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®Fessb O F the COLLECTIONS in the NATIONAL MUSEUMS OE LONDON. THESIS FOR THE PH.D. DEGREE Submitted to the University of London FACULTY OF ARTS Arif Husain Mirza, M.A. Institute of Archaeology. October 1961. otJ / "MUGHAL JADES AND CRYSTALS; j^A CATALOGUE RAISONHE ®feSSB O f THE COLLECTIONS IN THE NATIONAL MUSEUMS OE LONDON." ProQuest Number: 11010308 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a com plete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest ProQuest 11010308 Published by ProQuest LLC(2018). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C ode Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 o (s' 2 CONTENTS Page Abstract............................... ... 3 Acknowledgements............................ 5 Abbreviations ................ ........ ... 7 CHAPTER I. Jade. §1. As a substance, and its supposed magical and medicinal properties and its chemical composition. 9 §2. Jade in China - Turkistan's nephrite — Burmese jadeite..... ..' 26 CHAPTER II. § 1. The Chinese working of jade ...... 46 §2. The Indian working of jade ...... 69 CHAPTER III. Rock-crystal. § 1. Its chemical constituents and superstitious beliefs concerning it. 84 § 2. The early occurrence of rock- crystal beads in India and the historical background of the Buddhist rock-crystal reliquaries.. 90 CHAPTER IV. The Indian working of rock-crystal. 110 CHAPTER V. The diamond...................... 124 CHAPTER VI. Conclusion................. 137 CATALOGUE. (a) Jades. .................. 155 (b) Rock-crystals......... 216 BIBLIOGRAPHY.......................... 250 PLATES .................... ................ ABSTRACT. This thesis aims at providing a catalogue and description of the extensive Collections of Mughal jades and crystals in the National Museums of London. Although these Collections are comparatively rich, yet very little attention has been paid to the problems involved in the working of both jade and rock-crystal in India, and little has been published on this subject. An attempt, therefore, has been made to trace the beginnings and development of these arts. The thesis is divided into two parts, the first consisting of six chapters and the second of a Catalogue of a very wide representative sample of jade and rock- crystal. The first chapter deals with the superstitious beliefs concerning jade, its chemical composition and the occurrence of the mineral in China, Eastern Turkistan and Burma. An effort has been made to establish that China had once its own jade deposits which became exhausted because of heavy demands made upon them. In the second chapter the Chinese working of jade is described in some detail, followed by an analysis of the technique of jade working. The Indian working of jade as observed by European writers and as inferred by study of the Collections, has also, been dealt with. In the third chapter the constitutents of rock- crystal and its material evidence in various Indian archaeological sites is assembled and a survey of Buddhist reliquaries is made* The fourth chapter deals with the methods of manufacturing hard stone beads and the advanced techniques employed in making reliquaries. In the fifth chapter the history of the diamond and the use of the diamond point and dust has been traced. The early Indian evidence is found to be indefinite. In the final chapter a tentative dating of the Mughal jade and rock-crystal objects has been attempted and an effort has been made to establish that not only rock-crystal but also jade was worked by local Indian craftsmen. 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It is difficult for me to express my gratitude to Professor K. de B. Codrington, Institute of Archaeology, University of London, for his constant help and guidance in the preparation of this thesis. I have benefited a great deal from his detailed knowledge and wide experience. I am very grateful to Mr. H.W.M. Hodges, lecturer, Institute of Archaeology, University of London for his unhesitating help and assistance in going through the chapters, especially those dealing with technology, and making valuable comments. He has, also, very kindly examined the Catalogue. I am greatly indebted to Dr. P.R.Allchin, lecturer, University of Cambridge for his advice and help and the interest that he took in my Vrfo£k. I am extremely grateful to Mr. J.C. Irwin, keeper of the Indian Section of the Victoria and Albert Museum, to his staff and to Mr. Douglas Barrett and Mr. Ralph Pinder-Wilson, Dy. keeper and Assistant keeper respectively, of the Oriental Antiquities of the British Museum, for their generous help and co-operation in permitting me to handle both jades and rock-crystals in 6 their sections* My thanks are, also, due to the photographic departments of hoth the B.M. & V. and A* Museums for providing me with the photographs* I am obliged to the Staff of the libraries of the Institute of Archaeology and School of Oriental and African Studies for their help in providing books and periodicals essential to this work* Finally, I cannot fail to record my gratitude to the British Council which granted me a Scholarship to complete this undertaking* 7 ABBREVIATIONS J.R.A. Inst. