification legal The nation. a of instead Constitution 38 Albanian as well as Tito, and Djilas Milovan and Resolution of part this with agree not Albania. to Kosovo of unification conference The trends. 1944 early of Conference two aforementioned The after. right as well as occupation, German and Italian Al with reunion a favored have to seem Albanians Kosovo of elite population that felt as second increasing trends, separatist the reinforcing actually in effect boomerang the a produced have to may 1981, after labeling authorities Belgrade irredentistby Albanians Kosovar the times, other At Tirana. from propaganda communism of effect the under was which electorate, from legitimacy the them get would also but authorities, Belgrade by power of position their guarantee a support to inclined been have they language, primarily

Two examples of this can be the labeling of Kosova and Vojvodina as as Vojvodina and Kosova of labeling the be can this of examples Two At this conference, the Kosovar communist resistance leaders passed a resolution on the postwar postwar the on resolution a passed leaders resistance communist Kosovar the conference, this At Seen from this perspective, a large part of population and particularly the political the particularly and population of part large a perspective, this from Seen s also the economic one, considering the fact that Kosovo had the lowest GDP per capita and and capita per GDP lowest the had Kosovo that fact the considering one, economic the also s sv o lai,btteroiin a ae irgre Mlom19) hsi highly is This 1998). (Malcolm disregarded later was opinion their but Albania, to osovo

which laid elsewhere‖ (Malcolm 1999: 328), although it had an effect of alienating alienating of effect an had it although 328), 1999: (Malcolm elsewhere‖ laid which

eie t mk psil te struct the possible make to decided

that asked for a Kosovo republic was the culmination of these these of culmination the was republic Kosovo a for asked that -

class theYugoslav in citizens Federation. 39 ae eid we cmuit ad ainlss ee okd n a in locked were nationalists and communists when period, same -

speaking territory and people to this design. Thus, the p the Thus, design. this to people and territory speaking The headquarters of Yugoslav Communist Party did Party Communist Yugoslav of headquarters The - polit

ical conditions. It is puzzling that this was happening happening was this that puzzling is It conditions. ical beling of the Albanians of Kosovo as as Kosovo of Albanians the of beling - à ou operandi modus - vis the other Republics, although although Republics, other the vis

el itoue national introduced newly rs ht ol alw the allow would that ures the alienation of a part of of part a of alienation the narodnost narodnost bania both during the the during both bania 38

according to 1974 1974 to according

- days ht would that uzzle is is uzzle Bujan Bujan 204 -

CEU eTD Collection 73. 40 proper. Albania within situated are them of third a only although Gegs, are Balkans the of position own his seriously endanger would which border the of sides both from territory Geg of unification a see to eager not was probably most Tosk, a as Hoxha, together. them fought and separatists as co its with conjunction full in leadership, relations March betweenandTitoin Stalin 27 if well, as blessing Stalin with Republic Seventh the become have would thus Albania [Thus] Republic. Seventh the for prepared getting were posts additional Headquarters, Republics the in and Yugoslavia t Party Communist of Bureau Political the 1948 March 14 ―[i]n notes: author an As Yugoslavia. with Federation a form jointly pro was majority the where body, Poli Albanians to the claims addition, territorial In any Yugoslavia. have not did Albania that 1946 August Paris, in Conference Albania.‖ and Kosovo t the not was it that agreed again we Albania, and Yugoslavia of liberation of vigil the ―In that: states which Stalin to sent his of letter secret a cites document discovered recently a as when further even went Hoxha 91). 1991: resolution the condemned Hoxha, Enver leader communist

Enver Hoxha. EnverHoxha.

Thus we observe a steady course of action in this initial stage, where the Albanian the where stage, initial this in action of course steady a observe we Thus Secret Letter to Stalin to Letter Secret 40

lo bt ae, fiily oh wud elr a te Peace the at declare would Hoxha officially later, bit a Also something unexpected did not happen, which was the break of of break the was which happen, not did unexpected something

power in Albania proper. Two thirds of ethnic Albanians in Albanians ethnic of thirds Two proper. Albania in power . Russian State Archive, Moscow RCHIDNI.D. Op. 137, D. 68, 68, D. 137, Op. RCHIDNI.D. Moscow Archive, Russian . State - uolv te wn a fr s o ae h dcso to decision the take to as far as went they Yugoslav, ook the decision for the unification of Albania with Albania of unification the for decision the ook unterpart in Belgrade, saw the nationalist forces nationalist the saw Belgrade, in unterpart th br, h hget oiia decision political highest the tburo, ime for any projects of unification between unification of projects any for ime ‖ (Fevziu 188). 2011: Rjvć 97 49 Hibert 439; 1987: (Rajović

- taking L64 205 -

CEU eTD Collection 42 41 leadership 127 2011: (Butka ―scapegoat‖ a him making and 1945 of killing mass Kosovar in collaboration Archives states: more far and position Ranković`s with tandem full in them, of persecution open with culminated which underbidding worse things make to Tosks dominated ratherfairly. the where apparatus Communist of majority the with contrast stark in was This

The Foreign Ministry Archive, 1949, D. 191. 191. D. 1949, Archive, ForeignMinistry The Services YugoslavIntelligence h Abna cif rsctr fie wne t dlgt al lm for blame all delegate to wanted officer prosecutor chief Albanian The without trial Albanianin land, more than a 1000 innocent Kosovars. UDB Kocithe authorized he traitor Interior, of government, Minister being Albanian 1945, in of where Xoxe, midst the in agent Yugoslav the participated has trial, without Kosov against precedent without massacres andthese In war. the after and illegally during squads, firing by killed are Kosovars innocent of Thousands served Tirana, in survival political secured Belgrade with ties where struggles Elite govern Yugoslav secretthe police (Jacques 1995: 466). the granted Albania, He with languages.of controlharsh the underpopulation restless the kept and Kosovanationalism in Albanian partnership official of its years of postwar one 1945 as Albanian Septemberopen to Kosovars Albanian for authorization in with Tito region,‖ Albanians, ―autonomous To restless control. Yugoslav to his Kosova returning mollify for responsible him hold still and Betrayal‖ Non under Hoxha, as one that deeply sympathized with Kosovar cause, thus waving thus cause, Kosovar with sympathized deeply that one as Hoxha, under - omnss pkse fr ooa lain cle Hxas cin h ―Great the action Hoxha`s called Albanians Kosova for spokesmen communists

radical than Tito`s own philosophy. As one document from Albanian State Albanian from document one As philosophy. own Tito`s than radical went as far as to take a rather radical position on Albanians of Yugoslavia, of Albanians on position radical rather a take to as far as went

o co for Furthermore, observes:an author as

- tnc eain o bt sds f h bre. This border. the of sides both on relations ethnic

- 2) ad hs re thus and 128), - language elementary schools. But for several for But schools. elementary language

trcte of attrocities

- eonzd ooa s an as Kosova recognized positioning the Albanian Albanian the positioning

42 later years to Xoxe, Xoxe, to years later

et eetd this resented ment 41

officers to fire to officers o population, o ethnic 206

CEU eTD Collection textbooks of influence the and teaching school in used language The 19). 2009: (Krasniqi schools language Albanian of absence of while period, interwar because not, the were rights linguistic their recognized, was Albanians of during difference linguistic Even 318). 1998: (Malcolm itself‖ Albania from Albanian 300 over Just kinds. we these 1945; in employed were all schoolteachers of Albanians qualified professionally of indeed and teachers, of shortage real a was There 1991). Braha 1992; (Roux illiterate were 10, of pre and Ottoman 1998:318). (Malcolm Albanian‖ of effects combined the to thanks that, in found 1948 in out carried survey ―[a] Furthermore, 279 and Serbian in classes 357 containing 392, Serbian. in only teaching Kosovo, in schools 252 just been had ―there am II, War I World before If Here Malcolm. by provided war. figures some the to referring after right and during nation the imagined Kosovo of Albanians nation on had it that impact the of analysis further a Perceptionof Virtualkin in Borders Yugoslavia in amongstAlbanian and Education Vernacular 5.5.1 anyYugoslav direct intervention. precluding thus Tirana, of behalf on them against mobilize would Yugoslavia in Albanians w eliminatingcompetition was hemove,since this in stone withsame birds two killed Hoxha co the to hand a ithin the party, while clearly signaling the Yugoslavs not to interfere, otherwise ethnic ethnic otherwise interfere, to not Yugoslavs the signaling clearly while party, the ithin The situation of schools and teachers can be taken into consideration as a as consideration into taken be can teachers and schools of situation The - - war Yugoslav policies, 74 percent percent 74 policies, Yugoslav war Belgrade. with break the after sympathy their get to trying and ethnics

Nationalizing Textbooks Causing Bottom Causing Textbooks Nationalizing prtn i te igo o Yugoslavia of Kingdom the in operating re supplemented by nearly fifty recruited fifty nearly by supplemented re of all Kosovo Albanians over the age age the over Albanians Kosovo all of ., [b]y the end of 1945 there were were there 1945 of end the [b]y ., alist imagination and the way the the way the and imagination alist

- up Shifts Shifts up proxy 207

for for

CEU eTD Collection thus republic, independent Kosovo a of proclamation or trunk Albanians with unification sought haveeither would that demands nationalist anyfrom ideology, refrained communist Wa World of aftermath the in regimes friendly two the between sandwiched being Kosovo, in elite political new The Albania‘. ‗Greater of idea the on built project political a of aware less was Albanians Kosovo of generation safelycandeduwe exile, into gone had or died eitherhad identity, nation inconformity with language the by preserved mostly as was identity ethnic language Albanian the that 267). 1998: was (Malcolm suppressed‖ energetically evidence, supporting much with explained in authorities by closed were that Albanian in teaching schools 27 than more for Nation of League the before testified Kosovo from priests Catholic three 1930, In perception. map and awareness national of level the with educa the because nationhood, the of instrumentalization later, decades even Kosovo the in phenomenon same the of persistence to continuing the population, whole the of percentage regard in Serbia in better little a only and nation`s geography from and history below. ot and pupils the by conceptualized was nation the how determine help can rate, illiteracy overall the as well as humanities, in From this and the other evidence that most of nationalist political and cultural elite cultural and political nationalist of most that evidence other the and this From Montenegro in same the roughly been had situation the I, World War after right If

- poses buildingBelgrade policies of the regime. her inhabitants and offer an understanding of the the of understanding an offer and inhabitants her

calne n h cnetaiain and conceptualization the on challenge a r II and nourished with the anti the with nourished and II r Kosovo. ―The truth, as the three priests priests three the as truth, ―The Kosovo. These was done in order to suppress the suppress to order in done was These cl o iltrt ihbtns s a as inhabitants illiterate of scale and reinforce instead a Yugoslav Yugoslav a instead reinforce and tion in vernacular often correlates often vernacular in tion ce that consequently, the younger the consequently, that ce

- nationalist 208

CEU eTD Collection as Yugoslavia, in communities Albanian on impact great a had has television the then and of particularagenda inlight ofpoliticalthat they implications have. salience the and urgencies political the reflecting varied, has issues border and nationalist with resonance certain finds it when especially suit, follows it times other at action, political precede to seem media Sometimes society. the in catalyst a of role the performing thus considerations, action elite the to feelings up welas shaping publicopinion in both powerfulvoicea is andestate post the in opinion public censure of because r any play not did that medium a is This media. the is imagination national the State of CommunismSides Borders during a Albania in Media Mass 5.6 Albanian native with education from mostly Tiranaand received withstrong doses. nationalist coupled freedom, of degree greater and Constitution Yugoslav th that stress elite new a required building inturn status quo.This the thatwouldmaintain politically neutral stances a favoring During communism, the influence from Tirana audio Tirana from influence the communism, During in depicted are borders how of relationship intrinsic the shows that proxy Another - led Yugoslav identity, to suit the new political realities. Nevertheless, I need to need I Nevertheless, realities. political new the suit to identity, Yugoslav led parochial/ s rdal cagd to changed gradually is

n lc o technology of lack and contractionar - omns ea Te mass The era. communist nd its Role in (Re)shaping Mental Boundaries in Both in Boundaries Mental (Re)shaping in Role its nd y

map version. Rather, they were trying to embrace embrace to trying were they Rather, version. map ambivalence bt a be cuily motn i shaping in important crucially been has but ,

h pbi er Mda aietto of manifestation Media ear. public the

n al 17s wt te hne in changes the with 1970s, early in

media plays the role of the fourth fourth the of role the plays media

(visual) media, first the radio the first media, (visual) l as channelingasl bottom

ole previously ole 209 -

CEU eTD Collection vu‖,Top home, back folk the tell to dare 44 not did they but as traitors. labeled disappointed quicklybe would they because much were period, this in Albania they visit to that country a in a the had chance had that ones The happening ofreunification. hopes founded newly nourished they visited, ever few although they was Thus TV. what Albanian of the dishes, view satellite throughdistorted later cherished and had Tirana Radio they of much abroad frequencies how me surprised have r Montenegro Hoxha`s and Macedonia Kosovo, from members (Albanian) diaspora these of some with interviews informal and contacts Personal government. Tirana the by Communi the to opposition the of because place first the in 43 moment, better a in arrived have not for could it folk whom Albanian Kosovar of mass great the impress to fail not did wealth, economic em and liberalization of era an signaled which 70s, the of alterations Constitutional the with procured changes the after proper Kosovo in structures opening opportunity simultaneous t shows, timing national of tool a as realities, territorial present the with overlapped that map virtual a perpetuating and creating thus time, through nation met certain a created products, propaganda. nationalist of full was suggests, itself name the as which Centuries,‖ the through Nation Albanian of pop Heroism ―the as such documentaries in impact great a had 1974, of Constitution the and Ranković of fall the after liberalization of era the from benefiting 1970s with contact first ―[t]he it: put has elites territories. these from diaspora the as well

Interview with Hydajet Hyseni, a current member of Kosovar parliament in an Albanian show called ―Déjà ―Déjà called show Albanian an in parliament Kosovar of member current a Hyseni, Hydajet with Interview Situation was different with the Albanian expatriates from Albania proper, because in most case they fled fled they case most in because proper, Albania from expatriates Albanian the with different was Situation ergence ofparallel intheprovince. narratives - 0, h sae eeiin rm Tirana from television state the 80s, - h Abna cmuit rpgna ht ecie Abna s hvn of haven a as Albania described that propaganda communist Albanian The Channel, 10 April 2010. April 2010. 10 Channel, egime and this was because the only media that they could inform itself in Albanian were the the were Albanian in itself inform could they that media only the because was this and egime his nationalist propaganda started after the break with the Yugoslavs and and Yugoslavs the with break the after started propaganda nationalist his

anarrative that concentrated in showing the indivisibility of indivisibility the showing in concentrated that anarrative lto tee epcal truh V hw and shows TV through especially there, ulation Tirana came through Radio Tirana in 1960s.‖ in Tirana Radio through came Tirana

As one of the members of Kosovar political Kosovar of members the of one As that

st regime in Albania or because were persecuted persecuted were because or Albania in regime st

- had the press monopoly in Albania, Albania, in monopoly press the had omns rgm o Tirana. of regime communist

considering the degree of freedom freedom of degree the considering r)tre iaiig as imagining (re)started This and other similar media similar other and This motherland

s the As 44

210 and and

CEU eTD Collection 47 46 45 lenses. reality through motherland perceived the discovering and time, first co their meeting when faced Kosovars many that experience repeated often thei about dreams their ―shatter to able not was he because Kosovo in back anyone told never he that telling disappointed.‖ get yourself let never you mothercountry, imag than impoverished andworse times 100 wasfound we that ―Albania says: he whatItvery telling is weekvisit. three a in engineers of group a with together 1980 February in Albania visiting recalls re comes account interesting each to know started we ―while that adds He Albania. to flew 600.000 than more when 1999, the they when shock (cultural) France, a witnessed they that and to Tirana Radio from came Albania about know they all that recalls emigrated later in who Sefer, 14). 2009: (Konomi others‖ by occupied not drea our of land the as Albania see to used ―[w]e recalls: study recent a for interview an in Pristina from Sefer example, For 1980s. and 1970s in there population the of feelings mixed the and time of period this mass and economicstan intheir emigration contributed had freedoms civic and political greater enjoy to started have they when timing the with matching exactly was It 1970s. early in Constitution in change with associated

Ibid 2011. December 02 Fevziu, host Blendi with show talk Opinion Ramadani. withEtem Interview wher Slovenia in but lives ofKosovo Albanian an Ramadani is Mr.

- other, we understood how far we were in reality.‖ (Konomi 2009: 14). An An 14). 2009: (Konomi reality.‖ in were we far how understood we other, r (perceived) homeland.‖ (perceived) r

nd bt ws o dspone. eas i yu oe your love you if Because disappointed. not was I but ined,

saw the poverty and economic condition during mass exodus in exodus mass during condition economic and poverty the saw cently from well from cently

ms […] because it was an independent country and it was it and country independent an was it because […] ms 47

- Such shocking witness bearing events were events bearing witness shocking Such known businessman Etem Ramadani Etem businessman known dards. Some recent testimonies testify for testifyfor recentdards. testimonies Some 46 e he has a highly successful business. successful hashighly a hee

He continues with his story by story his with continues He - ethnics for the the for ethnics These are are These

who 211

CEU eTD Collection in press. getforeign recognition to in order scholars foreign for school special ethn and folklore 48 expansionary remaining neutral map to led competition elite low with combined intervention, international nation international the from isolated more had it Chinese), the with break the after (especially community far was it because but Romania, Ceausescu`s in the Federation. Ser juxtapose to way a as rather but demands, secessionist/irredentist their facilitate could that goal a as Kosovo of Albanians of empowerement the foresee not did w unification possible a or Federation Yugoslav the within Republic full a either goal end an as saw that nationalism expansionary growing a possible made Tirana, from furnished of Al rate literacy growing a with coupled communication, personal of lack and machine The oxymoron. an make propaganda communist by deal great a would helped Albania, in affairs of state the normallyon ignorance that dogmas two the of symbiosis weird a was analysts some for which rhetoric nationalist a in Yugoslavia. of examples

ith Albania. ith Such was the example of archeological frenzy to show the autochthony of the nation, emphasizes in in emphasizes nation, the of autochthony the show to frenzy archeological of example the was Such ain enclr n a col urcl lrey ae o hmnte textbooks humanities on based largely curricula school a and vernacular banian - ulig rcse wih ee doycai ad ihu parallels. without and idiosyncratic were which processes building

In Albania itself, the situation had some similarity in this regard only with with only regard this in similarity some had situation the itself, Albania In produced shifts domestic with conjunction in nature, geopolitical of changes Thus, n lai` cs. hl i Ksv, n h dcd o 1974 of decade the in Kosovo, in While case. Albania`s in views from below that show the virtual map shifts amongst the Albanian folk folk Albanian the amongst shifts map virtual the show that below from views

This was the adverse effect of 1974 alterations of Constitution,althoughTito ofalterations 1974 ofthe adversewaseffect This as result of direct Albania`s influence in spreading nationalist literature and and literature nationalist spreading in influence Albania`s direct of result as

lg ad tt sbiis o Abnlgcl tde, hc cliae wt oeig f a of opening with culminated which studies, Albanological for subsidies state and ology

eid f national of period to rely more on consuming on more rely to

o 91 mp was map 1981, to - bian hegemony hegemony bian communism 48

Low 212 a ,

CEU eTD Collection eli intense leadingto pro staunchly were others while identities), Yugoslav by irredentism advocating for years 28 for later (imprisoned demonstrates 49 re then, and Court Sultans` at hostage when Islam to converted Orthodox, Born differences. other of myriad the notwithstanding all, represent could that symbols sole the of one as venerate and nourished equally was myth His scale. pan representative full a as Scanderbeg of the dominance isolation, full in was Albania when 1980s early in culminated that era nationalism Communis of fall the after Even reasons. both for used been has Often study. this in identified have I that junctures‘ ‗critical during especially Albania‘ pan a foment to or invasions, land hostile of sea a in resistance of myth a as serve to either elites the by used instrumentally hero,whenup. Thisquintessential has national been opportunitiesthus open frontiers have that elites political shrewd and natural across cuts by that symbol a map constructed consecutively and national deliberately of manipulation of level the testifies that Use in 5.7 ambiguity h of because1989 to 1981 fromeffective while massmedia,its and history revisionist textbooks

Parts of the elites were favoring expansionary nationalism and unification with Alb with unification and nationalism expansionary favoring were elites the of Parts - converted to Catholicism for practical for Catholicism to converted igh external constraints and also high internal eli internal high also and constraints external igh dooiig itr t Cet a eena Map: Perennial a Create to History Ideologizing Textbooks The figure The

that divide the Albanian communities in the region, to serve expansionist aims expansionist serve to region, the in communities Albanian the divide that as predicted from my (see model tablebelow). - Yugoslav as Azem Vllasi, Tito`s favorite, or Mahmud Bakalli and Fadil Hoxha, thus thus Hoxha, Fadil and Bakalli Mahmud or favorite, Tito`s Vllasi, Azem as Yugoslav te competition and different and incompatible mapprojections. incompatible and different and competition te

and and Impacted ithas how Border Virtual Shifts of George Castrioti Scanderbeg is taken into analysis here, as a proxy a as here, analysis into taken is Scanderbeg Castrioti George of

Albanianism that creates and perpetuates a map of ‗Greater ‗Greater of map a perpetuates and creates that Albanianism reasons (like the support of Papacy, Venetia and and Venetia Papacy, of support the (like reasons te struggles, te d by Albanians everywhere in Balkans in everywhere Albanians by d -

Albanian hero has continued in full full in continued has hero Albanian ainl eos Instrumental Hero`s National m and the end of its romantic its of end the and m 49

the situation led to to led situation the

ania, as case of Demaci Demaci of case as ania, and foreign and border 213 -

CEU eTD Collection Albania. day present of part small verya in power its fragile the of backing the had marri own who his even and Turks Kosovo) and Albania between int borderlands in by (geographically tribe weakened Dukagjini was reign His textbooks. history of more was and 50 19 the from survived has that fi and united were backgrounds cultural and faiths various and locations present the notwithstanding Albanians the all when times glorious of era former a of pupils young the remind to needed Scanderbeg of object from far is this seen, be can it As weapon‖ every of usage the in master a was he and foot on and horse the of back the on fight could He strong. and tall brave, very was He gifts. special with n ―the that: stated explicitly him, for writing when 1995 in schools high for historytextbook a example, For Slavs. Southern the ofLazar Tsar t (Skendi 228). 1980: between link strong a as served thus He soil. native in brethren their for alsoinspiration of source becomea to Sea Adriatik acrossthe transposed was Laterit Italy. enjoye who Italy, of Albanians by created first was Scanderbeg of cult ―[t]he emphasizes: scholar so tim first the for that note to interest of is It 2008). (Schmitt glory‘ former of ‗era the of remembrance only the short his and faiths different all represented he Napoli), of Kingdom

Some recent and hotly debated historical facts point out that Scanderbeg was of short stature (physically) (physically) stature short of was Scanderbeg that out point facts historical debated hotly and recent Some - called Arberesh community which left Albania at the time of Ottoman conquest. As a a As conquest. Ottoman of time the at Albania left which community Arberesh called d freedom and was used particularly to inspire them in the fight for reunification of reunification for fight the in them inspire to particularly used was and freedom d In history texts, he always was given semi given was always he texts, history In primus inter partes inter primus e the cult of Scanderbeg was used by the Albanian diaspora in Italy,the in diaspora Albanian bythe Scanderbeg used ofwas the cult e

age was conjectural (by marrying the daughter of a rival clan family) to secure secure to family) clan rival a of daughter the marrying (by conjectural was age th

kind of leader rather than the almighty leader t leader almighty the than rather leader of kind ghting under a single leadership. This was a common myth myth common a was This leadership. single a under ghting Century, uninterrupted and that has played a powerful role powerful a played has that and uninterrupted Century, ive history and cold recounting of facts. The myth myth The facts. of recounting cold and history ive ra dset hs an opponents main his dissent, ernal

- divine powers that recall the myth of of myth the recall that powers divine tr hd qipd ere Kastrioti George equipped had ature - lived principality was was principality lived 50 hat is portrayed in these these in portrayed is hat

(Myzyri 1995: 51). 1995: (Myzyri

were the powerful powerful the were wo bridges‖ bridges‖ wo 214

CEU eTD Collection 52 19 inthe movement adm the 51 Century, 10th 9 in Albania dominated Anzhuin`s to references clear with before, centuries even or misty ( ideas and interests material for but idea, great for not but emperor, [Ottoman] the against risen Tepelena, Pasha Ali of that to deed and work his contrast to paragraph but idea, big a only time: superstate his a against in state a action of uprising new successful a undertook he because foremost but, strategist, great a that murmured Scanderbeg the wasof one people ―[a]nd writes: he novels, his of one For of paragraph poetry. a in and example, stories short novels, widespread his through imagination, popular in city. foremost country`s capital the Kadare, the Tirana, of square central the dominates statue main His etc. paintings museums, parks, squares, sculpture, in engrafted was image His state. the by ideology a themajority preferredand symphonyby cultural ofpolitical elite. been has odds, all against thesis, surviving the surprisingly, Not nations. surrounding other Albanian the amongst traditions and language religion, of boundaries multilayered and complex the erasing in

See Xhufi 2006 for an extensive coverage of this historical legacy. historical ofthis coverage anfor extensive XhufiSee 2006 He was a picturesque feudal lord who tried to challenge the Sultan, by gaining an autonomous status for status autonomous an gaining by Sultan, the challenge to tried who lord feudal picturesque a was He inistrative unit that he commanded, while also giving a great contribution to Greece`s independence independence Greece`s to contribution great a giving also while commanded, he that unit inistrative The construction of the myth of an Albanian state that dated back from Scanderbeg, from Scanderbeg, back state Albanian thatdated myth an of The of construction the national During Kadare 1981: 103). 1981: Kadare 52

a state which has included all Albanian all included has which state a th

Century.

uiesl n‖ Kdr 18: 0) H cnius n h same the in continues He 103). 1981: (Kadare one‖ universal a , hl smlaeul hlig rae nw budre wt the with boundaries [new] create helping simultaneously while s, - communist

greatest men in European Renaissance, not only because he was greatest was Renaissance,he because notonly men inEuropean

writer played an important role in (re)building up his myth myth his up (re)building in role important an played writer

r, i mt ws erae t sre h official the serve to recreated was myth his era, Ad hs codn t te ws not was them to according this And . - speaking

territories moreover, has has moreover, territories

―who [also] had [also] ―who th

215 and and the

CEU eTD Collection such ‗positive‘ mytherase that to necessity of advocates primary the of one and rule Communist the of one is pr Kadare borders. republican its beyond much lies which Albania Ethnic of scope ‗natural‘ the emphasizes and birth), of name (the name Christian his uses he Here without live could he b Albania, that told has time The stone. founding a as but luxury, a as not for Albania, ―George need writes: was Castrioti given he when historiography byis Kadare depending po mostly ondomestic post the in Then, one). Albanian and Yugoslav (the parties communist two the between honeymoon the during alteration and bond such to testify would that music popular and art visual ethnology, folklore, in emphasizes new research, state through of all was Albania Greater a and united were Albanians all when history referencesto arena,international the in ever than isolation more facing country the with 1980s, During legacy. and era Scanderbeg`s from king new to order in reign Zog King during evoked successfully (critical) Such others. than junctures nation of periods been particularlyhave junctures some at more stressed theme repeated a been mr saes f lain ainl r)nfcto udr cnebg leadership Scanderbeg under (re)unification national Albanian of shapers imary The best synthesis regarding Scanderbeg`s place and role in Albanian Albanian in role and place Scanderbeg`s regarding synthesis best The ut Albania Albania ut - pnoe atvt. uh ciiis nldd e itrs i archeological in interest new included activities Such activity. sponsored in all its natural length natural its all in - omns tasto, hs itr hs a is p ad downs, and ups its had has picture this transition, communist

natural and symbolic bordersAlbanians. amongnatural andsymbolic litical mood andlitical mood geo s in textbooks that were unthinkable several decades ago ago decades several unthinkable were that textbooks in s h sde re sudden the could not live without him‖ without live not could - building and state and building - political events that took place. took political events that

invent a linear descendence of the of descendence linear a invent - ofgrd n etl mapping mental in configured -

formation. It has been been Ithas formation. continue

(Kadare 2010). 2010). (Kadare

maintain n the in

216 ing

CEU eTD Collection state. Albanian ofthe territory oftoday`s onlythird one 53 Albanian Kin period 5 Table schematically below II period War World communist and t constraints, external by conditioned been redeem. to nationalists new the expects which age‘), ‗golden of time (the unity national and territorial of era the in myths these national of persistence the shows it but era, that at entity territorial non such of leader a been never has Scanderbeg that out stress to futile maysound (Winnf Powers‖ Great the of mercy the at was country the when period and Norman Bulgarian, Ser Byzantine, Greek, of years 2,000 nearly after interlude brief a of leader yearswas Scanderbeg twenty ―[f]or writes:editor the communism, of fall the after right England in published book a in example For circles. empirical their based they a that fact the from mostly came course of This Albania. of history the studied that scholars external from even frames competing allow not did it that nalysis on th on nalysis

It is not clear what the authors imply by ‗united‘ Albania here. Scanderbeg` s rule at the time encompassed encompassed time the at rule s Scanderbeg` here. Albania ‗united‘ by imply authors the what clear not is It in cuain ad eoe the before and occupation, bian So much unified much So

