Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide Is Intended to Provide Information for Com- Bryan R

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for Commercial Growers 2013–2014 Produced by The Pennsylvania State University in cooperation with The University of Delaware Rutgers University, the University of Delaware, the University of Gordon C. Johnson, Extension Vegetable and Fruit Specialist and Assistant Maryland, Virginia Tech, and West Virginia University. Professor, Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, Carvel Research and Education Center Acknowledgments The University of Maryland The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide is intended to provide information for com- Bryan R. Butler, Senior Agent, University of Maryland Extension in Carroll mercial berry growers within the region. Homeowners may use this publica- County tion for background information; however, many of the recommendations Joseph A. Fiola, Professor and Specialist in Viticulture and Small Fruit, Univer- contained in this guide assume that the production is on a large scale and sity of Maryland Extension that producers have a commercial pesticide applicator’s license. Willie Lantz, Senior Agent, University of Maryland Extension in Garrett Uses of pesticides listed in this publication were current as of July 1, County 2012. However, changes in registration status may occur at any time, so please consult the label before use—the label is the law. If there are differ- USDA-ARS, Beltsville, Maryland ences in use patterns between the pesticide label in your possession and Mark Ehlenfeldt, Research Geneticist, Genetic Improvement of Fruits and those listed in this guide, follow the instructions on the label. If in doubt, Vegetables Laboratory consult your cooperative extension educator. Virginia Tech Jeffrey F. Derr, Professor, Hampton Roads Agricultural Research and Exten- Coordinator sion Center Kathleen Demchak, Senior Extension Associate, Department of Horticulture, Charles Johnson, Professor and Extension Plant Pathologist, Southern Pied- Penn State mont Agricultural Research and Extension Center Contributors Douglas G. Pfeiffer, Professor, Department of Entomology R. Allen Straw, Area Specialist, Southwest Virginia Agricultural Research and Penn State Extension Center Kathleen Demchak, Senior Extension Associate, Department of Horticulture Keith S. Yoder, Professor of Plant Pathology, Alson H. Smith Jr. Agricultural Timothy E. Elkner, Senior Extension Educator, Penn State Cooperative Exten- Research and Extension Center sion in Lancaster County C. John Esslinger, Extension Educator, Penn State Cooperative Extension, West Virginia University Northeast Region Alan R. Biggs, Professor of Plant Pathology and Extension Specialist, Kear- Maryann Frazier, Senior Extension Associate, Department of Entomology neysville Tree Fruit Research and Education Center Scott D. Guiser, Senior Extension Educator, Penn State Cooperative Exten- John W. Jett, Extension Specialist, West Virginia University Extension Service sion in Bucks County Lewis W. Jett, Extension Specialist, West Virginia University Extension Service John M. Halbrendt, Associate Professor of Plant Pathology, Department of Additional Contributors Plant Pathology Ed Mashburn, Northumberland, Pennsylvania, former President of The Inter- Jayson K. Harper, Professor of Agricultural Economics, Department of Agri- national Ribes Association cultural Economics and Rural Sociology Harry Swartz, Five Aces Breeding, LLC Grzegorz Krawczyk, Senior Research Associate, Department of Entomology Kerry M. Richards, Director, Pesticide Management Information Center Past Contributors This guide includes material from authors whose work appeared in earlier Rutgers University, New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station extension publications in the region or in earlier editions of this guide. These Joseph R. Heckman, Extension Specialist, Department of Plant Biology and authors include John Baniecki, Ed Beste, Barbara Bowling, Tony Bratsch, Pathology Margaret Brittingham-Brant, Dewey Caron, Anne DeMarsay, Henry Hogmire, Bradley A. Majek, Extension Specialist, Department of Plant Biology and Win Hock, Ed Kee, Henry Ngugi, Jeremy Pattison, Sridhar Polavarapu, Pete Pathology Probasco, Ed Rajotte, Bob Rouse, Jo Rytter, Elsa Sánchez, Gary San Julian, Peter Nitzsche, County Agent, Rutgers Cooperative Extension of Morris Pete Shearer, Mike Stanghellini, Paul Steiner, Jim Travis, and Richard Zim- County merman. Their contributions and work, which laid the groundwork for this Peter V. Oudemans, Associate Professor, Department of Plant Biology and version, are gratefully acknowledged. Pathology Gary Pavlis, County Agent, Rutgers Cooperative Extension of Atlantic County Editor Dean Polk, Statewide Fruit IPM Agent, Department of Agricultural and Amanda Kirsten, Ag Communications and Marketing, Penn State Resource Management Agents Designer Cesar Rodriguez-Saona, Assistant Extension Specialist, Department of Nora Serotkin, Ag Communications and Marketing, Penn State Entomology Illustrations and Photos William J. Sciarappa, County Agent, Rutgers Cooperative Extension of Illustrations, except Figure 7.2, by Ellen Lovelidge, Penn State. Figure 7.2 Monmouth County courtesy of Virginia Tech. Daniel L. Ward, Assistant Extension Specialist, Department of Plant Biology Blackberry flower and strawberry photos: Kathleen Demchak and Pathology Others: istockphoto.com The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide

Contents

List of Tables and Figures...... ii Chapter 1: Preplant Considerations...... 1 Chapter 2: Soil Management and Nutrition for Berry Crops...... 7 Chapter 3: Pesticides, Pesticide Safety, and Chemical Fumigation...... 15 Chapter 4: Weed Management...... 31 Chapter 5: Wildlife Damage Control in Commercial Plantings...... 41 Chapter 6: Strawberries...... 49 Chapter 7: Blueberries...... 115 Chapter 8: Brambles...... 171 Chapter 9: Gooseberries and Currants...... 225 Appendix A: Expanded Special Topics...... 239 Appendix B: Diagnostic Services...... 247 Appendix C: Nursery Sources of Berry Plants...... 259 Appendix D: Production Supplies and Services...... 263 Appendix E: Additional Sources of Information...... 269 Tables and Figures Chapter 2—Soil Management and Nutrition for Berry Crops...... 7 Table 2.1. Pounds of lime with a CCE (calcium carbonate equivalent) of 100 needed per acre to maintain or raise the soil pH to 6.5...... 8 Table 2.2. Green manure crops categorized by use, life cycle, and season...... 13 Chapter 3—Pesticides, Pesticide Safety, and Chemical Fumigation...... 15 Table 3.1. Toxicity of pesticides to birds, fish, honey bees, and beneficial predators...... 16 Table 3.2. General and restricted-use pesticides labeled for use on strawberries, brambles, blueberries, gooseberries, and currants...... 23 Table 3.3. Fumigants and spectrums of activity...... 27 Chapter 4—Weed Management...... 31 Table 4.1. Weed susceptibility to herbicides...... 34 Table 4.2. Herbicide water solubility and soil adsorption characteristics...... 38 Chapter 6—Strawberries...... 49 Table 6.1. Number of strawberry plants per acre for different in-row and between-row spacings...... 52 Table 6.2. Recommended fertilizer amounts for June-bearing matted-row strawberry plantings...... 53 Table 6.3. June-bearing matted-row strawberry cultivars...... 54 Table 6.4. Recommended nutrients for annual plasticulture strawberry plantings...... 58 Table 6.5. June-bearing strawberry cultivars for plasticulture production...... 61 Table 6.6. Day-neutral strawberry cultivars...... 65 Table 6.7. Summary of estimated costs per acre, 2011: year of land preparation for strawberries...... 70 Table 6.8. Summary of estimated costs per acre, 2011: planting year for matted-row strawberries...... 71 Table 6.9. Summary of estimated costs per acre, 2011: mature planting of matted-row strawberries...... 72 Table 6.10. Returns to risk and management for matted-row strawberries, 2011...... 72 Table 6.11. Summary of estimated costs per acre, 2011: planting year for strawberry plasticulture...... 73 Table 6.12. Summary of estimated costs per acre, 2011: mature planting for strawberry plasticulture...... 74 Table 6.13. Returns to risk and management for plasticulture strawberries, 2011...... 74 Table 6.14. Activity groups and effectiveness of fungicides for strawberry disease control...... 87 Table 6.15. Activity groups and effectiveness of insecticides, miticides, and molluscides on strawberry pests...... 88 ii Table 6.16. Pesticides for strawberry disease and insect control...... 89 Table 6.17. Additional restrictions on strawberry fungicides and insecticides...... 100 Table 6.18. Per-acre rates per application for preemergence (residual) herbicides for common soil types for strawberries...... 106 Table 6.19. Herbicides for matted-row strawberry weed control...... 107

Figure 6.1. The strawberry plant...... 50 Figure 6.2. Arrangement of strawberry blossoms on fruit truss...... 51 Figure 6.3. Common strawberry leaf diseases...... 76 Figure 6.4. Tarnished plant bug adult...... 79 Figure 6.5. Strawberry sap beetle adult...... 79 Figure 6.6. Picnic beetle adult...... 80 Figure 6.7. Potato leafhopper adult...... 82 Chapter 7—Blueberries...... 115 Table 7.1. Amount of sulfur required to lower the soil pH...... 118 Table 7.2. Number of blueberry plants required per acre at various spacings....118 Table 7.3. Relevant characteristics of various cover crops for row middles...... 123 Table 7.4. Seeding rates and requirements for various seasonal and permanent cover crops for row middles...... 124 Table 7.5. Postplant nitrogen recommendations for blueberries...... 124 Table 7.6. Summary of estimated costs per acre, 2011: year of land preparation for blueberries...... 127 Table 7.7. Summary of estimated costs per acre, 2011: planting year for blueberries...... 128 Table 7.8. Summary of estimated costs per acre, 2011: year after planting for blueberries...... 129 Table 7.9. Summary of estimated costs per acre, 2011: mature planting for blueberries...... 130 Table 7.10. Returns to risk and management for blueberries, 2011...... 131 Table 7.11. Activity groups and effectiveness of fungicides for blueberry disease control...... 141 Table 7.12. Activity groups and effectiveness of insecticides and miticides on blueberry pests...... 142 Table 7.13. Pesticides for blueberry disease and insect control...... 143 Table 7.14. Additional restrictions on blueberry pesticides...... 152 Table 7.15. Crop safety of blueberry herbicides...... 156 Table 7.16. Herbicide water solubility and soil adsorption characteristics...... 157 Table 7.17. Per-acre rates per application for preemergence (residual) herbicides for common soil types for blueberries...... 158 Table 7.18. Herbicides for blueberry weed control...... 164 iii Figure 7.1. Types of buds on blueberry...... 125 Figure 7.2. Blueberry bush before and after pruning...... 125 Figure 7.3. Blueberry maggot adult...... 134 Figure 7.4. Cherry fruitworm adult...... 135 Figure 7.5. Cranberry fruitworm adult...... 136 Chapter 8—Brambles...... 171 Table 8.1. Number of bramble plants per acre at different spacings...... 178 Table 8.2. Postplant nitrogen recommendations for brambles (lbs N/acre)..... 179 Table 8.3. Summary of estimated costs per acre, 2011: year of land preparation for summer-bearing red raspberries or thornless blackberries...... 186 Table 8.4. Summary of estimated costs per acre, 2011: planting year for summer-bearing red raspberries...... 187 Table 8.5. Summary of estimated costs per acre, 2011: year after establishment for summer-bearing red raspberries...... 188 Table 8.6. Summary of estimated costs per acre, 2011: mature planting of summer-bearing red raspberries...... 189 Table 8.7. Summary of estimated costs per acre, 2011: year of establishment for thornless blackberries...... 190 Table 8.8. Summary of estimated costs per acre, 2011: year after establishment . for thornless blackberries...... 191 Table 8.9. Summary of estimated costs per acre, 2011: mature planting of thornless blackberries...... 192 Table 8.10. Returns to risk and management for red raspberries, 2011...... 193 Table 8.11. Returns to risk and management for blackberries, 2011...... 193 Table 8.12. Bramble disease control strategies...... 206 Table 8.13. Activity groups and effectiveness of fungicides for bramble disease control...... 207 Table 8.14. Activity groups and effectiveness of insecticides and miticides on bramble pests...... 207 Table 8.15. Pesticides for bramble disease and insect control...... 208 Table 8.16. Additional restrictions on bramble pesticides...... 213 Table 8.17. Crop safety of bramble herbicides...... 215 Table 8.18. Bramble herbicide water solubility and soil adsorption characteristics...... 216 Table 8.19. Per-acre rates per application for preemergence (residual) herbicides for common soil types for raspberries and blackberries...... 217 Table 8.20. Herbicides for bramble weed control...... 219

Figure 8.1. Pruning red raspberries...... 181 Figure 8.2. Pruning black raspberries...... 182 Figure 8.3. Supported hedgerow trellis...... 183 Figure 8.4. T or Lincoln trellis...... 183 iv Figure 8.5. V trellis...... 183 Figure 8.6. Raspberry crown borer adult...... 203 Figure 8.7. Rednecked cane borer adult...... 203 Figure 8.8. Raspberry cane borer adult...... 203 Chapter 9—Gooseberries and Currants...... 225 Table 9.1. Pesticides for Ribes disease and insect control...... 236 Appendix A—Expanded Special Topics...... 239 Table A.1. Critical temperatures for cold damage of flower buds based on stage of development...... 239 Table A.2. Approximate dew points calculated from air temperature and relative humidity values...... 240 Table A.3. Recommended temperatures for starting irrigation at various critical temperatures and dew points...... 241 Table A.4. Irrigation application rates (inches/hour) for adequate protection of strawberries at various air temperatures, wind speeds, and relative humidity levels...... 243 Table A.5. Sample two-year preplant soil conditioning program...... 245