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute. J.A.S.B. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. J.B.B.R.A.S. Journal of the Bombay branch of Royal Asiatic Society. J.M.P.I.P. Journal of the Madhya Pradesh Itihasa Panishad. T.O.C.S. Transactions of the Oriental Ceremic Society. Arch. Surv. of Archaeological Survey of India. India. 8 PLATES. (1) JADES; Prom I to \9 (2 ) ROCK-CRYSTAL Prom % ° to 2,9 CHAPTER I. JADE § 1, Jade as a substance f and its supposed magical and medicinal properties and its chemical composition. It is an interesting fact that from the remote past jade has been regarded not only as a semi-precious stone but also as an object with medicinal properties. Jade was also used for a variety of artefacts from the neolithic period onwards, and polished jade hand axes have been found in places as wide apart as Germany and Taxila. Until comparatively recently a number of nephrite and jadeite objects in worked condition were found in Europe; and Eisher, who did not find any material evidence in regard to the occurrence of true jade, elaborated a theory that all the objects found in Europe, worked as well as rough, came from Central Asia as a result of the migration of the people or through 1 prehistoric commercial intercourse. This view is partly supported by Montelius who is of the opinion ,fthat at all events some of these works are to be attributed to such 2 an importation. M However, roughly finished jade objects have lately been found in various districts of Europe 1. Bauer, Max. Precious Stones, tr. by Spencer, L.J. p.58. 2. Laufer, B. Jade, p.2. where formerly well finished implements of jadeite and nephrite had already been discovered and it has been observed that all such objects are mineralogically identical. But it is important to note that they differ materially from the material and products of central Asia.'*" As a result of later researches both Berwerth and Mayer dismiss the conclusions of Eisher, and suggest that all the objects found in the various regions of Europe were manufactured in the neighbourhood of their find spots. While discussing this controversial question Laufer says "In Europe, strata of nephrite were discovered in the eastern Alps in the Sann Valley, near St. Peter, and in the Murr Valley, near Graz. In Switzerland, bowlders of jadeite were sighted on lake Neuenburg; even a sort of nephrite workshop was discovered in the vicinity of Maurach, where hatchets chiseled from the mineral and one hundred and fifty-four pieces of cuttings were found. At the foot of Mount Viso, in Italy, jadeite was met with in situ. Single erratic bowlders of nephrite in diluvial deposits had been signaled in Germany at an earlier date, near 2 Schwemmsal, Potsdam, and Leipzig." Muller, however, is 1. Bauer, Max. op.cit. p.458. 2. Laufer, B. op.cit. p.2. Laufer's statement is somewhat obscure. The technique involved will be dealt with later on, but his use of chisel for this material is unfortunate. 11 of the opinion that "we may rather presume with certainty that at least a greater part of the hatchets mentioned have "been imported by commerce from the Orient, whence the knowledge of polishing hatchets is derived* At a somewhat later time, an extensive trade in stone artefacts was carried on within the boundaries of Europe*" In his study of "The Prehistory and Proto-history of Eastern India" Dr* Pani has recorded the limited distribution in India of shouldered hoes, made of a tough dark green stone exceedingly dense in structure. In this region at least these specimens appear to belong to the early historic period. Unfortunately mineralogical identification is not forthcoming, but the discovery of these jadeite implements suggests that the mineral in question was known to India from later pre-historic times. ^ Wheeler claims that artefacts of jade have been found in the Indus Valley* While discussing the commerce and transport he says that "other material used for 1. Laufer, B. op.cit. p*3« 2. Lani, A.H. Pre-history and Proto-history of eastern India, p.98. Pani's work makes it plain that in many parts of India and south east Asia neolithic cultures survived into historic times. The green stone hoes have been found in mediaeval walled city sites and neolithic polished pointed butt axes were found at Bhita and elsewhere in levels as late as the 7th Century.
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