- . Pre . omns. yh sc a ti, r bit n the on built are this, as such Myths communism. Predictions offered by the competing elite games and how domestic shifts have have shifts domestic how and games elite competing the by offered Predictions dictions for border outcomes amongst kin in kin amongst outcomes border for dictions e ideologized e

C .

ompeting Elite games

for the most part most the for

data that was served first hand from Tirana`s official history official Tirana`s from hand first served was that data

amongst the Albanian kininYugoslavia amongst the 0 yas f uks rule Turkish of years 400 was the dominant frame dominant the was u laig o eti bre otoe n the in outcome border certain to leading hus

International

notion that once there was a a was there once that notion united the ,

WWII and Communist and WWII olwd n un y the by turn in followed 53 under Hoxha`s regime Hoxha`s under

and Border Outcome free Albania in a in Albania free ih 92 3. It 3). 1992: rith

are presented are presented - existing existing 217

CEU eTD Collection (1945 (1939 - - 1990) 1944)

struggle. upper hand ininternal startmoment gaining to the which seemedat Kosovar nationalist elite calls by in1981 of part Irredentist constitution. freedoms of1974 purge andacquired newly aftermath ofRankovic Tirana in relations up tothe 1970s.Pristina political andcultural elite nationalist Albanian High repression well as inAlbania. inKosovoasnationalists, andcommunists struggles between which leadelite tofierce High external constraints,

this this

- southeastern separation of Changesarefirst occupation). intervention (Axis Direct foreign Pristina relations.Pristina effects Tirana in that produced ‗external‘ changes were main regime. These by Milosevics` removal of status status. Thirdly and autonomous 1974 constitution there. Secondly, than 20percent minority more of formingan Alb Macedonia, thus Kosovo tojoin Constraints

, -

contacts twosides in shrinking; no 1945 advocate irredentism. regime and openly Tirana quisling to take charge of Kosovar leadership Germans a favoring especially favored by Albanian map, inclusive pan Development ofan dom constraints and of high external result ofcombination ambiguous, as the somewhat 1981 Albania. teachers from and of textbooks also fueled by import expansionary map, favora of perceptiongreatly in intensifies and mass expanding, contact 1974 very limited. neutral, still contact 1948 of border. estic elite - - - - 48: map 1989: map 1981: m 1974: map

ap 218

CEU eTD Collection theongoing(i.e.and thecase ofKosovo developmentsthere). other the on has borders of power symbolic The boundaries. imagined its and nation the of map mental of reconstruction and deconstruction about inferences important derive to analyzed history, official in manifested as understanding borders Mental discourse. public and political in shifts for opportunities juncture‘new opened another‗critical when early in 1990s, recreatedwas goals. political served that engineering strategic through fed openly others at and ambivalent re of dream a nourished Yugoslavs), with (i.e., junctures th time each certain isolation, growing at This, bond. language and landscape territorial in both reflected as nation, perennial a of map mental a produce ideologyto communist with fused early the 5.8 Conclusion hand, greatly affected geo affected greatly hand,

h floig chap following The in discourse cultural and political in changes trace to was chapter this of aim The years of communism and later on later and communism of years

u as i pplr eois a mnfse i vros ie) i duly is sites), various in manifested (as memories popular in also but e fcss n post on focuses ter ere was a rupture with a foreign patron/ally, like with the the with like patron/ally, foreign a with rupture a was ere - political realities by also affecting administrative borders administrative affecting also by realities political - unification, which at some periods has been been has periods some at which unification, , where processes of romantic of processes where , - omns raiis n hw etl map mental how and realities communist

struggles. - nationalism were were nationalism

2 19

CEU eTD Collection Chapter 6 agendaxenophobic hav and nationalist populist, around electorates mobilize to resources as emotion used who actors entrepreunal local versus behavior‖, influence to carrots") and ("sticks incentives The decades. two last the over Western Balkansand occurring theconflicts interventions strategic emotion inthe usein of the understand to trying recently have Authors years. transition early the in followed that host their various with negotiate to trying were minorities that way the altered often has intervention foreign addition, In gains. political deliberately stirred were passions ethnic often and dismembering 1997 Langman and (Kürti groups ethnic and national of self with fit to order in everywhere, almost redefined been has concept This unit. nation re the for served boundaries, national erode to seemed that processes post in borders nation`s Introduction - -

- state based identities built on primacy of congruence of national borders with state state with borders national of congruence of primacy on built identities based state By God, then, says Ned, laughing, if that`s so I`m a nation for I`m living in the same place for the the for place same 1922). Ulysses (James Joyce, years five past the in living I`m for nation a I`m so that`s if laughing, Ned, says then, God, By place. the same livingin people same nation isA the Bloom. Says nation? A This chapter traces the main socio main the traces chapter This

e often stood in opposing sides (Petersenoften opposing stoodin e sides 2011). - omns yas A ea ht owtsadn te globalization the notwithstanding that era An years. communist oi o ‗ainl Wsen nevnin sn ―material using intervention Western ‗rational‘ of logic - political discourse regarding the virtual shift of shift virtual the regarding discourse political

D Postin Landscape and Mental Borders Reimagining Territorial countries in the new ideological vacuum vacuum ideological new the in countries emocratic Transition - Communist : 3), when federations were were federations when 3), : by elites elites by

affirmation of the the of affirmation and and Era o achieve to - portrays portrays

220

CEU eTD Collection vykhodtsy that signals Russia 1 Berlin of Wall. fall the after Union Soviet from way broke that republics the in live that kin are homelands ‗historic‘ the relati Russia`s is example such One in (re)invented. and (re)created perceived, relations how of revision a brought has This behalf. their on intervene to intends homeland the that is signal the if position their radicalizing accordingly, and mobilize meancorrectly by which externalread thesignals homeland the to tend groups minority the demonstrated, has (2007) Jenne as And 1996). (Brubaker other relat of with created states nationalizing minorities. newly that relations the in problematic especially int brought it because politics everyday for consequences ample had This state. new the in supremacy numerical proportional little have to themselves found states established newly Many Yugoslavia. successful of decades nation their to connected strongly identity state and economy market countrie these of most phantoms first the of One vacuum. the fill to started quickly legacies new Europe, Eastern in dogma

In this period this In 1

a n lne claiming longer no was hs i te femt o cmuim n dsnerto o fre federations, former of disintegration and communism of aftermath the in Thus, Thus a Thus unified ideological an imposed had that Curtain Iron of fall the after period the In os ih hs ntoaiig tts n n hn ad xenl oead o the on homelands external and hand one on states nationalizing these with ions

(literally, ― Russia has a clear part to play as the historic homeland ( homeland historic the as play to part clear a has Russia

Russians outside Russia outside Russians triadic nexus triadic

‗those who have left‘), Russia is their ‗natural‘ homeland ( homeland ‗natural‘ their is Russia left‘), have who ‗those o existence the old forgotten phantom of ethnic markers which was was which markers ethnic of phantom forgotten old the existence o

eeain, uh s h Sve Uin Cehsoai and Czechoslovakia Union, Soviet the as such federations,

- a building

was set in motion with such minorities caught in intrinsic web intrinsic in caught minorities such with motion in set was larger homeland beyond beyond homeland larger

s had to face in their triple transition toward democracy, toward transition triple their in face to had s

were coded were

(Offe 1991), 1991), (Offe - state, which sometimes brought to an end long end an to brought sometimes which state,

a diaspora a Rossiia was the question of a new identity. An An identity. new a of question the was . This meant essentially t essentially meant This . te oiia homeland political the , rodina otechestvo ) of the Russians, and for the for and Russians, the of ) wo things. First that that First things. wo ). The upshot is that is upshot The ). on to its ethnic its to on . Second , it 221 also also s

CEU eTD Collection reinven been Russian the of homeland‘ ‗historic the is which Russia a as identity, national Russian defining in concept central a become have diaspora Russian the external constraints, coupled with internal elite competition that hypothesis my with tandem in years, transitioning early these in configured and mani pictured is map are how of models concurrent they two depict clearly They as textbooks. geography maps virtual and republican both of identity examples national and borders with ‗hard‘ concurrently of run constitution have of territory processes of maps Virtual value. symbolic altogether an geo created newly

ted in relation to its diaspora. its to relation in ted - political realities started to delineate new bo new delineate to started realities political

Map of OfficialMap of Albania(Myzyri 1994) - ‖ (Smith‖ speaking comm speaking

et al. 1998: 12 1998: al. et Map 16 unities. In both senses, then, the idea of Russia of idea the then, senses, both In unities.

- 13). , lead border to ambiguity.

rders and embed them with them embed and rders - ulig Blw are Below building.

etd n Albanian in fested

high high 222

has has

CEU eTD Collection Tirane school]. 2 nationalism on discourses specific the and Central behavior elite`s native the of and roots The Europe. East new the in identities cultural of understanding the to crucial is state, boundaries, and nationalism of question ―[t]he noted: been has it As (re)naming. street or commemorations public dates, historic important as such symbols, national(ist) changing to textbooks general and curricula school from revisions, major wit associated period a is it Also below). map (see freely and open public inmatters such discuss possibilityto the for least at bordersor of revindication possible for

Asllan

Pushka. The early 1990s also served as an opportunity structure that opened up possibilities up opened that structure opportunity an as served also 1990s early The : SHBLSH.

1998. 1998. map onlyGeography textbook theterritories partialthat Balkan shows pretended apotential nationalist Albanian in by scheme unification Gjeografi per klasen e VI te shkolles fillore shkolles te VI e klasen per Gjeografi

Map 17

[Geography for 6 for [Geography both ethnonational and and ethnonational both th

grade of elementary elementary of grade h many other other many h 223 2

CEU eTD Collection nation of process conflictual a face to have not did hom and unitary a being of to benefit the needs had Albania that understood. and process explained be ongoing simultaneously an been has decades two last the in territorialization‘ mental of processes bo such of understanding the deepens as well as of effects, dynamic and internal causes the grasp to me enables borders, administrative the of sides both co ‗dail through borders of delineation in heavily relies that phenomenon contiguous a rather is it creation; state with Nation 229). 2002: (Kaiser images, national to used been have symbols and which myths in ways the ―examine to: attention our drawn has Kaiser literature. the in attention scarce a receive usually that borders imagined about thinking our influencing o or symbols various of use made they how understandTo boundaries nation`s the of frame new mental a perpetuated and created consciously which actors: main of role primary to facts of ontology the shifts sto constructivist a weave to important is others, fomenting while myths, contributedLangman border tosensitizing (Kürti issues‖ and 1997:5). exami the through found be also may nationality and - dr r)aig Te yd f sae ainlzto‘ n ‗ainl identity ‗national and nationalization‘ ‗space of dyad The (re)making. rder nationals. hs hpe, nlzn te an vns fcos n rl paig f h eie in elites the of playing role and factors events, main the analyzing chapter, This old of (re)emergence and discourse prevailing the of some of Deconstruction ogeneous state in its ethnic composition with some two percent of minorities and minorities of percent two some with composition ethnic its in state ogeneous

y plebiscites‘ and continuous re continuous and plebiscites‘ y - building is not a foundational act that ends when it culminates it when ends that act foundational a not is building ize space and territorialize national identity‖ national territorialize and space ize - building and after five decades of of decades five after and building nation of historical factors which which factors historical of nation - direction of loyalty of the fellow fellow the of loyalty of direction ther tools is equally important in in important equally is tools ther the political and cultural elites cultural and political the

ry together that together ry 224 .

CEU eTD Collection such discourse inthe tolerate not could that pressures actors` international rising of because happened mostly pan a visualized that voices nationalist eac onto mapping state and nation with ‗normalized‘ suddenly was discourse the however, power to coming After domestic politics. in part take actively to diaspora allowing as well as kin, ethnic of affairs the revindication its for promises with borders state outside and inside Albanians to addressed was that rhetoric inclusive ethnically an Democratic used up. The Party leadership nation opened map ‗virtual‘ of for the expanding multi a to communists of autocracy the from shifts power irredentist battles inneighboring andsecessionist Yugoslavia. in predictions of that kind different to preconditions lead would the fitting countries, neighboring the in areas adjacent in lie which kin ethnic its of behalf on forcefully itself assert to it prevented Also have problems economic opinions. public and massmedia of attention the all taken often have that clashes political constant and system, democratic a building law, of rule enforcing of standards international with cope to struggling the been have route diffi Other population. of part most the with up caught not has rhetoric nationalist why and elections parliamentary of threshold the passing never successful, been not generally have parties nationalist why reason chief the is This agenda. nationalist behin ranks close than rather country, the flee to intending were people most isolation The data reveals that in 1992 in Albania, with the start of democratic transition and transition democratic of start the with Albania, in 1992 in that reveals data The eve ofethnic innearby conflicteve rump ruptures Yugoslavia. h other in political and cultural discourse, where dissent where discourse, cultural and political in other h - lain eeain ee agnlzd This marginalized. were federation Albanian and more active role active more and

the first place, especially if we consider the the consider we if especially place, first the - party system, a new opportunity opportunity new a system, party ek ntttos n socio and institutions weak

- play of the ‗homeland‘ to to ‗homeland‘ the of play culties on transition transition on culties

225 d a a d -

CEU eTD Collection yearsprocesses,focusingcreated particularly onthe that opportunity openings. socio due the in contextualized are elite of mental Clashes maps. different on based were that programs national different with competing elites ‗external‘ and ‗internal‘ with borders of sides both in been have changes Such shifts. such See shifted. had intervention external and process ‗normalization‘ in back were politics when years, of couple a after again, once change to fava camein expansion border see would that map alternative the movement, separatist the for support open to ambiguity from varied which conditions community international favorable and guerilla the of outcome the to unification of map alternative the advocated Tirana openly former KLAthatcameallies, andpolitics, in were and topower the Socialist a witness we cleansing, ethnic escape to Albania to fleeing many with erupted crises Kosovar when and revolt popular abrupt an following power to come had Party Socialist the after 1999, to 1997 In orite light and seen possible in the advent of the new circumstances. This was was This circumstances. new the of advent the in possible seen and light orite - style war was successful. Thus, given the radicalization of conflict conflict of radicalization the given Thus, successful. was war style ohr rtcl ucue Te aia fcin n Kosovar in faction radical The juncture. critical nother textbooks maps below maps textbooks mgnd homeland imagined - political, econom political,

for capturing o capturing for ic and cultural cultural and ic , in case the the case in ,

226 f

CEU eTD Collection

has made the Albanian territories to be divided as they currently are, in in are, currently they as divided be to different states” et al.2003) (Korkuti territories Albanian the made has terri Albanian “this authors the to According etc. changes differentregime shifts, geopolitical of map political the how map the above wording in shows which map textbook school Interesting

Map 18

ois a cagd n itr de to due history in changed has tories

227

CEU eTD Collection in community Albanian amongst and Kosovo Albania, in debate identity shaping territorial post during borders state the of sides both in menta (re)shaping in role its and media mass discuss briefly I this, to Pursuant 1990s. during textbooks Albania`s in regions inhabited Albanian other and Kosovo period: we Then co Yugoslavia. of Albanians the amongst map the shaping projects political to (nation resulting the and efforts transition Albanian to constraints boundarie tne ih dsuso o atraie as a prevd y ass i te pluralist the in masses) by perceived (as maps alternative of discussion a with ntinue h nx scin oue i dlnaig h eie optn poet o national on projects competing elite the delineating in focuses section next The Albanian territories state Albania`s Albanian bordersPollo outside 1973) (Kristo and s during democratic transition. It then follows with delineation of external external of delineation with follows then It transition. democratic during s

In thissimilar theIn political map isshown

Ma - communism. Afterwards we analyze the the analyze we Afterwards communism. p 19 p

- administrative map of mapof administrative - )state map, before going before map, )state

l boundaries boundaries l

228

CEU eTD Collection DP the are: and they Yugoslavia wherever former in territories their in living brothers ―Our square: Scanderbeg his of spee electoral another at explicit more even was rhetoric nationalist His p.66). 1998: (Biberaj unity‖ national and progress for rights their realize to Europe in integration of processes eternal; Albania of Party Democratic ―The that: said explicitly he Kosovo, in repression growing the for Serbs the criticizing while regardingethnic and Yugoslavia. Albanians territory informer as era Communist of leadership Tosk generally and Hoxha to approach different altogether with str family a to belonging and Kosovo bordering Albania, of northeast from them. Coming with having of Albania envisaged he that relationship future the and Kosovo in the as emerge to soon was who Berisha, Sali Kosovo. to reference with particular in question, national Albanian the regarding views of diversification a for possible made pluralism, Transition Democratic during Albania in Boundaries National on Projects Competing Elite 6.1 nation and virtual asimagined borders beforefrom presentingconclusions. below the gener of overview brief a gives section following the while Macedonia, n te wt Ksv, eih ad an edrhp f eortc at hd an had Party Democratic of leadership main and Berisha Kosovo, with ties ong

Democratic Party‘s strongman, was initially concerned with the fate of the Albanians the of fate the with concerned initially was strongman, Party‘s Democratic In one of his earliest spe earliest his of one In political of emergence the and Albania in system monocratic the of end The

therefore, it it therefore,

ches in 1992, when Berisha made the following promise to a large crowd in in crowd large a to promise following the made Berisha when 1992, in ches will struggle by peaceful means and within the context of the the of context the within and means peaceful by struggle will il o so fgtn utl e get ra o uiig the uniting of dream great her until fighting stop not will eches in front of general public, in December 12, 1990, 12, December in public, general of front in eches cannot accept the division of the Albanian nation as nation Albanian the of division the accept cannot

al perception on perception al

229

CEU eTD Collection the as country, a of government the from come must formally government 282). 2002: (Kola to power‖ of the of exercise subject recognized or right state the a has of only ―…recognition government argued: the speaking anoth legally of sovereignty since the Albania, recognize for way any in binding 6 5 changed.‖ ofYugoslavia borders existing outside the if Albania join to ―Kosovo (3) change.‖ to were Yugoslavia of borders domestic the if Republic Kosovo a st Yugoslav other the join to right thewith state, sovereign 4 219. Kola, in Quoted people.‖ futureof its the on negotiations from the conference peace the from excluded be way no in can Yugoslavia in people Albanian the of representatives that holds Albania of Republic ―The York: New in warned even had time, the at Minister geo new the with tandem in Kosovars, the to previously than support greater gave government Albanian the that note to important is It 1991. 4, June by 3 effects. legal bindingany lacked it given seems, it that not that significant was as But movea this reciprocate move.even such 2 September self newly the recognize to was government, Bukoshi the for did fact in and do could Tirana which thing only The agenda. international gover Tirana could which Kosovo, action. policyfuture for grounds as forpotentiallyserve options main three considering was government Albanian in minister prime Kosovo was 341).and alsoagreed1966: circulation came in(Repishti pro 1990, 7, September in and resistance, nationalist of town symbolic a Kaçanik, in illegally with culminated which Kosovo in upheaval the part in least n Albanian

See the newspaper ―Zeri i popullit,‖ Septemb popullit,‖ ―Zeri i thenewspaper See It was later maintained by successive Albanian governments that the recognition of the parliament was not not was parliament the of recognition the that governments Albanian successive by maintained later was It At this time, the Communists were still in power in Albania, although a coalition government was formed formed was government coalition a although Albania, in power in still were Communists the time, this At Albanian Foreign Ministry Archives (1991). These options were: (1) ―Kosovo to be an independent and and independent an be to ―Kosovo (1) were: options These (1991). Archives Ministry Foreign Albanian claimed the creation of Republic of Kosovo. In the same day, a draft Constitution of Constitution draft a day, same the In Kosovo. of Republic of creation the claimed Moreover, t Moreover, ation comes true comes ation , 1991, 8, nment fell short of pressing for any of these options put forward in its its in forward put options these of any for pressing of short fell nment exile Bujar Bukoshi visited Tirana in 1991. in Tirana visited Bukoshi Bujar exile he moral support of Tirana was for instance exercised, when Kosovar when exercised, instance for was Tirana of support moral he 5

let h ol cuty o o o wt ohr onre fiig to failing countries other with so, do to country only the albeit

‖ (Kola 2003: 223). These calls seemed to have motivated at motivated have to seemed calls These 223). 2003: (Kola ‖ er state. As specialists of international law, such as Ian Brownlie have have Brownlie Ian as such law, international of specialists As state. er

- However, the political landscape in Albania at th at Albania in landscape political the However, political circumstances. Muhamet Kapllani, the Albanian Foreign Foreign Albanian the Kapllani, Muhamet circumstances. political er 29, 1991. 29, er

ates in a loose confederation.‖ (2) ―The creation of creation ―The (2) confederation.‖ loose a in ates rcamd needne f ooo on Kosovo of independence proclaimed

Later events nevertheless proved that proved nevertheless Laterevents

3 a Kosovo Council gathering gathering Council Kosovo a

Bukoshi was promised that promised was Bukoshi

on Yugoslavia and and Yugoslavia on e timee 230

CEU eTD Collection 8 7 faced when brothers, amongst borders] [by broken be cannot that bonds strong and nation Albanian to references make to quick was regime the occasionally, though communism borde what often received ofunification‖ 276). the signals (Lalaj1993: most have we there from and Movement National Albanian of hub the been has Kosovo testimo are they time same the At unification. national for movement popular the of moments salient are etc., (1918) Protection Kosovo National for Committee (1899), League Peja (1878), League ―Prizren that: stating by historiography mainstream t clear made 1993, in historians Albanian and Kosovo of conference joint a removed.‖ be will injustices great Europe`s Question Albanian the of resolution ayears prop With ago. 80 and be 115 used it to isas nor theirs today, ourposition neither 1912 in and 1878 in faced we that opponents same the so by organized conference a in who 1992, 12, February on declaration intellectual leading of map alternate the for desire eli Cultural discourse. of the firstparty, opposition theDemocratic Party. anti the of start the with changing, fast was

Quote retrieved by Albanian Telegraphic Agency, February 11, 1992. 11, February Agency, Telegraphic Albanian by retrieved Quote formedwasparty The - ald ―N called References such as these helped generate a debate about where the nation lies and lies nation the where about debate a generate helped these as such References public in shift dramatic such manifesting in alone not were elite political The rs correspond to its imagined map. A debate that simply did not exist during exist not did simply that debate A map. imagined its to correspond rs ational Reconciliation and Unity Organization‖, declared declared Organization‖, Unity and Reconciliation ational

on 12 December of1990. December 12 on te and notable intellectuals did the same in voicing openly their their openly voicing in same the did intellectuals notable and te

Greater Albania Greater -

ht s wt te lain unification Albanian the with is, that

- 8 communist student protests and the emergence the and protests student communist

A fellow historian from Tirana, Ana Lalaj, in Lalaj, Ana Tirana, from historian fellow A . An example of this is R. Qosja, a Kosovo Kosovo a Qosja, R. is this of example An . 7

- 13, are once again against us. But us. against again once are 13,

y f h fc that fact the of ny verbatim - he views of of views he

n o the of one : ―[t]hus, ―[t]hus, : 231 er er

CEU eTD Collection 9 leader, vulnerable beinexperiencedandan to him showedeither and circumstancespresent borders.” stated: firmly and lands Albanian of unification possible a on believed that ones the of naivety According reasons these toAustin, were: country. the of President became he after rhetoric, nationalist from withdrawal Berisha`s shifting frames and deliberative constructi in interest renewed a in reflected are constituency, their of interests perceived the are what and votes their of most draw leadership the does where of fact important the with coupled Elites support. voters` draw to tool powerful a as revindication border seeks that rhetoric nationalist use often juncture, critical a thus changes, regime of more but rotation political simple a not is there when moments in power gain to seek that Political influence. and rhetoric political of reach the outside be cannot community enlarged animagined and it Bhabhapedagogicalasputs away in taught becan that project inc with

Quoted from Rilindja Demokratike newspaper, 3 February 1993. February 3 newspaper, Demokratike from Rilindja Quoted “Albania has not sought not has “Albania s al a 19, eih to a U a took Berisha 1993, as early As Berisha result, a As life. political Albanian poisoned softened his that Party a Socialist among opposition useless especially the with battle devastating a of was favor in programs his all almost sacrificed Berisha Finally, it and with voters, up fed Albanian population unified that something not avoid advocating no in was he Firstly, on impact an had have might that factors core three identifies Austin Robert esn atgns fo nab nihos Nto i a oiia cntuto or construction political a is Nation neighbors. nearby from antagonism reasing 9

This abrupt change in Berisha`s political rhetoric, was unexpected in the face offace the in unexpected rhetoric,was political Berisha`s in change abrupt This

line on Kosovo he once was powerin (Austin 2004: 244). border changesborder

ob wre b Abnas arn i Wsigo ad uoe to Europe and Washington in patrons Albania‘s by warned doubt

lgn ad u of rm h otie ol fr o ay years. many so for world outside the from off cut and slogans os o se n ilntse n hnei existing in change any seek not will and seek not does , . Secondly, herealized pan that

on of such mentalon of mapping. such - un n ainls cue b camn the claiming by cause, nationalist on turn

` interest to obtain power, obtain to interest ` - Albanian nationalismAlbanian was

leaders 232

CEU eTD Collection argument,with this writes Kola that: line In 11). 2007: Vickers and (Pettifer Macedonia.‖ Western in and Kosovo Serbian in pan any to resistance his by tolerance and Pettifer James why, Vickers, is Miranda This support. and sympathies Western attract to order in t from could, he as issues, nationalist on moderate as look remarks to keen was Berisha Moreover, donors. significant but short, some of face the in even vulnerable proved Berisha why explains That home. back strength gain to support their on capitalize to wanted and US the particularly West, the from reforms his for support strong having sh be to needed Berisha Therefore, right. not was something that signaled which elections, local the lost Party Democratic the elections, March in margins big by winning after months seven Only power. to coming after shortly Albanians, the of majority the which madeamong reforms statequickly unpopular structures,it economy and Albanian in quick and harsh some undertaking of process the in was government democratic new the reason main two were there evidence circumstantial on Based talk. nationalist the with to continue was he if community international from sanctions potential any facing was Berisha a scored having country, landslid the in politician successful most the was he when moment vulnerablea shift ofrhetoric, why oneBerisha rightlymighttemptedtoask in so proved be consc he that or s for such shift of discourse. of shift such for s state to be invited to the White House, he assumed he had passed the test of moderation of test the passed had he assumed he House, White the to invited be to of state head first Albania‘s became Berisha Sali President 1995, September in when, Indeed, vcoy n h Mrh 92 lcin. utemr, o vdne rvs that proves evidence no Furthermore, elections. 1992 March the in victory e iously used earlier rhetoric for electoral consumption. Considering this this Considering consumption. electoral for rhetoric earlier used iously -

while quoting London Guardian, London quoting while

First

- Albanian tendency which might add to the problems the to add might which tendency Albanian , Berisha backed down mainly for mainly because because mainly for mainly down backed Berisha , -

write that ―Berisha that write

earned Western Western earned he Western Western he own as as own 233

CEU eTD Collection 10 among Albania‘s reserved was 309) (Kola question‘,‖ Albanian the of ‗Internalization the on page single a ―just where governance, of years three first the in Party Democratic the of achievements gen in Albanians ethnic and Kosovo from away concerns its shifted government democratic first the that proves which evidence, of piece Another scene. political Albanian in thereafter voiced strongly was Berisha himselfaoffrom Tropoja, northerner being the town with North, the from followers its of most draws Party Democratic the contrast, In 245). in Albanians ethnic other and Kosovars with connections and roots historical little had has that Albania of south from mostly came leadership Socialist the because phenomenon, a such explained have observers Some 245). w Albania Greater that clear it made [they] 1997, in election sponsored international an ―in Berisha succeed to came Socialists the when Moreover, inhabitants. Albanian Kosovo its and Kosovo of fate the for all at concern any party, opposition main the with 1993, early from politics

Tropoja lays in the border that Albania shares withKosovo. thatshares Albania lays border in Tropoja the oehls, ih eih c Berisha with Nonetheless, Second 2003: 309). (Kola borders. international of regardless Europe, to in integration direct facilitate international in mid by Serbia that, much of so Bal the in‗democratic space‘ a of idea the with comehadup rhetoric,Berisha 1993, its part down tone to being pressured Kosova`s been has Tirana to documents, references removing on insistence himvis of requiredrestraint and

tee a a id of kind a was there , foreign policy goals. Additional evidence comes after Kosovo unresolved unresolved evidenceafter Kosovo foreign policycomesgoals. Additional

rl i a hundred a is eral,

agn is htrc n pirte, o mc concern much not priorities, and rhetoric its hanging - à - tnc underbidding ethnic vis Kosova and the region. In fact, since Albsince fact, Inregion. the and Kosova vis

h triois f ex of territories the - sixty pages document that illustrated the the illustrated that document pages sixty

s o o ter gna (utn 2004: (Austin agenda‖ their on not as -

the

taking place in the Albanian Albanian the in place taking 10

Socialist party, Socialist with family ties inKosovo. - Yugoslavia (Austin 2004: 2004: (Austin Yugoslavia kans that wouldthat kans -

not voicing not ania‘s 1992ania‘s 234 -

CEU eTD Collection alignedKola writes: As intellectuals. course, of shift governments` the to criticism only countrygo theWest rather their expand emigrants in and homeland. asthan th of most b) and public mass by properly the in enshrined maximization map that fact the a) two: view my in were low so were pressures domestic NATO and priorities top EU the to as mainly agenda discourse Enlargement consumptive the change swiftly to and nation the of map mental the down scale to rhetoric their switched soon resistance, inner little rectificat border seek would that mapping alternative an champion than rathercountry, own their flee to wanted primarily who public general Albanian of preoccupation main the of because also but opposition, nationalist the were reasons Other agenda. domestic its to limitations foreign increasing of light in agenda, such from away support shifted Albania internal ofSerbia. democratic problem so the reducing Drashković, by led opposition Serbian expansion early the back scaled clearly that formula a Albanians‖, of space ―democratic a of idea the embraced he that declared 1995 in Berisha President when Dayton, out left was case In view of such neglect and marginalization of the Albanian national question, the question, national Albanian the of marginalization and neglect such of view In use had Party Democratic and Berisha after Thus, as the dominant frame to win the elections and gain popular support; soon they they soon support; popular gain and elections the win to frame dominant the as ary nationalist demands. A year later he called for Albanian parties to join the join to parties Albanian for called he later year A demands. nationalist ary tnc Albania Ethnic

icus dd o hv eog tm t b internalized be to time enough have not did discourse

o. h rln pltcl lt fcd ih such with faced elite political ruling The ion. tnc u ethnic of official Tirana policy. The reasons why why reasons The policy. Tirana official of Abnas t hs on wne t fe the flee to wanted point this at Albanians e came from a group of politically non politically of group a from came nderbidding - ald Abna qeto‘ o an to question‘ ‗Albanian called d the mental mapping of of mapping mental the d s h rsl o lc of lack of result the as