Chapter 1 Introduction especially for harvest, is another major consideration. Although berry production can be very You must be prepared not only to profitable, berry crops require intensive produce a high-quality crop, but also to Preplant management and a significant invest- be an active and aggressive marketer. ment of time and resources. Depending Before the plants go in the ground, new Considerations on the crop, berry plantings remain and established growers alike should productive for varying lengths of time, develop a marketing strategy for the from as little as 1 to 2 production years planned crop. Even well-established for plasticulture strawberries to up to operations will need to adjust to 50 years for blueberries. Good preplant changing costs and markets. The management decisions will benefit the marketing plan should consider who grower throughout the life of a planting, your current and potential customers but, alternatively, the grower may have are or will be and how the berries will Contents to endure the consequences of early be sold (pick-your-own, ready-picked Introduction...... 1 mistakes for many years. Therefore, a for your own market, or wholesale). Economics and Marketing...... 1 significant amount of planning should Consider the demographics of your area. Site Selection...... 1 be done before planting a berry crop. Are a sufficient number of consumers Soil Type, Structure, and Drainage...... 1 Consideration should be given to both nearby to purchase your fruit? If not, Air Drainage...... 2 growing and marketing the crop in order can they be attracted to your location? Wind Exposure...... 2 to ensure profitability over the long run. How will you let potential customers Row Orientation...... 2 know about the availability of your Availability of Irrigation Water...... 2 Economics and Marketing product? Do you want to produce and Field Borders...... 2 market your fruit as organic? Will you Crop Rotation...... 2 While most of the information in this market during the main season for each Determining Whether Fumigation Is production guide is intended to help crop or at off-peak times of the year? It Warranted...... 3 with producing specific berry crops, is important to carefully consider these Sampling for Nematodes...... 3 growers can stay in business only if their aspects before you choose a planting site Choosing a Source of Plants...... 4 operations are profitable. Within each and begin making major investments in Organic Production...... 4 crop’s chapter, enterprise budgets are plants and irrigation systems. included that outline expected expenses and potential income based on typical costs, technology, and management Site Selection for the 2011 crop year. The information When choosing a suitable site, you contained in these enterprise budgets need to consider and, in some instances can be used by agricultural producers, improve, many characteristics. These extension specialists, researchers, finan- include soil type, fertility, structure and cial institutions, governmental agencies, drainage, previous crops and rotations, and others for making decisions in the air drainage and wind exposure, field food and fiber industry. access, and surrounding crops and/ Small fruit production has the or field borders. Each of these topics potential to generate significant income is discussed in greater detail as they on small acreages and limited-resource apply to individual crops and pests in farms. This profit potential, however, later chapters; general considerations comes with a considerable amount of that apply to all berry crops are briefly risk. Unfortunately, it is not uncommon discussed below. to lose a crop due to frost or disease. Crop insurance is not available for Soil Type, Structure, and Drainage individual berry crops, but whole-farm Growers may not be able to change the revenue protection can be obtained soil type (sand, silt, or clay) on their through the use of adjusted gross farms, but they can improve its structure, revenue insurance (either AGR or AGR- primarily through practices that improve Lite). Initial investment is high, and the organic matter content. Berry crops substantial annual cost of production generally perform best in sandy soils; requires you to be able to financially however, a high organic matter content weather annual cash flow demands (and (minimum of 2 percent; 5 percent the costs associated with preproductive preferred) can do much for improving years in fruit crops). Availability of labor, plant growth, even in a heavy clay soil. 2 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Small fruit crops grow best on a site fruit ripens more evenly. Rows that run have residual herbicide carryover, which with well-drained soil because of their with the wind will dry more quickly can damage new berry plantings. susceptibility to a number of root rots. than those that block the wind. The best Problematic Preceding Crops On sites where internal soil drainage is orientation for each site will vary. For Certain soilborne pathogens that infect marginal, small fruit crops have been example, a grower on a level breezy site many small fruits can build up in associ- grown with better success on raised beds with prevailing winds from the west ation with other crops. Among the most where excess water can drain away from may decide to orient the rows east to widespread and commonly troublesome the root zone. Tile drainage can provide west, while a grower on a protected site of these problems are plant-parasitic some benefits as well. Wet sites should with little wind may prefer north-to- nematodes (microscopic eelworms be avoided. south rows. There are other aspects to that parasitize plant roots), especially consider as well, such as slope and soil Air Drainage dagger (Xiphinema spp.) and lesion erosion potential, which may override Select sites with good air drainage. Air (Pratylenchus spp.) nematodes. These other considerations. On sloping sites, drainage refers to a slow movement nematodes feed on many species of rows should run across the slope. of air through the planting site due to plants including previous small fruit and differences in air temperature and air Availability of Irrigation Water tree fruit crops, legumes such as clover, density. This is not to be confused with Berry crops have relatively shallow root alfalfa, and vetch, and weeds. Dagger wind exposure, where plantings are systems and, consequently, are sensitive nematodes vector the tomato ringspot exposed to high-velocity winds. Good to moisture stress during dry spells. In virus (TmRSV) to small fruit crops. All air drainage reduces the potential for addition, the need for frost protection sites should be checked for potentially frost damage—a serious problem with with strawberries and blueberries makes damaging populations of plant-parasitic strawberries and, less frequently, with overhead irrigation capability highly nematodes 1 to 2 years before planting, blueberries. It also promotes drying and desirable for consistent year-to-year when steps to reduce these pathogens less humidity within the planting, which production. Sites with an ample water can be more easily taken. If high popula- in turn reduces the potential for prob- supply are much better suited to small tions of plant-parasitic nematodes are lems with foliar and fruit diseases. fruit production than those without found, special rotational crops (for access to water, especially considering dagger nematodes) or soil fumigation Wind Exposure the value of the crops and potential are usually required to reduce damaging Constant winds can desiccate plantings, income lost due to moisture stress or populations (see Chapter 3 for more especially over the winter. Additionally, frost damage. information on management options). while pollination is aided by wind in General information on sampling for small fruit, the stigma, a female flower Field Borders nematodes is presented in later sections part, can dry and become unreceptive Uncultivated land and certain crops of Chapter 1; Appendix B contains to pollen quickly in hot, dry winds. bordering small fruit crops can be sampling instructions and information Protected sites should be selected, sources of pests and pathogens. These specific to various labs to which samples or protection should be provided by include strawberry clipper beetles from can be sent. planting windbreaks or using other woodlots and fencerows; plant bugs, In addition to nematodes, fields means for moderation. In general, 8 spittlebugs, and leafhoppers from previously planted to tomato, potato, feet of wind protection occurs for each various forages; Japanese beetles from tobacco, eggplant, pepper, cucurbits, foot of vertical height of the windbreak. sod; and sap beetles from various fruits and some strawberry, black raspberry, If a living windbreak is planted, the and vegetables. In addition, viruses and blackberry cultivars may have plant species used should not readily and orange rust fungus from wild or well-established populations of the sucker or produce seed. Options besides abandoned small fruit crops can infect verticillium wilt fungus. Fields previ- windbreaks to minimize damage from new plantings. While eradicating wild ously planted to strawberries may have wind exposure are floating row covers berry plants may not be possible, any high populations of the soilborne fungus with plasticulture strawberries; straw (or measures that can be taken to keep Phytophthora fragaria, which causes red snow in some locations) for matted-row plantings as far from wild plants as stele or other root-rotting diseases. Fields strawberries; and trellising for brambles possible will be helpful. These problems planted to other fruit may harbor other to minimize cane breakage. and their management are discussed in Phytophthora species. detail in crop-specific chapters. Row Orientation Small fruit crops should not be Recommendations are often given to Crop rotation planted immediately after a heavy sod, orient rows north to south, or to orient Which crop(s) precede a berry crop can as the plants may suffer severe root rows with the prevailing wind. In make the difference between having a damage caused by high populations practice, however, these two recommen- healthy planting and having a disaster. of white grubs (large, fleshy, C-shaped dations often conflict with each other. Certain crops can encourage a buildup larvae of June beetles and other species North-to-south rows intercept sunlight of pathogens to which berry crops are of beetles) feeding on the roots. If a more evenly than east-to-west rows; susceptible. Other crops have beneficial sod-covered area must be used, plant hence, sunscald is less problematic and effects. Previous annual field crops may corn or a small grain for at least 1 year Chapter 1 ❦ Preplant Considerations 3 before planting strawberries, use the exception of nematodes and verticillium destroy the established soil ecosystem, rapeseed rotation with plow down wilt on susceptible cucurbit cultivars. along with its established population of outlined in Appendix A, or treat with Sudangrass or sorghum/sudangrass organisms that feed on berry plants. This a preplant insecticide. In addition to hybrids can do much to increase soil can mean chemical fumigation or—in potential problems with high grub organic matter content. Cover crops the case where dagger nematodes are populations, grass can become a serious and green manures that can be used in the only problem—biofumigation using weed problem in strawberry plantings, rotations are discussed in detail in the certain green manure crops. Once this as can other certain species. Avoid sites following chapter on soil management is accomplished, newly set plants can heavily infested with sedge, nutgrass, and nutrition. establish themselves. Chemical fumiga- quackgrass, Johnsongrass, and/or tion is discussed in Chapter 3. Some thistles, or treat with systemic herbicides Determining Whether Fumigation environmentally friendly alternatives to before planting. Cover cropping with Is Warranted fumigation, and the topic of biofumiga- certain cover crops for 1 to 2 years before tion, are discussed in the chapter on soil In most cases, small fruit crops can be planting is also a good way to reduce management and nutrition. When high successfully grown without fumigation. weed species at a given site. nematode populations are suspected, Fumigation is not routinely recom- Finally, raspberries are particularly test soil for nematodes as described mended in the Mid-Atlantic region susceptible to crown gall disease (caused below. when long crop rotations can be used for by the bacterium Agrobacterium tumefa- disease, insect, and weed management. SAMPLING FOR NEMATODES ciens). Sites with a history of crown gall Long rotations provide opportunities Nematode assay packets are avail- are best used for other less-sensitive to minimize many problems during the able from locations listed in Appendix crops such as strawberries, blueber- growth cycle of other crops. Beneficial B. Since nematodes are usually not ries, and vegetables. Soil fumigation is practices such as selecting cultivars uniformly distributed in a field, you not generally effective in eliminating a with disease resistance and maintaining should follow a carefully prescribed crown gall problem. a high organic matter content can also sampling procedure to obtain root Planting in areas where field crops, contribute substantially toward making and soil samples representative of the particularly field corn and soybeans, fumigation unnecessary. However, in area surveyed. Samples can be taken were previously grown takes advantage some cases, such as when a grower has anytime, as long as the soil is moist and of residual fertility and weed control, but limited acreage, long rotations are not the temperature is above 40°F. If there beware of possible herbicide carryover possible. has been a prolonged dry spell, or if the that can seriously damage newly set When fruit sites are replanted to soil has been saturated with water for fruit plants. Tissue culture–produced fruit crops, the plants often show signs an extended period, wait until normal plants are particularly susceptible to any of early plant decline or fail to reach soil moisture conditions return before residual herbicide. A bioassay to test for their full productive level. Physical sampling. To take samples, follow these safety can be conducted by germinating and biological reasons cause such poor steps. seedlings of a susceptible crop in soil performance. Small fruit crops are If the area to be sampled is fairly from the field to be used (see Appendix perennial, and populations of soilborne uniform and not too large (less than one A for details on steps to follow). plant pathogens and plant-parasitic acre), one composite sample will suffice. Desirable Preceding Crops nematodes can increase over time in If the area is larger, divide the site Small-grain crops such as oats, rye, and and around the plant root zone. On into smaller sections of approximately wheat are good choices for the year or new sites with low populations of plant equal size and take composite samples two before planting, as they increase pathogens, plants have a window of from each block. Keep in mind that the organic matter while supporting few several years before pathogen popula- smaller the area sampled, the more accu- of the pests that can attack small fruit tions reach damaging levels as long as rately the sample will represent the site. plantings. Field and sweet corn, due clean planting stock is used. On old fruit In each field to be assayed, take to herbicides that can be used in corn sites or other sites with high popula- a sample from each area that has a production, can afford an opportunity tions of pathogens and plant-parasitic common cropping history and that to control problem weeds in a field, but nematodes, however, the roots of newly will be planted with a single crop. For herbicide carryover can be a problem. If set fruit plants come under attack early, example, if a one-acre field is to be triazine herbicides were used, a bioassay shortening the productive life of the planted with strawberries and if half the should be done to test for residual herbi- planting. In addition, soil compaction field was in pumpkins last season and cide before planting a berry crop (see with resultant decreased internal water the rest was fallow, collect a sample from Appendix A for information on how to drainage adds to the stress on peren- each area. do this). Plants in the grass family (small nial plants over time. This is especially If the soil in the area to be sampled grains and corn) do not become infected true for many small fruit crops where is variable, such as being composed of with crown gall or TmRSV. Pumpkins the root zone is fairly shallow. For this a heavy clay soil in one portion and a and other vine crops have few pests reason, when old sites are replanted, sandy soil in another, take one composite in common with berry crops, with the fumigating first is often necessary to sample from each soil type. 4 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Preferably using a 1-by-12-inch gation protocol is found in Appendix tices contained in the National Organic sampling tube (or a trowel, small shovel, A: Expanded Special Topics. A second Standards (NOS) and must be certified or similar tool if a sampling tube is option is to use chemical fumigation. by a USDA-accredited certifying agency. unavailable), take at least 20 cores of The latter may be warranted especially Growers whose annual gross income soil from each sampling area. Samples when soilborne diseases or weeds are a from organic products is $5,000 or less should be taken to a depth of 8 to 10 problem as well. can be exempted from certification. In inches. this case growers must continue to use Soil samples should be taken from the Choosing a Source of Plants production and handling practices in area where the feeder roots are found. accordance with the NOS, and some The most important decisions affecting Therefore, if a crop is present, take restrictions regarding labeling and the profitability of fruit operations are samples from within the rows and avoid combination with other organic products made before planting. The quality of the the row middles. apply. Certified organic production is plants purchased is important. Plants Do not sample from dead or nearly typically preceded by a three-year transi- labeled or sold as “registered” stock, dead plants. Nematodes feed on live tion phase during which prohibited available from nurseries in a few states, roots and may migrate away from materials cannot be used. If prohibited are grown from tested virus-free parent dying plants. Therefore, when sampling materials have not been applied to an plants in isolation under supervision problem areas, take samples from adja- area, the transition phase may be less from each state’s Department of Agri- cent plants that either appear healthy or than three years. culture. When available, these plants are show early symptoms of stress. Consider the following questions best for any long-term investment. Plants before initiating organic production: Handling Nematode Samples sold as “certified” are good, but they are Samples must be properly handled and not the same as registered stock. Certified 1. Does a market for organic berries shipped to ensure that the nematodes stock is grown under state supervision exist in your area? remain alive until they are processed in and is inspected and found to be free of 2. Are adequate resources and materials the laboratory. Make certain to include most diseases and insects, but the plants available to produce an organic crop, all the information requested on the may still harbor some viruses, diseases, particularly in the area of pest and nematode assay form that you receive or insects. Plants propagated from fertility management? with the assay packet. This information your own fields or other unsupervised 3. Are you willing to devote more time is needed for identifying the sample sources, even when they appear healthy, to monitoring pests? and helping to interpret assay data. If are a risky choice because they may be 4. Are you willing to devote more time you collect more than one sample, you symptomless carriers of viruses, patho- to managing soil fertility? must assign a field number to each genic fungi, insects, and bacteria. Given 5. Are you willing to devote more time area sampled and place that number in the cost of establishing the planting and to record keeping? the appropriate area of the form. Each potential profit that can come from a If you answered “yes” to all of the above, plastic bag should be sealed tightly by healthy planting, choosing a certain plant organic production may be for you. tying it with a twist tie. A separate assay source because it is the cheapest option Organic, sustainable, and conven- packet must be used for each composite is often a poor way to try to save money. tional small fruit growers use many sample. Nursery sources for small fruit plants are of the same management practices. Keep samples out of direct sunlight to listed in Appendix C. However, for organic growers some avoid overheating. Samples may also be management practices may differ in damaged by heat if they are stored in the Organic Production following the new production and trunk of a car or other hot location. Use handling requirements contained in Organic produce is currently the fastest- a Styrofoam cooler to keep samples cool. the NOS (the standard can be viewed growing market segment in produce Heat kills nematodes, and dead nema- at www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/nop). sales. If produce is to be grown organi- todes are unsuitable for identification. Also, the importance of cultural controls cally, many factors need to be considered When the assay forms are completely is amplified in organic production, and long before planting begins. filled out and the plastic bags are sealed, maintenance of soil fertility requires Initial investment in organic production place the samples in a suitable container more planning compared to conven- is high due to certification costs and and send or bring them promptly to tional production. This topic is discussed increased time and labor for manage- your closest nematode diagnostic lab more fully in the next chapter. ment; however, returns can be on (see Appendix B for addresses). Delivery Growers beginning the transition average 10 to 20 percent higher than within 1 to 2 days is imperative. from nonorganic to organic production on conventionally produced products, If results from the nematode test may wish to consider a pretransition provided that a premium market can be indicate that control is warranted, one phase if pest pressures are high in the identified. option is to use biofumigation with planting area. A pretransition phase is a The U.S. Department of Agriculture a green manure crop as described in cross between organic and nonorganic (USDA) regulates the term “organic.” To Chapter 2. A step-by-step description production. During this phase, conven- become certified organic, growers must of a more involved two-year biofumi- tional pesticides are used along with follow production and handling prac- Chapter 1 ❦ Preplant Considerations 5 organic tactics to reduce pest pressures. Once pest pressures are reduced, organic pest-management measures are used exclusively. Growers may market berries from wild plantings as organic, providing prohibited products (see www.ams .usda.gov/AMSv1.0/nop) have not been applied to the planting in the three years prior to harvesting. Also, the berries must be harvested so that the environment is not harmed and the planting will grow and produce berries in subsequent years. Consult local and state regulations concerning gathering berries from property that is not privately owned. 6 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 7

Chapter 2 Introduction of combined subsamples from the entire area. Distinct geographical areas Maintaining a productive soil is funda- or known soil type variations within Soil mental to growing a healthy crop. Soil the site should be sampled separately. fertility programs should optimize Sample to a depth of at least 8 inches nutrient availability with long-term and be careful not to expose your soil Management management in mind. The first step to sample to cardboard glue, as some glues understanding your soil is to conduct a may contain boron and can contaminate and soil test. From this test, key factors such the sample, resulting in inaccurate as soil pH, phosphorus, potassium, and results. After plant establishment, tissue Nutrition for micronutrient levels can be determined, testing in conjunction with soil testing is as well as organic matter content. Early recommended as the primary means of Berry Crops adjustments in nutrients and organic guiding nutrient adjustments. matter levels are critical to success and General information on nutrient are made through the application of application is presented below, with liming materials, fertilizers, composts, information provided on both inorganic animal manure, and/or growth of a fertilizer application and application of green manure crop. It is much more nutrients through the use of composts effective, and often safer for the and manures. Additional information plants, to incorporate most granular or specific to individual crops (such as with Contents powdered materials, with the exception plasticulture strawberries and blueber- of nitrogen fertilizers, into the root zone ries) is presented under “Nutrition” in Introduction...... 7 prior to planting rather than applying individual crop chapters. Meeting the Crop’s Nutrient them to the surface after planting. Requirements...... 7 Throughout the life of the planting, soil Soil pH and Adjustment Soil Testing...... 7 nutrient levels should be adjusted using The pH level of soil can affect the avail- Soil pH and Adjustment...... 7 the information obtained from tissue ability and uptake of mineral nutrients. Use of Inorganic Fertilizers...... 8 tests and subsequent soil tests. Strawberries, raspberries, and Ribes Adding Nutrients with Composts and (gooseberries and currants) prefer a soil Manures...... 9 pH of 6.0 to 6.5, while blueberries perform Value of Organic Matter ...... 11 meeting the crop’s nutrient best in soil with a pH of 4.5 to 5.0. Biofumigation: Managing Dagger Nematodes requirements with Green Manures ...... 13 soil testing Raising the Soil pH: Liming Which Rapeseed Varieties to Plant...... 13 A soil sample should be obtained The amount of lime required to adjust Keeping Your Nutrient Program on Track: and analyzed at least a year prior to the soil pH is based not only on the Plant Tissue Analysis...... 13 original pH of the soil, but also on the Nutrient Management Plans...... 14 planting blueberries and at least 6 months prior to planting other berry buffering capacity of the soil and the crops. If a green manure crop will be target pH for each crop. This buffering grown prior to planting the berry crop, capacity is higher in soils with higher a preliminary sample can be submitted amounts of clay and organic matter, to obtain fertilizer recommendations so different soils will require different for the green manure crop, with a later amounts of lime to produce the same pH sample submitted for the berry crop. change. Therefore, conducting a soil test Making adjustments according to the is the most accurate way to determine soil test before planting brings initial the lime requirement of a given soil. soil nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, However, in the event that a soil sample calcium, and magnesium to appropriate is not submitted, ballpark amounts of levels. In particular, applications of lime required for raising the soil pH to 6.5 are given in Table 2.1. phosphorus (phosphate or P O ) and 2 5 If magnesium levels are already potassium (potash or K O) and the 2 sufficient, calcitic lime should be used adjustment of pH are needed to optimize to raise the pH. However, when magne- the growth of plants. A soil test is the sium is low, dolomitic limestone can be only way to accurately determine the used. Growers commonly assume that pH level and lime or sulfur require- dolomitic limestone is the best material ment. In sandy soils, or on sites where to use in either case, providing extra strawberries will be planted, also check magnesium as a bonus in addition to boron levels. Samples should be repre- adjusting the pH. However, potassium sentative of the planting site, consisting deficiency commonly occurs with small 8 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 fruit crops in the Mid-Atlantic region— following year. Reactions with sulfate planting. Surface applications later in even on soils with adequate potassium— forms such as iron sulfate do not require the life of the planting generally have which is usually caused by competition soil microorganisms for acidifying effects little impact and are either bound to between magnesium and potassium ions to take place. Additional details on the the surface or washed away by heavy for uptake. Applying dolomitic lime processes and effects of soil acidification rains. Excess phosphorus application can when magnesium is already sufficient are presented in Chapter 7. result in deficiencies of micronutrients, in the soil aggravates this situation. especially zinc, in small fruit crops and Use of Inorganic Fertilizers Excessive liming, regardless of source, also contributes to eutrophication of Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, can increase the soil pH beyond what is waterways. calcium, and magnesium are the recommended and result in suboptimal Potassium moves into the fruit in rela- elements required in the highest quanti- plant growth and development. This is tively large quantities during ripening ties in small fruit plantings and need to partly because the availability of many and, therefore, is readily lost through be added most frequently. Manganese, nutrients is limited at high pH levels. harvesting and by leaching through the iron, copper, and zinc, among others, are For example, overliming (and excessive soil beyond the root zone. Additional taken up in much smaller quantities and, soil phosphorus levels) can tie up zinc, potassium amendments are often part of unless a tissue test indicates low levels, making it unavailable to the plant. If a fertility maintenance program. Potas- do not need to be added. In certain soil tests indicate that more than 4,000 sium uptake can be negatively affected situations, boron, which is easily leached pounds (2 tons) per acre of lime are by high calcium and, especially, magne- from the soil, should be monitored and needed, apply half of the total require- sium levels. Consequently, an excess of added routinely. ment in each of two successive years any one of these elements can cause the Nitrogen is the primary element before planting rather than in large others to appear deficient. required for vegetative growth. Soil amounts in a single season. Lime does Soil calcium levels are generally suffi- nitrogen tests have not correlated well not move well through the soil profile, cient for berry crops within the region, with plant growth. This is because soil so the soil must be worked thoroughly to as long as the soil pH is in the correct nitrogen is present in several different ensure even distribution in the root zone. range. Adjustments of pH through the forms, which are in constant states of use of lime provide additional calcium Lowering the Soil pH: Adding Sulfur flux, and only a small proportion is beyond that already present in the soil. Typically, the pH needs to be lowered in forms available to the plants at any Calcium deficiencies—when they do only when a crop such as blueberries given time. Nitrogen requirements after occur—are often more likely due to dry is being grown. However, occasionally, planting are best determined by tissue soil conditions or an uneven moisture the pH also needs to be lowered when analysis. Also, plant vigor provides supply, especially when plants are overliming has taken place. Sulfur is the many clues to nitrogen levels. If plants growing rapidly, rather than a true material most commonly used, either are not growing as vigorously as they calcium deficiency in the soil. Calcium in the pure form of a powder (ground should be and are an even light green, deficiency symptoms on strawberry sulfur, also called elemental sulfur) or nitrogen deficiency should be suspected. leaves (appearing as a tipburn), for as a salt such as iron sulfate. A table of As with liming, excessive nitrogen example, most frequently appear during sulfur amounts needed to lower the pH fertilization can lead to production prob- dry spells in the spring. This problem to various levels is contained in the blue- lems, including greater susceptibility to can be made worse by high relative berry chapter. If iron sulfate is used to diseases and winter-kill. humidity. This is because calcium moves lower the soil pH, more material will be Phosphorus is especially important into the plant with moisture flow, and needed to have an equivalent effect (see during the early establishment years. when water isn’t moving evenly into Chapter 7 for further details). Ammo- Because its mobility in the soil profile is the plant, calcium uptake is negatively nium sulfate, when used as a nitrogen limited, phosphorus should be worked affected. In the unusual situation where source, is also effective in maintaining well into the rooting zone prior to and sometimes decreasing a low soil pH. Aluminum sulfate is frequently sold but should be avoided for large pH changes Table 2.1. Pounds of lime with a CCE (calcium carbonate equivalent) of 100 needed per due to potential aluminum toxicity. acre to maintain or raise the soil pH to 6.5. The amount of time required to lower Soil Texture the soil pH varies with the acidifying Initial Soil pH Loamy Sand Sandy Loam Loam Silt Loam Clay Loam material used. The reaction of elemental 4.1–4.4 4,500 5,400 9,800 11,600 23,300 sulfur (also known as ground or powdered sulfur) with the soil is depen- 4.5–4.8 3,600 4,500 8,100 9,800 18,800 dent on soil microorganisms, which 4.9–5.2 2,700 3,600 6,300 8,100 15,200 are not active until soil temperatures 5.3–5.6 1,800 2,700 4,500 6,300 12,500 warm in the spring. Thus, elemental 5.7–6.0 900 1,800 3,600 4,500 8,100 sulfur applied in the fall may have little 6.1–6.4 500 900 1,800 3,600 5,400 effect in lowering the soil pH until the Above 6.5 0 0 0 0 2,700 Chapter 2 ❦ Soil Management and Nutrition for Berry Crops 9 calcium needs to be added without products typically release nutrients Finished compost typically contains raising the soil pH, gypsum (calcium more slowly as compared to synthetic 0.5 to 2.5 percent total nitrogen. Most of sulfate) can be used. fertilizers. To ensure that plants receive the nitrogen is in an organic or slow- Magnesium levels are generally adequate nutrients, apply products with release form. As a general rule, about sufficient in the soil for strawberry and organic nutrient sources 2 to 4 weeks 10 percent of the organic nitrogen in bramble production within the Mid- prior to the time nutrients are needed by the compost will be available to the Atlantic region. However, magnesium the plants. plant per year. Phosphorus in composts, is frequently deficient for blueberries in like nitrogen, is largely in a form not Adding Nutrients with Composts “upland soils” where soil calcium levels available for plant use. As phosphorus and Manures are often too high for optimum blue- is changed to a form useable by plants, Composts and raw manures can be an berry production. In situations where some of it binds to soil particles and is important part of nutrient manage- magnesium needs to be added and the again unavailable for plant use. Because ment for small fruit crops. In addition soil pH is sufficient or shouldn’t be of this, compost generally contains very to adding nutrients to the soil, they can raised, Epsom salts (magnesium sulfate) little phosphorus for plant use, and improve long-term soil health. Composts or Mag-Ox can be used. phosphorus from other sources is typi- and manures can be best utilized when Boron levels should be above 1½ cally needed to meet plant requirements. used in combination with other nutrient pounds per acre (¾ ppm in the soil) in The plant-unavailable phosphorus forms management strategies including sandy soils for any berry crop, or in any can, however, tie up micronutrients. green manures, fertilizers, and crop soil planted to strawberries. Ten pounds Potassium in compost is readily avail- rotations to keep nutrients balanced. of boron per acre (5 ppm in the soil) is able for plant use, but it is water soluble Before adding compost or manure to toxic to most fruit plants. If boron is and can leach out of compost piles. fields, check state regulations because deficient, mix boron with your fertilizer, Placing a cover over a compost pile can some states have implemented or are and soil incorporate the mixture before help reduce the amount on potassium in the process of implementing nutrient planting. There is a very narrow range lost to leaching. In addition to deter- management legislation to address between boron deficiency and boron mining the nutrient content of compost, nutrient pollution problems. Depending toxicity, so when applying boron, be sure its pH should be determined, particu- on the state in which you reside and that the rate applied is accurate across larly if it is intended for use in blueberry your type of farming operation, you the entire field. If boron deficiency is production, as the pH is usually between may be required to develop and follow suspected after planting and a tissue 6.5 and 7.5. a nutrient management plan. Timing test confirms the diagnosis, correct the When using compost, applying it the application of organic nutrients is deficiency with either a Solubor foliar based on crop needs rather than on a different from that of adding chemical spray at bloom or a topdressing to the depth basis is best for long-term soil fertilizers because nutrients are gener- soil in the fall. A foliar spray is preferred, health. Studies have shown that this is ally slowly made available to plants, as the likelihood of inaccurate applica- especially the case when growing in high and timing must be adjusted to account tion is less. Very small amounts (4/5 tunnels, which exclude rain. The rain for decomposition and the subsequent pound of actual boron (B) per acre to the assists in the breakdown of compost but release of nutrients. Applying compost soil, or ¹/ pound per acre to the foliage) also leaches some nutrients and salts. ³ or manure too late can result in vigorous are sufficient to correct most deficiencies. Applying compost on a depth basis plant growth late in the season, which Maintain healthy root growth through in high tunnels (or other production can delay hardening off of the plant and the summer to facilitate boron uptake. systems to a lesser extent) can increase lead to winter injury. Note, too, that boron is less available to soil nutrient and soluble salts to well plants at soil pH levels above 6.0 to 6.5. Compost above optimum levels, thereby compro- Under marginally deficient conditions, The nutrient content of compost varies mising yields. Compost can be applied foliar applications of phosphorus can depending on source materials and based on the amount of nitrogen, phos- precipitate boron in the tissues, causing composting protocols used. As a result, phorus, or potassium needs of the crop, a deficiency, which in turn can result in compost should be tested to determine of which nitrogen is often most limiting. significant crop loss. the amount of nutrients it contains, as To calculate how much compost failure to do so may result in under- or to apply based on the nitrogen needs Additional Considerations for Organic of a crop, first determine the amount Growers overapplication of certain nutrients. When a nutrient is overapplied, imbal- of organic and ammonium nitrogen In organic production, maintenance of ances that are frequently difficult to contained in the compost and convert soil fertility is primarily managed by correct result. Various university and these values to pounds per ton (see reliance on nutrient cycling (i.e., slow private laboratories offer a compost the example below). Generally, these nutrient release from plant, animal, and analysis. The types of tests available values are given in units of pounds per mineral sources). However, commer- and costs vary considerably with each ton, milligrams per kilogram (which is cial “fertilizers” derived from natural laboratory and are subject to change. See equivalent to parts per million), or as sources that meet the requirements of Appendix B for contact information of a percentage. Multiply milligrams per the NOS are also available for use. These laboratories in the region. kilogram by 0.002 to convert to pounds 10 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 per ton. If these values are given as a by 20 = 22 pounds of organic nitrogen several factors including the feed the percentage, multiply the numeral of the contained per ton of compost. source animal was provided, presence percentage by 20 to convert to pounds Convert 451.6 mg/kg ammonium N of bedding in the manure, and manure per ton. to lbs per ton by multiplying by 0.002 handling procedures. Also, nutrient Next, determine how much nitrogen = 0.9 pounds ammonium per ton. availability decreases as the manure will be available from the compost in the ages. As with composts, manures should • Step 2: Determine how much nitrogen first year after application by multi- be tested for nutrient content to avoid will be made available to the plant plying the organic nitrogen by a miner- over- or underapplying various nutri- by multiplying 22 pounds of total alization rate and adding that to the ents. Manure is typically applied based nitrogen per ton by a 20 percent amount of ammonium. Compost must on the nitrogen needs of the crop. Fact mineralization rate = 4.4 pounds of be decomposed for organic nitrogen to sheets are available through coopera- available nitrogen per ton of compost. be converted to plant available nitrogen. tive extension with detailed calculations Add to that the amount of ammo- The mineralization rate accounts for this for determining application rates for nium available; 4.4 + 0.9 = 5.3 pounds conversion. Mineralization rates can manures. per ton available nitrogen in the range from 10 to 40 percent. The range is Nitrogen contained in manures is in compost. wide because many factors affect miner- the form of ammonia or ammonium, alization rates, including soil moisture, • Step 3: Determine how much compost which can be quickly lost through vola- the population of soil microbes decom- to apply. Thirty pounds of nitrogen tilization to the atmosphere. To avoid posing the compost, soil temperature, needed per acre divided by 5.3 this nitrogen loss, raw manures should compost particle size, the makeup of the pounds of nitrogen available per ton be soil incorporated when possible. Soil compost, depth of incorporation of the = 5.7 tons of compost needed per acre. incorporating manures can be a chal- compost, and so forth. A conservative Accepted values of plant availability lenge for small fruit crops because the mineralization estimate is 10 percent. of phosphorus and potassium from plants are perennial and have shallow However, using 10 percent can result compost are not established, but keep root systems that can be damaged in excess nitrogen in the soil relative in mind that little phosphorus is readily during incorporation. Applying raw to plant demand, which can result in available to plants, while much of the manures to the small fruit crop can also the plant sacrificing fruit production potassium is in plant-available forms damage the plants because of potentially for vegetative growth, among other and is probably available within the first high nitrogen and salt levels. Addition- problems, so a 20 percent mineralization year. ally, raw manures can be contaminated rate is probably a good starting point. with microorganisms that cause human When a higher rate of mineralization is Additional Considerations for Organic disease, which can be transferred to Growers expected—for example, if growing in a fruit. Applying manure well in advance According to the NOS, compost can hot climate, when using certain plastic of fruit production (e.g., in the fall) be applied as necessary, provided mulches (soil temperatures may be or as mandated for organic growers the compost meets the C:N ratio and higher), or when using drip irrigation (see section below) is recommended. temperature requirements and has not (soil moisture may be more uniform)— Manures often have high weed seed been treated with prohibited substances. consider using an even higher mineral- levels, which complicate production. It When using compost, it must have a C:N ization rate. has been documented on vegetable crops ratio between 25:1 and 40:1. In addition, The final step is to determine the that as manures decompose they can when using an in-vessel or static aerated amount of compost to apply by dividing release compounds, which, when taken pile system for composting, the pile the amount of nitrogen needed by the up, can lead to off-flavors and odors, must reach and remain at a temperature amount of nitrogen available in the though this has not been investigated between 131°F and 170°F for a minimum compost. Remember to subtract nitrogen with small fruit crops. For these reasons, of 3 days. If using a windrow system added from other sources (e.g., green raw manures are better suited for incor- for composting, the pile temperature manures or fertilizers) from the nitrogen poration during soil preparation prior must be maintained between 131°F and needed. to planting rather than after the crop has 170°F for a minimum of 15 days and been planted. Composted manures are Example: A compost has 1.1 percent turned a minimum of five times during a better option for application after the organic nitrogen and 451.6 mg/kg that time. A compost log should be crop has been planted. ammonium nitrogen on a wet-weight used to document that the composting Using sewage sludge is not recom- basis, and a planting needs 30 pounds of procedure meets protocol. If the compost mended. Individual state regulations nitrogen per acre. used is purchased, it must also have may require a permit for application, been produced in adherence with these • Step 1: Convert the organic and and state guidelines for application requirements. ammonium nitrogen levels to pounds must be strictly followed. However, the per ton. Raw Manures use of sewage sludge is permitted by Convert the percent organic nitrogen Tables listing the nutrient content of federal and some state regulations for to pounds per ton by multiplying 1.1 different manures are available for use. production of certain crops. If opting Nutrient content varies depending on to use sewage sludge, carefully follow Chapter 2 ❦ Soil Management and Nutrition for Berry Crops 11 established guidelines and consult your the nutrient-holding capacity of the soil, Gather information on weed density and local county extension educator. Some organic matter also increases the water- types by visually inspecting the field. labs offer a soil amendment test to assist and air-holding capacity. Soil organic Since the majority of small fruit crops growers in making sound management matter can be increased through the are grown in perennial systems, peren- decisions when considering use of alter- on-site growth and incorporation of green nial weeds tend to be a larger concern native soil amendments such as sewage manure crops or through the addition of than annual weeds. Soil samples can be sludge (see Appendix B for a list of organic matter produced elsewhere in the collected to determine the planting site laboratories). This test includes analyses form of composts or manures. soil’s nematode populations and organic for standard nutrients plus potential matter and nutrient content. Results Green Manure Crops metal and heavy metal contaminants. from nematode tests will reveal the types Seeding a cover crop (green manure) In addition, the facility producing the and abundance of nematodes present. on a site the year before planting is an sludge may have test results available to Dagger and lesion nematodes negatively excellent way to improve the soil organic those obtaining sludge. affect small fruit production. If dagger matter content, add nitrogen to the soil, nematodes are present, they can be Additional Considerations for Organic scavenge soil nutrients, and/or manage managed using rapeseed green manure Growers plant-parasitic nematodes (discussed crops or nematicides. Lesion nematodes According to the NOS, raw animal further in the next section). At or before are currently managed with nematicides. manures can be used whenever needed flowering, the green manure is chopped Results from the soil analysis will reveal on fields planted with crops not and incorporated (i.e., turned under), by the percentage organic matter (keep in intended for human consumption, such plowing, disking, or rototilling, where it mind that this test needs to be specifi- as on green manures or cover crops. breaks down and adds organic matter. cally requested from most labs), the soil When raw manures are used on fields For spring-planted small fruit crops, pH, nutrient levels in the soil, and crop that are planted in crops for human green manures are usually incorporated needs for added nitrogen, phosphate, consumption with the edible part of the in the late fall or early spring. Green and potash. Soils for growing berry crop not in contact with the soil (e.g., manures with low nitrogen content crops should contain a minimum of 2 trellised brambles, highbush blueberries, (most grains and dry grasses) should percent organic matter with 5 percent gooseberries, currants), the raw manure be plowed under in the fall. This allows preferred. Results of this assessment of must be soil incorporated a minimum adequate time for them to break down the current condition of the planting area of 90 days before harvest. When raw and prevents soil nitrogen tie-up. Green will be used to decide on the primary manures are applied to fields with a crop manures in the legume (clovers and purpose of the green manure. for human consumption and the edible vetches) family contain more nitrogen part of the crop is in contact with the soil than other green manures and can be (2) Identifying the primary purpose (e.g., strawberries), the manure must turned under in early spring, a month or of a green manure. Many green be soil incorporated a minimum of 120 so before small fruit crops are planted. manure crops are available for meeting days before harvest. The use of sewage site-specific soil-improvement goals. sludge is prohibited in certified organic Selecting a Green Manure Crop Green manures can be used to provide production. Which green manure crop is best nitrogen, increase the organic matter for your particular situation can be content, suppress weeds, scavenge nutri- value of Organic Matter decided by: (1) determining the weed ents in the soil, and/or manage plant- Organic matter does much to improve the and nematode populations, as well as parasitic nematodes. It is likely that more structure of the soil, sometimes referred organic matter and nutrient status of than one goal will be identified for a site. to as “soil tilth.” It also binds excess the planting area; (2) identifying the Goals will need to be prioritized, and nutrients and releases them slowly as it primary purpose of the green manure; some may need to be addressed by other decomposes. Organic matter therefore (3) determining the time of year and means, as one green manure generally tends to buffer the effects of inorganic length of time the green manure will cannot fulfill all needs. fertilizer application, smoothing peaks be grown; and (4) giving consideration Providing nitrogen. If, based on and dips in availability. Organic matter to factors specific to your operation. By your assessment of prior growth on the that is high in nutrients relative to following these steps, you can select a site or expected subsequent crop needs, the amount of carbon it contains (e.g., green manure crop that best suits your nitrogen is of primary concern, legumes composted chicken manure) almost needs. Finding a green manure that are the best choice. They are able to immediately begins releasing some nutri- meets all goals for improving soil can establish relationships with soilborne ents and continues to release additional be difficult; you will most likely have to “nitrogen-fixing” bacteria that remove nutrients as the material decomposes. make trade-offs. nitrogen from the atmosphere and Organic matter high in carbon rela- (1) Determining the weed and nema- change it into a form that the plant can tive to the amount of nutrients (e.g., tode populations and organic matter use. As a result, the tissues of legumi- sawdust) can tie up nutrients, especially and nutrient status of the planting nous crops have a lot of nitrogen relative when fresh. Eventually, as the material area. The first step in selecting a green to the amount of carbon, which results decomposes, these “tied up” nutrients manure is to become familiar with the in their rapid decomposition when are released. In addition to increasing current condition of the planting area. incorporated into the soil. This results in 12 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 a relatively quick release of nitrogen, but be used for management. As an alterna- If blueberries, you should choose a green the amount of organic matter retained tive to chemical fumigation, a variety of manure that grows well in soils with a in the soil is limited over the long term. novel rotations and green manures for pH similar to blueberry plants (4.5 to Each leguminous crop differs in the nematode management have been evalu- 5.0)—for example, buckwheat. amount of nitrogen added to the soil. ated. This work has shown that some Once these factors have been consid- Information is available on amount of plants can naturally reduce populations ered, a green manure crop can be chosen. nitrogen added by various cover crops of dagger nematodes and improve soil Table 2.2 categorizes several green (see Appendix E). structure. Based on these results, using manures by use, life cycle, and season. Increasing organic matter. On sites selected rapeseed cultivars can help Growing Green Manure Crops with an organic matter content below manage dagger nematodes; however, the Most green manures perform best under 2 percent, increasing the soil organic treatment is not very effective against the same general range of soil nutrients matter content should be a priority. other nematode populations. Specific and conditions as required by small When growing a green manure to suggestions and additional information fruit crops, but submitting an initial soil increase the organic matter content in the on this subject is discussed below and in sample specifically for the green manure soil, nonleguminous crops or mixtures of Appendix A. crop is useful. Small grains or hardy sod grasses and leguminous crops are good (3) Determining the time of year and grasses take large amounts of nitrogen options. The best crops for this purpose length of time the green manure will from the soil but release it back slowly are generally those with large above- be grown. Once the primary purpose for as they break down. Based on soil test ground plant canopies and include growing the green manure is identified, results before planting the green manure, annual ryegrass, cereal rye, triticale, the next step is to identify the time of add 40 to 50 pounds of nitrogen per sorghum/sudangrass, and hairy vetch. year and length of time the green manure acre and adjust the soil pH, potassium, These green manures can suppress will be grown. Ideally, the planting area and phosphorus. These practices help weeds through direct competition. should be devoted to soil improvement, establish the green manure and promote Suppressing weeds. On sites with including using green manures, for more rapid breakdown when it is incor- high weed densities, the primary the year prior to planting small fruit. porated, preventing nitrogen drag (a lack purpose of a green manure would be However, this may not be an option on of available N) when small fruit crops to suppress weeds. Green manures that some farms. Another opportunity for are planted. establish quickly and have large above- planting green manures is between cash Since preplant green manures are ground canopies are the best options crops, in the late fall and/or early spring. not intended to become permanently for this goal. Buckwheat, in particular, For fall-planted green manures, cool- established, suppliers usually recom- is especially valuable for this purpose season crops including vetches, peas, mend minimum seeding rates to due to its ability to establish quickly. In annual and perennial clovers, wheat, produce an acceptable stand. If a dense general, green manures that suppress ryegrass, rye, winter rapeseed, or barley and fast-growing cover is needed for weeds are also more effective for are good choices. However, if the small weed management, higher seeding rates increasing the soil organic matter content fruit crop is to be planted in the spring, of green manures such as buckwheat, (see preceding paragraph). the green manure crop may need to be rye, annual ryegrass, or sudangrass are Scavenging nutrients. The primary incorporated before it reaches mature recommended. purpose of growing green manure size in order to allow sufficient time for it Many other sources are available to may be to efficiently use nutrients by to decompose before planting. For green further detail the benefits and cultural recycling excess nutrients from deep manures planted in the late spring or requirements of various green manure in the soil, or to “scavenge” nutrients summer, warm-season crops including crops. For sources of further information remaining in the soil after the previous sorghum/sudangrass, cowpeas, or on green manures and cover crops, see crop is harvested, thereby preventing buckwheat should be grown. Consider Appendix E. these nutrients from leaching out of growing multiple green manures in both the root zone. These nutrients will then the cool and warm seasons. Adding Organic Matter from Sources be made available to subsequent crops other than Green Manure Crops (4) Other considerations. Here are as the green manure breaks down. For Sources of organic matter such as some final questions to consider this purpose, select green manures with composts or animal manures can also when selecting a green manure. What large, deep root systems that develop be added to increase organic matter equipment do you have available for quickly. Options include small grains, content. As a general rule of thumb, 10 managing the green manure? Will you cereal rye, triticale, rapeseed, annual tons of manure per acre is considered a be able to manage a crop with a large ryegrass, oil seed radish, mustard, and reasonable rate for improving organic canopy with the equipment that you some leguminous crops. matter content. If berry plants will be have available? How much are you Managing dagger nematodes. If planted before the material has time to willing to pay for cover crop seed, and dagger nematodes have been a problem decompose, using composts is preferred what type of seed is available? (Suppliers on your site in the past, and/or a over using fresh materials. See consider- of cover crop seed are listed in Appendix nematode test indicates the presence of ations discussed above concerning using D.) What crop will you be growing next? high populations, green manures can these materials for nutrient addition. Chapter 2 ❦ Soil Management and Nutrition for Berry Crops 13