Greater Greater 235 -

CEU eTD Collection 12 Washington. in ofBerisha agenda waytheofficial not in affect any did and binding legally former 11 to itself confining not thus Yugoslavia. Greece, and Macedonia Montenegro, Serbia, fou in territories Albanian presumed to referring complete, quite is map the memorandum, the from see can we As vacillation. without independence, its support fully to one), Kosovo in (like cases some in and kin ethnic of rights the defending countrie neighboring of policies domestic in intervention of course the keep to Berisha urged they Thus, republics. nearby in them), to (according suffering were who kin theyfou or shifts, such of implications political the grasp fully not did they Either government. the calculationsBerishapoliticalofand with disgruntled were andrulingparty the coursefrom Albanian an agenda forward putting territories, nearby in Albania of role patronizing a of intellectuals

Including the next president Mjedani. president next Includingthe The author, being a high foreign mi foreign high a being author, The

ve ti a a etmn o te xasoit role expansionist the of testimony a as this view I Northernin Greece.‖ (Kola 2003: 310). Chameri‘ in proprieties and lands their to Chams of return the of issue the of solution just of ‗reso Albaniansbe to significantly, and, the Bujanovć); Medvegje, (Presheve, Serbia as southern well as inhabitants secure Albanian state; Montenegro‘s their for autonomy in territorial position constitutional equal an Albanians Macedonia‘s guarantee issue‘) this on vacillation no be should (‗Thereindependence for will expressed Kosova`s endorse to seek should Balkans the on plan peace US any that ensure to Clinton President seventy of mémoi an wrote group 1997, in presidency the a to succeed to that was who Mejdani, Rexhep coincidental including not therefore, is, [i]t nd it as an abhorrent practice to betray electoral promises and to ‗betray‘ the ethnic ‗betray‘ethnic the to and promises betrayabhorrentelectoralpracticean to as it nd ht iwd iaa s h mi rsosbe pksesn o te surrounding the for spokesperson responsible main the as Tirana viewed that - paig communi speaking , some of them later them of some ,

o rsdn Brsa ha o hs ahntn ii, rig i t: request to: him urging visit, Washington his of ahead Berisha President to

ties and territories. They obviously disagreed with shift of of shift with disagreed obviously They territories. and ties

nistry official at the time, also points out that the document was not not was document the that out points also time, the at official nistry

to be important political figures in the country the in figures political important be to 11

- i Abna intellectuals, Albanian six r neighboring countries: countries: neighboring r - lyn of playing

expansionist s, forcefully forcefully s, nationalist nationalist 12 lute on the on lute

in favor in aide 236 ;

CEU eTD Collection main the as survival political costs. direct to more withof faced possibility when are they in when power prone is elites), external‘ or factor ‗internal‘ motivating (thus the periphery in the politicians from in o comes or it was when center, either it nation, time of mapping the mental that from thesis my discourse reinforces political evidence the radicalized has and opposition in currently is which Party Democratic Thaci`s Menduh as well as Gruevski, minister prime of partner coalition bee has That mind. in be to priorities only the as Enlargement NATO and integration EU of in talking discourse, come nationalist of kind they any down scale and once cooperative very hand, be to other tend they parties) the political Macedonian On mainstream with reality. coalition in (governing artificial an ‗motherland‘ as the joining state of Macedonian talking dismissing and element while ethnic the stressing radical, very become they opposition 13 feelings the here, account into take to interesting also is It this. as such times, transition have a particularimportancefeelings inshaping popular and imagination, especially during them. for spokesperson unwanted an thus becoming for, asking were elites and masses Kosovar what of short came course of which 31/03/1998), Popullit‘: i (‗Zëri Federation Yugoslav i Republic‖, ―minus a of idea the with up comes Nano year, that Later 07/02/1998). Popullit‘: i (‗Zëri them‖ create that societies the radicalize and polarize opposite the on quite solutions, give not do institutions parallel establishing politicians Kosovar to regard In 08/09/1997). Spiegel‘: (‗Der citizen?‖ European a are you if borders, without Europe a in Kosovo] [for independence of meaning the is ―what replies: he Kosovo, for newspaper o issue‖ rights human ―internal an was Kosovo that him to granting Miloshević, with Crete in meets Nano primer 1997, November in example, For country. the in leadership political and party political ruling any for catchword favorite ‗stabi of beacon a becoming was suddenly opposition nationalist

Coincidently this is also the case with Albanians l Albanians with case the also is this Coincidently

All in all, elite all, in All former the power, to coming when that telling quite is it hand, other the On

in political calculations. Foreign pressure comes only second and becomes costly only only costly becomes and second only comes pressure Foreign calculations. political in interest, in the intersection of politics, media and society, seem to seem society, and media politics, of intersection the in interest,

pyn te tts f eulc o Ksv bt ihn the within but Kosovo for republic of status the mplying n the case both with Ali Ahmeti, former KLA guerilla leader and now and leader guerilla KLA former Ahmeti, Ali with both case the n eadership of Macedonia for example. When they are in in are they When example. for Macedonia of eadership

institutions, he fires back: ―parallel ―parallel back: fires he institutions, f Serbia. Asked by a German German a by Asked Serbia. f

lity in the region‘, a a region‘, the in lity usted from power. Such Such power. from usted power power 237

of of 13

CEU eTD Collection threats and noticed get to started perceived. interference international the as soon as happened that processes parallel elections. local h in after needed really defeated he that was support international get to order in rhetoric switched suddenly Berisha how era, the of materials archival other and documents citing shows He Albania‘. Greater of Myth ‗thebook 2003 sh such witness ta to position favorable a in been has Kola OSCE), not and was it that fact the 15 ―short of some by considerate Interviews time. the at government written was and ―superfluous‖ and as paper radicals,‖ policy sighted this dismissed Lani Lani. Remzi Mr. Media, Qu state. unified a future in Albania joining Kosovo or Macedonia, in Albanians for autonomy territorial like options, radical more advocate not did and him) to (according stance minimalist a took it because expectations, all of short falling 14 2003). (Kola then to up used he that framework nationalist in framed as rather forums international in Yugoslavia rump for right‘ human ‗basic a as problem y the around down scaled Berisha when seen be can backpedaling of Evidence 223). 2003: (Kola party‖ a was state Albanian the which to law international of norms the by abide to need the dictated because goals, stated electoral (Nation Resulting the and Map Transition Albanian to Constraints External 6.2 condemnation. its in extremes, butjoin an of opinions the House, White the to trip his before Berisha and to handed signed intellectuals the that recommendations policy the regarding While, September 1992). 16 Rinise‘, i (‗Zeri Albanianism‘ of ‗lack calls author the what is it rather, nat of rise potential the not was concern main the that 1992 in wrote who poet, and writer Albania leading a Arapi, Fatos of that was voice such One question. national the on debate whole the regarding society, civil from voices Albanian prominent some

For instance, in an interview that I had with Professor Hysamedin Ferraj, he denounced this po this he denounced Ferraj, Hysamedin withProfessor had I that interview an in instance, For Being a foreign ministry director and high emissary in some main international organizations (such as CoE CoE as (such organizations international main some in emissary high and director ministry foreign a Being

owtsadn te lcoa reoi, ae Brsa a t bcpdl rm the from backpedal to was Berisha later rhetoric, electoral the Notwithstanding

ite the opposite was the opinion of media analyst and the director of the Institute of of Institute the of director the and analyst media of opinion the was opposite the ite as 1993 ears

hs ocsin i frin oiy n ‗ita‘ a cnrcin were contraction map ‗virtual‘ and policy foreign in concessions Thus -

April,2009. - he came to realize ―the responsibilities of the office, which which office, the of responsibilities ―the realize to came he 4 h ntoait htrc o cet akn o Kosovo of talking accept to rhetoric nationalist the 94 14

ifts and they are minutely tracked in his his in tracked minutely are they and ifts ken into consideration from the the from consideration into ken 15

And as he frankly he as And alysts vary in in vary alysts licy paper as licypaper ionalism; - )State 238 e -

CEU eTD Collection 223 2010: 17 mapping. prevent thealternative to strongenough isnot pressure while external hand, theupper suddenly 2010. dhjetor 9 Interview. Berisha. Sali the be would star Kosovo.‖ in Albanians of interests the for guiding support full into course its change ope to country the for our possible made the context, that this In them taboo. a to [previously] was declared That I question. national citizens, Albanian 100.000 to addressed meeting 16 countries. EU of majority and President American the also track this toward pursuing in successful were and resolution conflict military a advocated directly Blair Tony as such B and Ruanda of scenarios previous mind in having and media global by atrocities internationalcommunityof increasingly shown themajority by of was influenced attent the ambiguity with coupled NAT EU, Group, the Contact the rival what not was would projects Croatia Greater as which well as Serbia Albania Greater Milosevic`s Greater A there. Federation the of dismemberment intern 2008). Press: (Mekuli it in part active an taken has who Serbia course of and leadership political is This countries. two these of problem a be to it accepted never have I and Serbia and Albania between problem a been not has question Kosovo the circumstance, of kind every ―[i]n Albanians: much admitted

This statement was of August of was statement This See for a full account on measures initiated by Blair an Blair by initiated measures on account full a for See toa pesrs ht ee rwn i te det f uolv ofit and conflict Yugoslav of advent the in growing were that pressures ational 16 Such ambivalent positions in the first half of 1990s were clearly dictated by the the by dictated clearly were 1990s of half first the in positions ambivalent Such nationalist again, because local elections were going to happen soon and electoral calculations gain calculations electoral and soon happen to going were elections local because again, nationalist

- ion toward Kosovo and started to ethnically cleanse the province there, the mood the there, province the cleanse ethnically to started and Kosovo toward ion 253. as predicted from my model. Later, after Dayton settlement, when Serbs turned turned Serbs when settlement, Dayton after Later, model. my from predicted as

nenl lt struggles elite internal later, in another example of his ambiguous stance toward Kosovar Kosovar toward stance ambiguous his of example another in later, O or other international actors wanted. actors international other or O

polm f nentoa cmuiy o te iies n Kosovar and citizens the of community, international of problem a

12, 2008. Two years later, Berisha stated that: ―[i]n 1990, in my first public public first my in 1990, ―[i]n that: stated Berisha later, years Two 2008. 12,

pno show, Opinion

n cmeig ainl rjcs ld to led projects, national competing and

d his doctrine on ‗humanitarian intervention‘ Blair Blair intervention‘ ‗humanitarian on doctrine his d KLAN TV. Here, we see his rhetoric becoming becoming rhetoric his see we Here, TV. KLAN High international intervention international High ning of Albania, the pluralist era, era, pluralist the Albania, of ning - H. Some leader Some H.

border border 239 17 s, s, ,

CEU eTD Collection Albani Situation in 5. Table consolidates thedata and that clarifies above. was presented post t in visualization map certain to leading thus constraints, external by conditioned been umbrella organizationsNATO suchas etc. UN, Contact Group, West leading by undertaken actions the supported fully that one into shifted discourse public general and Albania in rhetoric political the Thus, predicts. a have we then Kosovo, agendaon unified a toward work to When 1991 - communist period in period communist - 1997 direct external intervention external direct have shifts domestic how and games elite competing the by offered Predictions a

Predictions border the for outcomespost in

nature nation. ofAlbanian to introduce theundivided and otherchanges curricula accompanied withtextbook openly. Thiswas articulated irredentist calls Democratic opposition wherecommunism in the aftermath of A new opportunity opening Competing Elite games Albania is Albania

combined with a seemingly a with combined

presented schematically below. below. schematically presented

government. Democratic Party the on limits placed heavy Yugoslavia which (Serbian) in wars irredentist conflict and advent ofethnic then high, inthe Lowat firstand Constraints International - communist period

reductionist map reductionist

elite pact elite

ern states, as well as their their as well as states, ern

In this way the table table the way this In map got contracted. of minority rights, Yugoslavia a matter Albani considering the pretentions and territorial scaling any down map, and then First anexpansionary Border Outcome

in A in

in Albania in an questionin

lbania proper proper lbania as my model my as 240

CEU eTD Collection last in thinking political of progress the only not touch that questionsthe of areThesesome empiricallybedemonstrated? shifts such Can fragmented? very rather or matters these in unified generally elite Kosovo Is community. imaginary belon as feel to Kosovo within living groups ethnic all make would which post a promote instead they should or identity Albanian ethnic nation Kosovar a of center spiritual and politi cultural the as place its take should Pristina rather or homeland perceived a of center the be Tirana should that fact the toward feelings mixed had have Albanians Kosovo the Macedonia 6.3 1998

Political projects shaping the mapPolitical of Kosovo amongst the projects shaping Albanians and - 2008 Contrary to nationalist writing of history and general depiction in Albanian media, Albanian in depiction general and history of writing nationalist to Contrary

in this period.in this Kosovar leadership (KLA) supportive of radical governmSocialist armyand paramilitaries. struggleits with theSerbian help from home country in otherand direct indirect andreceiveammunition acquire weapons, opportunityKLA for to in 1997,created the popular) clashes inAlbania Domestic (elite and

ent more ent more cleansing advent ofethnic Ko intervention in more Albanian toward supporting irredentism, secession/ Kosovopossible would lead to from Albania that precluding any aid from high, constraints went International Milosevic started.Milosevic processes that - tt. hud ooas anan their maintain Kosovars Should state. sovo in the sovo in two decades, but also can shed can also but decades, two - national inclusive identity inclusive national

possibility inthe near and political as ade facto reality of quick which allowed a in Macedonia), Albanian community hand Kosovoand (and onthe other Albania and Kosovo everything between flow of almost becauseallowed free Map highexpansion future. Greater Albania ging to the same the to ging configuration

241 cal,

CEU eTD Collection affected maps below See forempirical textbook map anof there. shape this. illustration has which discourse, and life public Kosovo in shifts and variation such of account an diaspora strategy, Education ideology. nationalist role connection/ of matters in united very been post the in Kosovo. of territorythe in currentlyliving groups post new, a rather promoting stateor symbols, new while developing identitymaintaining Albanian the had muchvariation ofopposing between interms viewpoints elite and public. non a of understanding our informing trajectory, future over light divisive very been generally has lately elite Kosovar The - independence era when the elite acted as a monolithic bloc and has generally has and bloc monolithic a as acted elite the when era independence - ainl n icuie ooa iett ta wud nld al f h ethnic the of all include would that identity Kosovar inclusive and national Map of presentMap of - playing and political st political and playing

- day Kosovo in history textbook in (Korkuti Kosovo day al2003) et

ances are the areas that are taken into analyses for for analyses into taken are that areas the are ances

Map 20

This fragmentation is particularly visible visible particularly fragmentationis This

in the crucial matter of of matter crucial the in - linear history that has that history linear

242

CEU eTD Collection 18

See

http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/europe/kosovo_pol98.jpg

Present

- day Kosovodifferent boundaries with overlapping day

Map 21

243

CEU eTD Collection 19

h ttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosovo As this mapeaglemaximalist (national) the testifies in the back indicates, the goal of inverse irredenta, thus Kosovo`s „natural‟ place within Albania inverse thusKosovo`s irredenta, goal of place „natural‟ within

Map 22

244

CEU eTD Collection 20

See http://www.erepublik.com/en/article/welcome Albania mapThe Kosovo (in and shows unified red color) aprojected in

reshaping of Westernreshaping Balkan

Map 23 - to - kosovo

- albania - 2068495/1/20 20

245

CEU eTD Collection Albanians of map illustrative 22 this for See Montenegro. Albania: outside and Macedonia Kosovo, in have they percentage 21 agitation‘‗patriotic by teachers and influenced howitis textbooks geography and literature student on

Thus a view from below, comparing it with elite rhetoric. withrhetoric. elite it fromcomparing below, viewa Thus Demographic map that shows areas historically pretended by Albanians according to viable numerical numerical viable to according Albanians by pretended historically areas shows that map Demographic In the field of education, a study of the effects of ‗parallel education‘ and its effect its and education‘ ‗parallel of effects the of study a education, of field the In ad uis preto o ntoa mp s important, is map national of perception pupils` and s http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:AlbaniansOutsideAlbania.png

Map 24 21

seily n history, in especially 246

CEU eTD Collection the was him the to precede to tried according which Empire, the role of servers former powerful elites, local of more accommodation A Latin. or Turkish Greek, either widespread of because limited 19 the of in effects its role call, awakening unfailing a as the vernacular in education about tells narrative mainstream and historiography Albanian primarythe B was urge. nation the for nation questionof the periods both factthat at the in same, the were challenges where periods time different two these compare to interesting is It state. conceptualiz ‗Other‘, the toward resistance and construction in identity national of coherence the both served there community Albanian the amongst post of account her in Kostovicova overtly been has education by played role the that thesis the this at period. Kosovo in population the amongst mapping expansionist an favored struggles an repression high Belgrade`s with tandem in materials publishing process. haveinthe played writers) and textbook elites (teachers culturalrole that tomorrow the and map the show to necessary active and today of is students and pupils as such public, qualified a on projection This 11). 2005: (Kostovicova being‖ into come has nationhood, of reproduction and production symbolic the constructedness, nati a of notion ―the in interested particularly is Kostovicova 2005). (Kostovicova

If Blumi in his discussion of education in vernacular in 19 in vernacular in education of discussion his in Blumi If lai` drc ifune hog tahn ntok n dsrbto o the of distribution and network teaching through influence direct Albania`s lieay ae n ms shos hc wr tahn in teaching were which schools most and rate illiteracy - lumi argues for example that contrary to the waythe contraryto that that example arguesfor lumi omns Ksv sos o prle education parallel how shows Kosovo Communist ed in the shape of the Serbian the of shape the in ed overestimated (Blumi 2002), 2002), (Blumi overestimated - building and creating a statecreatingaand building th th

Century has defended has Century

lw ooa elite Kosovar low d etr wr rather were Century after citizens of citizens the nation the on`s 247

CEU eTD Collection many escaped often has paradox double This nation. Albanian of epicenter the as Tirana pan a with contrast in independence, prom a for ground the created this turn In independence. state for calls political to lead gave imagination popular in conceptualized first Sovereignty statehood. of concept the to led education‘ ‗parallel education the system, Kosovo`s of case the in that this summarize analyze safely critically may we to evidence, were we If 215). p. 2005, (Kostovicova state‖ independent especiallyth textbooks, school of rewriting the in meaningful and explicit most was nationhood of assertion The home Albanian in segregation spatial complete in way unprecedented put succinctly she As life. everyday in nation the recreated that of boundaries imaginary of narrative perception and new nationhood a created texts literature and geography history, how and Albanians th and Kosovo of Albanians and Serbs between education of segregation after content and design curriculum in witnessed has apointinemphas nevertheless but process, the in actors diapora and local other of involvement of because mostly disputable, find I thesis A 2002). (Blumi privileges political retain still to order an Empire Ottoman the of breakdown to o a eaae ooa iett, hc ws seily o eeo after develop to especially was which identity, Kosovar separate a of otion Kostovicova also investigates the dynamic of the process of education, the shifts the education, of process the of dynamic the investigates also Kostovicova izing the accommodationelites inpost izing the of

(in vernacular) created a new nation and later, it was the nation that nation the was it later, and nation new a created vernacular) (in ose in history and geography. In them Kosovo was celebrated as an an as celebrated was Kosovo them In geography. and history in ose

it: ―[t]he Albanian sense of nationhood flourished in an an in flourished nationhood of sense Albanian ―[t]he it: ceto o prle srcue o euain rm the from education of structures parallel of creation e d loss of power, by compensating with going local in local going with compensating bypower, of loss d - lains ve htwudhv eddt view to tended have would that view Albanianism - imperial era. - schools in Kosovo. in schools

248

CEU eTD Collection to According Albania. in Channel Top in show talk a in today, Kosovo in identity nationalist about debate 24 the triggered crises. favored students national with laden textbooks, imported 23 project. political pure a as second the and phenomenon biological inherited an as conceptualized elite level. of identity inclusive an id Albanianethnic the competingstartedwith have to ‗Kosovar‘ seems Lately, climate. domestic than state new the of forthcoming the in decisive more actually were factors external The realities. geopolitical changing and inte international with conjunction in media), Tirana from influence cultural and elite of combination a of mainly result new constitutive a became elementfor ofpolitical a calls state existence KosovoRepublic.The for came into later this drive, independence Kosovo`s shifts, educational of result the reasons political for actors isolated by instrumentalized later and reasons, economic for students the by started Kosovo, in crisis general a was there 1981, in If decades. two last the in especially imp all are nationalism of forms Albanian perception of and epicenter where its thenation lie. scholars

It is It t s motn t nt ta te rain f rsia nvriy euain n vernacular, in education University, Pristina of creation the that note to important is It

nation under the pressure from newly reconstructed popular collective memories (as (as memories collective popular reconstructed newly from pressure the under nation

interesting to note that this was a view maintained by two leading analysts from Kosovo in a recent recent a in Kosovo from analysts leading two by maintained view a was this that note to interesting h cnet f eho‘ a tu sprtd rm h nto, hr te is was first the where nation, the from separated thus was ‗ethnos‘ of concept The exclusive and ethnocentrism borders, visualized nation`s homeland, Territory, 24

and political analysts in their study of trajectory that was noticed in Kosovar Kosovar in noticed was that trajectory of study their in analysts political and In a way, this is a replica of what had what of replica a is this way, a In

Humanities 23

i ncluding irredentists‘ calls for unification with Albania with unification for calls irredentists‘ ncluding

as main field of specialization, produced a high unemployment, which in turn turn in which unemployment, high a produced specialization, of field main as

- rat opnns f hfs inse i Ksv case, Kosovo in witnessed shifts of components ortant communist ideology from Tirana, coupled with the fact that most most that fact the with coupled Tirana, from ideology communist - led parallel education, Serbian ‗ethnic cleansing‘ ‗ethnic Serbian education, parallel led happened in reverse in medieval times, medieval in reverse in happened

entity, at least in thein leastentity, at --

especially with with especially in 1990s, as 1990s, in rvention 249

CEU eTD Collection 282. 1998: in Malcolm Quoted percent.‖ 38 to therisen figurenow had 1919, in thepopulation of cent per 24 ―only were Kosovo in Serbs the whereas Krstić Djordje official Serbian to According changes. 25 issue. the on fromobservations earlier depart radical nation,a Albanian an and Albania from distinguishable Kosov the Matoshi, Halil participants, the of one constructed in1990s‖ was Albaniaversus Kosovo of politics the How Albanians: the of investment common a as to regard In Montenegro). Albani in situation and developing FYROM Kosovo, of Albanians the Yugoslavia former includes in (which elite Albanians` ethnic of evidence interesting some given has foremo the of one Surroi, Veton example, For action. of course certain a take to Tirana in leadership political the educating in as well as urging, in active very was which Albania, to relation their in elite Kosovo publicand discourse embraced part by aof largepolitical andcultural elite. vis difference of terms 281). 1998: (Malcolm 1928 circa was Belgrade) (from settlers the against front‖ ―united a constituted and together come had Serbs and Albanians Kosovo, in living communities main two the Belgrad in center material and spiritual its with community, imagined Serbian larger a from themselves distinguish to trying Kosovars, as themselves conceptualized had Kosovo in community Serbian of part large a where

The colonization process initiated by Belgrade made possible a ‗great success‘ in te in success‘ ‗great a possible made Belgrade by initiated process colonization The f psie eitne o oe ad n te eeomn o te oin f ‗Albanian of notion the of development the and hand one on resistance‘ ‗passive of the to led This us. imagine itself, help not could it that Communismfall] us helped Albania [aftercountry a weak of wasso Albania important thatstrategicpoints. First, two construct in situation the that understood Yugoslavia] in elites [Albanians` We underestimate not should we Also 25

Kosovar identity in the mak the in identity Kosovar

he writes:he -

à st politicians and publishers of Kosovo in the past two decades, two past the in Kosovo of publishers and politicians st - i a pan a vis a, in a recent conference paper titled: ― titled: paper conference recent a in a,

- lain r pan or Albanian ing, domestically inclusive but conceptualized in conceptualized but inclusive domestically ing, ar nation can be traced in 1974 constitution, thus totally totally thus constitution, 1974 in traced be can nation ar

h seii role specific the e (Malcolm 1998). The other period where period other The 1998). (Malcolm e

- eba, s culy aietd in manifested actually is Serbian, - lyn o Ksvr political Kosovar of playing Westernized Albania Westernized rms of demographic demographic of rms

conceptualization

250

CEU eTD Collection past the in played have that Kosovo of Albanians ―…we since: ‗motherland‘, the in longer Hoti U. 1990s of thinking political counter be would Albania weak a Kosovar to hopes the attaching and itself situation dire a in was Albania that thinking strategic 201 (Surroi countries‖ neighbor friendly two of that were two the between relations that and exist not did Albania‘ ‗Greater of project ― Albania: to regard platform cameexistence. to political detailed more a where 1990s, early the in explains Surroi as maturity its reaching nurturi was politically nationalist This 2011). Kosovo (Kraja background‖ in nationalist thorough elite a had but intellectual autonomous, ―the that: stresses he where Identity‖, wh with long in Kosovo would serve which aimage, democratic tobuilt and them governments urge opposition and participating p these by [Albanian] responsibility the given was he 1990s, of beginning in Croatia ng started to gradually build up after 1974, and culminated especially in the 1980s, the in especially culminated and 1974, after up build gradually to started ng Then, after 1992, Surroi writes that they were to were they that writes Surroi 1992, after Then, in groups ethnic Albanian of meeting parties political secret a after that adds He we Albania, of weakness Albanians of the of Montenegro (Surroi 2010). state w if four, the maybe or centers, one three of noting politics of the constructed Instead impossible Croatia. centers, with Bosnia Albanian of Croats unifying and Belgrade with Kosovo and Croatia was th ascenter‘ Tirana,‗ethnic it in its search for going to not were Yugoslavia former in question Albanian the and Kosovo other. the on polycentrism‘ t . rj hs eety rte i a thought a in written recently has Kraja M. at arties to go and meet various political representatives of Albanian Albanian of representatives political various meet and go to arties - term to gain support in international arena. This course of action is in line in is action of course This arena. international in support gain to term one

was to show that we were not directed anyhow from Tirana that a that Tirana from anyhow directed not were we that show to was

tells its fellow citizens, they need not to hope any any hope to not need they citizens, fellow its tells - 0). This was not just tactic but also based on based also but tactic just not was This 0). productive. As the most influential Kosovar Kosovar influential most the As productive.