Table 2.2. Green manure crops categorized by use, life cycle, and season. vigorously and help crowd out weeds. Long-Term Organic Matter Building Here are some tips for planting rapeseed: Nitrogen Building and Weed Management Nutrient Scavenging • Rapeseed requires a firm, smooth Perennials seedbed that is free of weeds, heavy Legumes generally are planted from late April to early May or from late July to early August.* Nonlegumes are residue, and large clods. generally planted from early April to early June. • Seed may be drilled or broadcast. Alfalfa Alfalfa Perennial ryegrass Avoid planting too deep! A seeding Alsike, ladino, white clover, Perennial ryegrass depth of 3/8 inch is good; if broadcast, sweet clover Red clover a cultipacker may be used. Red clover • A seeding rate of 7 to 8 pounds per acre works well. Warm-Season Annuals • Rapeseed is sensitive to broadleaf Generally planted from late May to mid-July. herbicide carryover. Buckwheat Buckwheat • Fall-planted rapeseed should have 8 Japanese millet Sorghum/sudangrass to 10 true leaves and a 5- to 6-inch tap Sorghum/sudangrass root with a 3/8-inch-diameter root neck Sudangrass before the ground freezes. Cool-Season Annuals • Sulfur is necessary for rapeseed to Generally planted from late April to early May or from August to early September. produce nematicidal compounds. Although agricultural soil is not Hairy vetch Annual ryegrass Annual field brome usually deficient in sulfur, soil testing Hairy vetch Annual ryegrass to assess the availability of this Rapeseed element may be beneficial. Spring oats Winter rye Keeping Your Nutrient Program * Planting dates are only intended as general guides for groups of crops. Specific crops will vary in ideal planting time. See on Track: Plant Tissue analysis Appendix E for additional sources of information on growing cover crops. After the crop is established, plant tissue analysis is recommended to guide adjustments to your nutrient program. Biofumigation: Managing Dagger • Turn under the second crop in late Tissue analysis (also called leaf analysis) Nematodes with Green Manures spring after soil temperatures reach is an excellent means of monitoring plant 45°F or higher. nutrient levels. Brambles, strawberries, A green manure crop of rapeseed can be • Ideal conditions for incorporating and blueberries can all benefit from used for nematode management. Experi- rapeseed are similar to those required the proper use and interpretation of ments have shown that after the crop is for obtaining the maximum benefit leaf analysis. While soil tests reveal the soil incorporated, decomposing rapeseed from fumigation (i.e., the soil temper- quantity of certain nutrients in the soil, releases nematicidal compounds. Work ature should be above 45°F and leaf analyses show what the plants have on rapeseed has shown that two years moist). successfully absorbed. If you suspect of rotation is desirable (see Appendix A nutritional problems in a planting, it is a for a detailed procedure), but getting the • Alternatively, planting dates may be good idea to test both leaves and soil so same benefit may be possible by growing reversed so that the first planting is that quantities can be correlated. In some two crops of rapeseed within one year. in the fall followed by a second crop cases where a plant deficiency is difficult The following timetable is suggested planted in the spring. This would to correct, a soil test in addition to a for producing two rotations of rapeseed end the rotation cycle in fall of the tissue analysis can sometimes reveal the within one year: following year. underlying cause for the problem (e.g., • Prepare seedbed and plant rapeseed Which Rapeseed Varieties to Plant when deficient tissue potassium occurs by late April or early May. (Plant Some rapeseed cultivars are more effec- as a result of high soil magnesium levels). only recommended winter rapeseed tive at suppressing nematode popula- While tissue analysis is essential for cultivars. See below.) tions than others, and some cultivars the planting where nutritional deficien- • Incorporate (i.e., turn under) green do not overwinter or bloom too early cies are suspected, it is also beneficial for rapeseed by early September. Prepare in summer to be useful. The winter plantings where no nutrient deficiency is seedbed and plant second crop by cultivars Dwarf Essex and Humus work obvious because tissue analysis detects mid-September. well for both spring and fall planting nutrient deficiencies (especially of minor dates. When planted in the spring, these nutrients) before symptoms appear on varieties do not bloom but instead grow plants and affect plant health or yield. 14 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Tissue analysis kits can be obtained within each kit should be from the same through your county extension office for cultivar, although they should be taken samples sent to university laboratories. from several plants. Detach the leaves Several commercial laboratories also from the plant and remove the petioles. conduct nutrient analyses (see Appendix Place leaves in a dry paper bag and label B). Follow the general instructions on the immediately. kit, unless they conflict with the specific Critical values for tissue analysis small fruit instructions below. Be sure to results for each berry crop and recom- complete the information sheet in the kit. mendations for changes in nutrient Standard values for interpreting programs based on these results are results are only established for certain presented in Appendix B. times of the year and certain plant parts. Petiole sap testers (Cardy meters) are Some elements become more concen- sometimes used to determine nitrate- trated, while others become more dilute nitrogen and potassium levels in the in certain plant parts over the course of petioles of strawberry plants. These a growing season, or they may fluctuate results may be useful as a rough guide widely at certain times of the year. For for determining the nitrogen and potas- these reasons, samples for berry crops sium status of plants, but they should should only be collected when speci- not be used as the sole source of infor- fied (see exception below), as samples mation for guiding nutrient programs. collected at other times may produce nearly meaningless results. For matted- Nutrient Management Plans row strawberries, sample the first fully The requirement of having nutrient expanded leaves after renovation, about management plans varies from state July 15 to August 1. For plasticulture to state within the region. Nutrient strawberries, sample the first fully management plans are intended expanded leaves in spring after plants to protect water resources through have resumed growth but before early minimizing nutrient runoff and, hence, fruit set for first harvest-year plant- water contamination from fertilizers ings, or after renovation for carry-over and manures. The intended benefactor plantings. In summer-bearing brambles, of nutrient management legislation is the most recently fully expanded leaves the environment, but effective nutrient should be sampled on nonfruiting management planning also increases canes between August 1 and 20. With productivity and profitability. As of this primocane-bearing brambles, the most printing, Maryland is the only state within recently fully expanded leaves should be the Mid-Atlantic region that requires sampled when flower buds are emerging. all horticultural crop producers to have Blueberry leaves (most recently fully nutrient management plans. Delaware expanded) should be sampled during also requires nutrient management late July or early August. plans for those who apply nutrients to An exception to the rule of only more than 10 acres of land. Some states sampling at certain times exists. When require training for nutrient applicators. plants that are performing poorly Because requirements in this area are can be compared to healthy plants of changing, growers should consult their the same cultivar, age, and otherwise local extension educator or soil and water same growing conditions, samples conservation district office for information can be collected at almost any time of on current state regulations. the year, and results of these samples can be compared to each other. This is especially useful if you suspect that soil conditions are causing localized nutrient deficiencies. In this case, obtain separate samples from both poor and good plants of most recently fully expanded leaves and submit them for separate analysis. Select a minimum of 30 leaves (strawberries and brambles) or 60 leaves (blueberries) for each analysis. All leaves 15