- provoking book, called ―Kosovar ―Kosovar called book, provoking

follow two main postulates with with postulates main two follow e take into consideration also consideration into take e e case with Serbs of Bosnia,ofSerbswith e case 251

CEU eTD Collection party. Socialist the to connection strategic had ofKLA groups nationalist turned formerMarxists, 26 KinFormer in Ethnic Yugoslavia 6. Table with external constraints inthecase former in Albanian Kin of Yugoslavia. the logicgeo that t maps virtual of memories public shaping in role decisive a played have as well as states, nationalizing and homeland with rapports the structured also have imagined, is nation way the shaping N in factor persistent a well. been have that intellectuals as around way other the often but periphery, to center the from only not moves borders mental of reconstruction and Deconstruction here. reasoning our inform better can Surroi by disclosed ones the as such data Recent opposite. the never almost but role and policies cultural in also but realm, political onlyin Tirana discussed only have conditioning such analyzed have and underestimated been has that respected. angle an entirelyis Albania in not rhetoric political the was conditioned thus elite Kosovar this admits Surroi as though life, political fragmented international of eyes the in credible be communitycould unification andlobbywithKosovo. potential afterwards only for to first needed activists Kosovar of minds moderniz to need first that those to initiative unification the now left have Albania, founding in role crucial a

The pacifist group of Rugova ente Rugova of group pacifist The one other The

rdcin fr odr ucms n h po the in outcomes border for Predictions - politics dictate.politics , n i te uue t uiy‖ Ht 19: 9) Tu Abna n the in Albania Thus 197). 1996: (Hoti unify!‖ to future, the in and e,

not taken into serious consideration until now. The few studies that that studies few The now. until consideration serious into taken not ws n was ,

red into a close alliance with Democratic Party of Berisha, whereas the the whereas Berisha, of Party Democratic with alliance close a into red - interference in political frictions of the day in Albanian Albanian in day the of frictions political in interference

The table below illustrates the dynamicsThe elite table interplay below of

st - playing in national imagining), imagining), national in playing hat often go separate way with way separate go often hat - omns period communist - Pristina causality vector (not (not vector causality Pristina

ationalist amongst

252 26

CEU eTD Collection 1998 1991 kin Albanian - -

1997 2008

last one emerge as avictor. took place, this which saw andguerilla KLA network moderate LDK Rugova`s fierce struggle between High elitea struggles where ach democratic to means protesting as theonly disobedience and quiet goal through civil but Serbia as themaximum secession/ separationfrom goalobtainable and autonomy as themost and they advocated more Rugova theupper had hand The pacifists headed by Competing Elite games ieve such goals.ieve such

the Badinter was around united communityint. From beginning, Bosnian wars. Croatian and with Serbo was happening because what of high period, inthis constraints were External helping them. NLMand directly naming them agroup terrorist to and labeling KLA border changes from resistingany constraints. Went High external a priori excluding Kosovo to republics, thus of secession on that gave theright recommendation Commission Constraints International .

ly ly to was thefirst country (from 1991when it unification scheme support of any down from active Albania backing Yugoslavia, autonomy within Rugova preferring map, and thenwith First anexpansionary Border Outcome foreign interferences. strugglesand high of high domestic result ofcombination ambiguity here as the predictions, a map my initial Incompliance with started toprevail. contractionary map secession), unilateral act of recognize a -- --

while 253

CEU eTD Collection nation. the Kurdish to similarity bears disputes that territorial and identity overlapping i Quoted 1999; Ash (Garton interviewer an lot,‘comments a ‗Traveled Ukraine. in lives now and SovietUnion, the hisin mostlife of worked in Hungary, married Czechoslovakia, in wentschool to Hungary, 27 the for ma alternate opened an through power was to come space to elites nationalist opportunity an when 1990s, the in identity the perceived feelinghewrites: ofbelonging felt. example, For he that who Kosovo from diffe producent in how film describes and the director is theater Such a time. Kastrati, of A. spans of short recollection by separated even junctures different at (nations) administ and political of FromView Below 6.3.1

T his brings in mind an old joke which ―tells a story of an old man who says he was was he says who man old an of story a ―tells which joke old an mind in brings his

The Albanians of of Albanians The Kosovo Shifting Their 1990s:A Stance Albania and toward in ifrn addresses: they how below, from view Kosovar the understanding in help this as such Stories addresses [identity] many so changed has while still in country new another a that in live think to don`t identity, I [national] the address… change to me from required still is It Albanian. without house, same the in place live the in still addrss, I such. me calling was nobody but Albanian, felt I - - 2000 - years the In such. me different calling was nobody but Albanian, Srbija. Pristina, 38.000, 40, Br. Lazar", "Car Ulica I Kosovo Pristina, Serbian in millennium,newlivedI beginningof the In 38.000, such. me calling 5, was nobody but Br. Albanian, felt Milica,‖ I Yugoslav. me ―Carica called They Metohija. Ulica was: address My Republic. i lived I 1990s, of half first the In such. me calling was nobody but Albanian, felt I Yugoslav. me called They Kosovo. Pristina, 5/A, no. Kovacević,‖ ―Sava Street was: ‘70 years In perception of logic the to according imagination popular in shift may borders Also

t "eouin, r 14, e Yr, rsia Kos Pristina, York, New 1244, Nr. "Resolution", St. lc "a Lzr, r 4, 800 Pitn, ooo Mthj, Srbija Metohija, i Kosovo Pristina, 38.000, 40, Br. Lazar", "Car Ulica r "dm ah" N. 2 1.0, rstn, Kosovë Prishtinë, 10.000, 42, Nr. Gashi", "Adem Rr. -

the same place (Kastrati 2009). `80 I lived in The Socialist Federative Republic of Yugoslavia. My address My Yugoslavia. of Republic Federative Socialist The in lived I `80 rent decades he had a constructed identity who did not match the the match not did who identity constructed a had he decades rent n Murphy 2002: 39 2002: Murphy n rative changes. Same street address may belong to different states different to belong may address street Same changes. rative

called: Kosovo. Everybody calls me a Kosovar, nobody calls me an me calls nobody Kosovar, a me calls Everybody Kosovo. called:

- 40) replies the man from Ruthenia, a disputed territory with territory disputed a Ruthenia, from man the replies 40) 27

- Montenegron Union. MyMontenegronUnion.

‗No, I never moved from Mukachevo,‘ frommoved Mukachevo,‘ never I ‗No, They called me Yugoslav. I felt felt I Yugoslav. me called They p based on spatial expansion. spatial on based p v, eba UNMIK Serbia, ovo, - 07 I ie i three in lived I 2007,

on n Austria in born address was:address n Yugoslav n 254 -

CEU eTD Collection O dubi reconciliation. into hig go a of then reflect and bridges manner superfluous as a in serve data empirical to the to tend refer textbooks and hatred of language the remove text school history new the that thinks Veseli S. teacher, history A 2009). 6 the between H ‗infidel the or Slav‘ ‗barbarian the hordes‘, simultaneously while 29 demands. radical/expansionary from down back elites domestic hypothesis designs. such against unison in was community international the because only had the that organize map to men military former of a of conceptualization single a toward point participation that actions All combat). for them train and KLA of ranks direct and weapons money, of (flows support direct evidence Such ethno from attainable. more seemed goal last the although secession, simple than rather Albania wingKos of radical socio Albania simultaneous and Serbia from revisionsecession (meaning ofborder 28 humanities, in education by mostly constructed as oridentity national to threat a as treated are often which minorities national of shunning exclusion/ (i.e. state, the within exclusive are often that fashion same the in divide, administrative converged. border of sides particular this at a have that we juncture seems It 77). 1995: (Conversi borders‖ internal of elimination of power strives driving―simultaneously which nationalism, the is this it, puts Conversi Daniele As barrier. a a than to rather more bridge, resemble to started frontier, of side other the on Albanians the with border Kosovar wi ever than more hardening were borders the Albanian: the amongst happening was process twofold a that seems It border. Kosovar Albania of sides both on actions coordinated the in this, of manifestation the see can We

istory Institute claims: ―the forme ―the claims: Institute istory The interests converged, because in Kosovo the advocates of military resistance resistance military of advocates the Kosovo in because converged, interests The After

needne n 08 te edny f tt hsoigah hs en h rmvl f mo of removal the been has historiography state of tendency the 2008, in independence

- that symbols (i.e. (i.e. symbols hly opinionated opinionated hly as a fifth column of the external homeland). The pupils` imagination of borders, of imagination pupils` The homeland). external the of column fifth a as th as a as - cnmc n pltcl iuto fvrd Socialists favored situation political and economic

and 9 and when external in external when

final goal final ovar politics. There is plenty of evidence that KLA fought in the name of unification with with unification of name the in fought KLA that evidence of isplenty There politics. ovar th had to to had

Centuries. We should not give a poetic and emotional account of the events‖ (Musliu (Musliu events‖ the of account emotional and poetic a give not should We Centuries. a expansion map the national Albanian flag, use of use flag, Albanian national the , reality. In a recent Kosovar geography text, after the author refers to the 1991 1991 the to refers author the after text, geography Kosovar recent a In reality.

unification of Kosovo and A and Kosovo of unification oe with cope tervention increases to contradict a particular internally particular a contradict to increases tervention 28

r texts had depictions of Slav invaders of Illyricum lands in the period the in lands Illyricum of invaders Slav of depictions had texts r hs nal ta bres a b icuie irsetv of irrespective inclusive, be may borders that entails This

h rpeetto o te ‗Other‘ the of representation the

rvn y ainls eie, hs itrss n both on interests whose elites, nationalist by driven

re‘ A Fahr ea, h secretary the Demaj, Frasher As Greek‘. at the reinforcement of external border and the and border external of reinforcement the at

lbania Albanian state anthem etc), to usage of Albanian Albanian of usage to etc), anthem state Albanian 29

as well as citizens perceptions such as such perceptions citizens as well as

in case of success. It failed to failed It success. of case in , th their Serb co Serb their th ly

which had a coalition with KLA, the the KLA, with coalition a had which

joining the ‗mother country‘ ‗mother the joining s are much improved because they they because improved much are s ,

which were either the ‗Turkish ‗Turkish the either were which This evidence reinforces my reinforces evidence This needed the alternate map alternate the needed te te hn, such hand, other the n ous interpretations that that interpretations ous - citizens, while the while citizens, - general of Kosovo`s Kosovo`s of general - generated action, generated

get ) , while in whilein , st myths, myths, st

realized realized

virtual ranges 255 -

CEU eTD Collection ofbelonging sense different a creates realitythat virtual serv examples Such it. corroborate to source any us tell not does he However, 45). 1999: (Pushka that double least at be should Albanians that assuming with Albanians while population, 1 with (Macedonians figures official the gives and census Macedonian population its of half and kilometers) (28.000 territory Albanian of half only that point o goes It 81). 2009: (Puto [Albania]‖ it of lost biggest the was Albania from Kosovo of secession ―[the] that: clearly it has texts history professional and recent most the of one Even policies. cultural and education in role continuous a played realit virtual parallel a construct helping thus unjustly, out left been Albanian has territory of half that stated repeatedly have sources historiography Albanian borders. would Ottoman from what constitute would that territoriesthe secession out independence,singled establishingits Empire, Albanian of legality the on decided continent the of Powers example, For readers. the amongst borders expansionary imagined its and perceived was nation the way the enlarging thus 50), 2004: (Duka 1913 in London in Ambassadors of Conference to was done mai the in include thing first the of One content. as well as methodology, in were Changes changes. regime abrupt such in important particularly be to tend which Albania, in books OtherAlbania`s Inhabited Albanian Regionsand in During Textbooks 1990s Virtual6.4 AlternativeMap And Configuration Kosovo Borders Seen From Below: identity and map configuration how national perceived isthebottom from n in shifts understand us help that proxies the of some are above, mentioned one the be part of a sovereign Albania and what would be its northern, southern and eastern and southern northern, its be would what and Albania sovereign a of part be n diin o poli to addition In

h Cneec o Absaos f 93 hn ersnaie o te Great the of representatives when 1913 of Ambassadors of Conference the nstream national history the Albanians left outside state borders after the the after borders state outside left Albanians the history national nstream

ia dsore atrtos ee ae n itr ad literature and history in made were alterations discourse, tical 400.000 inhabitants, r inhabitants, 400.000

number in the range of range the in number by oughly 21 oughly

delineating new borders new borders delineating

%), the author ‗corrects‘ such figures by by figures such ‗corrects‘ author the %), .3 million comprised roughly 65 roughly comprised million .3 n to further emphasize the emphasize further to n

40 percent of total population population total of percent 40 while -

up.

erasing others. others. erasing

e to create a create to e y that has has that y

ational % of of % 256

CEU eTD Collection recognized not either are territories aforementioned these of some that seems It 19). 2008: (Dollma Montenegro‖ of Republic of southeast the in and Serbia of Republic of south (Illyrian Greece of Republic of northwest the on FYROM, Arber (Illyrian Albania currently intheRepublic regions of states ―the that: are Albanian divided actual the autho the Balkans, discussing Western the in Albanians while by inhabited territory of text situation geography bilingual recent a in example, For ones. real of expanse the on myth borders imaginary creates that landscape ethnic old mental a configure some under addition, decades In five 50). than 2004: more (Duka for Communism history dominate to used which history military socio into put emphasis empirical by analysis offered therevisedtexts. myth of process a more have we that seems it have Albanians ethnic these all that and internationally such as recognized was state Albanian an that time first the was this that consider to are we if But country. (new) the within remained have Albanians of minority 2 (Puto Albanians) Orthodox 14.000 and Muslims 58.000 (around Greece from deported were that Chams the here add we If borders. new its outside remained have Albanians ethnic of half than more even than impression the giving 9 had that Kosovo 1954, of noted statistics Yugoslav has to according scholar Another state. new the in included were inhabitants) (800.000 - Albanian core), Republic of Kosovo (Illyrian Kosovo of Republic core), Albanian Another change, again in the realm of history and geography textbook geography and history of realm the in again change, Another - cultural and religious processes rather than strict political and and political strict than rather processes religious and cultural never lived in a single political entity before, then then before, entity political single a in lived never

- aig n oin hn el n critical and real than motion in making - Dardan 009: 81), then it seems that only a a only that seems it then 81), 009: 42.000 Albanians (Vlora: 39 (Vlora: Albanians 42.000 - Albanian core), on the west of west the on core), Albanian - Cham - aig rns seem trends making - Albanian core), in the the in core), Albanian s, was more more was s, r explicitly r - 40), 40), 257 to -

CEU eTD Collection ofpower. rotation political isa there time that every in textbooks shifts which history, of politicization of example prime is a This 1940s. yearsof late in the (29 liberation 28 the forces political 29 and 28 from liberated are was year, Albania every when date the been has camps, Nazi of forces occupation two in opinion public and media historians, 31 Rights Human waitingverdict. ofare and Court Strasbourg to taken already are cases individual Many behalf. their on government n government), Greek from is What map. national 30 the expand to revision historical such of instigator main the nationalis opportunity such by this on capitalize not did elite dictated political Albanian why puzzling is it shifts up, opening structures political expect would one normally Although ethnic of history the where period Communist from historiography in changes denyto not is This countries. post WWII, during events surrounding those been have arena public in noise provoked have that debates historical biggest the that fact the is data additional An narratives. historical from layers ideological polit thus power, in party the of outlook and myth case separate a as not taken be can text English This Albanians. today`s of predecessors as core, ethnic Arber Greece, Northwest the of sides both in sources official either by such as

The deported Chams (during inter (during Chams deported The o eape a eetd oe f otnin bet contention of bone repeated a example, For - communist period, which has been more or less the case with most of the neighboring the of most with case the less or more been has which period, communist On the other hand, historical revisionism has mostly served to reflect the political the reflect to served mostly has revisionism historical hand, other the On - t narrative to gain political support at some moments, while at others it has been has it others at while moments, some at support political gain to narrative t making stories that donotserve domestic consumption. making storiesthe only th

of 1945), as part of part as 1945), of i ad ery ertr ws nldd eual i te an narrative. main the in regularly included was territory nearby and kin 30 th

agig ht 29 that arguing ,

or there is too much speculation in mentioning of the Illyrianthe of mentioning in speculation much too is there or - 31 Fascism in 1944. The dates that are continuously disputed with a rekindle a with disputed continuously are that dates The 1944. in Fascism th

ot ethnic ones (i.e. revindication of territory) and neither does the Albanian Albanian the does neither and territory) of revindication (i.e. ones ethnic ot

rather

f oebr hn h left the when November of an initial plan of Hoxha to unite Albania as a 7 a as Albania unite to Hoxha of plan initial an

- than any contestation regarding the national borders in the in borders national the regarding contestation any than war and WWII period), have only property claims (financial reparations reparations (financial claims property only have period), WWII and war th

was only a political decision to cope with Yugoslavia`s date of of date Yugoslavia`s with cope to decision political a only was

in point but illustrative of the scholarly superfluity scholarly the of illustrative but point in en ih ad et ig ate, hc hs iie the divided has which parties, wing left and right ween icizing it, rather than trying to remove the the remove to trying than rather it, icizing - ig ate dfn te eod n right and second the defend parties wing official borders, like the example of example the like borders, official th -

Albanian geography Albanian Republic to Yugoslavia Yugoslavia to Republic

- Dardan d debate debate d - wing 258 -

CEU eTD Collection 32 have oscillations, similar with FYROM of Albanians the and status independence the Integration. mov freely and process liberalization visa the getting finally as it perceived citizens Albanian that is Union European the entering once configuration change border with associated immediat the with relation the in hostility of source last the thus and borders of eradication the promised that future a and fulfillment economic progress, with equated was that 1985) Laclau and priorit of matters in divided all at not was which elite, political the of phrase catch favorite the be to came integration‘ ‗European venue. public on prevailed discourse different a and class political for pressing minimalist a exert influence,could them enabled alpassthe parliamentary have to whichleast threshold. not could exist, did although parties, nationalist why explain may pr nationalist expansionary an around people the mobilized have could who intelligentsia the of most after effect took that drain brain the had map reductionist projected the on effect particular a and country the flee to wanted to adjust to time little had public mass the isolation, of decades outbidding ethnic to lead or mobilization nationalist any in resulted have would which response public a de to failed process revisionism historical this that is however, out stress to important

See n t E cutis a te rmr bnft ht a ascae wt European with associated was that benefit primary the as countries, EU to ing

http://www.aiis nta i ses ht te matters, other that seems it Instead 32

e neighbors. One interesting remark in relation to mental mapping that was was that mapping mental to relation in remark interesting One neighbors. e Quite differently, the majority of Kosovars, especially prior to proclaiming to prior especially Kosovars, of majority the differently, Quite

- five afterbecause is This time. particularthis at parties political amongst albania.org/areas.html#part1

ization of needs, thus becoming an ―empty signifier‖ (Mouffe (Mouffe signifier‖ ―empty an becoming thus needs, of ization

oject left Albania and emigrated abroad. This abroad. emigrated and Albania left oject

.. socio i.e. - economic concerns were more more were concerns economic Greater Albania. Instead it it Instead Albania. Greater

liver liver 259

CEU eTD Collection kosove of autochthony 33 the out point which textbooks, school geography and history in noted especially is This borders. (ethnic/national) of essentialization the it with along and effect resisting ofa heroicnation thewaves ofhistory. ―Slav as such ―break neighbors‖, is of designs ―chauvinistic textbooks invasion‖, geography and history such accompanies that language G of materialization seek would that project map expansionist an around masses the mobilize to suffice not does this However students. and pupils the of minds the in borders different (re)creates units, political different in nation ‗immemorial‘ often have that invasions of picture white and black a with associated linearity, territorial of kind This Albania. present to compared size in much as twice is that territory t and land 32 1995: Jubani & Zekolli (Kuri, Pelasgians ancient of heirs the are Illyrians the that asserts that one the is period tohappen possible it while42% were optimist. thought they that said 43% only But opinion. no expressing percent 11 and no saying 25% a Kosovo favor of respondents the of 64% that found Foundation Kult by realized poll a example, For lenses. different through decision political such interpreting thus brethren, ethnic their most

See ly perceived these processes as last removal of barriers with the ‗motherland‘ and and ‗motherland‘ the with barriers of removal last as processes these perceived ly :

- http://www.shqiptarja.com/politike/2732/sondazhi 136972.html This continuous stream in Albanian historiography, focuses on nation`s continuity continuity nation`s on focuses historiography, Albanian in stream continuous This On the otheron hand, hus continuously building up in the minds of the pupils the myth of an Albanian an of myth the pupils the of minds the in up building continuously hus

- Albanian Federation before the integration of both countries in EU, with inEU, bothcountries integration of the Federation before Albanian

- 33) with the specific aim of ―proving‖ the autochthony in the the in autochthony the ―proving‖ of aim specific the with 33) e of the persistent features in the Albanian schoolbooks in this thepersistent inthis intheAlbanian of features schoolbooks e

33 -

64 - e - te

anketuarve - p f h nto‖ t, rae the creates etc, nation‖ the of up reater Albania, although the although Albania, reater - i - thone - po - bashkimit broken the broken - shqiperi were in were 260 its its -

CEU eTD Collection myths, other many contains text This follow. (meaning to many namin for the attributed is who Phirrus general example famous of that example for an including up sets that schoolbook history Albania of ―History Nikaj 34 catch the notes, texts recent more the as Furthermore, imagined. is bordering nation`s territ the of divisions political in resulted have that interferences foreign despite unchanged, continued existed has that map ethnic coherent a of pattern repeated a century, a almost by 2008: 17). (Dollma form.‖ present the to shrank Albania of map political the powers, victorious the of interestsand conquest wars, to Due borders. political their changed times several they have ethno and language territorial, the in unique are regions Albanian ―[a]lthough that emphasizes author the regions, Albanian the of change map political the discussing when regions‖, ―Albanian titled text geography recent a in their of any that 1997 Todorova stronger 171; 128, 31, 28, 2, 1919: was (Dako neighbors‖ consciousness national their that countries, Balkan all ―occupied Ages, Middle the to up had, and Peninsula Balkan the of race oldest the of Albanian another Dako, Christo 9 1921: (Cekrezi region the in inhabitants oldest the are and countries) neighboring in lives that kin the (including today of territory in living been have Albanians the of ancestors the that emphasizes author the Albania, in distributed later and 1921 in States United in published textbook history first the in example, For beyond. and today of territory same the occupying inhabitants,

Traces of same historiography same of Traces ory. Such description is perpetuated in similar texts, having a great impact in the way way the in impact great a having texts, similar in perpetuated is description Such ory. We canWe glim easily sons of eagle of sons

), a term that is used to identify the nation to the present to nation identify the usedto terma is ), that , pub ‖,

pse a causalpse a thatare different ofthese survey texts separated two lished in Shkoder, Albania, but the 1921 text that I mentioned is the first first the is mentioned I that text 1921 the but Albania, Shkoder, in lished

patterns

- American of prominence wro prominence of American

could be traced earlier, earlier, traced be could - 10). 34

- In the early years of the interwar period, interwar the of years early the In utrl enn, n h hsoia flow historical the in meaning, cultural like

in the history text of 1917 of D. N. N. D. of 1917 of text history the in : 45). For comparison`s sake, sake, comparison`s For 45). : te that Albanians were one one were Albanians that te -

day (Chekrezi 1921: 3). 1921: (Chekrezi day g of Albanians as Albanians of g

the present present the shqiptare shqiptare

261

CEU eTD Collection of characteristic common a seems This ideas. certain of revolution on based systematic fashion, a in explanations broad construct to seek which Annales, of school French and patterns systematic events, particular in concentrated told historyis Thus map. expansionary any pursuing in restricted and moderate more be to tended have post in which elite, of view the from below, from perceptions in reality different a create to seem views such Macedonia, and allow. po by instrumentalized or used unless political realities affect not does this although variation, political of dynamics the overlooking version, map expansionist an perpetuates that identity territorial imagined an establish regularly are that texts such universities. in and schools of curricula in included pattern a up makes but random, all at not is realities political to compatible not territory a maps that community, imagined certain a configures geo in been not changes have by textbooks affected geography and history official these to according These borders. feelings, virtual extended much its and nation imaginary the with map political inco the correct to seeks that feeling duty a with patriots‘ ‗responsible by completed be to remains thinking wishful this that is implication The nation. the of map mental static presumed the with congruence achieve possibly would borders political enlargemen further a of possibility the imply territory‖ present to ―shrank words

eas o te bqios rsne f hs Abna txbos ss n Kosovo in uses textbooks Albanian these of presence ubiquitous the of Because long term structures which are characteristic of characteristic are which structures term long - oiia lnsae Ti kn o mt persi myth of kind This landscape. political - communism period, forced by external constraints, external by forced period, communism histoire événementielle, histoire iia eiewe xenl conditionalities external when elite litical It is my conte my is It ntion that in turn these texts these turn in that ntion rather than finding than rather longue duree longue ngruence of the the of ngruence stence that that stence t when when t , the the , 262

CEU eTD Collection the was what and changes of position policy study carefully to us allow that proxies the of one is it because important alongside divided was which period, Howe this actions. their in parties political influenced than rather reflected, only and trenches political during media of politicization complete is explanation only The Bula Momir President, Montenegro`s former memoirsof the B on war theduring Tirana and Belgrade between cooperation goodwill and trade deliberate delib government municipalities), Bujanovć 35 and (Presevo Serbia South to up extending Kosovo, of whole and Macedonia, in regions Albanian treats and views that map expansionist an picture to tend that shows various created have studios television these addition, In well. as unification political potential to lead that changes urged sistematically has that unification cultural a for possible made Macedonia, and Pristina in branches sister established later ‗pan of role The circulation. daily in newspapers thirty than more and mushrooming, suddenly channels private and national of dozen a than more with television, state of monopoly opposition. in or power in was base political supported the whenever varying elite, political of actions c abrupt the of sides both in boundaries Mental PostState Borders in Reshaping in Role its and Media Mass 6.5 on instrumentalize to elites for opportunity expansionary the creating thus citizens, future and pupils current of minds the in map national virtual a creating of factors determinant the of Sout the all almost

For example, For - national‘ me national‘ uig eortc rniin ms mda a gn truh aiu sit and shifts various through gone has media mass transition, democratic During ags Pltczto o mda a b tae i is dtra pltc regarding politics editorial its in traced be can media of Politicization hanges. political groups political 35

(virtual) theopportunity when emerges.borders there fe 19 mda eae oe une, oniig ih h ed of end the with coinciding nuanced, more became media 1997 After erately broke the UN embargo and supplied vast amounts of oil and other illicit goods. This This goods. illicit other and oil of amounts vast supplied and embargo UN the broke erately dia, such as Top as such dia,

was much variation in regard to former Yugoslavia, when despite rhetoric, Albanian Albanian rhetoric, despite when Yugoslavia, former to regard in variation much was heastern Europe heastern

- in the matter. the in Communist PeriodCommunist

Channel and TV Klan, which first opened in Tirana and and Tirana in opened first which Klan, TV and Channel

(Brunnbauer 2004). However, such textbooks are one one are textbooks such However, 2004). (Brunnbauer

tović .

However media However

did not pick not did - H, is reported in reported is H,

this news up. up. news this ver it is still still it is ver

263 as

CEU eTD Collection Albania‘. ‗Ethnic 36 certain amongst expectancies intellectuals raised This independence. of declaration Albania Greater See also Kurti2010). km2‖ 45.000 in reduced are they today and km2 75.000 approximately were majori the constituted Albanians where space territorial of reduction of reason primary the is This Asia. Minor from Greeks and Sanxhak and Bosnia from settlers Serb with substituted and evicted were Chameria and Follorin Kostur, Grebene, Konitza, Macedonia, of Albanians ―many result a as and Powers Great of tables diplomatic 20 the of decade first the after existence in came that state new The state. new the of trunk the from amputated wer territories Albanian the most Greece; to and Turkey prior between treaty that population argued exchange have authors some example, For opinion. public the shaped market its to expand and―turn aconsumer nationalism into good‖ (Rukaj order in time the of half given regularly are community Macedonian Albanian or Kosovo pan addition, In countries. living Albanians from audiences and participants have which shows, variety as such ones, political/cultural from range shows TV Such nation. the of regions ‗perennial‘

Since Republic of Albania is only 28.000 km2, the assumption is that 45.000 km2is the km2is 45.000 that is assumption the km2, 28.000 only is Albania of Republic Since Shqip te ifunil uhr i mdapc hv oel dfne te rjc of project the defended openly have mediaspace in authors influential Other has that factor major a been consequently have media printed in articles Publicist [Albanian] in Top Channel, which has been ongoing for close to a decade now to to now decade a to close for ongoing been has which Channel, Top in [Albanian]

for the two states to merge in a single one, following the German model in the the in model German the following one, single a in merge to states two the for

, which according to its proponents, was facilitated by Kosovo`s Kosovo`s by facilitated was proponents, its to according which ,

Century was too weak and their protests were ignored in the the in ignored were protests their and weak too was Century - ainl oeae f es s o cmo, hr usually where common, now is news of coverage national

2013). ty when in 1913 1913 in when ty

territorial space of space territorial 36

all the three three the all (Koçi 2011; (Koçi

nationalist

Kosovo, 264 e

CEU eTD Collection m was class political Albanian that use instrumental the to ambassador, US as such actors, revealedcablegrams u interests vice or expansion border of question delicate to regard in especially action and rhetoric their behavior, politicians` to regard in percepted Albania in serving source, transparency unity, territorial whole the Albania and (Ferraj Kosovo‖ 2011). represent cannot such as and government, local a only is level. collective or individual enter either cannot government Kosovo the Furthermore, of mapping cognitive individual the fit not do therefore and 1913 in Power Great by artificially imposed only are borders ‗hard‘ external unification. inevitable the with culminate would that one come, to yet one, third a of possibility the open leaves also he end, the In 2007). (Qosja backward‖ than rather modern and regions on based than rather centraliz are motivated, religiously ratherthan movements areilluminist both of nation, that ―bothintheir movements,epicenterunification have areintellectual both the Al the of Kosovo of realization the to creation the with up centuryended first the him, For period. renaissance second a as independence, 20th of decades two last the from Albanians, fal of aftermath aking to the question of border revision, Kosovo independence and potential unification potential and independence Kosovo revision, border of question the to aking ei efcs n diin o hpn pbi oiin hs lo evd s a as served also has opinion, public shaping to addition in effects Media banian state. While the second with Kosovo state. But similarities are in the fact the in are similarities But state. Kosovo with second the While state. banian priual hr. o example, For here. particularly s l of Berlin Wall. For example, R. Qosja considers political movements of of movements political considers Qosja R. example, For Wall. Berlin of l inter alia inter

hc cliae wt wklas eeain o wa diplomats what of revelations wikileaks with culminated which , very interesting data in regard to perception of internationalof perception regardto in very data , interesting Another author goes as far rec far as goes author Another

Wikileaks publications of US Embassy Embassy US of publications Wikileaks into negotiation with Serbia because it it because Serbia with negotiation into ently as to claim that: ―[t]he that: claim to as ently - versa, which is what is which versa, ed ideologies,ed 265

CEU eTD Collection here: described details for See daily. 38 2011. 7, September in information this to coverage 37 of independence where Albania‘‗Greater a toward unification for push to desire a between with period, this during differently imagined been have to years.seem Borders recent especiallyin Kosovo andAlbania in both issues discussed most and Kosovo Albania, in Identity Shaping Territorial Co Amongst Albanian the on Debate Recent 6.5.1 worriesBerisha`s declarations that caused. have of kind any calm to Belgrade in visit a to dispatched quickly was Meta Ilir minister prime t the between federation a of creation the seeking not countries, European co share would Albania and Kosovo where space European mind in had minister prime the that clarify to in jumped quickly Basha, Lulzim affairs, f of minister His immediately. backtrack to seemed Berisha politicians, Macedonian Albanian and Kosovar to addressed speeches his in noted encouragement open for partners rights. human and was he that time law of rule democracy, on record his every on counterparts EU or Department State by criticized language nationalist and expansion border such using well, US to according Albania‘?‖, ‗Greater E of idea the intriguing with the flirting with Berisha cablegram ―Is the headline In arouse. opportunity such case in Albania with

bsy ore, e ugss ht eih ses o ae lyd hs ae particularly game this played have to seems Berisha that suggests he sources, mbassy Reported by national TV Top Channel, citing Wikileaks cablegrams, dedicating lots of space in its news news its in space of lots dedicating cablegrams, Wikileaks citing Channel, Top TV national by Reported hs tasae cberm hv sbeunl be pbihd n h pitd rs, o example for press, printed the in published been subsequently have cablegrams translated These The identity debate, primarily national, but also religious one has been amongst the the amongst been has one religious also but national, primarily debate, identity The 37

Right after, open criticism to Berisha from American and European and American from Berisha to criticism open after, Right mmunity Macedonia in

http://www.gazetatema.net/web/?p=39852

- habitation, together with other with together habitation, oh lt ad ass torn masses and elite both

wo, while vice while wo, oreign Tema 266 -

CEU eTD Collection http://www.gallup.com/poll/125978/two Three p papers the 40 all secured havemaking. the in of identity boundaries the on viewpoints interesting I independence. of verge the policy scholars, of participation the 39 of dialect Geg written and spoken the neglecting therefore dialect, Tosk on entirely almost the based was that language standard on literary a enforced which regime, Communist dominated centers borders, hard of differences the logic of logic argumentative the follow necessarily not that boundaries subsequent and state admittance toint new the of recognition full a soon be to going is there if fact the upon divided remain they although Kosovo, of breakup a want not do Serbs and Albanians consider into taking 1 pp. 2004, (Java Kosovo of Albanians ethnic the for Albania] [from Albanians of that from identity Kosovar distinct a of development pa newly a share all to out, pointed have historians multi typical a other construct and Malcolm as past the in legacies some had points. two on centeredKelmendi, directorM. its and by weeklyJava up opened provoking debate thought ofseries a point, last the with start To language. the with startingidentity, distinct all an advocating half other the and realization final toward step first the as only seem is Kosovo

Also directly linked directly Also Viktor Damjanovi Viktor - ures eiv idpnec ws go t good a was independence believe quarters - inclusive ‗civic citizenship‘ in Kosovo in citizenship‘ ‗civic inclusive h scn pit wih oncs iety o y hss usin f ‗virtual‘ of question thesis my to directly connects which point, second The First , the need for for need the , ernational organizations and institutions, including ernational and organizations UN. institutions, ć

to this debate is the 2004 2004 the is debate this to and John Chapman Chapman John and ations some recent surveys, it shows that absolute majority of of majority absolute that shows it surveys, recent some ations triotic allegiance to the new state. state. new the to allegiance triotic -

ethnic state, where Serbs, Albanians and other minorities would minorities other and Albanians Serbs, where state, ethnic a development of an inclusive civic identity of Kosovar, which which Kosovar, of identity civic inclusive an of development a

- makers and civil society in a general discussion about identity shifts in in shifts identity about discussion general a in society civil and makers - years Two Years In, Kosovo Albanians More Sober on Independence on Sober More Albanians Kosovo In, Years Two - kosovo in language and previous discrimination by Tosk by discrimination previous and language in European Identity of Kosovars Kosovars of Identity European - albanians

and back up a full advocacy for a Kosovar Kosovar a for advocacy full a up back and - 24). resented at the conference, which highlight highlight which conference, the at resented 39 - sober hing, down from 93% in 2008. 2008. in 93% from down hing,

eadn te is pit f view, of point first the Regarding - independence.aspx Second conference proceedings with proceedings conference

40 the simultaneous simultaneous the

267 - - .