Chapter 3 Effect of Pesticides on Nontarget small fruit crop. Subgroups that may Organisms appear on a label include subgroup 13-07A: the caneberry subgroup, Pesticides, Growers often ask whether certain subgroup 13-07B: the bushberry pesticides are harmful to beneficial subgroup, and 13-07G: the low-growing insects or other nontarget organisms. A berry subgroup. The caneberry subgroup Pesticide simple but logical rule of thumb is that includes raspberries, blackberries, and if a broad range of pests are listed on the any hybrids of the two (boysenberries, Safety, and label, it is likely the pesticide will also tayberries, etc.). The bushberry subgroup affect nontarget organisms of the same includes highbush and lowbush blueber- Chemical type (insects, mites, or fungi). Wide- ries, gooseberry, currants, jostaberries, spectrum insecticides affect a biological plus many others. The low-growing Fumigation process common to many species of berry subgroup includes strawberries, as insects, so these pesticides are often toxic well as lowbush blueberries. Any crop to nontarget species as well. This is the may also appear individually on a label, case with both synthetic and organic as frequently occurs with strawberries. insecticides, though organic insecti- Modifications will continue to be made if cides usually break down to nonlethal necessary. products quickly—a trait that certain synthetic pesticides also have. However, Pesticide Activity Groups and even pesticides that break down quickly Contents Resistance Management are often toxic to nontarget species when Effect of Pesticides on Nontarget Organisms....15 exposure is direct. Conversely, if an When pesticides that affect a certain Crop Groupings—How Crops Are Listed on insecticide is selectively effective only on biological process of a pest are used the Label...... 15 certain species or family(ies) of insects, repeatedly, strains of the pest develop Pesticide Activity Groups and Resistance it is more likely to be safe for beneficials that can tolerate the pesticide’s use. Management...... 15 and pollinators. Table 3.1 lists relative Various pesticides may target the same Spray Application...... 15 toxicity of pesticides to several common processes, so pesticides that have similar Herbicide Equipment...... 17 beneficial insects, bees, birds, and fish. mode(s) or target site(s) of action are Fungicide and Insecticide Equipment...... 17 grouped into “activity groups.” To Spray Water pH...... 17 delay the buildup of resistance to a Pesticide Safety...... 17 Crop Groupings—How Crops Are particular activity group, pesticides General Guidelines for Pesticide Safety...... 17 Listed on the Label from different activity groups should be Pesticide Toxicity...... 18 In the past, individual crops on which rotated in subsequent applications or Symptoms of Pesticide Poisoning...... 19 pesticides could be used had to be specif- tank-mixed when compatible. In order Responding to Pesticide Poisoning ically listed on a label in order for use to help growers identify which activity Symptoms...... 19 on that crop to be legal. This resulted in First Aid for Pesticide Poisoning...... 19 groups pesticides belong to, the activity few chemical control options for certain Safe Storage of Pesticides...... 20 groups into which various pesticides fall crops, including many berry crops. Safe Disposal of Pesticides...... 21 are listed on some pesticides’ pack- Changes in regulations have now made Current Status of Restricted-Use aging. However, this type of labeling it possible for crops to be covered under Pesticides...... 21 is voluntary, so not all packages bear various categories on labels, known Worker Protection Standard for this information. Activity groups of Agricultural Pesticides...... 21 as crop groups. Pesticides can now be pesticides labeled for each crop are also Chemical Fumigation...... 22 used on various crops in a crop group or provided in the tables in chapters on Soil Fumigation Chemicals...... 22 subgroup as long as they are designated individual crops. New Regulations Concerning correctly, even if the individual crop is not specifically mentioned on the label. Fumigation...... 22 Spray Application Site Preparation for Chemical Fumigation Use of crop group designations is not and Treatment Guidelines...... 26 mandatory, so on some labels, most There is no substitute for choosing the frequently older ones, specific crops correct equipment and calibrating it rather than crop groups are mentioned. correctly. Problems from over- or under- In these cases, individual crops need to application range from crop phytotox- be listed on the label for a pesticide to be icity and unnecessary environmental legally used on the crop. contamination to a lack of pest control. The berry crops discussed in this A poorly calibrated sprayer also wastes guide all fall under Crop Group 13-07, pesticides by applying too much or too the Berry and Small Fruit group. Thus, little material, both of which are costly. if a pesticide is labeled for this entire Close attention to detail in choosing the group, it can be used on any berry or right equipment and in the calibration 16 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 3.1. Toxicity of pesticides to birds, fish, honey bees, and beneficial predators. Toxicitya to: Mite Predators Stethorus Pesticide Birds Fish Honey Bees N. fallacis Stethorus Adults Larvae Ladybugs Lacewings INSECTICIDES Actara (thiamethoxam) ST N H N H H M M Admire (imidacloprid) M M H M S — ST–M ST Altacor, Coragen (chlorantraniliprole) N N–STb N N N N N N Asana (esfenvalerate) ST H H H H H H H Assail (acetamiprid) N N M N M M M M Athena (bifenthrin + avermectic) S H H H H — — — Avaunt (indoxacarb) M H ST-Hc N M M M ST Aza-Direct (azadirachtin) — H ST ST ST ST ST ST Brigade, Capture (bifentrhin) N–ST H H H H — H H Confirm (tebufenozide) ST M M N N N N N Courier (buprofezin) N N N — — — — — Danitol (fenpropathrin) S H H H H H H H Delegate (spinetoram) N M M M ST ST ST ST Diazinon (diazinon) H H H ST ST ST M M Dibrom (naled) M H H H — — H H Dipel, other Bt products (Bt) N N N N N N N N Entrust,Success, Spintor (spinosad) ST M M ST N N N N Esteem (pyriproxyfen) N H N N M H H H Guthion, for use only in NJ (azinphos-methyl) H H H N ST ST M M Hero(zeta-cypermethrin + bifenthrin) ST H H H H — — — Imidan (phosmet) M H H N ST ST M M Intrepid (methoxyfenozide) N MT N N N N N N Lannate (methomyl) H M H H M M H H Lorsban (chlorpyrifos) H H H N ST ST M ST Malathion (malathion) M H Hd N ST ST M ST M-Pede (insecticidal soap) N N N M ST M ST ST Mustang Max (zeta-cypermethrin) ST H H H M H H H Platinum (thiamethoxam) ST N H N H H H M Provado (imidacloprid) M M H M M M M M Pyganic (pyrethrins) N H ST H — — M ST Radiant (spinetoram) N M M M ST ST ST ST Rimon (novaluron) — — H N N H H H Sevin XLR (carbaryl) N H Hd M H H H M Surround (kaolin clay) — — — M M M M — Thionex (endosulfan) M–H H Md ST M M M M Voliam Flexi (thiamethoxam + ST ST H N M M M M chlorantraniliprole) MITICIDES Acramite (bifenazate) N H ST M N N N N AgriMek, Abba, Temprano (abamectin) N M Hd M M M ST ST Kanemite (acequinocyl) N Hb N ST ST ST — — Oberon (spiromesifen) N ST N M — — ST ST Portal (fenpyroximate) N H N ST M M — — Savey (hexythiazox) N H N ST N N N N Vendex (fenbutatin oxide) N H N M ST ST ST ST Zeal (etoxazole) ST H N M N N — — a. N = practically nontoxic (for bees, apply anytime); ST = slight toxicity (for bees, apply in evening after bees have stopped foraging until early morning before they start foraging); M = moderately toxic (for bees, apply in evening after bees have stopped foraging); H = highly toxic (for bees, do not apply to blooming plants); — = insufficient data. b. Altacor, Coragen, and Kanemite are toxic to invertebrate aquatic organisms such as oysters. c. Avaunt is highly toxic to bees exposed to direct spray, but it is rated as slightly toxic once sprays have dried. d. Depending on rate and formulation, different products containing abamectin, malathion, endosulfan, or carbaryl as the active ingredient have different lengths of time of toxicity to honey bees. NOTE: Information on toxicity to birds, fish, and honey bees was drawn from numerous sources such as Material Safety Data Sheets, EPA rulings, and EXTOXNET PIPs. Information on toxicity to beneficial predators is largely drawn from that contained in Penn State’s Tree Fruit Production Guide, which draws on other sources as well. For additional information on this subject and additional sources of information used in this table, see Appendix E. When scientifically substantiated differences existed in ratings among data sources or species tested, the more conservative ratings were chosen. Chapter 3 ❦ Pesticides, Pesticide Safety, and Chemical Fumigation 17 and adjustments required for maximum gallons of water per acre will provide water buffering agents are available from performance and efficiency are important. good coverage in most plantings. Note most pesticide suppliers. that regardless of the sprayer type, if the Herbicide Equipment spray volume used results in wetting the See discussion in Chapter 4: Weed Pesticide Safety foliage to the drip point, the concentra- Management. Many growers practice IPM, in which tion of the spray mixture in the sprayer pesticides play a vital role. Applicators Fungicide And Insecticide tank should never exceed the pounds- must realize their legal obligations when Equipment per-100-gallon recommendation on the using pesticides. Furthermore, applica- In general, foliar sprays are applied to product label. Do not operate horizontal- tors who implement pesticide safety strawberries using a horizontal boom- boom sprayers at more than 3 mph, practices and take proper precautions type sprayer. Airblast sprayers are airblast sprayers at more than 2½ mph, will greatly reduce the possibility of used in some strawberry operations, and vertical-boom sprayers at more than accidents. but penetration of the foliar canopy 2 mph. On strawberries, apply fungi- decreases markedly with distance from cides and insecticides at an operating General Guidelines for Pesticide the sprayer so that coverage in the pressure of 200 to 300 psi for the delivery Safety crowns and of the fruit is sometimes of at least 100 gallons of diluted pesticide Always read the label! poor. For bramble crops and highbush mixture per acre. This is done to ensure When pesticides are necessary it is blueberries on small plantings of less thorough coverage of all foliage and fruit important to make sure many factors are than 1 to 2 acres, a high-pressure (200 and the penetration of spray droplets considered when selecting the specific to 300 psi), hand-held spray gun is both through the foliar canopy to the crowns. chemical to use. Before using any pesti- practical and economical. Hydraulic Operate vertical-boom sprayers at 200 to cide product, always read the label, as it sprayers with vertical booms fitted 400 psi for good penetration of the foliar is a legal document. The label provides with hollow-cone nozzles work well for canopy and adequate breakup of spray information on which pests can be plantings of 1 to 3 acres, but for larger droplets. Operating pressures for airblast controlled, on which crops the pesticide plantings airblast sprayers are generally equipment vary with the type of nozzle product can be used, and the recom- the most efficient. Only airblast sprayers used; follow the manufacturer’s recommended rates and times of application. can be used effectively for low-volume, mendations. Using a pesticide in a way that is not concentrated applications. High-pressure Regardless of the spraying method allowed by the label is a violation of both or airblast spraying equipment can also used, spray coverage within the treated federal and state laws. Correct use of be used to deliver high-volume, diluted crop should be checked several times pesticides is essential to protect human, spray mixtures to the point of runoff. during the course of the season as the animal, and plant health as well as to Horizontal boom sprayers used for foliar canopy changes. This is best done protect the environment. It is also critical fungicide and insecticide sprays are with water-sensitive paper spray targets to help ensure pest control without usually fitted with hollow-cone nozzles that can be hung on hooks in the canopy damaging crops. For example, in some spaced 20 inches apart and adjusted to structure or stapled directly to leaves. cases when rates that are higher than a height where the spray patterns of These spray targets are relatively inex- recommended by the label are used, crop adjacent nozzles overlap slightly. On pensive and are available from sources injury occurs. Proper use will ensure that vertical-boom and airblast sprayers, listed in Appendix D. chemical residues on crops and livestock the spray stream should overshoot the do not exceed legal limits (tolerances). Spray Water ph tops of the plants slightly, and adjacent For maximum effectiveness, the pH of • Before using any pesticide, READ nozzle spray patterns must converge the spray water should be in the 6.5 to THE LABEL. before they reach the foliar canopy. One 7.0 range. Although extremely acidic • Become familiar with current federal or two solid-cone nozzles (center hole water is uncommon in this area, the and state pesticide laws and regula- in nozzle whirl plate) can be added to limestone and surface runoff in parts tions. vertical-boom sprayers to increase spray of the region can make spray water penetration where foliar canopies are • Follow all safety precautions on the alkaline. In general, alkaline spray dense, but be careful that the narrower label. water should not be used with many pattern produced by these does not limit pesticides, primarily carbamates and • Wear protective clothing and use overall coverage. Solid-cone nozzles are organophosphates, because it promotes protective equipment (both are not recommended for airblast sprayers. the hydrolysis or destruction of the referred to as personal protective Airblast sprayers equipped with air- pesticides. This is particularly important equipment, PPE) according to instruc- shear-type nozzles are designed specifi- where low-volume sprays are used tions on the pesticide label. cally for low-volume applications of on larger acreages since emptying the • Minimum clothing requirements are less than 50 gallons per acre. Exceeding spray tank may take several hours. See long pants, long-sleeved shirt, socks, this rate overloads the nozzles and can Appendix D for suppliers of pH-testing and shoes. In addition, the applicator result in poor coverage. For airblast equipment. Where the pH of the spray should wear chemically resistant sprayers using standard, hollow-cone water needs to be adjusted, special spray type nozzles, delivery rates of 30 to 200 18 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