CEU eTD Collection are They staunchly state. Austrian and German the considering nation, one states, two meaning model‘ ‗German the advocates and ideas ‗divisive‘ such opposes strongly representatives, goes withou It past. the of talk a be would Albania neighboring with reunification or territory of division possible a about talks thus, and state sovereign and independent an as stronger of model citi this inclusive project political a be to nation Considering state. Kosovo of minorities other and Serbs for inclusive and Albania of Albanians from distinct identity, Kosovar The only dialect. is choice Geg language spoken their to closely corresponds that language written a develop to need Kosovars and outdated long is time, the at reasons political obvious for dialect A that argues that one the hand, one On Albanians. Kosovar the amongst thinking of mode prevalent a promote and imagination national shape to trying are that identities competing two of battle a primarily Serbo Italian, French, the (citing everywhere almost norm the been have dialect minority a on based rules grammatical and touched be not should 1972 of standard the that argue They others. Migjen including Kosovo, of scholars and linguists generation old of most by opposed vehemently is view This region. Albanian entire of thirds two than more encompass together Alba of majority absolute the t saying that the opposite group, with some of the old guards as the main main the as guards old the of some with group, opposite the that saying t

gis te rmto o a eaae ooa iett. oj wie that writes Qosja identity. Kosovar separate a of promotion the against esi, ae o Anglo on based zenship, - rain n o and Croatian

the first step, because the ultimate goal is the creation of a new new a of creation the is goal ultimate the because step, first the bna lnug sadr bsd rmrl i Suhr Tosk Southern in primarily based standard language lbanian nians in Albania, Kosovo, Macedonia and Montenegro who Montenegro and Macedonia Kosovo, Albania, in nians

emnis w fte, ai Kled, . oj and Qosja R. Kelmendi, Ramiz father, own Kelmendi`s hr xmls. h dbt o lnug sadrs is standards language on debate The examples). ther - ao taiin wud nbe ooo o grow to Kosovo enable would tradition, Saxon - speaking community in the the in community speaking 268

CEU eTD Collection existed conviction general to contrary run novel Blushi`s whom with neighbors immediate borders administrative m tradition, in clans, Montenegrin with common in nor with connection their of much had inter an Often themselves. between or Albanians surrounded have that borders national and religious cultural, the amongst century. 18th the in Albanians addressed. no could I both, criticized nation notwithstanding area symbolic followed soon Albanian than crit more for roots Christian apostolic of face Indo centuries, fourteen the in unacceptable is form, moderate its notwithstanding differentiating national with his in Kadare 41 are differences Such in manifested particularly status. social their notwithstanding identities, national promoting distinct by separately borders state and nation map who those and project Albania‘ these all in loo it horizontally Thus spreadcommunities. apparatuses conceptual different of more is friction elite an implying or communities aforementioned the between differences A and Macedonia in well elite an in Prizren the from League to history people Albanian the motion in put has that idea the good for counter being by Albanianism replaces ―Kosovarism

A proxy of this is this of proxy A icized by Kosovar writer R. writer Kosovar by icized - these borders made people strongly antagonistic to each other, like the ravaging of Voskopoja, Voskopoja, of ravaging the like other, each to antagonistic strongly people made borders these state, which in fact was an imaginary federalized Union of Kosovo and Albania and Kosovo of Union federalized imaginary wasan fact in which state, - undivided undivided ethnic struggle took place (Blushi 2008) (Blushi place took struggle ethnic The debate on the ongoing status of national identity, which maps identity borders borders identity maps which identity, national of status ongoing the on debate The - Christian and Muslim‖ ( Muslim‖ and Christian In contrast, contrast, In

- today:

engineered process has affected not only Kosovo, but has been widespread as as widespread been has but Kosovo, only not affected has process engineered

ident and ) book 2006 I i itrsig o oe ht hs eae etrd n hr t bln ( belong to where on centered debate this that note to interesting is It . between their their without a state for millennia for withoutstate a ity of Albanians. Arguing to defend the defend to Arguing Albanians. of ity

niety rvkd uh eae bu nation about debate much provoked indirectly the idea of national unification ofnational the idea

two thought two ifrne, a a iia preto ta te wr sekn o te ae (greater) same the of speaking were they that perception similar a had differences, not only dissected nation dissected only not - Blushi`s novel novel Blushi`s

European language, race, geography and history (Kadare 2006). This view was view This 2006). (Kadare history and geography race, language, European The European Identity of Albanians of Identity European The current fn a ige ril ta dat rtcly bu te (pan) the about critically dealt that article single a find t

school textbooks, which remain crucial in their ability to foster a foster to abilitytheir in crucial remain which textbooks, school proper. lbania s oe f dcooy ewe toe h fvr ‗Greater a favor who those between dichotomy a of more ks Qosja, who argued on behalf of multi of behalf on argued who Qosja, Blushi`s novel novel Blushi`s

states), Kadare argued that any Albanian identification with Islam, Islam, with identification Albanian any that argued Kadare states), the Albanians Albanians the - Di Lellio Di provokin

thern Greeks than Albanians of N of Albanians than Greeks thern iig n n Island an in Living g books: a monograph by monograph a books: g 2009: 34), while d while 34), 2009: .

soon became a book book a became soon 41 . Also, it it Also, .

fe sae mr i cmo ta wt te co the with than common in more shared often that borders are immutable and and immutable are borders that but also failed to take notice of ‗borders as bridges‘ with with bridges‘ as ‗borders of notice take to failed also but

The debate rather than captures the conceptual the captures than rather debate The usic, clothes, epics and even inter even and epics clothes, usic, ‖ (Qosja: 49). 2006: kind of indirectly showed that S that showed indirectly of kind

European origins of the Albanian nation Albanian the of origins European , was centered on mass religious conversion of of conversion religious mass on centered was ,

strongly attacked any co any attacked strongly ifferent intellectuals in K in intellectuals ifferent - historical ideologies that would kill would that ideologies historical `s

- wh confessionalism and mixed identity of of identity mixed and confessionalism ofgrto. T configuration. I. I. orth, which orth, ich generated a widespread debate debate widespread a generated ich Kadare

that an Albanian nation has has nation Albanian an that

and is assumed to have to assumed is

. mpatibility of religion religion of mpatibility by novel a national national e inv he - While While marriages. Thus, the the Thus, marriages. osovo and Albania and osovo nldn the including outhern Albanians Albanians outhern olved debaters, debaters, olved most agreed or agreed most - as level mass dniy they identity - B. Blushi B. n

(without (without ationals. ationals. where

more more 269 geo first first - .

CEU eTD Collection http://lajme.shqiperia.com/lajme/artikull/iden/1047020322/titulli/Moisiu 43 42 debate, ongoing This 2009). (Konomi alike‖ people ordinary and politicians intellectuals, topic hot a is question the way,Either positive. more feel Others artificial. as it reject and invented and imposed as identity Kosovar specific a promote to attempt the see ―[s]ome that writes He communities. Albanian three these in i national investigating for research field conducting after well it puts provoked which continued a a ofdiscussion flurry for while. president, former a from coming official, not though Laberia.‖ or Mirdita as such Albania, within regions other to similar another just is ―Kosovo that declared clashes, 1999 the during Alb fallen a commemorate to visit a in Moisiu, President former when example, for is opportunity such One arise. opportunities political when salient more be to tend that projects competing a telling very is territory of mapping expansionist such live…‖ Albanians where regions Greek draw to assignments class and homework their of part as required are they also but pupils, for textbooks the in only o map ―the that fact the denounced it when recently, coverage a had media Greek point, last this Regarding 2011). (Jole: etc‖ Arta Yoannina, Greece, northwestern as well as Serbia, w Albania‖ ―Greater of history the learn students the Albania, in schools high for textbook official Geography Albanian the in example, For pupils. young of imagination the in map certain f Greater Albania that extends to Albanian zones in neighboring countries, is pictured not pictured is countries, neighboring in zones Albanian to extends that Albania Greater f

Cited in Express daily më 11 prill 2011. prill më11 daily in Cited Express Ibid , cited in cited , eadn te usin f ertraiain f identity of territorialization of question the Regarding here ―Albanian lands outside borders include Kosovo, part of Montenegro and Montenegro of part Kosovo, include borders outside lands ―Albanian here Balkanweb ,

21 April 2011 21

See for details: details: for See

who had only recently been in power, power, in been recently only had who in Pristina, Tirana and Skopje, among Skopje, Tiranaand Pristina, in -

Kosova region - in - the - eshte anian Kosovar soldier soldier Kosovar anian 42

dentity in the making the in dentity - [krahina] of Albania, Albania, of [krahina] Te persi The . making, a journalist journalist a making, 43 - krahine

hs declaration, This - e - Shqiperise tne of stence 270

CEU eTD Collection 45 44 Macedonia in 7.2% mere a and Kosovo in 29.2% did as solution, this in of approved Albania respondents of 33.7% Only Kosovo. and Albania of only union the for lower much a Albania such if that said countries, three the in overall 95% than more respondents, Albania. with unification possible and Macedonia from secession arithmetic simple a make and polls Gallup the 25.4% is there Albanians in respondents Albanian the only include of we If census. population 2011 to prior officially, percentage The low. comparatively is ratio the why is theSla also theinMacedonian poll that though stress to a of formation the supported Macedonia in respondents that showed which conducted poll, 2010 a by especially captured are shifts late These region. the in on going is what of picture National Landscape 6. and manipulation border to regard overlapping ‗hard‘ of‗virtual‘versus territorialmap. in closure and openings opportunity and games interest of is policy, for implications and follow that repercussions many with but above from engineered not than often most

I thank Koco Danaj for pointing this information in an inte in information pointingfor this Danaj thank Koco I 6 General Perception on See

http://www.balkan Recent events, like periodic polls and surveys, allow us to have a more complete more a have to us allow surveys, and polls periodic like events, Recent

was created, it should include Alban include should it created, was

62% of respondents in Albania, 81% in Kosovo and 51.9% of of 51.9% and Kosovo in 81% Albania, in respondents of 62%

monitor.eu/files/Gallup_Balkan_Monitor by Gallup in cooperation with cooperation in Gallup by

Virtual Borders asImagined from Below

o olw lsl i odr o nesad political understand to order in closely follow to ia, Kosovo and part of Macedonia. Support is Support Macedonia. of part and Kosovo ia, rview I had with him in November 2012. withNovember himin had I rview xrie te prvl ae s 3 for 93% is rate approval the exercise,

the European Fund for the Balkans, the for Fund European the vic respondents were included, that that wererespondentsincluded, vic - Focus_On_Kosovo_Independence.pdf Greater Albania Greater 45

The vast majority of majority vast The in in . 44 Both Sides of Sides Both

It is important is It Greater

271

CEU eTD Collection 3 reunification for (around voted have would hand other the on that but possible, not is reunification people of percentage same approximately data, above the from summarized be may it As border? the of sides both in folk common the by desired is this much how and reunification potential and shifts border of chances n How below. from borders mental its and nation the perceptionofunderstanding the an of us gives dataThis 5). 2010: participate(Rrozhani not would percent 18 and abstained have would percent 21 against, percent 23 reunification, go were interviewed were that people the of percent 39 the then future, if that near findingthe in sometime happen would empirical Kosovo with Albania of another unification for organization emphasizing by continues poll The happen. somethi that odds of possibility of categories other the for less slightly is it while possible, also and desired is unification that think that those between numbers te Albania unification of possibility the that think percent) majority(35 The positive. as it of think percent only9 negativeand is it the that think people Albania of unification interviewed the of percent 37 Albania, in sample poll the from picture: different altogether an reveal (AIIS) Relations International for Institute Albanian other and parties. third structures interested EU organizations, international by consideration into taken and policy inform (should) that indications empirical as well as study, present the in analyzed se data new These 2010). Likmeta also (see rms and only 9 percent think it is possible. As it can be seen, there is a correlation of correlation a is there seen, be can it As possible. is it think percent 9 only and rms with Kosovo is neither positive, nor negative, 35 percent think that that think percent 35 negative, nor positive, neither is Kosovo with

Contrad icting data from Gallup polls, a 2010 survey taken by by taken survey 2010 a polls, Gallup from data icting - ooo s lm 1 pret hn o i i average in it of think percent 18 slim, is Kosovo rve both as a testimony of shifts noticed and noticed shifts of testimony a as both rve ation is imagined, what are the the are what imagined, is ation 5 - 9 ecn) eivs that believes percent) 39 ing to vote in favor of favor in vote to ing ng like this will ever will this likeng 272

CEU eTD Collection it when 8/2 with continues It duties. state`s normal a of part not is that kin external of defense include to state the of power nominal the extending thus borders, its outside living Albani of Republic that states Constitution Albanian the of 1 fraction 8, Article the example enterprises. For various in manifestedand communities. diasporic Albanian than more a kept always have governments Albanian that fact the omit not should we However individuals. isolated from coming speculation of era remainingget the publiclargelyany ear, in irredentist serious to largelyfailed have designs post in legitimacy and footing enough gained never have parties nationalist that trend empirical the with line in go to seems This 15). 2011: (Surroi margins‖ the in remains stills it Albania in growing, homela [perceived] the with unification favoring people of number the Macedonia, and Kosovo in surveys and polls opinion in ―[i]f that: noted has observer An communities. international in borders of delineation conventions and bilateral trea of shape the mostly affect which alliances, strategic or army apparatus, military the of strength as such mechanisms, power hard to symbol factors, internal to according grow or shrink borders (virtual) Mental prescribe. circumstances what from narrated differently is Nation borders. outer its and nation the of imagination common with hand geop assert to state particular a of weakness that fact the is which issue, repeated often an answers This possible. is referendum a is On the other hand, we witness a discrepancy between the presently investigated investigated presently the between discrepancy a witness we hand, other the On - omns Abna s o as h parliamentari the pass to as Albania communist ties.

This attitude is in fact rooted in constitutional framework framework constitutional in rooted fact in is attitude This

ic power and games elites play, rather than according than rather play, elites games and power ic a defends the rights of the Albanian people people Albanian the of rights the defends a olitical changes, not necessarily goes hand to to hand goes necessarily not changes, olitical

benevolent attitude toward toward attitude benevolent n hehl and threshold an d is nd 273

CEU eTD Collection important an with Albania, of border fluctuation state thepast decades. in two the of side both in tell to story different a is there Thus, treaty. new a renegotiate to want and failed agreement the declared has Macedonia ethnic with access equal have would Albanians where state multiethnic the realizing of method the as pact Ohrid the defends (BDI) coalition governing of part is that party The framework. Agreement Ohrid to refer its explicitly the forbids unification state. inMacedonia, withanyWhile other 3, 1/ article exactly more constitution, Kosovo`s hand, other the Onconstitution.‖ proclaim entity such kombetar]…, single [bashkim identityin a unity and centuries the with history… our for knowledgeable and proud people, Albanian the ―We, preamble: its in inscribed it has which Constitution aforementioned the of logic the antagonize officials government from declarations repeated such that fact notwithstan Albania‘, ‗Greater of agenda any have not does government Albanian and countries neighboring against pretensions territorial not have they that clear make to of legitimacy the recognized secession ofKosovo, of theRepublic an secession illegitimate recognizedbynobody else it when 1990, in back provisions constitutional simple conne the develop and preserve to diaspora Albanian the to gives state Albanian the that support ―the emphasizes8/3 art. the Whereas borders.‖ state outside permanentlytemporally or live that ―Repub that: explicitlysays However, in their actions, the Albanian politicians have traditionally been careful careful been traditionally have politicians Albanian the actions, their in However, ctions with national cultural heritage.‖ The Albanian state went further than these these than further went state Albanian The heritage.‖ culturalnational with ctions lic of Albania defends the rights of Albanian ethnic community community ethnic Albanian of rights the defends Albania of lic

ns whereas the Albanian opposition party opposition Albanian the whereas ns

two (main) Albanian parties there parties Albanian there two (main) - l ong aspiration for for aspiration ong ding the the ding 274 .

CEU eTD Collection Albanian channel.tv/artikull.php?id=226442 but states, neighboring in living minorities territories black r it and Kosovo of declarations latest the of One Kosovo. and Albania of unification the theme main its as has and elections general upcoming the in formation political a as run to Aleanca election, parliamentary last the in force political largest third the as ranked they 48 shapes. identity different national theon three based Albanian nations distinct built three should have identities Germans the different where built identity German is example best The Macedonia. in one Kosovo, in one Albania, who Arifi Teuta coalition, this of 47 course the in noted been have chapter. that openings other and instrumentalization media obtai power, to in trying politicians remain of rhetoric public by influenced quickly up catching are they but show, polls 46 alternative mapsthatseek as goal. expansionist ultimate unification ignoringpresenbut politicians, mainstream referringto agenda.‖ politicians` of part not is entity single a in unification the leave, Albanians of chunks biggest the where states three generalize succinctly Sulstarova E. can. they as independent as be to trying Albania, of periphery as serve to refuse They it. from instrumentally used being of and Tirana from advice ‗babysitting‘ of weary grown have to seems Macedonia and Kosovo Albanian the While situation. economic grim of because support recuperate electorate failing to order in failures), domestic for ‗sticks‘ the using external are actors international against leverage as politicians conditio Albanian serves that rhetoric consistent map, national united single

That does not mean that they have surpassed in percentage the ethnic kin in the desire for unification as the the as unification for desire the in kin ethnic the percentage in surpassed have they thatmean not does That Their popularity is growing as the example of of example the as growing is popularity Their A further evidence for this is a declaration by vice by declaration a is this for evidence further A

Kuqezi I nality (to use the ‗national card‘ and border revision argument each time that the that time each argument revision border and card‘ ‗national the use (to nality t seems that Albanians of Albania have recently been growing in numbers to see a a see to numbers in growing been recently have Albania of Albanians that seems t ead as follows: as ead

. Tirana Tirana . [Red

and Black Black and in Germany, Switzerland, Austria‖ (Arifi 2009). 2009). (Arifi Austria‖ Switzerland, Germany, in has to break the silence and defend their (national) rights (national) their defend and silence the break to has explicitly says: ―Albanians have to build multiple political identities, one in in one identities, political multiple build to have ―Albanians says: explicitly

―Kosova Alliance 46

norgd y osiuinl rvsos n hle b a by helped and provisions constitutional by encouraged is for thousand years Albanian land yearsAlbanian thousand for is ] 47 is now is

At least not yet, keeping in mind that the author is author the that mind in keeping yet, not least At

Vetvendosja a political party political a -

Aleanca Kuqezi Aleanca chair of the Albanian party that is part of governing of part is that party Albanian the of chair living in their own territory.‖ See: See: territory.‖ own their in living

[Self t political underdogs who champion who underdogs political t . Or . - Determination] Determination]

the the

was in reaction to President Tadić in Tadić President to reaction in was Natural List Natural Thus she suggests that Albanians Albanians that suggests she Thus . Ulqini dhe Tuzi dhe Ulqini . 48

but also in Albania, Albania, in also but

. in Kosovo show, Kosovo in They are not Albanian Albanian not are They

party, which is going going is which party, s that: ―in all all ―in that: s http://www.top are also red and and red also are

elite of of elite

where where where 275 n or or n -

CEU eTD Collection analyzing events, important some tracing process by evidence empirical to some sought provide chapter This history. official and memories public discourse, public in shift that borders of story constructivist a tell to able be and events the reconstruct to impossible agendas outbidding ethnic amongst Albanian thatfollowed politicians there. polit of radicalization the notwithstanding rights, political some and autonomy cultural of degree a only obtained Macedonia in one the while secession, of goal their obtaining com Albanian the through breakthroughs major some provoked situation, political and cultural political the of some shape to role important an playing while politicians shrewd for rising opportunity an as served Europe, Eastern of all affected has which inspired, externally juncture‘, ‗critical p the of one been has certain deliberate by political events actioninpower. of elites have shifts Such shifting. borders hard and virtual both with regards, this in periods shaping fundamentally most the of one been has It Yugoslavia. former in communities Albanian 6.7 Conclusion uiis n omr uolva wt te lain o Ksv big ucsfl in successful being Kosovo of Albanians the with Yugoslavia, former in munities

produced both changes in elite discourse and rhetoric, as well as have helped engineer as rhetoric,as have changes and well inelite discourse produced both

otnet cin ta so floe. h (i)ogune f etl a with map mental of (dis)congruence The followed. soon that actions contingent ihu dcntutn te aeul pt oehr tr o rcn yas i is it years, recent of story together put carefully the deconstructing Without pan active more somewhat a of favor in revisionism History`s post with dealt chapter This tts quo, status

ope o cus wt te epltcl pnns n economic, and openings geopolitical the with course of coupled iay hne ta acmaid h ery 90 tasto. This transition. 1990s early the accompanied that changes rimary - communist variations in Albania and amongst the the amongst and Albania in variations communist

- ainls agenda nationalist

276 ical

CEU eTD Collection ‗suggestions‘. fighting these guerilla Kosovo for withou surprisingly, up and leaders its arrest set camp and camp the close training to community international the a by pressured been have for to reported was Berisha reported training. services intelligence British the when 49 rightly Austin Therefore, factor. international the in reliability foreign continuous its and outcomes policy influencing in factors domestic strong of absence Tirana‘s shows clearly This prominent d most leaders, the Kosovar of some jailed even has leader, nationalist as referred sometimes is who Berisha, addition In elections. parliamentarian in threshold necessary the passing a gain to failed have parties thenationalist Also, (Austin andjingoism‖ 2004:246). nationalism into ―avoideda descent and has mild been policies theAlbanian and expansionary (any) Moreover, has press maps. vis forward step a even jumping or policies nationalist any pursuing in created, Communism of ‗the fall the grasp that moment‘ golden to failed Albania that wonder little then is It interests. national (perceived) trend moderating toward heed to careful been have leaders Albanian the there, been always have pressures States United and integration EU of carrot the that fact the given Also constraints. and intervention external to vulnerable insti religious and national strong of absence the with together taken which design‘, ‗grand nationalist a of lack a noticed generally have we Macedonia, on official policy. t impact the and shifts such understand to order in factors salient and actors main

Kosovar prominent leaders, like Adem Jashari, or Hashim Thaci were put to prison by Berisha`s orders Berisha`s by prison to put were Thaci Hashim or Jashari, Adem like leaders, prominent Kosovar

concludes when he stresses that: ―[i]n any case for Albania, even more so than in than so more even Albania, for case any ―[i]n that: stresses he when concludes in community Albanian the and Kosovo from differently proper, Albania In

rn te ore f i Peiec (etfr n Vces 06 98). 2006: Vickers and (Pettifer Presidency his of course the uring

ny real foothold in Albanian politics, with rarely any of them them of any rarely with politics, Albanian in foothold real ny

t any sanctions threatening him directly, he quickly complied with complied quickly he directly, him threatening sanctions any t - à - vis the vis international community in regard to regional regional to regard in community international s even when it went against its its against went it when even s tutions, made Albania more more Albania made tutions, hey have have hey 277 49 ,

CEU eTD Collection 51 50 and domestic political outbidding thatcompete through different mappingprojects. condit is itself in which discourse, general in shifts follow shifts border. of removal gradual and textbooks of unification primer the by Berisha), so coined Kosovo, and Albania connecting highway new (a Road Nation`s day.‖ passing every with unit closer a becoming are Kosovo and ―Albania recently: it puts Affairs Foreign observed. be can stratum hav that policies shifting such side, Albanian the From 2011). May a and Mitrovica) a that region the in divisions territorial final and new a partnersin negotiating be to Serbia and Albania for Tadić President former Serbian of declarations oft the here mention can We region. the in realities geopolitical current (re)create 248). 2004: (Austin country‖ the outside events influence to unable largely is Tirana past, the

Ibid June2011 Interview03 rae Albania Greater

se shifts border that is implication policy direct has that matter further A rae Serbia Greater

50 that includes much of Kosovo (with the exclusion of Northern Northern of exclusion the (with Kosovo of much includes that

e etos s xmls f uh increas such of examples as mentions He

As Mal Berisha, the general regional director in Ministry of of Ministry in director regional general the Berisha, Mal As

ht ol icue eulk Srsa Blawb 28 (Balkanweb Serbska Republika include would that

would seek the creation of of creation the seek would ional to external pressures external to ional e a similar ideological ideological similar a e n hmgniy the homogeneity, ing 51

hs practical These - repeated repeated

m to em 278

CEU eTD Collection coincide not do and congruent not are shifts such when even changes, perception mapping popular instigated has this how and realities geopolitical by conditioned calculation, elite political effects they produce. purely from only not consider to theor important are notions These 81). 2004: (Pieterse society‖ global and diaspora, crossing, boundary zones, border ―societies‖), than (rather that observes so the constructing are imagination nation the of domain 2006: (Rumford actors‖ of range a by deconstructed and shifted, created, be can ―[b]orders notes: Rumford and dissertation, this throughout asserted was it As world. today`s in persistence continuous territor of demarcations previous the suppress to seem that globalization and Union European of drives supranationalist to due decreased has significance border like looks Although 2011). Wilson and (Donnan a currently that noted be should and nation with only existence into came borders that wrote once Giddens A. territory. over assertions and groups between claims border of because place cruciallyi remains two, the betweenoverlapping Conclusion etical interest, but above all for changes they inflict in this ever this in inflict they changes for all above but interest, etical hs israin oue o explaining on focused dissertation This the and dimensions virtual and material their in both borders, of relevance The : ―[a] global sociology is taking shape around notions such as social networks networks social as such notions around shape taking is sociology global ―[a] :

- tt, hl, nraigy h bre saig dniis n border and identities shaping border the increasingly while, state,

164). In other words, borderfield is no longer the exclusive exclusive the longer no is borderfield words, other In 164).

y, the opposite case can be equally valid, meaning their meaning valid, equally be can case opposite the y, - called ‗global village‘. Jan Nederveen Pieterse rightly Pieterse Nederveen Jan village‘. ‗global called e oe hn 1 ln bres mn nation among borders land 313 than more re

mportant. Most disputes and conflicts take take conflicts anddisputes Most mportant. h sit o vrul onais ae on based boundaries virtual of shifts the - states (Giddens, 1985: 50), 1985: (Giddens, states - changing world and world changing - states 279

CEU eTD Collection essentializ its beyond territory of mapping the politico systemic a of lack axes, spatial and temporal both in seen variations its by justified was selection case(s) such for reason The communities. nation boundaries takes overinternationally primacy the political accepted reality. con investigating certain why thepresupposed during congruence junctures, critical and ofstate border of sides both in perceptions mass and elite in both shifts study to republics Yugoslavian former in reside within that kin ethnic living and Albania Albanians between dyad the investigated have I boundaries. nation`s of disco elite in both manifested as imagination national in shifts border ‗virtual‘ capture to in tried it analyzed specifically, More case, diachronically. and Albanian synchronically the of explanation unorthodox an on based the understand to systematic a construct and understanding soughtborder on narratives competing nationalism, of theories constructivist and instrumentalist boundary their borders. recognized internationally take myths or historical of studies have rarely ―only notes: Kolstø as However, sovereignty of declarations formal the after on each side had has it effects the and century a over space political Albanian the of discourse political of concept virtual the recogniz internationally the with hs rjc fcsd n hsoi ad comparative and historic a in focused project This long persisting boundaries, national crystallized and constituted often have Myths

of border. of - raig fet‖ Klt 20) Ti suy ftig ih h general the with fitting study, This 2005). (Kolstø effects‖ creating Greater Albania Greater

ed borders. Empirically, this dissertation aimed to address to aimed dissertation this Empirically, borders. ed , as manifested in textbooks, historical memory and and memory historical textbooks, in manifested as , ation and the various competing national national competing various the and ation - historical analysis to understand understand to analysis historical enn te etl as and maps mental the cerning

urse and mass and urse td aogt Albanian amongst study

explanation of it, of explanation n into account into n - - depth, both both depth, imagination

280

CEU eTD Collection virtual of constituitness the regarding generalizations broader at o arrived I the case, Albanian as such puzzle empirical an from starting Thus, shift. they more a for why and when allows as well as (re)constructed, turn, are borders how of in knowledge comprehensive which communities, Albanian different of perspective nationidentity and bordersare why mapsof these theAlbanian v of shifts the tracing for allowed nation question(s) Such Albanian time? in the point same of the at borders differently the imagined sometimes have other) the on Kosovo h one in Albania (in communities Albanian different why (2) and Albania", "Greater of borders geographical broader the on taking nation Albanian the and periods other Albania's borders nationstate associated mappingwith theonto Albanian time over borders geographical different on takes nation Albanian the of understanding the why asked that questions empirical specific two into down broken the of was question general and broad This outside perception? mapping groups shape that actors/factors versus inside p the are what and differently changes such motivates what unit, perceived demarcated internationally are borders (national) Why factors systemic and idiosy of straightjacket the under borders virtual on scholarship new this in derived be can that insights theoretical the are consideration, Another ongoing. are territory and indepen of declaration unilateral present in relevance current to extends policy informed have that images This research sought to answer the primary question that this dissertation asked: asked: dissertation this that question primary the answer to sought research This ncratic actors.ncratic

dence in Kosovo, the processes of re of processes the Kosovo, in dence - making and other significant geo significant other and making - day matters, where for example, after secession and secession after example, for where matters, day iewed differently from the differently iewed n ad aeoi and Macedonia and and - political changes. This changes. political e etiig o the to pertaining ne - -- defintion of identity identity of defintion w ith some periods periods some ith rimarily 281

CEU eTD Collection tells Asia and Africa in regions distant from also but countries Baltic Europe, Southeastern countries, European Eastern Central from Evidence results. similar for check to settings ca Albanian the from findings from primarily followed or have which propositions allowed These players. internal the of have freedom of degree the which constrained circumstances, geopolitical on depended continuously have nation the of bordering mental and imagining national in noticed are shifts when moments as them used have I case, this In interests. their furthers that project national a in embedded agenda specific a forward push to elites domestic for opp as served have junctures critical These junctures. observable fluctuations during notable with space, and time in varies boundaries of mapping mental that decision even foreign the in and decisive been have circumstances degree and scale geopolitical to according which by intervention, constrained been have choices elite the ( choosing‖ own their to according mapsinthe imaginationit ofpeople. long engineered have strategies, deliberative loca geographical upon decisions throughcalculated who elites culturaland political the beenhave recreation border forceof boundaries of case similar with started have who field, the in others Following time. in point certain a at nation the of frame mental and boundaries On the other hand, paraphrasing Marx, who says that ―men make history b history make ―men that says who Marx, paraphrasing hand, other the On - making of national level. national of making --

let riig t ifrn conclusions different at arriving albeit tion of homeland, manipulation of national symbols and and symbols national of manipulation homeland, of tion These findings are in line with my starting proposition proposition starting my with line in are findings These ols n mt 1990), Smith and Hollis

- - studies lasting processes that have impacted the way way the impacted have that processes lasting

to demonstrate the constitutive nature constitutive the demonstrate to se can be further analyzed in other other in analyzed further be can se -- . These domestic agendas in turn, turn, in agendas domestic These .

hv age ta te driving the that argued have I implying external leverages, leverages, external implying ortunity openings openings ortunity ts and and ts ut not not ut 282

CEU eTD Collection materi of creation the if Thus, agendas. personal their advance to discourse border perpetuate or invent consciously and capital cultural and economic social, and clout necessarypolitical the possess who elite of clusters to overturn theexisting political establishments. challengers by used are competingmaps cases, Insuch flux. arein constraintsinternational political simply is it when than rather changes, regime during fierce be to likely most is competition the chapters, the throughout argue I As power. obtain to need the primarily interests, political particular b elites competing by used maps mental traced carefully I etc. myths folklore, poetry, in enshrined as memory folk in imagining popular the in has it that effect consequent the and discourse elite in both reflected is this how and nat the of mapping mental in shifts such understand to helps that realities.led tocomplex Eth and Macedonia of Republic as diverse as countries in projects) irredentist or secessionist (i.e. changes border in effects real produced has impact Such territory. on impact constitutive ou ethnic engineered processes, elite (like reconfiguration domestic with conjunction in which territories), of exchange and treaties international different (i.e. circumstances geopolitical specific a borderre of I thus advanced the argument that (re)making of (re)making that argument the advanced thus I apparatus conceptual a have to was project this of contribution central a all, in All iopia - configurations and mental and configurations - Eritrea, Moldova, Georgia and Somalia, where various competing maps has maps competing various where Somalia, and Georgia Moldova, Eritrea, tbidding competition and popular shifts of imagination), can have have can imagination), of shifts popular and competition tbidding

rotation that happens during ‗normal‘ politics, as well as when when as well as politics, ‗normal‘ during happens that rotation

(re)mapping of territories, which are fashioned after fashionedafter (re)mappingare whichterritories, of al borders (administrative, state borders) is a a is borders) state (administrative, borders al uilt on specific political agendas that serve that agendas political specific on uilt

mental borders are engineered by engineered are borders mental ion and its outer borders borders outer its and ion 283

CEU eTD Collection favored secured over oneswhich chunks. territorial local personal limited rule their includ goals maximalist future nation the of borders ‗virtual‘ the delineate to started that process a with accompanied Albani for autonomy of idea the time first the for discuss to together got they place when chieftains, took Albanian that the amongst Prizren of League the with started form visual its in territory national bottom influences that territoriality of notion virtual certain a configure help that tools similar t territorializing in crucial are which maps, are purpose same the serve that devices powerful Other way. certain a in territory the map to elites the of narrative pedagogical the serving perception, of shaper powerful hu in those especially Textbooks, salience. practical and theoretical both has that narrative a reconstruct to and shifts its construction, border bend their primary int to able not and weak is pressure external when only succeed they but hand, at projects political their further to projects national different favor elites competing These pressures. communal i of the sense by driven a largely create is belonging that boundaries virtual of creation the circumstances, third from resulting primarily process - tt in state - h satn pit f empir of point starting The virtual the deconstruct to order in here analyzed critically were sources Various up perceptions. Suchexamplecan oral betales, customary and stamps, others. law - the - aig Vros as f ainl mgnto cahd where clashed imagination national of maps Various making. erest, politicalsurvival. erest, d h woe ertr o te or iaes wie te leaders other while vilayets, four the of territory whole the ed an inhabited lands. This initial nation initial This lands. inhabited an cl nlss a 17, hn h dmrain f a of demarcation the when 1878, was analyses ical tra atr, let n ojnto wt external with conjunction in albeit actors, nternal - he landscape. Same inferences can be drawn for for drawn be can inferences Same landscape. he at nevninaddcddb te geopolitical the by decided and intervention party

manities, were especially chosen as a a as chosen especially were manities, - building period was also was periodbuilding

284

CEU eTD Collection where region a in inferences empirical lucid offered also it addition, In happen. they why bot in shifts perception mass and elite find to periods different analyzes it because temporal also is It states. neighboring in living kin ethnic and proper Albania within living Albanians the of perception border virtual in spati The temporal. and spatial analysis: of levels different two in comparative also is case the that is reason tracing additional An process shifts. such careful witnessing and analysis longitudinal both for allowed which perception, discou for opportunities up opened that junctures‘ ‗critical various identified have I Furthermore, states. neighboring in living kin ‗external‘ the state and borders administrative within ones the in communities Albanian the divided have I case, this In issues. and debates circumstances, present discusses it and implications in comparative boundaries. elite cultural political The axes. spatial as well as temporal, in variation considerable with today even continuing century, a than more for discourse public and political the dominate whoever by instrumentally administrative to only referring areused that competing identities the to refers actuallyambiguity,seemingly This Albania. scope, in restricted times other at and communities of shape the I selected here the Albanian virtual borders as the main case, because it allowed for for allowed it because case, main the as borders virtual Albanian the here selected I took sometimes that one witnessed, was map geographical of fluctuation a Thus,

are therefore a crucial factor that engineer and shape the mapping of nation`s nation`s of mapping the shape and engineer that factor crucial a therefore are - depth analysis of this explanatory case explanatory this of analysis depth rae Alba Greater happens to be in power at the time. In turn, it was going to to going was it turn, In time. the at power in be to happens nia ecmasn al ad wee Albanian where lands all encompassing , h sides of the border and built a systematic answer of of answer systematic a built and border the of sides h - study, which has theory and policy and theory has which study, al analyzes focused on changes on focused analyzes al s cag i border in change rse - economic -

speaking speaking selected selected 285 -

CEU eTD Collection contractions/ and revision border fulfill to undertaken action concrete and/or discourse domestic conditionalizing in leverage powerful a as analyzed also were influences external dec for factor primary the as considered were processes driven elite engineering boundary words, other In lies. nation where determining geo with coupled competition, re the as came that designs expansion/contraction border between relationship the on centered findings main research, of findings overall the Basedon similarcaseselsewhere. explain generalto enough is that explanatory application literature andaargument border shifts. provide systematic for existing the in lacuna a fulfill to order in approaches, various between dialogue conceptual the outlined it Then, imagination. popular and memory folk in shaped is it how and elites by constitution border of debate the engaged I literature, this Within case. selected our inform they how of insights few with coupled nationalis of theories main how of a discussion made general first chapter second The literature. the by overviewing field and the debate outlined into engaging also It mapping. mental and borders virtual identity, territorial bottom changes discourse elites how understanding and analyzing region, the in changes border i Furthermore, realities. new (re)create to intermingle borders ‗virtual‘ and ‗hard‘ and nested are identities - The goal of this study was thus to explain such shifts and if and shifts such explain to thus was study this of goal The operationali and defined first chapter first The up realities sidesofborder. in both t is my contention that this study holds practical importance with ongoing with importance practical holds study this that contention my is t - political circumstances and external intervention in in intervention external and circumstances political

dn te oain f h nto, while nation, the of location the iding

hoeia faeok y ulig a building by framework theoretical ut f oiia ad utrl elite cultural and political of sult m speak of border construction, construction, border of speak m e te an ocps uh as such concepts main the zed

this can have a broad broad a have can this 286

CEU eTD Collection eth of characterizations brush broad usual the than complex and layered more the with speculating exampl For reports. international 52 has expansionary beena on KLA`s fervent demands. thatofbuilt nationalism unification especially and Macedonia neighboring in communities national the under isolation of decades five than more after agendas nationalist to indifferent been generally has which o mood general the also reflects internal mainly with This crises. faced political when recognition and support formal some get to and integration of carrot the for exchange in partners American and European of front in role constructive prefe has leadership political the Rather, frame. time this during discourse public and political mainstream in headway any make to failed has 230), 2007: Bogdani and (Loughlin themselves‖ nationalists Albanian the by called as [label] Albania‘ ―Ethnic Also parliament. the in represented politically be to threshold the passed not have and nationalist parties havea constantly credible failed tomake politics presenceinmainstream play political main the with Yugoslavia, neighboring in projects expansionist concurrent and ethnic conflict the notwithstanding 1990s, during especially politics, Albanian in rule the than borders virtual its accordingly. delineated and imagination folk in configuration nation the shape helped have factors these of interplay the that assumption the on based was and variables map. national of expansions

oee ti i nt o a that say to not is this However neetnl en Interestingly

r hvn rfand rm nefrn o bhl o kn hr. Furthermore there. kin of behalf on interfering from refrained having ers

national uh epii ntoait htrc a be te xeto, rather exception, the been has rhetoric nationalist explicit ough,

issue. issue. e, external external e, - Thus, th Thus, communist regime, thus contrasting deeply with Albanian Albanian with deeply contrasting thus regime, communist

One such One

at some junctures, justifiable fears have not existed, especially in in especially existed, not have fears justifiable junctures, some at e project looked at both endogenous and exogenous and endogenous both at looked project e observers were concerned that Kosovo politicians might start start might politicians Kosovo that concerned were observers

report observed that the "notions of pan of "notions the that observed report Kosovo where the prevailing mode mode prevailing the where Kosovo f Albanian public opinion, opinion, public Albanian f nic Albanians simply bent on on bent simply Albanians nic - Albanianism are far far are Albanianism rred to stress its its stress to rred 287 the 52

CEU eTD Collection UNDP: become to Kosovo wanted they said 96% Kosovo. for solution the of 2.5% only 2007 March in published by out carried survey a In possible. be not would state the project), ‗Greate ofa thecreation in ofsuccess degree as a interpreted be could Kosovo of independence recent the although hand, other Onthe nor popular politically neither is February 200 25 N°153, Report Europe borders, of shift any of or justif Albania, morally greater a of cause the in "violence Kosovo." greater a or Albania greater a achieving has which there, conflict 2001 after and during especially Macedonia, and Kosovo other. the make combined symbols, multi for associated stimuli its and with constraints stateexternal new the of creation the given prefer, they borders f only the as Albania with unification see and there majority Slav the by discriminated feel to continue they that fact the with combined Macedonia, of Albanians for valid is argument same The Albania. creation the possible made have access mass internet increasing of because democratization space media through communication facilitated and economy parochial a by fueled particularly difficulties economic fo explanation My testify. above results poll Gallup the as this from away drifting increasingly Kosovo of Albanians while map, expansionist an in interested being increasingly Macedonia of those as well as Albania least at way, opposite the going somewat is tide

Early Warning Report Warning Early The the that seems it though, millennium new the of decade first the of beginning the In United Nations United ied popular culture have remained largely expansionist in the last two decades in decades two last the in expansionist largely remained have culture popular " ok o mr dtis at: details more for Look ." r Albania‘ (which means its territory get annexed to Albania or a creation of a federal federal ofa creation a or Albania to get annexed territory meansits (which Albania‘ r

ouain pi i ter upr fr n vrin f h mp r the or map the of version one for support their in split population ail pathway. easible

has stated that if as a result Kosovo becomes independent, annexation to anothe to annexation independent, becomes Kosovo result a as if that stated has

. March 2007, p. 16. p. 16. 2007, March . 4 http://www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm?id=2523&l=1 of infrastructure for more expansionary nationalism in in nationalism expansionary more for infrastructure of Albanians

Pan hra, h Ksvr ae pi i te id of kind the in split are Kosovars the Whereas, r this is that increasing literacy, combined with with combined literacy, increasing that is this r

- - Albanianism: How Big a Threat to Balkan Stability?, Stability?, Balkan to Threat a Big How Albanianism: tnc co ethnic Nevertheless

in in United Nations Development Programme Development Nations United Kosovo

in the societal level, with Albanians of of Albanians with level, societal the in

independent within its present borders. View borders. present its within independent -

existence and elite struggles which which struggles elite and existence thought unification with unification thought , the report stated that amongst Albanians Albanians amongst that stated report the ,

Albania , UNDP, and and UNDP, ,

is the best best the is

288 r

CEU eTD Collection our In of theirland.‖ metersquare evensingle lose a to ofcircumstances, inkind any not accept should Albanians territories. Albanian of losses should further signal we would stance, In it condition. that any guarantee under I accept not redrawing, should possible Albanians another which territory, of a inch because another borders losing existing risking the mean safeguard to is Albanians of interest vital ―The said: literally he when University, Pristina of students with auditorium an in statement another in thesis same 55 language. nationalist revisionist fromusing refrain deputies) Cham two of exception (withthe 54 irredent the WWII), Albanian of following unification deportation and populations of that propriety (claiming Greece from revindication territorial 53 Balkan far, so consistent Western current in shifts been has that policy states‖ two border nation, ―one support to continue will it of while framework, kind any opposes Albania that thesis o statement a by captured is matter the the in tested popularity its elections. and forthcoming seen be to remain effects whose politics, Albania`s recog officially with borders virtual overlaps deliberately and redrawing border of kind some for asks that map expansionist parliamentary 2013.elections of to planning parties nationalist new three than more with Albania, in effect popular has opposite the Albania happ in but constraints, external of result the as restrained more largely government in ones the and scheme unification/expansionary any of favor in more polit constrained

However this has yet to get tested in the upcoming elections, because as it stands, all parliamentary parties parties parliamentary all stands, it as because elections, upcoming the in tested get to yet has this However Pronouncement by Berisha at Bugajski at Berisha by Pronouncement hs nw ate ae h PI, pry hs mi eetrl ae r Abna Cas ht s for ask that Chams Albanian are base electoral main whose party a PDIU, the are parties new These ened where we witness the elite struggles and political shifts to have much impacted impacted much have to shifts political and struggles elite the witness we where ened ist one. ist one. hs e sre n ainls reoi, ouig atclry n doaig an advocating in particularly focusing rhetoric, nationalist in surge new This

grassroots

be free, flexible, but not take any action that would endanger loss of territory. The The territory. of loss endanger would that action any take not but flexible, free, be ical elite into nationalist outbidding with opposition parties usually being being usually parties opposition with outbidding nationalist into elite ical 55

culture. Recently it it Recently culture. recently some d some recently – speaking lands in former Yugoslavia and the the and Yugoslavia former in lands speaking 54

vn huh Abna gvrmn` piooh ad oiy on policy and philosophy government`s Albanian though, Even

isturbing shifts have been noticed. For example, in the in example, For noticed. been have shifts isturbing show, AS television, 19 January 2012. He had earlier reiterated reiterated earlier had He 2012. January 19 television, AS show, ie oe, s oehn o a e peoeo in phenomenon new a of something is ones, nized looks like an ethnic outbidding has started to take to started has outbidding ethnic an like looks f Primer Berisha, when he reiterated recently the the recently reiterated he when Berisha, Primer f aua List Natural

was expropriated from them after the exchange exchange the after them from expropriated was

f oo Danaj Koço of Black and Red Alliance Red and Black ny suggested change might might change suggested ny

take place in the the in place take which aspires the the aspires which

, clearly an an clearly , 289

CEU eTD Collection 60 59 58 57 la 56 moving parties governing (Albanian) Macedonian and Kosovo and expansionist more discourse political shifting mutually such of effects The inter for and guaranteed constitutionally be should the Ahmeti, Ali While together.‖ Albanians of saidrights only―the chairman the party that ruling Albanian of inMacedonia, better been have would Albania and Kosova that chosi their been not has states Albanian two of existence ―the that said who Thaci dominant Albania Ethnic state. Albanian the of Anniversary 100th the for trip planned Ivanovtheir cancel to President Macedonian Delavekruasand foreignminister sen this Podgorice.‖ to Skopje from Preveze, to Presheva from Albania, ethnic the of was independence The Vlora]. [in here independence Albanian the nationalproclaimed fathers founding the in is Albanians of piece consciousness territorial ethnic every and ever than united more are they please, they everywhere live to free are Albanians the ―[t]oday continuing, n [the them telling am I Albanians. of unification of project the realize will we help, EU with ―[t]ogether verbatim: 100 of event http://www.lefigaro.fr/mon -

Ibid http://www.gazetatema.net/web/2012/12/06/delavekouras http://www.zeriamerikes.com/content/berisha grande http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/albania

- ec ta pooe Gek meit rsos ta cm i te om f Greek of form the in came that response immediate Greek provoked that tence albanie.php

ethnie th

f vr Albanian.‖ every of , which extends (according to him) ―wherever the Albanians constitute the constitute Albanians the ―wherever him) to (according extends which , niesr o Abna idpnec i 2 Nvme 21, e stated he 2012, November 28 in independence Albanian of anniversary

n lv wtot interruption.‖ without live and

eighbors] not to be scared of Albanian national unification.‖ While unification.‖ national Albanian of scared be to not eighbors] - figaro/2012/11/28/10001

e et vn ute b saig ht te Albanian ―the that stating by further even went He - albania/1563671.html - s - b - erisha 20121128ARTFIG00684 58 59 -

nacionalizmi -

Furthermore, Berisha used the notion of notion the used Berisha Furthermore, becomes oe etitd hn i ws premier was him than restricted More - tnc epc wt Maced with respect ethnic -

-- born

- ih lain lt growing elite Albanian with kercenim - again - berisha - nationalist - real - - per aux - - ballkanin/

frontieres onians.‖ 57 ng and ng

It was It

- de 290 - 60

CEU eTD Collection details: for See withBelgrade. negotiation of end the achieve to and community international of attention the draw to was phase first the in initiators the Albania, with request unification 62 61 Skopj former of unit historic the for Kosovo of request historic and legitimate the all, of first and box‘ ‗Pandora‘s the open would Serbia and Kosovo between that: remarked Haliti Xhavit Assembly Kosovo of head deputy edition, Macedonian daily Lama‘s for column place. take to unification such requested develop new some Currently, realization. its for referendum a for called has and Mitrovica Northern including opposition th in power (existing) losing risk who country the ruling of charge in politicians of consideration the second, and borders in changes any opposes adamantly who community, international of pressure the i Albania.This with links diplomatic only has that Kosovo sovereign fully a guarantees which map, existing the maintaining in positioned firmly are majority the constitute that forces political the by represented mostly di two witness generally we Kosovo in level elite thein that note to interested is it Macedonia, and Kosovo Albania, in populations Albanian approachingelections. frame reductionist a toward

Third largest party represented in the parliament. largest partyrepresented Third A group of 12 deputes representing four parliamentarian parties petitioned the Parliament with a a with Parliament the petitioned parties parliamentarian four representing deputes 12 of group A . Mcdna mda ae ece t te ttmn ad ae lo rtczd the criticized also have and statement the to reacted have media Macedonian e.‖ hl rfrig o ol ad uvy ta maue hfs n mass in shifts measure that surveys and polls to referring While Vetvendosja ments are happening in Kosovar politics where a group of deputes deputes of group a where politics Kosovar in happening are ments ―the change of Kosovo borders, be it even the exchange of territories territories of exchange the even it be borders, Kosovo of change ―the

e advent of any possible unification scheme. However, the main main the However, scheme. unification possible any of advent e 61

a a piay ol h uiiain f ooo ih Albania, with Kosovo of unification the goal primary as has though fell short short fell though --

remain to be seen for their impact over electora over impact their for seen be to remain

http://www.alsat s based on two primary considerations. The first being firstThe considerations. primary two on based s gathering signatures amongst other colleagues other amongst signatures gathering 62

n nte ofca pooneet rtn a writing pronouncement official another In - m.tv/index.php/lajme/rajoni/116664.html frn cret. h dmnn one, dominant The currents. fferent vilayet

ih t cptl in capital its with - ecpin in perceptions te with the the with te .

The goal of of goal The

291

CEU eTD Collection 66 65 64 http://www.unmikonline.org/pages/default.asp 63 ambassador Black American The agenda. electoral its and change and tones irredentist its Red down tone to Alliance, party nationalist radical most the urged recently has which Embassy, Albania in role instrumental an plays that actor international influential most The properly. work not do EU of carrots and sticks the and rivalry political domestic bitter EU.‖ and USA with built have Macedonia and Kosovo in Albanians that capital political the think Bieber opportunistic, are speeches such that fact the Despite needs.‖ his to according decades two these in declarations and views his changed has ―he constraints. international ef the also but choices, elite domestic the concerning only not unpredictability creates nationalism expansionist increasing the of epicenter the as Tirana of drive primary mainstream by supported is politician and reality irredentist touching a becoming is Albania" "Natural call nationalists Albanian what that view the expressed lately have Bataković future possible for occasion unifica one in least at spoken have party governing and largest it. towards politicians Skopje of silence

Ibid See See: 66

http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/albania

http://www.b92.net/eng/news/politicsarticle.php?yyyy=2012&mm=10&dd=23&nav_id=82798 See the February 2012 summaries from UNMIK official page: page: official UNMIK from summaries 2012 February the See

tion with Albania (Danaj 2012), while authors like Serbian historian Dushan Dushan historian Serbian like authors while 2012), (Danaj Albania with tion In fact, Albania has not yet received the candidacy status, which is blocked due to due blocked is which status, candidacy the received yet not has Albania fact, In

in both sides ofborder.in both

urged its chairman to avoid the temptation of slipping int slipping of temptation the avoid to chairman its urged

According to Florian Bieber, Berisha is always been pragmatic, pragmatic, been always is Berisha Bieber, Florian to According

The effects recent ofsuch elite x

- prxmtl hl of half Approximately s - berisha - becomes - born - - again led moves, coupled withled moves, s that ―they can hamper hamper can ―they that s

deputes o nationalist rhetoric nationalist o - nationalist

f D the PDK of is American is

et of fects

292 65

CEU eTD Collection Conference: 70 69 68 remarks 67 EL), (GUE/NGL, Chountis Nikolaos said tensions,‖ regional trigger could that actions any from refrain must concerned those All minister. Prime Albanian the by ones recent stric a take must EU However, people. recently: Albania in rhetoric nationalistic in the upcoming battle. Bla and Red the show that polls party several to due changed suddenly rhetoric his that believe analysts Several valley. Presevo in Memorial Albanophobia r of states neighboring a in outbidding, nationalism expansionist recent publicly you card. nationalist the playing from away stay must politicians alia: inter tones ― nationalistic with declarations political the against line American Balla, S. journalist to according which period, election natio with play dangereous the outright condemned specifically that Ministry Foreign Albanian to Memo a send Embassy the move, rare extremely and stability. regional the endanger can which agenda, and platform in

http:// linkin See English: See See for details of his recent speech in the Munich Security Security Munich the in speech recent his of details for See http://tirana.usembassy.gov/press - www.top on h Erpa Cmiso a wl hs togy omne te lp into slip the commented strongly has well as Commission European The -

meeting

http://news.albanianscreen.tv/pages/news_detail/56435/ Abna hud n ms b a epnil a responsible a be must and should ―Albania .‖ 69 - channel.tv/artikull.php?id=251649

- hs tog rnucmn cm rgt fe Brsa cuh u i the in up caught Berisha, after right came pronouncement strong This with http://www.top - red

and - black

- channel.tv/english/artikull.php?id=8272 - - alliance releases2/2013 70

and condemned Serbia publicly for removal of KLA of removal for publicly Serbia condemned and t stance against nationalistic statements such as the the as such statements nationalistic against stance t - january

―[w]e must provide incentives for Albanian Albanian for incentives provide must ―[w]e - press - 29 - 2013 - releases/u. ck Alliance being a serious contender contender serious a being Alliance ck

cn sec i Mnc accused Munich in speech ecent ENG nd cooperating neighbor and its its and neighbor cooperating nd s.