gloves (nitrile, butyl, or neoprene) of the products they use. The risk of grams of pesticide per kilogram of body and unlined rubber boots. exposure to pesticides can be illustrated weight of the test animal (mg/kg), or • Be careful when handling pesticide with the following simple equation: in parts per million (ppm). LC50 values materials to avoid spilling on skin or Hazard of Pesticide Use = Toxicity x Actual of pesticides are recorded in milligrams clothing. Exposure of pesticide per volume of air or water (ppm). To put these units into perspec- • Never eat, drink, smoke, or use Toxicity is a measure of a pesti- tive, 1 ppm is analogous to 1 inch in 16 tobacco products while applying cide’s ability to cause injury, which is a miles or 1 minute in 2 years. pesticides. property of the chemical itself. Pesticide The LD and LC values are useful toxicity is determined by exposing 50 50 • When selecting pesticides, consider in comparing the toxicity of different test animals to different dosages of the type of formulation and the applica- active ingredients as well as different concentrated active ingredient. Tests are tion equipment required. formulations of the same active ingre- also done with each different formula- • Avoid drift to nontarget areas, dient. The lower the LD50 value of a tion of the product (for example, liquids, which may endanger other plants or pesticide, the less it takes to kill 50 dusts, and granulars). By understanding animals. Dusts drift more than sprays percent of the test population, and the difference in toxicity levels of pesti- and airblast sprayers create more drift therefore the greater the acute toxicity of cides, a user can minimize the potential than boom sprayers. the chemical. Pesticides with higher LD hazard by selecting the pesticide with 50 values are considered the least acutely • For record-keeping requirements, the lowest toxicity that will control the toxic to humans when used according to record the date, time, location, pest. the directions on the product label. amount of each pesticide used, and Applicators may have little or no The LD and LC values are found any other required information control over the availability of low- 50 50 in the products’ Material Safety Data within 24 hours of the application. toxicity products or the toxicity of Sheets (MSDS), which are available from In addition, if workers/handlers are specific formulated products. However, the supplier or product manufacturer employed that are covered under the exposure can be significantly reduced or when pesticide products are purchased. Worker Protection Standard (WPS), nearly eliminated by using the correct Most are also available from various this information must be documented PPE. For example, over 90 percent online sources, including the manufac- at the completion of the application. of all pesticide exposure comes from turer’s website or through various search It must also be available at a central dermal exposure, primarily to the hands engines as listed on the Pesticide Educa- location where employees have and forearms. By wearing chemically tion Program’s website at extension.psu unrestricted access to the information. resistant gloves, this exposure can be .edu/pesticide-education-applicators- reduced by at least 90 percent. Therefore, • Bathe or shower in hot, soapy water labels=and=msdss. For many reasons, by wearing the correct PPE, the hazard after applying pesticides. especially in an emergency situation, of pesticide use can be reduced signifi- • Wash clothing worn while applying maintaining a file with copies of the label cantly for the applicator. pesticides separately from other and MSDS for each pesticide product laundry, in hot, soapy water. Contam- Acute Toxicity and Acute Effects used is highly recommended. inated clothing must be handled with Acute toxicity of a pesticide refers to Signal Words the same precautions as the pesticide the chemical’s ability to cause injury The LD of the chemical is the basis for itself. 50 to a person or animal from a single assigning pesticides to a toxicity cate- exposure, generally of short duration. gory and determining the appropriate Pesticide toxicity The four routes of exposure are dermal signal word for the product label. Pesti- For all pesticides to be effective against (skin), inhalation (lungs), oral (mouth), cides that are classified as “highly toxic,” the pests they are intended to control, and ocular (eyes). Acute toxicity is on the basis of either oral, dermal, or they must be biologically active, or toxic. determined by examining the dermal inhalation toxicity, must have the signal Because pesticides are toxic, they are toxicity, inhalation toxicity, and oral words DANGER and POISON (in red also potentially hazardous to humans toxicity of test animals. In addition, the letters) and a graphic of a skull and and animals. Any pesticide can be potential for eye and skin irritation are crossbones prominently displayed on the poisonous or toxic if absorbed in exces- also examined. package label. PELIGRO, the Spanish sive amounts. Pesticides can cause skin Acute toxicity is usually expressed word for danger, must also appear on or eye damage (topical effects) and can as LD50 (lethal dose 50) or LD50 (lethal the label of highly toxic chemicals. Acute also induce allergic responses. However, concentration 50) values. This is the oral LD values for pesticide products if used according to label directions 50 amount or concentration of a toxicant in this group range from a trace amount and with the proper personal protective required to kill 50 percent of a test to 50 mg/kg. An exposure of a few drops equipment (PPE), pesticides can be used population of animals under a standard of a highly toxic material taken orally safely. For this reason, people who use set of conditions. The most common could be fatal to a 150-pound person. pesticides or regularly come in contact practice is for the toxicity of pesticides to Some pesticide products are labeled with them must understand the relative be referred to by their LD50 values. The with the signal word DANGER without toxicity and the potential health effects LD50 of a pesticide is recorded in milli- Chapter 3 ❦ Pesticides, Pesticide Safety, and Chemical Fumigation 19 the skull and crossbones symbol. A that may cause severe illness in others. the effects of exposure and, in extreme DANGER signal word in this instance Because of potential health concerns, cases, may save a life. If you are having does not provide information about pesticide users and handlers must recog- symptoms but are unsure whether they the LD50 value of the chemical. Instead, nize the common signs and symptoms of are pesticide related, at least notify this signal word means that potentially pesticide poisoning. someone in case your symptoms become damaging skin or eye effects (due to the The effects, or symptoms, of pesticide worse. If you are not feeling well and product’s irritant or corrosive properties) poisoning can be broadly defined as suspect it may be due to a pesticide are more severe than the acute toxicity either topical or systemic. Topical effects exposure, call the National Poison

(LD50) of the product would indicate. generally develop at the site of pesti- Center at 1-800-222-1222 for guidance on Pesticide products considered cide contact and are a result of either the proper response to your symptoms. “moderately toxic” must have the signal the pesticide’s irritant properties (from This number will direct your call to the words WARNING and AVISO (Spanish) either the active and/or inert ingredient) nearest poison center, which is staffed on displayed on the label. Acute oral LD50 or an allergic response by the person a 24-hour basis. values range from 50 to 500 mg/kg. An exposed. Dermatitis, or inflammation If safe to do so, take the pesticide exposure of 1 teaspoon to 1 ounce could of the skin, is accepted as the most container to the telephone. However, if be fatal to a 150-pound person. commonly reported topical effect associ- the pesticide container is contaminated, Pesticide products classified as either ated with pesticide exposure. Symptoms write down the EPA registration number, “slightly toxic” or “relatively nontoxic” of dermatitis range from reddening of product name and percentage of active are required to have the signal word the skin to rashes and/or blisters. Some ingredients, and take that information to CAUTION on the pesticide label. Acute individuals exhibit allergic reactions the phone. The product label provides oral LD50 values are greater than 500 when using pesticides or when these medical personnel information such mg/kg. materials are applied in or around their as active ingredients, an antidote, and homes or places of work. Symptoms of an emergency contact number for the Chronic Toxicity and Chronic Effects allergic reactions range from reddening manufacturer of the product. If you must Any harmful effects that occur from and itching of the skin and eyes to respi- go to the hospital or doctor’s office, take repeated small doses over a period ratory discomfort that often resembles the entire container, including the label, of time are called chronic effects. The an asthmatic condition. with you. In order to avoid inhaling chronic toxicity of a pesticide is deter- Systemic effects are quite different fumes or spilling the contents, make sure mined by observing symptoms in test from topical effects. They often occur the container is tightly sealed and never animals that result from long-term away from the original point of put it in the enclosed passenger section exposure to the concentrated active contact, as a result of the pesticide of a vehicle. If the Material Safety Data ingredient. being absorbed into and distributed Sheet (MSDS) is available, also take this Some of the potential chronic effects throughout the body. Systemic effects with you because it frequently contains from exposure to certain pesticides often include nausea, vomiting, fatigue, additional information for medical include birth defects (teratogenesis); headache, and intestinal disorders. personnel to determine treatment fetal toxicity (fetotoxic effects); produc- Seeking prompt medical attention options. tion of tumors (oncogenesis), either and providing information about the In addition to posting emergency benign (noncancerous) or malignant potential of a pesticide exposure causing numbers or having them readily avail- (cancerous/carcinogenesis); genetic the symptoms is important. However, able by a telephone, keep these numbers changes (mutagenesis); blood disorders the development of certain symptoms in all service vehicles involved in trans- (hemotoxic effects); nerve disorders is not always the result of exposure to a porting pesticides. Additional pesticide (neurotoxic effects); and reproductive pesticide. For example, common illnesses information can also be obtained by effects. The chronic toxicity of a pesticide such as the flu, heat exhaustion or heat contacting the National Pesticide Infor- is more difficult to determine through stroke, pneumonia, asthma, respiratory mation Center (NPIC) located at Oregon laboratory analysis than is acute toxicity. and intestinal infections, and even a State University at 1-800-858-7378. The However, the product’s MSDS also hangover can cause symptoms similar NPIC provides a variety of unbiased contains information regarding chronic to pesticide exposure. Carefully consider information about pesticides to anyone symptoms of pesticide exposure based all possible causes of your symptoms in the United States. on laboratory animal test results. and provide medical personnel with all FIRST AID FOR PESTICIDE POISONING SYMPTOMS OF PESTICIDE POISONING of the information they need to make an Reviewed by J. Ward Donavon, medical The symptoms of pesticide poisoning informed diagnosis. director of PinnacleHealth Toxicology can range from a mild skin irritation to Responding to Pesticide Poisoning Center, Harrisburg Hospital coma or even death. Different classes Symptoms Immediate and appropriate action, or families of chemicals cause different Be alert for the early symptoms of pesti- such as providing basic first aid, may types of symptoms. Individuals also cide poisoning. Responding immediately be necessary to prevent serious injury vary in their sensitivity to different and appropriately when pesticide to a victim of pesticide poisoning. The levels of these chemicals. Some people exposure is suspected will help minimize situation can be a life-or-death matter. may show no reaction to an exposure 20 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Providing immediate care is important; FOURTH—Decontaminate the victim under the eyelids with water to remove however, it is more important to provide immediately; wash thoroughly and debris. Cover the eye with a clean piece the correct assistance and protect quickly. Speed is essential. of cloth and seek medical attention yourself in the process. The product If the victim IS breathing: immediately. label should be one of the first sources FIRST—Evaluate the surroundings of If the pesticide has been inhaled, get of information in a pesticide exposure the victim. Protect yourself from pesti- the victim to fresh air immediately. emergency, in addition to calling 911 cide exposure prior to and while giving However, do not attempt to rescue and the National Poison Center (1-800- assistance. someone who is in an enclosed area 222-1222). First aid is only the “first unless you are wearing appropriate SECOND—Decontaminate the victim response” and is not a substitute for protective equipment. Have the victim immediately; wash thoroughly and professional medical help. lie down and loosen their clothing. Call quickly. Speed is essential. Basic First Aid Instructions 911. Keep the victim warm and quiet. THIRD—Call 911 if the victim has ill If the victim is convulsing, watch their • Most important, be sure to protect effects from the exposure. breathing and protect their head. Keep yourself by wearing appropriate FOURTH—Call the National Poison the chin up to keep air passages free for protective clothing and equipment if Center (1-800-222-1222). breathing. If breathing stops, administer there is a likelihood of being directly artificial respiration. Call the National exposed to a pesticide while adminis- If the pesticide has been spilled on Poison Center (1-800-222-1222) after the tering first aid or removing the victim the skin or clothing, remove any victim is stabilized for further advice. from an enclosed area. contaminated clothing immediately and If the pesticide has been swallowed, • Have current labels and MSDSs avail- thoroughly wash the skin with soap and contact the National Poison Center able. water. Avoid harsh scrubbing, as this (1-800-222-1222) and provide them with enhances pesticide absorption. Rinse the • Have emergency response telephone the EPA registration number, product affected area with water, wash again, numbers readily available. name, and approximate amount of mate- and rinse. Gently dry the affected area rial that was ingested. Call 911 immedi- • Assemble a first aid kit with neces- and wrap it in a loose cloth or blanket, if ately if the victim has symptoms from sary supplies. necessary. If chemical burns of the skin the exposure. If the pesticide has entered • Always have a source of clean water have occurred, cover the area loosely the mouth but has not been swallowed, available. In an extreme emergency, with a clean, soft cloth. Avoid the use rinse the mouth with large amounts even water from a farm pond, irriga- of ointments, greases, powders, and of water. Inducing vomiting is rarely tion system, or watering trough could other medications unless instructed by advised for any poisoning, including be used to dilute the pesticide. medical personnel. pesticide poisonings. Check the product Heavily contaminated clothing • If oral or dermal exposure has label to demine the appropriate imme- should be disposed of properly. If occurred, the first objective is usually diate action. to dilute the pesticide and prevent clothing is not heavily soiled, wash If a petroleum product (kerosene, absorption. all contaminated clothing separately from any other laundry, in hot water, gasoline, oil, lighter fluid, EC pesticides) • If inhalation exposure occurs, first at a high water level, and with a heavy has been swallowed, call the National protect yourself, and then get the duty liquid detergent. Run the washer Poison Center (1-800-222-1222) and 911 victim to fresh air immediately. through a complete cycle with detergent immediately for further instruction. • Never give anything orally to an and no clothes to remove pesticide If a corrosive poison (a strong acid or unconscious person. residue from the washer drum before alkali) has been swallowed, dilute with • Become familiar with the proper tech- the next load of laundry. Store washed water or milk immediately. Consult niques of artificial respiration; it may protective clothing separately from other the National Poison Center (1-800-222- be necessary if a person’s breathing clothes. Also, do not store protective 1222) and 911 immediately. The victim has stopped or become impaired. clothing and equipment in pesticide may experience severe pain and have storage areas. extensive mouth and throat burns. Fortu- Specific First Aid Instructions If the pesticide has entered into the nately, most commonly used pesticides If the victim IS NOT breathing: eyes, hold the eyelid open and immedi- are not corrosive, but some cleaners, First—Evaluate the surroundings of ately begin gently washing the eye with disinfectants, and germicides fall into the victim. Protect yourself from pesti- clean running water, so that the water this category. cide exposure prior to and while giving flows away from the nose. If contact Safe storage of pesticides assistance. lenses are worn, remove and discard the contacts before beginning this process. • Read the label for specific storage SECOND—Administer artificial respira- Do not use chemicals or drugs in the instructions and precautions. tion and call 911. eye wash water. Continue washing for • Store pesticides in a clean, cool, dry, THIRD—Call the National Poison 15 minutes. If only one eye is involved, and well-ventilated building. Always Center (1-800-222-1222). avoid contaminating the other one. Flush lock the area to prevent entry by chil- Chapter 3 ❦ Pesticides, Pesticide Safety, and Chemical Fumigation 21

dren and untrained persons. Mark the mended rate to one of the crops listed who apply restricted-use pesticides storage facility with an appropriate on the label. (RUPs) in the production of an agricul- warning sign. • Do not dump pesticides or pesticide tural crop must be certified as a private • Maintain proper temperature control. rinsates on the ground or pour them applicator or must work under the direct For example, if emulsion-type down sinks, toilets, or other drains, supervision of a certified applicator. materials freeze, the emulsion may be including storm sewers. Furthermore, only certified applicators can purchase restricted-use pesticides. destroyed, resulting in loss of effec- • Pressure rinse or triple rinse empty The pesticide dealer is required by law to tiveness and possible serious plant pesticide containers with water. Pour record the name, address, and certifica- injury. the rinse water into the spray tank, tion number of the purchaser of RUPs, • To avoid the danger of cross-contam- making sure to drain the container for as well as the identity of the product, ination, do not store herbicides with 30 seconds each time. amount sold, and date of purchase. other pesticides. • After rinsing metal, plastic, or glass Either photo identification or two other • Keep dry materials above liquid containers, puncture, break, crush, acceptable forms of identification are materials. or in some way to render unus- required to be presented to the dealer • Do not store pesticides where food, able. Where possible, recycle plastic when RUPs are delivered. Commercial water, feed, seeds, fertilizers, or containers through a Plastic Pesticide and public pesticide applicators must personal protective clothing and Container Recycling Program; in be certified to use both general and equipment (such as respirators) can some states these are sponsored by restricted-use pesticide products. become contaminated. the state’s Department of Agricul- RUPs include all pesticide products ture. Contact your state pesticide designated as restricted-use by the • Store pesticides in their original regulatory agency or extension office U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; containers. Never store pesticides in for further information. Otherwise however, for use to be legal, products any food or drink containers. disposal in a sanitary landfill is desir- must also be registered by the state. In • Do not remove the labels. Keep lids able if conducted in accordance with addition, states may choose to assign tightly closed. local regulations. restricted-use status to other products if • Check containers frequently for leaks. • If stated on the label and permitted it is deemed in the interest of the public health and welfare. States may also • Clean up spilled chemicals promptly by local ordinances, combustible refuse to register a pesticide for use if and properly. Dispose of broken or containers can be burned. However, they choose. If a pesticide is restricted- damaged containers and any pesti- do not burn pesticide containers near use, this status will be clearly marked on cide waste in an approved and safe residential areas or where the smoke the label. manner as directed on the product can contact humans. Avoid exposure label. to the smoke; it may contain toxic Worker Protection Standard for vapors. Bury the ashes since they also • Keep an inventory of all chemicals. agricultural pesticides may be toxic. Mark each container with the year of In 1992, the U.S. Environmental Protec- purchase. • Send large metal drums to a recondi- tion Agency (EPA) revised its Worker tioning company. Protection Standard (WPS), which • Inform your local fire department of addresses the protection of agricul- any chemicals (including fertilizers) • Before disposing of pesticide tural workers from pesticide exposure stored in large quantity. concentrates, check with your state pesticide regulatory agency, which (40 CFR Part 170). The WPS includes Safe disposal of pesticides may provide disposal options for requirements designed to reduce the risks of illness or injury to agricultural • Read the pesticide label for specific unwanted and outdated pesticide workers and pesticide handlers from disposal instructions. concentrates free of charge. For example, in Pennsylvania this can be occupational or accidental exposure to • Avoid disposal problems by accomplished by participating in the pesticides in the production of agricul- purchasing only the amount of mate- CHEMSWEEP program sponsored by tural plants on farms and in nurseries, rial needed for one growing season. the Department of Agriculture. greenhouses, and forests. Do not stockpile. The WPS expands the scope of prior • Do not reuse empty pesticide • Use proper personal protective worker protection regulations to identify containers for any purpose. clothing and equipment when you two types of agricultural employees: • Clean up thoroughly after handling dispose of pesticide wastes and • Pesticide handlers—those who and disposing of pesticides. containers. handle agricultural pesticides (mix, • Mix only the amount of pesticide load, apply, clean or repair contami- Current status of restricted-use required for a particular application. pesticides in Pennsylvania nated equipment, act as flaggers, etc.), If you mix too much, use the surplus and Under the authority of the amended by applying the material at the recom- Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and • Agricultural workers—those who Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), applicators perform tasks related to the cultiva- 22 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

tion and harvesting of plants on bution Center, The Pennsylvania State products are sometimes applied via farms or in greenhouses, nurseries, or University, 112 Agricultural Administra- overhead irrigation. The recommended forests where pesticides are used. tion Building, University Park, PA 16802; application rates for soil fumigants are The WPS holds growers/employers phone 814-865-6713, or online at given in Table 3.3. A plastic tarp is used responsible for compliance. The regu- extension.psu.edu/pesticide=education with most soil fumigant applications to lations expand requirements for the /applicators/fact-sheets. limit escape of the material from treated employer to make sure that employees soil. Soil fumigant application rates are provided with the following: Chemical Fumigation may often be reduced when new highly retentive tarp types are used, such as • Warnings about pesticide applications Chemical fumigation is utilized to VIF (virtually impermeable film) or TIC varying degrees within the Mid-Atlantic • Clean and properly maintained (totally impermeable film). Use of VIF region depending on location and berry personal protective equipment (PPE), is increasingly required with some soil crop grown. Soil fumigants are highly which employers must ensure is worn fumigants, such as methyl bromide. toxic chemicals that are introduced into • Restrictions on reentry by personnel All soil fumigants have specific, and soil as liquids but quickly volatilize upon to treated areas (all pesticides used on often different, handling properties, release to move through the air spaces farms and in forests, nurseries, and special safety precautions, application in treated soil. Fumigants are used most greenhouses have specific restricted- rates adjusted for soil type, and aeration frequently for strawberry production entry intervals (REIs) that are listed times following treatment. This informa- where growers intend to maximize yield on the label under the “Agricultural tion is explained in detail on the extensive every year, especially in locations where Use Requirements” section) product labels. Literature covering these practicing crop rotation is difficult or topics may also be available from your • Decontamination facilities where disease, nematode, and/or annual pesticide dealer. Read all of these mate- weed pressure may be high. Chemical • Pesticide safety training and rials carefully. Be aware that most custom fumigation temporarily reduces the information applicators will insist on proper site populations of disease pathogens, nema- • Notification of pesticide applications preparation prior to their arrival and may todes, and weed pests, giving the crop and information about the pesticide(s) require payment for a minimum area. to be planted a “head start.” This benefit used from fumigating soil usually lasts for only New regulations concerning • Maintained contact with handlers one or two growing seasons since soil fumigation when applying highly toxic pesticides pathogens and pests can begin increasing Fumigants are very biologically active • Emergency assistance when required in treated soil almost as soon as the crop and produce gases that can readily is planted. The cost of these chemical move off site, so they can also be very • A pesticide safety poster placed in an applications can range from about $400 to dangerous to people and other organ- area where it can be seen easily by all $900 per acre. Costs for soil fumigation by isms in the surrounding environment. workers and handlers custom applicators may often be double. Labels for soil fumigants containing • Information about pesticide label Despite the drawbacks to soil fumigation, chloropicrin, dazomet, metam potassium, safety for pesticide handlers and early these treatments are extremely effective metam sodium, and methyl bromide were entry workers and can quickly return old sites to their extensively revised in 2011 to require • A centrally located listing of recent full productive potential. additional steps of fumigant applicators pesticide applications made on the (called risk mitigation measures) to safe- Soil Fumigation Chemicals premises within the past 30 days guard the general public, the applicators Soil fumigants containing chloropicrin and handlers, and the environment. Under WPS, labels now include possess similarly high effectiveness These requirements are discussed on statements specifying personal protec- against diseases caused by soilborne current fumigant labels. Reading and tive equipment, restricted-entry intervals pathogens. Methyl bromide, 1,3-dichlo- understanding the new soil fumigant labels (REIs), and (on some pesticide labels) a ropropene, or iodomethane are most is critically important. Additional revisions requirement to provide both oral warn- effective against nematodes, followed to these new soil fumigant labels are being ings and posting of treated areas. by dimethyl disulfide, metam sodium, developed, further increasing the importance EPA developed these regulations with and chloropicrin. However, 1,3-dichlo- for growers to study the labels and visit the non-English-speaking worker specifi- ropropene does not provide disease or EPA’s website. Key changes already in cally in mind. Safety warnings, informa- weed control benefits. Chloropicrin does effect include the following: tion, and training must be given in “a not contribute to weed control. Metam manner the worker can understand.” sodium products, while controlling most • All chemical fumigants are now The Pesticide Safety Fact Sheet “EPA weeds, provide very limited nutsedge “restricted use.” Previously, metam Worker Protection Standard for Agri- control. Most soil fumigants can be sodium, metam potassium, and cultural Pesticides” from the Penn State applied using standard, chisel-type dazomet were considered general use Pesticide Education Program describes applicators. Some products, depending materials. these requirements in some detail. It is on formulation, can also be applied • Soil fumigant applicators must write available from the Publications Distri- through drip irrigation. Metam sodium a fumigant management plan (FMP) Chapter 3 ❦ Pesticides, Pesticide Safety, and Chemical Fumigation 23

Table 3.2. General (G) and restricted-use (R) pesticides labeled for use on strawberries (sb), brambles (br), blueberries (bl), gooseberries, and currants. Pesticides are legal for use in PA, WV, MD, DE, NJ, and VA, except in the following cases: • Stinger herbicide (clopyralid) may be used on strawberries only in New Jersey, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. • Guthion use is no longer allowed as of September 30, 2012. • Endosulfan (Thionex) use is being phased out. • Karmex is labeled for blueberries only in New Jersey and Maryland. Preharvest Interval (Days) Other Gooseberries, REI (hr = hours, Trade Name Chemical Name Use Status Strawberries Raspberries Brambles Blueberries Currants d = days) HERBICIDES Aim carfentrazone-ethyl G 0 15 15 0 0 12 hr Amine 4, Formula 40 2,4-D R (NJ), G not spec.a — — — — 48 hr Callisto mesotrione G — prebloom prebloom prebloom — 12 hr Casoron dichlobenil G — not spec.a not spec.a not spec. a not spec.a 12 hr/24 hrb Chateau flumioxazin G not spec.a — — 7a — 12 hr Dacthal DCPA G prebloom — — — — 12 hr Devrinol napropamide G prebloom not spec.a not spec.a not spec.a not spec.a,c 24 hr Fusiladed fluazifop-P-butyl G — 365 365 365 365 12 hr Galleryd isoxaben G — 365 365 365 365 12 hr Gramoxone Inteon paraquat R 21 not spec.a not spec.a not spec.a not spec.a 24 hr Greenmatch d-limonene G prefruite prefruite prefruite prefruite prefruite 4 hr Karmex, NJ and MD diuron G — — — not spec.a — 12 hr Kerb pronamide R — — — not spec.a — 24 hr Poast sethoxydim G 7 45 45 30 — 12 hr Princep simazine G — prefruit prefruit prefruit — 12 hr Prowl H20 pendimethalin G 35 — — — — 24 hr Rage carfentrazone + R — 15 15 14 14 12 hr glyphosate Rely glufosinate G — — — 14 14 12 hr Roundup, Touchdown glyphosate G 14 14 14 14 14 4 hr, 12 hrf Sandea halsulfuron-methyl G — — — 14 — 12 hr Scythe pelargonic acid G not spec.a not spec.a not spec.a not spec.a not spec.a,c 12 hr Select Max clethodim G 4 7 7 14 14 24 hr Sinbar terbacil G 110 70 70 not spec.a — 12 hr Snapshot trifluralin + isoxaben G — 365 365 365 365 12 hr Solicam norflurazon G — 60 60 60 — 12 hr Spartan sulfentrazone G preplant — — — — 12 hr Stingerg clopyralid G 30 — — — — 12 hr Surflan oryzalin G — not spec.a not spec.a not spec.a,h not spec.a 24 hr Touchdown glyphosate G — 14 14 14 14 12 hr Ultra Blazer acifluorfen G 60 — — — — 48 hr Velpar hexazinone G — — — 90, 450i — 48 hr FUNGICIDES/BACTERICIDES Abound azoxystrobin G 0 0 0 0 0 4 hr Aliette fosetyl-Al G 0.5 60 60 0.5 — 12 hr Bravo chlorothalonil G — — — 42 — 12 hr Cabrio pyraclostrobin G 0 0 0 — 0 12 hr Captan captan G 0 3 3 0 — 24 hr sb/1–4 d br and blj Captevate captan + fenhexamid G 0 3 — 0 — 24 hr sb/48 hr br and bl Elevate fenhexamid G 0 0 0 0 0 12 hr Evito fluoxastrobin G 1 — — —k — 12 hr Flint trifloxystrobin G 0 — — — — 12 hr Indar fenbuconazole G — — — 30 — 12 hr Kocide copper hydroxide G 0 0 0 0 0 24 hr

continued 24 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

continued Chapter 3 ❦ Pesticides, Pesticide Safety, and Chemical Fumigation 25

Table 3.2. General (G) and restricted-use (R) pesticides labeled for use on strawberries (sb), brambles (br), blueberries (bl), gooseberries, and currants, continued. Preharvest Interval (Days) Other Gooseberries, REI (hr = hours, Trade Name Chemical Name Use Status Strawberries Raspberries Brambles Blueberries Currants d = days) Lorsban chlorpyrifos R, Gq prebloom — — — — 24 hr Malathion malathion G 3 1 1 1 3, 1s 12 hr M-Pede insecticidal soap G 0 0 0 0 0 12 hr Mustang cypermethrin R — 1 1 1 1 12 hr Mustang Max zeta-cypermethrin R — 1 1 1 1 12 hr Platinum thiamethoxam G 50 — — 75 75 12 hr Provado imidacloprid G 7 3 3 3 3 12 hr Pyganic pyrethrins G 0 0 0 0 0 12 hr Radiant spinetoram G 1 — — — — 4 hr Rimon novaluron G 1 — — 8 8 12 hr Sevin carbaryl G 7 7 7 7 7 12 hr Sluggo iron phosphate G 0 0 0 0 0 0 hr Spintor/Success spinosad G 1 1 1 3 3 4 hr Surround kaolin clay G 0 0 0 0 0 4 hr Synapse flubendiamide G 1 — — — — 12 hr Thionex 50WP(see endosulfan R 12t — — — — 15, 12, or 22 du heading) Voliam Flexi thiamethoxam + G 3 — — — — 12 hr chlorantraniliprole MITICIDES Acramite bifenazate G 1 1 1 — — 12 hr Agri-Mek abamectin R 3 — — — — 12 hr Kanemite acequinocyl G 1 — — — — 12 hr Oberon spiromesifen G 3 — — — — 12 hr Portal fenpyroximate G 1 — — — — 12 hr Savey hexythiazox G 3 3 3 — — 12 hr Temprano abamectin R 3 — — — — 12 hr Vendex fenbutatin oxide R 1 — — — — 48 hr Zeal etoxazole G 1 0 0 — — 12 hr — = not labeled for use on the crop. a. “Not spec.” indicates that a specific preharvest or reentry interval is not specified in terms of days or hours; however, use may be limited to certain times of the year or crop development stages. b. The REI is 12 hours for granular formulations of Casoron but 24 hours for the CS formulation in horticultural operations. c. Currants are the only Ribes crop on which Devrinol and Scythe can legally be used. d. Fusilade and Gallery are for use only on nonbearing plantings. e. For spot treatments with Greenmatch, the PHI is 7 days. f. Different formulations containing the same active ingredient have different reentry intervals. g. MD, NJ, PA, and VA have Special Local Needs (Section 24C) labels for the use of Stinger on strawberries. h. Not for use in lowbush blueberries. i. Velpar has a 90-day PHI for highbush blueberries and a 450-day PHI for lowbush blueberries. j. Various formulations of captan have different REIs ranging from 24 hours to 4 days. k. Evito is labeled for use on lowbush blueberries with a 1-day PHI. l. Different REIs are listed for different activities. m. Certain formulations of the active ingredient iprodione are labeled for use on blueberries but are not included in other tables in this guide due to issues with phytotoxicity. n. The general Ziram label states that applications should be made no later than 3 weeks after full bloom, but NJ’s 24C label specifies a 14-day PHI. o. The PHI for Danitol is 3 days for gooseberries and 21 days for currants. p. No preharvest interval is specified. Deadline is not to come in direct contact with the crop. q. Dibrom was previously general use. Lorsban may be restricted or general use depending on the formulation. r. Individual state regulations may vary. s. The PHI is 3 days for gooseberries and 1 day or 3 days for currants, depending on the formulation. t. Thionex may not be used on annual (plasticulture) strawberries after July 31, 2012, on blueberries after July 31, 2015, or on perennial (matted-row) strawberries after July 31, 2016. The PHI is 12 days for perennial strawberries. For blueberries, Thionex should be applied 8 weeks after harvest is complete. u. The REI is 15 days for lowbush blueberries, 12 days for perennial strawberries, and 22 days for highbush blueberries. 26 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

that outlines how the application Site Preparation for Chemical 4. Chisel fumigants in at least 10 to 12 will be made and describes plans to Fumigation and Treatment inches deep with the shanks set 8 to address problems should any arise. Guidelines 12 inches apart for broadcast treat- Custom applicators must provide A good soil fumigation job is important ments over the whole planting site. growers with a copy of the FMP, in order to extend the productive life of Because strip or row fumigation which must be maintained for a the planting. Soil fumigation treatments only treats a portion of the field, less period of two years. should be planned well in advance so chemical is used per field acre, and that the site can be prepared properly. • Practices previously recommended it is useful for annual strawberry Several rules apply to most treatments. to improve efficacy and reduce production systems. However, this off-gassing are now requirements, 1. Prepare the soil by deep plowing practice is not recommended for such as proper calibration, soil tillage followed by disking. The purpose is perennial systems where treated areas before application, fumigating when to loosen the soil throughout what could be recolonized over time. soil temperature and moisture levels will be the crop rooting zone and 5. Soil should be sealed as stated on are within the proper ranges, etc. to thoroughly incorporate all plant the product label. Leave treated sites residues. Do this at least 3 weeks • Maximum application rates are undisturbed for at least 5 to 7 days. in advance of fumigation so that being reduced in some instances 6. Aerate treated sites to allow any buried plant residues begin decom- and untarped applications for some residual fumigant and ammonia (a posing. Remove all woody or bulky materials can no longer be made. temporary side effect of fumigation) accumulations of plant residues and to escape before planting. Aeration • Respiratory protection requirements large rocks from the site. These will for those involved with fumigant times vary with the type of mate- foul the chisel applicators, decrease rial used, soil type, temperature, application or tarp perforation or the effectiveness of the job, increase removal have been significantly and moisture level. Check the label the hazard to workers who must for details. At least 14 to 21 days expanded and include medical evalu- clear them, and can cause a custom ation and fit-testing for respirator use. should pass between the application applicator to legally withdraw from a of most soil fumigants and the time • The 48-hour “reentry interval” contract job. a crop is planted. Details are avail- following soil fumigant application 2. If the soil is dry one week prior to able on the manufacturer’s label. A has been changed into a 5-day “entry treatment, thoroughly wet down simple lettuce quick test can be done restricted period.” the soil to at least 6 inches deep by to determine whether planting in • Training programs are being devel- sprinkler irrigation. Do not attempt fumigated soil is safe. Collect a soil oped by the product registrants for to fumigate soil that is too wet or sample from the treated field (do not applicators and handlers. In the too dry. At the 6- to 8-inch level, a go below the treated depth). Place the future, product registrants will also handful of soil should not clump sample in a glass jar with a screw-on provide training on information tightly when squeezed, but it should lid. Firmly press numerous seeds that is required to be provided. This have enough moisture to feel cool of a small-seeded vegetable crop includes training of first responders in the hand and remain in a loose (lettuce, radish, etc.) on top of the soil on handling fumigant exposure clump when it is released. Soil that (moisten if necessary) and tighten incidents in areas where fumigation feels warm to the touch or that is the lid securely. Repeat the process in is commonly used and information to crumbly and dusty is too dry. Some another jar with nonfumigated soil the general public on fumigant safety moisture in the soil encourages weed to serve as a check. Observe the jars issues. seed germination and is necessary for within 1 to 2 days. If the seeds have Additional new label requirements the fumigant to kill nematodes and germinated, planting in the field is to be enacted soon include the establish- fungi. Soil that is saturated will limit safe. If the seeds have not germinated ment and posting of restricted-entry movement of fumigants through soil in the fumigated sample and have buffer zones around application sites, so that some of the soil to be treated germinated in the nontreated sample, among other changes. At this point, may not be exposed to the product. then the field is not safe to plant. Wait growers are encouraged to prepare for 3. Soil temperatures at the time of treat- and retest. changes and provide input on their ment should be above 40°F at the 5- to 7. Fumigation kills most weed seeds, but needs to regulatory agencies as the 6-inch depth to allow for adequate it can also stimulate the germination timeline and details of new requirements volatilization of the fumigant but of some species, such as Carolina are being worked out. Updates and below 80°F to avoid too rapid an geranium, velvetleaf, and morning templates of required forms are available escape of the chemical. Optimal soil glory. Use of chloropicrin has been on EPA’s website at www.epa.gov temperatures vary among different shown to stimulate yellow and purple /opp00001/reregistration/soil_ fumigants. Consult the label for the nutsedge emergence. Treat these fumigants. fumigant you are using for its specific problem weeds with herbicides before temperature requirements. they become established. Chapter 3 ❦ Pesticides, Pesticide Safety, and Chemical Fumigation 27

Table 3.3. Fumigants and spectrums of activity. All fumigants are now restricted use. This table is intended to provide information on allowable application methods for different fumigants and the purpose each material serves. Additional options for application and/or restrictions may be specified on the product label. Information that allows the applicator to refine, decrease, or increase rates may also be provided on the product label or can be obtained from a qualified fumigation service provider or dealer. When rates vary for different types of applications on the label, rates are presented for an option that would make effective use of the fumigant chosen. This table does not provide details on every allowable option. Information is current as of July 1, 2012.