is the strongest act of the the of act strongest the is - Do not force us to condemn condemn to us force not Do ambassador

ait ad n hs pre this in card nalist 67

Moreover, in a bold a in Moreover, .‖ - 68 alexander

The Memo said Memo The - a. - arvizus 293 - -

CEU eTD Collection shekullit 74 nuk 73 direktivat 72 EU WWII 71 the in state Greek from seized rights property requesting on only itself confined lately pretensions territorialusing refrainedfromhas Albania, community Chamin while beingclosedcontraband for andcrime.‖ organized p for open be will but change, not will borders The Brussels. is Albanians of destination The states. sovereign two as EU in integrate should Albania, of Republic and Kosovo of ―Republic that: declaring in explicit more was Jahjaga President pretensions.‖ territorial any Berisha expressedly said: anniversary KosovoRepublic, of Am Court. the of in Act and Registration Statute its from calls irredentist explicit removed Department, State from a Court the in registered getting before movement, populist a as starting party, political same the etc. capture state crime, organized corruption, against fight of only talked and press joint a in Alliance Black and Red the of leader Tirana,the in ambassador American the with meeting afterthe right example, For Embassy. American by those especially impact, considerable have to progre Albania's for rapporteur

h floig ik i Ab i ilsrtv o this: of illustrative is Alb) (in link following The See - - candidate See erican Embassy, in a speech in Kosovo`s Parliament in the date that signaled the 5 the signaled that date the in Parliament Kosovo`s in speech a in Embassy, erican kem e also: See http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/pressroom/content/20121207IPR04413/html/Albania - -

s a political party in 2011, after its leader visited United States with an invitation an with States United visited leader its after 2011, in party political a s te - pretendime Fourthly orientuese http://www.gazetatema.net/web/2013/02/15/berisha - kaluar/ - status

- the represents that and parliament in seats with party nationalist only the , http://www.gazetatema.net/web/2013/02/16/jahjaga - - but ak territorial/ - - se under - shmangni

conference refrained from any mentioning of nationalist rhetoric nationalist of mentioning any from refrained conference - certain

Thirdly

In the same date, date, same Inthe

- ss towards EU membership. EU towards ss frymen - conditions , one day after the aferomentioned Memo of the the of Memo aferomentioned the after day one , - nacionaliste/

http://www.tiranaobserver.al/2013/01/30/arvizu in an interview at Albanian at interview an in

- i - pergjigjet 74

―Our nationalism does not have doesnothave nationalism ―Our 71 - ideja

- These warnings have proved have warnings These eople and goods circulation, goods and eople shba - e - - bashkimit se - nacionalizmi - Kosovo Screen, kombetar 72 -

yne Secondly, and has has and - - i qytetar - - yes takon - i - 294 jep - to th - - - -

CEU eTD Collection 76 75 a have developments historical thatmean not does that imaginednotuniformlybut Theystill are needs. produceddifferent different because trajectories, various having border, GreeceBulgaria and etc. both with frictions and project nationalist 2014 Greece, Skopje in his with vote Macedonia in popular Gruevski the of percent seven gained have that Greece of nationalists seek would Kosovo otherwise or Kosovo with visas the liberalize either to EU told recently who Kosovo in Thaci primer Nikolić duo as such region, the in signs regional cause can that path irredentist dangerous a into slip a prevent to broadly intervened have actors foreign The constraints. international the motion in set already has that outbidding and competition fierce elite grown have to seems mapping expansionist an been not Front National as such territories, Albanian of unification seek that a submitted currently have attention. much attracted has they that Parliament in thus Resolution and property lost of revindication for Chams not still is which law, This territory. Albanian from invaded Italians the after Albania, to Law War the proclaimed Greece after

systematic pattern cannot be witnessed, analyzed and understood properly, which was the was which the properly, and analyzed bewitnessed, understood cannot systematic pattern See: See:

http://www.top http://www.top The national boundaries have been imagined quite differently in both sides of of sides both in differently quite imagined been have boundaries national The

addressed

are marginal and have no considerable electoral weight and therefore have have therefore and weight electoral considerable no have and marginal are - -

channel.tv/engl channel.tv/english/artikull.php?id=7831 explicitly from US, EU, OSCE or other relevant external actors. external relevant other or OSCE EU, US, from explicitly

ish/artikull.php?id=8273 nfcto wt Albania, with unification

abrogated -

inst Dacic in Serbia that are stirring similar passions, similar stirring are that Serbia in Dacic ability, in conjunction with other worrisome worrisome other with conjunction in ability,

by Greek parliament, m parliament, Greek by

exponentia

Natural Natural 76 75 lly recently in Albania due to to due Albania in recently lly

The other nationalist parties nationalist other The h Gle Dw extreme Dawn Golden the it Lglt Pry and Party Legality List, akes impossible for impossible akes

Thus Thus 295

CEU eTD Collection herevalue, a ofsome presented model the find may who scholars by analysis empirical of replication of terms in both useful is it actions, and/or discourse such counteract to how and them, on hint or ma advocating start to politicians stability. regional for race dangerous a in competition internal outbid to seeks that vocabulary irredentist citizens to led has which etc., debts the case: Albanian the in noted those to similar are symptoms the that think I and general in Europe h is radicalization nationalist expansionary that seems peace. regional endanger and stability threaten can goals whose nationalism, expansionary of dynamic whole the understanding for important are research for avenues versus contracted with nation enlargedas inside versus perceived outside thenational borders unit. the imagined that maps competitive such of variation a argument substantiated a offer to and dynamic this bring to sought dissertation this all, in All survival. political secure to order in play leaders games and engineering elite from influenced greatly is plebiscite‘ ‗daily this but territory, certa a to attachment and loyalty of sense the with together change systems belief and values attitudes, peoples` because happen shifts The research. this ofscope main h ipiain o ti suy epcal i trs f h id the of terms in especially study, this of implications The

combination Knowing when the geopolitical circumstances allow mainstream mainstream allow circumstances geopolitical the when Knowing s well as concernswell policy that implications arise. s

of economic decline, rising international pressures regarding states` states` regarding pressures international rising decline, economic of ximalist mapping and redemption of territory and people people and territory of redemption and mapping ximalist futain n te s o ppls, igit and jingoist populist, of use the and frustration ` nd theoretical apparatus that captured that apparatus theoretical nd appening across Balkans and Eastern Eastern and Balkans across appening

entification of future future of entification Currently, it Currently, in piece of of piece in 296

CEU eTD Collection International Relations America in Latin 2000. Allison. Brysk, Socialism 2004. ed. Ulf Brunnbauer, the NewEurope 1996. Roger. Brubaker, Brubaker, 2006. Roger. Nation 2003. Keith. Brown, Blushi, Ben. 2008. Myth andHistory its Schwander and Identity Stephanie Albanian In of Myths.‖ Formation the in Education of Role ―The 2002. Isa. Blumi, House. 1980. Koco. Bihiku, inEastern Europe.Conflict Autonomy, of Challenges The Question: In Separatism.‖ and Independence, National Albanian ―The 2000. Elez. Biberaj, York: Rodopi. C A Characters: National of Representation Literary eds Leerssen Joep and Manfred Beller, Bhabha,Homi K.1994. acteurs dupost 2001. Clayer. Nathalie et Xavier Bougarel, DifferenceCultural Ethnic 1994. ed. Fredrik Barth, Identities: TheCaseofTwentieth 1912 Kosovo, Robert Austin, maps mental Science Review through Diasporas.‖ Proletarian and ―Mobilized 1976. A. Conflict John Armstrong, Cyprus the Ethno ―Reading ethno to approach 2010. interdisciplinary Emel. Akçali, [Acad RSH Shqiptar Folklorit e Shkencave e Akademia 1870 Africa Historical Service. Government Office. Washington: Printing and Asia, Europe, of History Hershey.1918. Shartle Amos and Maloy Frank Anderson, Benedict.Anderson, 2006. Akte të Kombëtare Rilindjes 1878 Shqiptare. Books References - Nationalism: Case Studies Case inIdentity PoliticsNationalism: . Princeton:

. Lit. Verlag Munster. - - eds. Mazower Mark and Lampe John in 2001,‖ , vol. 70, no.2, pp.393 , vol.70,

commu . Cambridge: University Press. Cambridge C. 2004. ―Greater Albania: The Albanian State and the Question of of Question the and State Albanian The Albania: ―Greater 2004. C. . Indiana: IndianaIndiana:. University Press.

[Albanian Folklorist Issues]. Folklorist[Albanian Princeton University Press. Te jetosh ne Ishull Te jetosh . Universitetforlaget. First published Universitetforlaget.in 1969. First published A History of Albanian Literature Albanian of History A The Past in Question: Modern Macedonia and the Uncertainties of Uncertainties the and Macedonia Modern Question: in Past The

nisme Ethnicity WithoutEthnicity Groups. The Location ofCulture The Location Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the National Question in Question National the and Nationhood Reframed: Nationalism rm rbl ilg t Goa Vlae Ida Rgt and Rights Indian Village: Global to Village Tribal From (Re) Writing History: Historiography in Southeast Europe after Europe Southeast in Historiography History: Writing (Re) Imagined Communities

New Counc York: , 1990

- Century Southeastern Europe.Century Southeastern - rus n Budre: h Sca Ognzto of Organization Social The Boundaries: and Groups ivr an Sievers - The New European Diaspora: National Minorities and Minorities National Diaspora: European New The 2000. - nationalism.‖ - . 408. Tirane: Toena. . . 2007. m o Sine f Albania]. of Science of emy Stanford Univer Maisonneuve & Larose.& Maisonneuve

- Le Nouvel Islam Balkanique: Les musulmans, Les Balkanique: Islam Nouvel Le - 1912 Brd . ice eds. Fischer J. Bernd d 1914

il onForeignil RelationsPress. Tirane: InstitutiTirane: Kultures i Popullore. Imagology: The Cultural Construction and Construction Cultural The Imagology: . London& York: New Routledge.

. 1978. . London:. Verso. . Harvard University Press.

In . Palgrave Macmillan. Prepared for the National Board for for Board National the for Prepared

. Tirana: The ―8 Nentori‖ Publishing Nentori‖ ―8 The Tirana: . Guelke A. (ed.) (ed.) A. Guelke iia Survey ritical Tirana: InstitutiTirana: Historisë. i sity Press.

adok o te Diplomatic the for Handbook

Budapest: Press. CEU doois n National and Ideologies

The American Political Political American The

. Amsterdam & New New & Amsterdam . lain Identities: Albanian h Calne of Challenges The 1998.

ehj te Ceshtje

297 An An

CEU eTD Collection ed.Day, A.J. Debates.‖ Contemporary to Antecedents Historical Nationalism: and ―Nation 2002. Adeed. Dawisha, Dako, A.1919. Christo Company. 2000. Ger. Duijzings, Press. 1995. J. Nicholas Costa, Cohen, 1997. Robin. Nation International Affairs the and ―Diasporas 1996. Robin. Cohen, 1994.―Diasporas.‖Clifford, James. 2002. ed. Elsie Robert cleansing Kosovo andMacedonia in In 1937.‖ March 7 on Belgrade in presented Memorandum Albanians: the of Expulsion ―The Vaso. Cubrilović, Limited, UK, 2002. J. R. Crampton, elementary 3 school]. 1939. Emin. Como, G.Ciano, 1950. ed. ForsbergElgar Tuomas in Empire Disputes,‖ Soviet of Edge the at Disputes Territorial Border Territory: Contested on ―Theories 1995. Tuomas. Forsberg, & Company. Taj Suha and Poulton Post in Society and State ―Islam, 1997. Nathalie. Clayer, majoritairement musulmane en Europe Aux 2007. Nathalie. Clayer, West European Experience 1992. ed. John Coakley, Press. 1921. A. K. Cekrezi, Albania: workofIsmail TheKadare Literary 2006. Alba. Cela, 199 Belgrade:Institute ofGeopolitical Studies. ed. M. Jovan Čanak, Butka, Uran. 2011. Europe Southeastern in Press. Peculiarity National of Politics (1850 Frasheri Albani of Construction Sami ―Shemseddin 2009. Bulmez. Bulent Institutie RPSSH: Historise, SektoriEtnografise. i 1977. al. et Buda .

International Studies Review,

Border and Territorial Disputes Border andTerritorial Diaro 1937 Konferenca Kombetare e Studimeve Etnografike Studimeve e Kombetare Konferenca „Orientalism‟ in service of Contemporary National Identity Building in Building Identity National Contemporary of service in „Orientalism‟ Masakra eTivarit Masakra Gjeografi per klasen e V te shkolles te V e klasen per Gjeografi , Vol.72, No.3,pp.507 Global Diasporas: An Global Diasporas: rd i Historia e Shqiperise e Historia -

an and Turkish Identities.‖ In Diana Mishkova ed. Mishkova Diana In Identities.‖ Turkish and an eiin n te oiiso Iett i Kosovo in Identity of Politics the and Religion Farouki eds. Farouki Edition. Vlore: ―Atdheu‖. Shtpyshkronja Albania: The h Blas Sne h Scn World Second the Since Balkans, The The Social Origins of Nationalist Movements: The Contemporary Contemporary The Movements: Nationalist of Origins Social The Albania: A European Enigma. European A Albania: . 8. - London: Publications. SAGE 1943. origins du nationalism albanais: La naissance d`une nation d`une naissance La albanais: nationalism du origins rae Abna Cnet ad osbe Consequences Possible and Concepts Albania: Greater Milano. Milano. Cultural Anthropology Cultural . Peje: Dukagjini Pu . Peje: Dukagjini Muslim Identity and The Balkan State Balkan The and Identity Muslim

Master Key tothe Near East

[Tivar Massacre]. Studio. Tirane: ASD . Paris: Editions KARTHALA. Editions Paris: Vol. 4. No. 1. Vol. 4.No.

520. A Introduction.

. MAThesis. CEU. Hsoyo lai] otn Del Printing Dielli Boston: Albania]. of [History . 2 nd Gathering

ed., revi - tt: rm itm t Challengers.‖ to Victims From State:

blishing House. fillore

New York: Columbia University Columbia York: New London: Press. UCL - , 9:3. sed and updated. sed and updated. Communist Albania.‖ In Hugh In Albania.‖ Communist Bdps: eta European Central Budapest: .

- lus Te ot o ethnic of roots The Clouds:

94: otiuig o the to Contributing 1904): [Geography for 5 for [Geography

War . Boston: E. L.. Boston: E. Grimes.. . Akademia e Shkencave e Akademia . . Brookfield, Vt: Edgar Vt: Brookfield, .

Pasn Education Pearson . Lno: us & Hurst London: .

We, The People: People: The We, . London: Hurst London: . Detroit: Gale.

gradeof 298

CEU eTD Collection 1874 Albanians, 2006. George. Gawrych, and is going it is what what tobe] 1999. S. Frashëri, Frashëri, N. 1995. Frashëri, N. 1986b. Frashëri, N. 1986a. Frashëri, Mehdi. 2005. [Historyhigh Albania: schools). Tirane:botuese Shtepia of for e shkollor. librit 1973. Pollo. Stefanaq and Kristo ― Frasheri, historike, saj e rendesia dhe Historike Prizrenit e Shqiptare ―Lidhja 1988. K. Frasheri, Toena. 2002. Kristo. Frasheri, Frasheri, Kristo. 1997. Frasheri, M.1997. Shtjefen Gjecov]. New Gjonlekaj York: Publishing House. Leonard.198 Fox, LireFishta,e Gjergj. Poem. 1921.Shqypnia [Free Albania]. Fishta, Gjergj. 2006. Fischer,Bernd. 1999. Fevziu, Blendi. 2011. Macedonia 2002. ed. Robert Elsie, modern Albanian historiography]. Tirane: Maluka. vols. shqiptare historiografine 2 Literature,‖ 2007. Dritan Albanian Egro, the of ―History Monographs 1995. Robert. Elsie, Latvia 2002. Stukuls. Daina Eglitis, Durham, 1909(1985). Edith. Munster. ed. Brunnbauer Ulf 1990s.‖ the in Albania in past the on ―Reflections 2004. Valentina. Duka, Dollma, Merita. Regions]. 2008.TrevatTirane:2000. Shqiptare [Albanian Dajti theEdgeOdities at ofthe Nation 2010. ed. Hagen Joshua and C. Alexander Diener, Lellio,Di Anna. 2009. Nation and Religion (1920 Albania in 1990. Morozzo. Roberto Rocca, Della Komunikimit. Morozzo. Roberto Rocca, Della (Re) Writing History: Historiography in Southeast Europ Southeast in Historiography History: Writing (Re) . Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania Press. State University

, no.4,pp.125 . Peje: Dukagjini Publishing. Peje: Dukagjini House. . New York: Columbia University. New Columbia York: Press.

- 1913 9. Vepra letrare [Literary Works] Works] letrare [Literary Vepravol. 1. Shqipëria c`ka qenë, c`është e c`do të bëhet [Albania, [Albania, bëhet të c`do e c`është qenë, c`ka Shqipëria Kthimi i Mit`hat Frasherit iMit`hat Kthimi Vepra Vepra Vepra [Works] vol.5 [Works] Vepra Historia dhe Ideologjia: Nje qasje kritike e studimeve otomane ne ne otomane studimeve e kritike qasje Nje Ideologjia: dhe Historia The Code of LekeDukagjini of Code The Lahuta eMalcise Lahuta Albania at War, at Albania 1939 En . London:. Lidhja Shqiptare e Shqiptare Prizrenit. Lidhja The Battle of Kosovo 1389: BattleofKosovo AnAlbanianEpic The Kujtime: 1913 Kujtime: Skenderbeu: Jeta dhe Vepra dhe Jeta Skenderbeu: - Gathering ver Hoxha 36.

[History and Id and [History [Works] vol.2 [Works] The Crescent and the Eagle: Ottoman Rule, Islam and the the and Islam Rule, Ottoman Eagle: the and Crescent The

High Albania Imagining the Nation: History, Modernity, and Revolution in Revolution and Modernity, History, Nation: the Imagining

I.B. Tauris. - Shqiperia: Rrenjet e Krizes e Rrenjet Shqiperia: State . Tiranë: Mësonjëtorja e Parë.

. Tirane: UET Press. . Tirane: UET lus Teros f tnc lasn i Ksv and Kosovo in cleansing ethnic of roots The Clouds: - - . Shkoder: Provincja Franceskane.. Shkoder:

1933 . London:. Rowman& 1944) . Prishtinë: Rilindja. . Prishtinë: Rilindja. eology: A critical approach to Ottoman studies in studies Ottoman to approach critical A eology: ob de ea e Shqiperi ne Feja dhe Kombi . London:. Virago. . -

1945 Tiranë: OMSCA . Italy: Bologna. . itra Sqprs: e skla e mesme e shkollat per Shqiperise: e Historia . Tirane: Phoenix.

. [Albanian text collected and arranged by arrangedby collectedand text [Albanian . . HurstLondon. & Company.

Borderlines and Borderlands: Political Political Borderlands: and Borderlines

Tirana: S [Scanderbeg: Life and Works] Tirana: Works] and Life [Scanderbeg:

Tiranë: Frashëri. Naim

Littlefield Publishers, Inc.Littlefield Publishers,

. - htepia Botuese TOENA. e after Socialism after e 1. Tirane: Shtepia e Librit dhe dhe Librit e Shtepia Tirane:

. London:I.B.. Tauris.

(1920 what used to be, to used what at European East -

. Lit Verlag Lit .

1944) [The [The 1944)

Studime

299

CEU eTD Collection Today,‖ Today Europe in Nationalism and ―Ethnicity 1996. J. Erich Hobsbawm, Cambridge:University Press. Cambridge Eric. Hobsbawm, USA: Blackwell. 1994. 2007. ed. David Hooson, Geary. Dick Nottingham: Critical, Press. CulturalandCommunications and Nicholas 1999. eds. Hewitt, Kaplan H. David andScaleTerritory, And lan H. political Guntam with/without Herb, history write to presentedat aninternational conference inTirana. how Politics: and [History 2009. Ermal. Hasimja, social sciences 2009. Bob. Hancké, e Akademia Shkencave:Instituti Historise. i Tirane: 2002. People]. Albanian the of [History Shqiptar Popullit e Historia Nationalism. 1997. Adrian. Hastings, Southeast Europe 1996. Danta. Darrick and Derek Hall, Penguin. Gould, legitimacy. 2009. Stacie. Goddard, Verso. Dialogue. In Class.‖ and Nation Inte Its and Public Nationalism of Interdisciplinary coming ―The (Macedonia): 1996. Ernest. Gellner, FYROM in An Population BalkanLondon: & State. Company. Hurst Muslim Identity: ―The Perceptions.‖ 1997. Natasha. National Gaber, red. of Verlagsgeselleschaft: Baden Boerne Peter In Identity.‖ National Concepts of Construction ―The 1986. Raymond. Grew, Penguin. Rodn and Peter Gould, FederationRussian 2003. Gorenburg,Dmitry. of Globalization and attachment, eds. Walter F. Barbara and Kahler territorial Miles In conflict.‖ territoriality, communities: ―Bounded 2006. Hein. Goemans, the Social Sciences. George,L.AndreBennett.&Alexander

8, no.1(1992). ee ad ony ht. 1986. White. Rodney and Peter

Cambridge: CambridgeCambridge:University Press. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press. n uh olo ad ua Taji Suha and Poulton Hugh In . Oxford University . Oxford Press. . Cambridge: University Press. Cambridge

. New York: John WileyYork:. New John and Sons. 1990 . Cambridge University Press. . Boulder,York New and Littlefield Rowman& Oxford: Publishers. Belfer Center Studies in International CenterBelfer in Studies Security. Intelligent Researc Intelligent

Mapping the Nation the Mapping Politikja te historia: si të shkruajmë historinë me/pa gjuhë politike? gjuhë me/pa historinë shkruajmëtë si historia: te Politikja . y ht. 1986. White. ey Nations nomn rud idvsbe ertr ad h pltc of politics the and territory indivisible Ground: Uncommon

Nationalism for the Masses: Minority Ethnic Mobilization in the Mobilization Ethnic Minority Masses: for the Nationalism egah ad ainl Identity National and Geography h Construct The - Baden.

and Nationalism Since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality. Myth, Programme, 1780: Since Nationalism and

Reconstructing the Balkans: Geography of the New the of Geography Balkans: the Reconstructing h Design. A guide for beginning researchers in the in researchers beginning for guide A Design. h 2005.

etl Maps Mental etl Maps Mental

. Hopal Balakrishnan ed. London & New York: York: New & London ed. Balakrishnan Hopal . o o Ntoho: tnct, eiin and Religion Ethnicity, Nationhood: of ion Case S Case isoas: oeet n Cultures and Movement Diaspora(s): - Farouki eds. Muslim Identity and The The and Identity Muslim eds. Farouki

tudies andTheoryDevelopment in Territoriality and Conflict in an Era an in Conflict and Territoriality

2 . 2 , nd nd

etd dniis Nationalism, Identities: Nested

d Lno: Harmondsworth, London: ed. d Lno: Harmondsworth, London: ed. . Oxford UK & Cambridge Cambridge & UK Oxford . rpretation: The Myths of Myths The rpretation:

ug? Paper guage?] Anthropology Nomos 300

CEU eTD Collection ininterwarMuslims 1918 Yugoslavia Gezim. Krasniqi, Kosoves. 2011. Mehmet. Kraja, for primary schools, [1999]. 2003 al. et Korkuti after 1989 2008. ed. Michal Kopecek, of Effect The Democracies: in Minorities Israel,‖Peace in onthePalestinians Ethnic of ―Dilemmas 1995. Rebecca. Kook, School 1981. F. Joan Kontos, London. 2005. ed. Pal Kolsto, Kola, 2003. Paulin. the Nation. 1999. Sunny. Grigor Ronald and D. Kennedy,Michael London:company. and Constable 1920. ed. Story, Sommerville and bey Ismail Kemal, perjetshme.html February. 23 daily, Shekulli address]. eternal my [Albanian: perjetshme e ime Adresa Shqiptar, 2009. Arben. Kastrati, in the AftermathCommunismSerbia of in Albania and Ilir.Kalemaj, 2009. the Study ofNationalism. ed. Conversi Daniele 2004. J. Robert Kaiser, 2005.Ismail.[1998] Kadare, Ismail.Kadare, 2006. nineteenth centuries Press. University 2007. K. Erin Jenne, Present. 1995. E. Edwin Jacques, Fully London& York: New Verso. the to Movement National Nation ―From 1996. Miroslav. Hroch, Fully pp.78 YorkLondon: and Verso, the to Movement National Nat "From 1996. Miroslav. Hroch, CambridgeUniversity Press. 1985. Miroslav. Hroch, Albanian Prishtine. Question]. 1996. Ukshin. Hoti, ion - - . New York. ulig rcs i Erp. In Europe.‖ in Process building ed. Gopal, Balakrishnan, in Europe," in Process building

Jefferson, North Carolina,Jefferson,London:McFarland. North and

. Budapest: European Central Press.

Ann Arbor: The University Press. ofMichigan

09 ― 2009. eaih Braa 1983. Barbara. Jelavich, The Myth Greater of Albania . Sources of IrredentismPolicy: of Sources inForeign eight grade].Librit Tirane:Botuesee Shkollor. Shtepia Cambridge UniversityCambridge Press

Ethnic Bargaining: The Paradox of Mino of Paradox The Bargaining: Ethnic Myths and Boundaries in South in Boundaries and Myths Identiteti Europian iShqiptareve Europian Identiteti Ethnonationalism in the Contemporary World: Walker Connor and Connor Walker World: Contemporary the in Ethnonationalism iooi pltk e ehjs shqipt ceshtjes e politike Filozofia e Cos Bak al: Borpy f h Albanian the of Biography A Eagle: Black Cross, Red ―Homeland making and territorialization of national identity.‖ In identity.‖ national of territorialization and making ―Homeland dniei Kosovar Identiteti Social Preconditions of National Revival in Europe. in Revival National of Preconditions Social

The Albanians: An Ethnic History from Prehistoric Times to the to Times Prehistoric from History Ethnic An Albanians: The London: Routledge. neonzd lk, e nt qa: lain ad Bosnian and Albanians equal: not yet alike, Unrecognized Past in the Making: Historical Revisionism in Central Europe Europe Central in Revisionism Historical Making: the in Past Historia e Popullit shqiptar 8 shqiptar Popullit e Historia

Tri KengeperTri Zie Kosoven

http://www.shekulli.com.al/2009/02/shqiptar - 97.

Politics andSociety Politics

- 1941‖. apn te Nation the Mapping

Ksv Identity]. [Kosovo

Master Thesis Master

History of the Balkans: Eighteenth and and Eighteenth Balkans: the of History . New University York: York . Press. New .

- . Eastern Europe Eastern . The memoirs of Ismail Kemal Bey Kemal Ismail of memoirs The Intell VDMMüller Verlag Dr. .

Onufri. 2 Onufri. Onufri. 3, no.3.

[History of the Albanian people people Albanian the of [History . Budapest: CEU.

ectuals and the Articulation of Articulation the and ectuals are

Understanding Kin Policies Kin Understanding

rity Empowerment rity

Hpl aarsnn ed. Balakrishnan Hopal .

Mapping the Nation the Mapping

rstn: e Qnr e Qendra Pen Prishtine: [Political Philosophy of of Philosophy [Political - - formed Nation: The The Nation: formed omd ain The Nation: formed . Hurst & Compa & Hurst .

adresa

Cambridge: . -

American American . Cornell Cornell . - ime . New . 301 ny, - e

- .

CEU eTD Collection (1992), P. Milo, Press. Practices. Local and Identities Shape to Struggle the in Boundaries, Social and State Maintain V and Maps ―Mental 2004. Joel. Migdal, Tirane 1933. Branko. Merxhani, Nation the of Edge ed. LittlefieldInc. Publishers, the Hagen at Joshua Odities and Political C. Borderlands: Alexander Diener, In Geography.‖ Soviet Uzbekistan ―The Uzbekistan 2010. Nick. Megoran, the along identity boundary, 1999 and nationalism of and pain politics The FRIENDSHIP? ETERNAL OF BORDERS THE 2002. Nick. Megoran, inEastern Europe.Conflict 20 ed. Michael Mandelbaum, Malcolm, Noel. 1998. World Changedthe Peacemakers: That Months Six At Margaret MacMillan, Algeria, Israel andthe 1993. Ian. Lustick, ed. 1992. Winirth Lo Scott and Kitchin Routledge. Rob In maps.‖ learning eds. Freundschuh and ―Understanding 2000. Robert. Lloyd, 1996. Stepan. London:& HopkinsUniversity The John Press. Alfred & and America, South Europe, Southern Consolidation: J. Juan Linz, Lambertz, Maksimilian. Twentieth eds. Mazower Mark and John Lampe, fromElsie. theand German, Albanian by French Robert 1878 Prizren, de albanaise Ligue La of Institute by HistoryAlba of jointly published proceedings, Conference Problem]. Actual and Historic Kosoves e Ceshtja In Albanians]. 19 Ana. Lalaj, Europe.in the new EastandCentral 1997. eds. Langman Juliet and Lázlo Kürti, New York: ofNewYork University State Press. 2001. Lazlo. Kürti, Kurti, A.2007. ep t Ed War End to tempt ai, lxne. 92 ―utrl aus f h Abnas n h Dapr. I Tom In Diaspora.‖ the in Albanians the of Values ―Cultural 1992. Alexander. pasić,

- Cent

ury Southeastern Europe. - Albania. nia and 3 ―siaa e oult hitr e ooe‖ Aprto o Kosovo of [Aspiration Kosoves‖ te shqiptar popullit e ―Aspiratat 93. PerZgjohu! rezistencelirise. drejt 2000. Dissertation defended2000. Dissertation at University ofCambridge. Shqip Cognitive Mapping: Past, Present and Future and Present Past, Mapping: Cognitive Perspectives onAlbania The Remote Borderland: Transylv Borderland: Remote The nete sae, iptd lands disputed states, Unsettled

. 2001. 2001. . (also titled titled (also ë Kosovo: A History Short West Bank ria 1958.

dhe Jugosllavia 1918

Neo New CouncilonForeign York: RelationsPress. Peacemakers: The Paris Peace Conference of 1919 and Its and 1919 of Conference Peace Paris The Peacemakers: 00. Die Volksepik Albaner der

hitrza vtv '30 viteve e Shqiptarizma - h e Erpa Dapr: ainl ioiis and Minorities National Diaspora: European New The ai 11: i Mnh Ta Cagd h World the Changed That Months Six 1919: Paris Gaza -

j Polm itrk h Ata [ooo Question: [Kosovo Aktual dhe Historik Problem Nje Boulder, Press. Westview Colorado: - 1881 . Ithaca,N.Y. . - doois n Ntoa Iette: h Cs of Case The Identities: National and Ideologies

Budapest: Press. CEU Kyrgystan Bondary: Stalin`s Cartography, Post Cartography, Stalin`s Bondary: Kyrgystan Boundaries and Belonging: State and Society in Society and State Belonging: and Boundaries . London: MACMILLAN.. rul hcpit: tuge t Cntut and Construct to Struggles Checkpoints: irtual . Beyond borders: remaking cultural identities cultural remaking borders: Beyond 1988. Tirana: Institut d‘Histoire. Translated Translated d‘Histoire. Institut Tirana: 1988. rbes f eortc rniin and Transition Democratic of Problems .

- London: PanMacMillan.

1927

Prizren: Sh.B. Berati ). London:). MurrayPublishers. John

: CornellUniversityPress . Tirana: Enciklopedike.

ania in the Hungarian Imagination Hungarian the in ania Bian n Iead Fac and France Ireland, and Britain :

Post abig: abig University Cambridge Cambridge:

. Leipzig:. East Germany.

- - Nw lains o 1930s]. of Albanianism [New Communist Europe. Communist Kyrgyzstan Ferghana Valley Valley Ferghana Kyrgyzstan - State

. London and New York: New and London . Lno: omn & Rowman London: .

odrie and Borderlines

Baltimore

302 and and - .

CEU eTD Collection Oregon: Frank Cass. ed. Newman David in Flows,‖ of World the in Territoriality Processes: Social as ―Boundaries 1999. Anssi. Paasi, Balkans: the in Transformation: Education Clio Societal ed. Koulouri of Christina Context In the Notes.‖ in Review Schoolbooks ―Albanian 2002. Erind. Pajo, Toena. 2006. Rexhep. Qosja, PALGRAVE MACMILLIAN. 2010. Umut. Őzkirimli, Sugar, F. Peter 1999. ofNationalism. Politics Seton people intheage ofnation Richard. Marienstras, InternationalenWiener Schriften zur Politik. Europe. Eastern South in Building Nation Diasporic Nation: the Within Territory Building.‖ Nation and Diaspora Albanian the of role ―The 2005. Fron. Nazi, Noli, Bishop F. 1947. S. ed. Peace: Diplomats Fromto Death Camps Flint Colin In Conflict.‖ Ethnonational Contemporary Inte atthe ―Conflict Newman,David. 2005. encyclopedia heritage andcultural history ofAlbanian 2000. Dalipi. Alfred and Genc Myftiu, Instituti Tirana:Schools]. Historise. i 1978. Hysni. Myzyri, the of [History mesme Tirane:Albanian schools]. Librit People: Botuese Shtepia fore high Shkollor. e shkollat per Shqiptar: Popullit e Historia 1994. Hysni. Myzyri, Ox 2002. B. Alexander Murphy, Oregon: Frank Cass. Post and Israel Identity National and Rainer of Munz, Limits The the Nation Invention: ―Inventing 1999. eds. Kennedy Michael and Suny Ronal In Formation.‖ J. Alexander Motyl, Stephanie In Amnesia.‖ and IndianaIndiana: Myth Nationalism: a of Schwander ―Invention 2002. Pirro. from: Misha, Download Reality]. info/2001 to Fiction From 2001. Paskal. Milo, ford Press. - Watson, H. 1977. H. Watson,

- . Thessaloniki: Center for Reconc Democracy and . AnnArbor: University Michigan Press. of August/002069.html - ivr ad en J Fshr eds. Fischer J. Bernd and Sievers

- Soviet Successor States in Comparative Perspective Comparative in States Successor Soviet University Press.

Rainer Ohliger eds. 2003. eds. Ohliger Rainer

hiei e ah: ii Tilmt h Realitetit dhe Trillimit Midis Madhe: e Shqiperia East European Nationalism, East EuropeanNationalism, andReligion. Politics Ideologjia e Shperberjes e Ideologjia 1989. ―On the notion of diaspora.‖ In Gerard Chaliand ed. Chaliand Gerard In diaspora.‖ of notion the ―On 1989. holt pr Kmeae Shqipe Kombetare para e Shkollat

Colorado: Boulder. Nations and States: An Inquiry into the Origins of Nations and theand Nations of Origins the into Inquiry An States: and Nations George Scanderbeg Castrioti onais Trioy n Postmodernity and Territory Boundaries, hois f ainls: Ciia Approach Critical A Nationalism: of Theories - states.

ua Gorpy n h Making the in Geography Human

London: Pluto.

Albania: A patrimony of European Values European of patrimony A Albania: . Oxford . Oxford University Press.

rface: the Impact of Boundaries and Borders on Borders andon ImpactBoundaries the of rface:

Diasporas and Ethnic Migrants: Germany, Migrants: Ethnic and Diasporas [The Ideology of D of Ideology [The lain dniis Mt ad History and Myth Identities: Albanian

http://www.alb

(1405 . Tirane:FILD. SEDAand Intellectuals and the Articulation of Articulation the and Intellectuals

iliation in Southeast in iliation Europe. - Te is Abna Nat Albanian First [The 1468) h Gorpy f a and War of Geography The - net.com/pipermail/albsa . London: University of of University London: .

ismemberment]. Tirane: Tirane: ismemberment]. h Pltc o History of Politics The . New York. . New Lno & Portland, & London . . London & Portland, & London .

London: Ashgate. Getr Albania: [Greater 2 . In

Beyond the the Beyond nd

: Minority

Edition. Nomos: A short short A ional ional 303

- .

CEU eTD Collection inthe newidentities East Europe. andCentral In Problem National Albanian ―The 1997. Bashkim. Shehu, InternationalenSchriften zur Politik. Europe. Eastern South in Building Nation Diasporic Nation: the Within Sheffer CT:WesleyanMiddletown, University Press. 1989. Yossi. Shain, University Michigan Press. of 2008. Yossi. Shain, History. Schwander Identity 2002. Brenda. Shaffer, 2008. OliverSchmitt, Jens. Geoffrey Myths‖, of Hosking eds., George Schöpflin andTaxonomy a and Myth of Function ―The 1997. George. Schöpflin, LosBerkley, University Oxford: C and Angeles of 1989. Peter. Sahlins, 1991. Mingi. V. Routledge.LondonYork: New and Julian and Dennis Rumley, Was 1974. Joseph. Rothschild, SouthEastern in Building Europe. Riegler Albania. and Albania of History Instituteof by jointly published Conferenceproceedings, Problem]. Kosoves Sami. Repishti, of ‘culture‘ inDevoll, Southern Albania,‖ post in ―Religion de. Gilles Rapper, Toena. 2009. Arben. Puto, Europe ed. Mishkova Diana In Language Nation.‖ Albanian and of the theModernizer Konitza, Faik Artan.Puto, 2009. of elementary Tirane: school]. SH 1998. Asllan, Pushka, BalkanLondon: & State. Company. Hurst Taji Suha and HughPoulton In State.‖ Slav the with Confrontatio Ethnic Albanians: Kosovo ―The 1997. Vickers. Miranda and Hugh Poulton, Shkencave teShqiperise. teRPS 1878 Movement: Renaissance Albanian 1978. S. Pulaha, & S. Pollo,

ál Kri n Jle Lnmn d. 1997 eds. Langman Juliet and Kürti Lázlo hington Press.

Gbil 20. ―Ethno 2005. Gabriel. , 2005. (Ed.) Heinriette , . Budapest:European Central Press. . Cambridge and London:. Cambridge and MIT Press. -

London: Hurst&Company,2002,pp.166

j Polm itrk h Aktual dhe Historik Problem Nje - ivn, tpai ad en J Fischer, J. Bernd and Stephanie Sievens, 93 ―ocpi Vtedse de kultt Kosovar Aktualiteti dhe Vetvendosjes i ―Koncepti 1993.

Shqiperia Poli Shqiperia The Frontier of Loyalty: Political Exiles in the Age of Nation of Age the in Exiles Political Loyalty: of Frontier The e Te epe Pltc o Ntoa Pclaiy n Southeastern in Peculiarity National of Politics People: The We, Gjeografi per klasen e VI te shkolles fillore shkolles te VI eklasen per Gjeografi isi ad isoa i Itrainl Relations International in Diasporas and Kinship onais Te aig f rne n San n h Pyrenees the in Spain and France of Making The Boundaries: odr ad rtrn Ia ad h Calne f Azerbaijani of Challenge the and Iran Brethren: and Borders atCnrlErp ewe w ol Wars. World Two between Europe Central East Skenderbeu Akte

- Beyond the Territory Within the Nation: Diasporic Nation Diasporic Nation: the Within Territory the Beyond

National Diasporas in Politics.‖ Politics.‖ in Diasporas National BLSH.

tike: 1912 tike:

Nomos:

te Rilindjes Kombetare Shqiptare 1878 Shqiptare Kombetare Rilindjes te -

Myths Nationhood and communist Albania: Muslims, Christians and the idea idea the and Christians Muslims, Albania: communist

[Scanderbeg]. Tirana:B. K& - 1912]. Tirane: Instituti i Historise i Akademise se Akademise i Historise i Instituti Tirane: 1912].

Anthropological NotebooksAnthropological

Wiener Schriften zur InternationalenWiener Schriften zur Politik.

1939

Boulder, Colorado: Press. Westview

[Kosovo Question: Historic and Actual Actual and Historic Question: [Kosovo h Gorpy f odr Landscapes. Border of Geography The - . alifornia Press. 17

[Political Albania: 1912 Albania: [Political Beyond borders : remaking cultural cultural remaking : borders Beyond - 1. Farouki eds. Muslim Identity and The IdentityThe and Muslim eds. Farouki

Albanian Identities: Myth and and Myth Identities: Albanian and Conflicts with Neighbors.‖ with Conflicts and . London:. & Co. Hurts

[Geography for 6 [Geographyfor In

Beyond the Territory Territory the Beyond

14 (2): 31

Nomos: .” - - . Ann Arbor: Arbor: Ann . 1939]. Tirane: 1939].

1912 University of of University In – Ceshtja e e Ceshtja 45.

At of [Acts

th Wiener

State grade 304

n . .

CEU eTD Collection MA,USA:ElgarChetentham Reference UKand Collection. Northampton, 1999. eds. Cohen Rob and Steven Vertovec, Vol In Albania.‖ in Islam of Resurfacing ―The 1994. Francis. Trix, Erik. 8 for textbook [Geography Trandafili, 2004. Genc. International Security Politics andNational Toft, Monica et al.2012. Tilly, 2006. Charles. [Escape FromNaim toKadare]. from theEast: Tirane: Dudaj 2006. Enis. Sulstarova, Nation 2005. Mathew. Spark, Europe 2012 Sherrill. Stroschein, in Tirana 25 the in kept Refere 1990s]. in constructed was Albania versus Kosovo of politics the How Albanians: the of investment common a as Albania [Westernized 1990‖ më Nationalism,‖ Kosovë në Shqipërisë ndaj politika ndërtua pe of ―Shqipëria 2010. Discourse Veton. Surroi, the and Songs Poetry, Homeland: Albanian the ―Imagining 1999. J.C. Sugarman, Washington Press. Lede and F. Peter Sugar, Press. 1986. D. Anthony Smith, University Press. 2003. Gabriel. Sheffer, Identities National 1998. al. et Graham Smith, (eds.). Smith University Oxford Oxford: Press. D. Anthony and Hutchinson J. Open University Press. eds. Lerner J. Adam and Ringrose 1993 D. Anthony Smith, Press. 1999. D. Anthony Smith, Press. 2001. D. Anthony Smith, IDK. 1980. Stavro. Skëndi, Jersey: Princeton University Press. 1967. Stavro. Skëndi, . 28,No.4.

- . Cambridge University Press. State - . MinneapolisLondon: &of Minnesota Press. University 26 October 2010. 26 October

. Cambridge: University Press. Cambridge Identities, Boundaries andSocial Ties Identities,

tdm Kluoe Ballkanike Kulturore Studime Arratisje nga Lindja: Orientalizmi shqiptar nga Naimi te Kadareja te Naimi nga shqiptar Orientalizmi Lindja: nga Arratisje Gjeografia 8: Republika e Shqiperise dhe trevave te tjerashqiptare Gjeografiae trevave 8:Republika Shqiperisedhe h Abna Ntoa Aaeig 1878 Awakening: National Albanian The n h Sae f The of Space the In rer, Ivo eds. 1969. eds. Ivo rer, isoa oiis A Hm Abroad Home At Politics: Diaspora . Ethnic Struggle, Coexistence, and Democratization in Eastern in Democratization and Coexistence, Struggle, Ethnic . Te ain Ivne, mgnd Reconstructed? Imagined, Invented, Nation: The . Political Demography: Changes ArePolitical How Population Reshaping Myths and Memories of the Nation the of Memories and Myths th h Ehi Oiis f h Nation. the of Origins Ethnic The Nation

ainls: hoy Ielg, History Ideology, Theory, Nationalism: grade: Republic of Albania and other Albanian lands]. Tirane: Tirane: lands]. Albanian other and Albania of Republic grade:

international Conference ―Albania: Twenty Years later‘ kept later‘ Years Twenty ―Albania: Conference international

building in the Post the in building rëndimore si investim i përbashkët i shqiptarëve: Si u u Si shqiptarëve: i përbashkët i investim si rëndimore Reimagining the Nation the Reimagining Ethnomusicology

. Nationalism in Eastern Europe Eastern in Nationalism OUP USA Migration, Diasporas and Transnationalism and Diasporas Migration, r: otonainl egahe o the of Geographies Postfoundational ory: ainls: Reader A Nationalism: 4 () 419 (3): 43 ,

- . Bla Clua Suis. Tirane: Studies]. Cultural [Balcan Soviet Borderlands: The Politics of Politics The Borderlands: Soviet

. Paradigm Publishers. . Buckingham & Philadelphia & Buckingham . .

. Oxford: Oxford University University Oxford Oxford: .

xod Ofr University Oxford Oxford: East European Quarterly European East . Cambridge: Cambridge Cambridge Cambridge: . - 19

Cmrde Polity Cambridge: . 12 . Princeton, New New Princeton, . . New York and and York New .

. University of University .

In Marjorie Marjorie In

- 458. 305 : , .

CEU eTD Collection a memory: national of construction the and textbooks comparativeanalysis War‖, ofteachingWorld theSecond ―History 2000. K. Crawford, Catalan and Basque European Ideas the for Implications its and Maintenance Language Choices: Political on Culture of Influence ―The 1993. D. Conversi, Conversi, D.1995.―Nationalism,boundaries, violence‖ and How AboutAlbanians.‖ toThink Balkans: the in Unit Ethnic the and Otherness of Commodifiction ―The 1998. Isa. Blumi, Territories, States." Between Borders Florian ―Mapping Bieber, (2003). Houtum. van Discourses and Practices.‖ Henk and Eiki Berg, Rel Aydin Babuna, Journal Articles InternationalGroup. Publishing 2002. Danilo. Zolo, History,IV (1675 Vol. Shqiperise, Pulaha. Selami and Injac Zamputi, inEastern Europe.Nationalism eds. Lederer J. Ivo and Sugar F. Peter In Nationalism.‖ ―Albanian 1969. Tajar. Zavalani, eds. Boulder, N Kaplan H. David and Herb Palestinian among ―Regionalism 1999. Oren. Yiftachel, onMedievealDilemmas: Studies Tirane: Pegi. Albania]. 2006. P. Xhufi, Kim S. Samuel and Falk eds. A. Richard In Conflict.‖ of Nature The 1980. Quincy. Wright, Tomed. 1992. Winirth, Critical, Press. CulturalandCommunications eds. Geary Dick and Hewitt Nicholas T Winant, theNation. of Articulation In Poland. in Nation‖ ―Imagined of Vicissitudes the and Elites ―Intellectual 1999. Andrzej. Walicki, Kingdom: Research Conflict Studies Center. Vickers Kingdom. Mi Vickers, Vickers, Miranda. 1995. igion.‖ The War Interdisciplinary TheApproach An System: , Miranda. , Nationalities Papers Nationalities erry R. 2007. ―The Portability of Roots: Analytical Tools for Diasporaphiles.‖ In Diasporaphiles.‖ for Tools Analytical Roots: of Portability ―The 2007. erry R.

Nationalities Papers Nationalities ew York & Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield Rowman& &ewOxford: Publishers. York

end, ihe D ad oad rgr un. 1999. Sunny. Grigor Ronald and D. Michael Kennedy, randa. Vol. . ―The Albanians of Kosovo and Macedonia: Ethnic Identity Superseding Superseding Identity Ethnic Macedonia: and Kosovo of Albanians ―The . "ulm dniy n h Blas eoe h Etbihet f Nation of Establishment the before Balkans the in Identity "Muslim . , Vol. 16, No.1 , Vol.16,

iea e rei: tdm mi hieie Me Shqiperine mbi Studime Arberit: e Dilemat V (1675 IV 2007. 2008. 2008.

- 1699)]. AcademyInstitute1699)]. ofScience ofAlbania. ofHistory. noig uaiy wr lw ad lbl order global and law, war, humanity: Invoking Perspectives onAlba The Albanians: AHistory The Albanians: Modern The Cham Issue Cham The

sa i Albania in Islam Ann Arbor:University ofMichigan The Press. Geojounal -

69 [ouet fr etre XVI Centuries for [Documents 1699) 28, no.1(2000): 13 -

28, no. 1 (2000): 67 28, no.1(2000): 3, pp.189 Seattle: Universityof Press. Washington East European 1990. etd dniis Ntoaim Trioy ad Scale. and Territory, Nationalism, Identities: Nested , Vol. 67, no.1. Ashgate. , Vol.67,no.1. Diaspora(s): Movements and Cultures and Movements Diaspora(s): - Dokumente te Shekujve XVI Shekujve te Dokumente

- Where to Now? Whereto 200. Lno: ees Aaey f h United the of Academy Defense London: .

nia

. London:. MACMILLAN. - Politics andSocietyPolitics 28. - 92. . Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press.Westview . Boulder,Colorado:

ainls Movements,‖ Nationalist

- Arabs in Israel,‖ in Guntram H. H. Guntram in Israel,‖ in Arabs

Curriculum Curriculum Defense Academy of the United the of AcademyDefense . London:I.B.Tauris. Millenium

, 12,pp.527 sjetare - nelcul ad the and Intellectuals - XVII per Historine e e Historine per XVII , 28: 553 , 28: 21. XVII for Albanian Albanian for XVII

. Nottingham: Nottingham: . [The Arber`s Arber`s [The .

- Continuum itr of History 84.

- 69.

306

CEU eTD Collection Ethnographique. Albanaise Ethnographie ―L`ancienne 1976. Rrok. post Zojsi, in Nationalism Banal Verdery, ―Whither‗Nation‘ Katherine.‗Nationalism?‖ 1993. and and Culture ―History Vol.5,no.2 Southeast European Politics, 2004. Pilvi. Torsti, No. 3:313 Albania.‖ and Kosovo Article: ―Review 1999. Jason. Tomes, Diaspora Safran, 1991.―Diasporas William. Myths inModern Societies: and ofHomeland Return.‖ of Academy of Rumford, 2006.―Theorizing Chris. Border.‖ Institute Cultural Folk of Science. Publication Region] Laberia of [Folksongs F Rrapaj, developpement.‖ 1992. M. Roux, Finnish The Discourse: Border.‖ and Practice Social as ―Boundaries 1998. Anssi. Paasi, Monographs Wars,‖ Balkan the During Serbia and Albanians ―The 1986. Djorde. Mikić, on: Studies Workshop Association, Study 12 Union for European prepared Paper Strategy.‖ Analytical Competing Institutional 1999. and Debates Kennet. Historiographical Lynggaard, Past: the of Future Israel.‖Memories inGermanyand ―The 1999. D. o Levy, Study ―The 2002. Molnar. Science.‖ Virag and Michele Lamont, Economic History İnalcık, Historical Finish The Experience.‖ Nationalism: and Newspapers, ―Maps, 1999. Katariina. Kosonen, Theory.‖ Relations International in Constructivism International Security of Promise ―The 1998. Ted. Hopf, 1878 commissions, andboundariesLinguistic 2008. Guy, Nicola. International Organization Sikkink and Finnemore Vol. 18,No.4,pp.5 ―Hypot 1994. Stephen. Van, Evera nationalism]. Historise: Qendrae StudimeveAlbanologjike. Albanian of genesis the on information new [Some shqiptar nacionalizmit e fillimet mbi reja te dhena te Disa 2011. Dritan. Egro, . Boston, Massachusetts,March

Halil Regional Studies Regional 1: 1. Annual Review ofSociology Annual Review ts 1991. atos. - 317. , No. CCXV, Columbia University, No.CCXV, Columbia Press. . 1969. . GeoJournal

Annales deGéographie Annales ,

- Vol. 29, No.1,TheEconomic TasksVol. History, of 1926. - ―Les Albanais en Yugoslavie: minorite nationale, territoire et et territoire nationale, minorite Yugoslavie: en Albanais ―Les

39). ―Capital Formation in the Ottoman Empire‖ (1969), Empire‖ Ottoman the in Formation ―Capital , Vol. 23,No.1,pp.171 , Vol.

lai: he Vilayets Three Albania: 1998. .

Aaei ds cecs e a P ` Albanie D` RP la de Sciences des Academie . , 48: 91 Journal Geography ofHistorical

Vol. 33.7,pp.669 52 (autumn): 887 ―Causality in Europeanization Research: A Discursive Discursive A Research: Europeanization in ―Causality -

100. division regionale ethnographique du people albanais.‖ albanais.‖ people du ethnographique regionale division ― heses on Nationalism and War.‖ and Nationalism on heses History andHistory Theory nentoa nr dnmc ad oiia change. political and dynamics norm International

28, pp.267

3 - - . Vol. 102, Issue 571,pp.316 . Vol.102, 3, pp.12 5.

- - European Journal ofSocialTheory European 680.

917. - geopolitical interests: the Albanian the boundary interests: geopolitical

200. . -

195. 157.

1991.

ehdlgcl hlegs n EU in Challenges Methodological

38, No.1:51

tdm Hsoie 3 Historike Studime

Kenge popullore te Laberise Laberise te popullore Kenge th 34(3): 448

Biennale Conference of the the of Conference Biennale f Boundaries across Social Social across Boundaries f National Identities National Daedalus p - International Security International . 66.

- 97 - 470. 317.

– 140.

- The Journal of Journal The 122, pp.37 East European East a Bosnia.‖ War -

9:155. : Secteur Secteur : nttt i Instituti - , Vol. 1, Vol. , Russian Russian -

46. 307 ‖ ,

CEU eTD Collection Shala and Gjuergjala (2004), 2007.―Rilindja eQosja, Rexhep. Dyte‖ Rennaisance]. [Second society]. myths]. Sulst nationalist the off February. take textbooks history Kosovo ―[The kombetare mitet heqin Kosoves se Historise e ―Librat 2009. Vjosa Musliu, Tajikistan.‖ and January/February, pp.12 Kyrgyzstan in Future: Uncertain Past, ―Imagined 2008. Erica. Marat, to happen any soon‖. time Bathe in Albanians most ― 2010. Besar. Likmeta, 2010. Kelmendi, Ramiz. ―Eksodi Trurit i Shqiptar.‖ shqiptare‖ shkollave Schools]. të High Gjeografisë Albanian April. for e textbook tekstin Geography for për reaction reagime [Greece, ―Greqi, 2011. Anila. Jole, deri në 1944(Fejtoni) fundZëri tënëntorit 16.X. fashiste Italisë i kapitullimi nga shqiptare etnike tjera viset dhe Kosova 2003. Izber. Hoti, Science, March 2011. Ferraj language], literary a of foundation the [For letrare‖ gjuhe nje e themelimin ―Per 1905. Konitza. Faik Faik [The progress 1901.―Perparimi iKombit‖ Konitza. ofthenation], proofs from theori Antiquity on Konitza. Faik Faik 1907.―L`Albanie Konitza. Nationaliste,‖ Faik Ko Kosovo. in debate October. identity (national) the incite developments [The political Kosove‖ ne identitetin mbi debat nxisin politike ―Zhvillimet 2009. Arjan. Konomi, March. ―Racize 2010. Ardian. Klosi, dailyShqiptare newspaper ‘92 years in business shady government`s the you tell ―I 2006. Zef. Brozi, Arapi,eshte Golgotha,‖ ―Kjo 1992. Fatos. Albanian Telegraphic Newspapers/Media sources East XXXII. Central Europe.‖University Vol. York New Press. Repercussions. and Antecedents Europe: Central in East and Europe‖ Trianon and People Hungarian the of Fischer Cause Stephen The ―Trianon: 1995. Nagy. L. Zsuzsa arova, Enis. 2008. ―Perpjekja kombetare ne shoqerine civile‖ [National efforts in civil civil in efforts [National civile‖ shoqerine ne kombetare ―Perpjekja 2008. Enis. arova, , Hysamedin. Hysamedin. ,

nitza. 1897. ―Armiqte e 1897.―Armiqte Shqiperise,‖nitza. Enemies The ofAlbania],

Gazeta Shqip

Albania 87 ―rv mi aheie Oijns e obt hitr‖ [Written Shqiptar,‖ Kombit se Origjines e Lashtesine mbi ―Prova 1897. - Galati, Tr Galati, , no.6. itr o ngtain pr 2 part negotiation, of History

Agency. 1992.February 11. , 30/10. Poll Reveals Support for 'Greater Albania' 'Greater for Support Reveals Poll – lkans dream of being united into one state, though few expect this this fewexpect though state, one into united being dreamof lkans

24. BIRN , 30September. ianon and Romania. Béla K. Király and Lászlo Vesprémy eds. Vesprémy Lászlo and Király K. Béla Romania. and ianon

Kosovo losing its Faculti its Kosovo losing ao tjli i Historise.‖ i Kthjellim apo m

gin of the Albanian nation], gin nation], Albanian ofthe , 17Nov.

rbes f Post of Problems

Zeri i Rinise Zeri i Albania

Shqip . Public Lecture, Faculty of Social Social of Faculty Lecture, Public . es , no.5. , 16September. The Creation of National Ideologies National of Creation The aea hitr newspaper Shqiptare Gazeta . 28July. - Communism, daily 03Mar newspaper, Albania Shekulli

Albania daily Albania

: New survey shows that shows survey New : , no.2.

―War and Society in in Society and ―War daily newspaper, 13 13 newspaper, daily

Albania Albania o. 5 n. 1, no. 55, vol.

Tema Balkanweb - . 31/05.

‘95.‖ , no.1. , no.4.

daily, 21 21 daily, ch. Gazeta

15 , 27 , 308

CEU eTD Collection Albanian an show called ―Déjà vu‖, in parliament Kosovar of member current a Hyseni, Hydajet with Interview 2011. June 3 Albania. in Affairs Foreign of Ministry in Director Regional Berisha. Mal with Interview 12, 2009. the of directorexecutive the Lani, Remzi Interviewwith Tirana the at department science University. political of chair the Feraj, Hysamedin with Interview servingas inFrance. Kosovoambassador founding the of one and France, in 2 UniversityParis the science at political professor of Kullashi, Muhamedin Interviewwith Interviews Science, March 12. 2011. Hysamedin. Ferraj, Open L National of Plateau 31December 1943 Conference First of Resolute Reference: of 5 ForceB8/GSP/6?68 133`s Van Captain From WO.204.9428, PRO. 1945, p.3. 1942 Albania, in MilitaryMission Allied 37/B, number S.O.E.History,File PRO.HS.7.70, Communist Party, 18 1946. 18 PKSH, te KQ te jashtezakonshem e Pleniumin ne Diskutim Hoxha, Enver 1p.4forKosovo State Archives.Fond theTivar OKKM dok.335nr. Massacre. Albanian Foreign MinistryArchives, (1979 Archives in writing [History identitetit‖ te sherbim service identity]. ofthe ne historise i ―Shkrimi 2010. Besarta. Vladi, Independent?‖ Austro ―Unknown 2012. Marenglen. Verli, ?INTCMP=SRCH http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2004/jul/28/internationaleducationnews.highereducation AQSH. [Referee kept [Referee AQSH.

ectures

Panorama

- 20 December 1946.State Archive].20 Albanian Top Gazeta , February 12. History of negotiation, part 2 part negotiation, of History - 1 - Channel, 10/04/2010. - in Extraordinary Plenum of Central Committee of Albanian of Committee Central of Plenum Extraordinary in 2 - Weekly, 13 May ( Weekly, 13May

January 1944.

members of the Kosovo Committee in Paris. Actually Paris. in Committee Kosovo the of members

deleur Robinson to Miss Barker, 20 March 1944. 1944. March 20 Barker, Miss to Robinson deleur

th -

- March. Enclusire, Draft―Kosove‖. 1997). - Hungarian Documents: How Albania Became Albania How Documents: Hungarian Liberation Front for Kosovo and Dukagjin Dukagjin and Kosovo for Front Liberation

2) no.16.

. Public Lecture, Faculty of Social Social of Faculty Lecture, Public . Albanian Institute of Media, April April Media,Institute of Albanian

- 20 dhjetor, dhjetor, 20

309 -