Conditions Under For Control of: Allowable Application Rate as Stated on Label* Which Listed Rate Common Name Trade Name Methods (see also next column) Applies Nematodes Fungi Weeds Metam-Sodium Vapam HL Shank, chisel, etc.; drip 37.5–75.0 gal per treated All listed application Yes Yes Yes irrigation; solid-set irrigation, acre methods others listed Comments: Water-soluble liquid that decomposes to a gaseous fumigant. Efficacy affected by soil moisture, temperature, texture, and organic matter content. May be less effective on nematodes than 1,3-D and possibly iodomethane. METAM-POTASSIUM K-Pam HL Shank, chisel, etc.; drip 30–62 gal per treated acre All listed application Yes Yes Yes irrigation; solid-set irrigation, methods others listed Comments: Water-soluble liquid that decomposes to a gaseous fumigant. Efficacy affected by soil moisture, temperature, texture, and organic matter content. May be less effective on nematodes than 1,3-D and possibly iodomethane. 1,3-Dichloropropene Telone II Shank, chisel, etc. May not be 27–35 gal per acre (label Annual or perennial Yes No No applied through any type of states product may be plantings on mineral irrigation system concentrated in the row) soils Comments: Liquid that diffuses as a gas through soil. Effective against nematodes and insects. Rates vary with soil texture; efficacy strongly affected by soil moisture and temperature. Telone EC May be applied only through a 9–24 gal per acre broadcast Annual or perennial Yes No No drip system equivalent plantings on mineral soils Comments: Liquid that diffuses as a gas through soil. Effective against nematodes and insects. Rates vary with soil texture; efficacy strongly affected by soil moisture and temperature. If the material is applied only to beds and not row middles, rates must be reduced proportionately. This can be calculated as follows: product rate x bed width/ row spacing. CHLOROPICRIN NutraPic Shank, chisel, etc., if tarped; 150–350 lb (10.9–25.5 Shank injection if No Yes No drip irrigation, but not any gal) per acre broadcast tarped other type of irrigation; if equivalent through drip and not tarped, 100–300 lb (7.1–21.9 Through drip system No Yes No tape must be at least 5 inches gal) per acre broadcast whether tarped or not deep equivalent Comments: May be applied with other materials such as metam-sodium to increase spectrum of control. If the material is applied only to beds and not row middles, rates must be reduced proportionately. This can be calculated as follows: product rate x bed width/row spacing. 1,3-Dichloropropene Telone C17 Shank, chisel, etc.; no 32.4–42.0 gal per acre if If tarped; allowed rates Yes Yes No + CHLOROPICRIN chemigation allowed tarped (label states product are lower if not tarped may be concentrated in the row) Telone C35 Shank, chisel, etc.; no 39.0–50.0 gal per acre if If tarped; allowed rates Yes Yes No chemigation allowed tarped (label states product are lower if not tarped may be concentrated in the row) Comments: Liquid that diffuses as a gas through soil. Added chloropicrin increases efficacy against soilborne fungi. Rates vary with soil texture; efficacy strongly affected by soil moisture and temperature.

continued 28 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 3.3. Fumigants and spectrums of activity, continued.

Conditions Under For Control of: Allowable Application Rate as Stated on Label* Which Listed Rate Common Name Trade Name Methods (see also next column) Applies Nematodes Fungi Weeds 1,3 DICHLOROPROPENE InLine May only be applied through 29.0–38.4 gal per acre Must be tarped Yes Yes No + CHLOROPICRIN a drip system and a tarp must broadcast equivalent be applied Comments: Liquid that diffuses as a gas through soil. Added chloropicrin increases efficacy against soilborne fungi. Rates vary with soil texture; efficacy strongly affected by soil moisture and temperature. If the material is applied only to beds and not row middles, rates must be reduced proportionately. This can be calculated as follows: product rate x bed width/row spacing. Note: As of March 20, 2012, sales of all Midas formulations were suspended. Product registration was being maintained as of this writing. Information on Midas is retained in this table in the unlikely event that Midas sales resume. IODOMETHANE + Midas 33:67 Shank, chisel, etc., either 11.6–16.6 gal (175–250 Rate is applicable only Yes Yes Yes CHLOROPICRIN broadcast or applied to beds; lb) per acre (reduce rates if highly retentive film (Strawberries only) either standard tarps or highly proportionately when is used; standard film retentive films must be applied applied only to beds) requires higher rates Midas 50:50 Shank, chisel, etc., either 9.4–12.6 gal (175–250 Rate is applicable only Yes Yes Yes broadcast or applied to beds; lb) per acre (reduce rates if highly retentive film either standard tarps or highly proportionately when is used; standard film retentive films must be applied applied only to beds) requires higher rates Midas 98:2 Shank, chisel, etc., either 5.3–9.3 gal (175–250 Rate is applicable only Yes Yes Yes broadcast or applied to beds; lb) per acre (reduce rates if standard film is used; either standard tarps or highly proportionately when call manufacturer for retentive films must be applied applied only to beds) recommendation if using highly retentive film Midas EC Bronze May only be applied through 9.4–12.6 gal (150–200 Rate is applicable only Yes Yes Yes buried drip tape to already- lb) per acre (reduce rates if highly retentive film tarped areas proportionately when is used; standard film applied only to beds) requires higher rates Midas EC Gold May only be applied through 11.6–13.3 gal (175–200 Rate is applicable only Yes Yes Yes buried drip tape to already- lb) per acre (reduce rates if highly retentive film tarped areas proportionately when is used; standard film applied only to beds) requires higher rates Comments: Liquid that diffuses as a gas through soil. Added chloropicrin increases efficacy against soilborne fungi. Waiting period between soil fumigation and planting increases from 7–14 days to 14–21 days when VIF or higher density tarps are used. If the material is applied only to beds and not row middles, rates must be reduced proportionately. This can be calculated as follows: product rate x bed width/row spacing. DIMETHYL DISULPHIde Paladin Shank, chisel, etc., either 35.0–51.3 gal (310–455 Rates within range Yes Yes Yes (Strawberries or broadcast or applied to beds; gal) broadcast per treated depend on whether blueberries only) may be used only under highly acre nematodes, diseases, retentive films or weeds are the primary target * Rate would be applied to an acre of land if broadcast. If the material is applied only to beds and not row middles, rates must be reduced proportionately. This can be calculated as follows: product rate x bed width/row spacing. Chapter 3 ❦ Pesticides, Pesticide Safety, and Chemical Fumigation 29

8. For annual plasticulture strawberries, fumigation must be completed at least 21 days before planting. The optimal planting date varies widely within the region and also depends on plant type used (see Chapter 6: Strawberries). Thus, fumigation may need to be completed as early as early summer in cooler areas of Pennsyl- vania when using dormant plants or as late as early fall for warmer areas of Virginia when using plug plants. The best timing for fumigation is early fall if planting matted-row strawberries, brambles, or blueberries in the spring, as soil conditions that satisfy the specific temperature and moisture requirements of fumigants are more likely to exist in the fall. The usually wet and often prolonged cool spring conditions in the region often cause delays in fumigation attempts in the spring. If fumigation is done in the fall prior to spring planting, a winter cover crop of small grains or a permanent between-row sod cover can be seeded after aeration. 9. Make sure to plant disease-free crops and use good management practices to avoid reintroducing pathogens. 30 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 31

years. Biennials often grow vegetatively Chapter 4 Introduction during the first year, then flower and Weeds harm crops by die during the second year. There are Weed 1. competing for light, water, nutrients, relatively few biennial weeds in our area. and space; Yellow rocket and bull thistle are two of 2. acting as hosts for harmful insects, our more common ones. Management diseases, and nematodes, and as Perennials are weeds that live longer cover for undesirable animals; than two years, often reproducing 3. reducing air circulation within a vegetatively by horizontal shoots, roots, planting which can promote certain nutlets, or rhizomes, as well as by seed. diseases; They may be herbaceous or woody. 4. reducing quality and/or yield; and Because of their perennial life cycle and 5. impeding harvest. ability to reproduce by multiple means, perennial weeds are the most difficult Weed Control Measures to manage. Perennial production, as for Contents blueberries, raspberries, gooseberries, Complete eradication of any weed is currants, and jostaberries, tends to favor Introduction...... 31 difficult or impossible. Established the establishment of perennial weeds Weed Control Measures...... 31 perennial weeds are among the most because minimal soil disruption allows Weed Identification...... 31 difficult to kill and often require diverse plants to grow undisturbed. Strawber- Cultural Practices for Weed Management... 32 strategies for successful management. ries, when grown in a perennial system, Site Selection and Preparation...... 32 Cultural and chemical means are suited also can favor the establishment of Crop Rotation...... 32 to different situations, and often both are perennial weeds. It can be extremely Mechanical Management...... 32 needed. difficult to control perennial weeds once Importance of Timing...... 32 the berry planting is established, so Mulches...... 33 Weed Identification Alleyway Management...... 33 Weed identification is the first step in controlling them before planting is the Herbicides for Weed Control...... 33 a successful weed control program. In best approach by far. Terminology...... 36 addition, knowledge of the life cycle of Weeds also can be divided into three Determining the Correct Rate...... 36 problem weeds is extremely valuable, botanical groups. Differences in various Application Pointers...... 36 as it allows us to use control measures characteristics of these three groups Influence of Soil and Water (Rainfall and in ways and at timings that will provide affect the effectiveness of weed manage- Irrigation) on Herbicides...... 37 maximum effectiveness. Conversely, ment measures and how and when they Problem Weeds...... 39 using control measures in a more hit-or- should be used. miss fashion can waste time and money Grasses are in a single botanical plant and, perhaps worst of all, may allow family (Poaceae) and have jointed stems problems with weeds to become worse. and leaves with parallel veins that are Use control measures that are a match divided into a blade and a sheath that with targeted susceptible stages in the wraps around the stem. The seedhead weed’s life cycle. Weeds can be divided forms from a flower cluster called a into three groups based on life cycle. spike which can be further branched into Annuals are weeds that live less than a panicle consisting of many spikelets. one year. There are summer annuals Grasses can be annuals or perennials and winter annuals. Summer annuals depending on species. germinate in the late spring and early Sedges appear similar to grasses summer, flower and set seed in late at a glance, but they can be differenti- summer or early fall, and die when it ated from grasses by their distinctly gets cool. Winter annuals germinate in triangular stem. Leaves are narrow with the fall or early spring, flower and set parallel veins, but they are not divided seed in late spring, and die when it gets into a blade and sheath. The seedhead is hot. Annual weeds are easier to manage in the form of a spike or many-branched than perennial or biennial weeds using spikelets. Sedges can be annuals or cultural strategies because they repro- perennials. Yellow nutsedge, a perennial duce only by seeds. For example, timely sedge, is probably the most well-known cultivation or preventing annual weeds weed in this category within the Mid- from producing seeds can be very effec- Atlantic area. tive management strategies. Broadleaf weeds are in a large collec- Biennials are weeds that live longer tion of diverse plant families and have than one year but less than two full wide leaves. They have seeds that easily 32 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 split into two “halves” since they are Crop Rotation tively as well as by seed with vegetative dicots (will produce seedlings with two Many difficult perennial weeds such as reproductive structures such as nutlets, cotyledons), as opposed to grass seeds Canada thistle, bindweed, and yellow bulbs, rhizomes, or tubers. that will remain in one portion when nutsedge can be controlled by growing Repeated tillage drags perennial opened. Broadleaf weeds can be annuals, a row crop such as corn or soybeans weeds’ vegetative reproductive struc- biennials, or perennials. one or two years prior to the small fruit tures to the soil surface and exposes crop. Herbicides labeled for use in these them to drying in midsummer and Cultural Practices for Weed freezing in winter. However, you must Management crops, as well as the intense competition that they provide, can produce excellent take into account that tillage generally Advance planning and good cultural control of many perennials. Be sure to has a negative effect on soil health, practices can reduce many weed double-check replant restrictions for including decreasing the organic matter problems and improve effectiveness of herbicides used on any crop preceding content of the soil. measure used. All options should be the small fruit crop. Glyphosate-tolerant Weeds with extensively spreading carefully evaluated for suitability on corn and soybeans in rotation would root systems can starve. Emerging shoots your farm prior to using them. present no potential herbicide carryover. use food stored in the roots to grow Site Selection and Preparation Metolachlor (Dual, other formulations) leaves. The shoot uses food from the root Good site selection is an important weed can be used in corn and soybeans and for the first 7 to 10 days after emergence, management strategy. Select a site with provides excellent control of yellow and begins to send food back to the root minimal weeds. Conduct a weed survey nutsedge. Stinger (clopyralid) can be after 10 to 14 days. Till the field within and identify the weeds in the field before used in corn and small grains to control 10 days of emergence of the weed to planting. Control the weeds in the site Canada thistle. Many other examples prevent the food supply in the root from prior to planting. It is especially impor- of crop/herbicide combinations that being replaced. Continue to repeat the tant to get difficult perennial weeds will result in perennial weed control tillage until no regrowth occurs. Be dili- under control before planting. Success exist. In many annual vegetable crops, gent. The control of established perennial may require action for only the year practicing continuous cultivation can weeds using tillage will require months prior to planting or for several years provide a level of weed control that will of regular, timely tillage operations. A before your crop is established. have benefits in small fruit plantings that single missed tillage can nullify months Site selection also influences the follow. of effort. Cropping options are limited health of the planting. Vigorous crop during the tillage period, and the field is Mechanical Management plants on a suitable site can outcompete exposed to erosion by wind and water Timely cultivation can be used to many weeds, but crops established during the entire period. manage most weeds, though there are on a site that is marginal may lose the Repeated mowing is another cultural a few cautionary notes. It is important race. Weeds are often better foragers for tool for managing weeds. Mowing works to identify the weeds in an area before nutrients and water, and there is always by decreasing the competitive ability of using tillage. In one trial, repeated a weed of a different species that can weeds and also can prevent weeds from tillage was very effective for managing tolerate (or even prefer) poor conditions, producing seeds when timed correctly. Canada thistle, while in minimally tilled whatever they might be. Mowing should take place before weeds plots, Canada thistle became dominant. Green manure crops are valuable set seed, or much of the benefit of However, in some instances, tillage can for weed suppression. Select green mowing will have been lost. actually make a weed problem worse by manures that establish quickly and spreading the weed if care isn’t taken, Importance of Timing have large, aboveground canopies, as is the case with yellow nutsedge. such as sudangrass or hairy vetch. For Critical Times for Weeds Another factor to consider when using more information on selecting a green Mechanical means for managing weeds cultivation is the location of crop roots. manure crop, see Chapter 2: Soil Nutri- are almost always more effective when Avoid damaging crop roots with cultivation and Management for Berry Crops. weeds are small. Managing weeds at tion. Strawberry and blueberry roots are Once plantings are in, consider sowing this time is valuable because they do not especially shallow. areas in the field where bare ground is have the chance to become established, Perennial weeds can be controlled not desired to a cool-season perennial thus avoiding future problems. With without herbicides, but success requires grass that will not compete vigorously perennial weeds that have vegetative diligence and an understanding of the with the crop but will suppress weeds. reproductive structures, weed control weed’s reproductive cycle. Primary Where a perennial grass sod is not measures must be taken during the tillage can be used for suppressing used, consider sowing a small grain as period of the year when these structures perennial weeds, including Canada a winter cover crop to suppress annual are produced. thistle and field bindweed. Repeated weeds. In no case should weeds be allowed tillage can be useful for suppressing all to go to seed. Many weeds can produce weed types (annual, biennial, perennial, 10,000 to more than 100,000 seeds per grasses, sedges, and broadleaf weeds). plant. Most will be “hard” seed that will Most perennial weeds reproduce vegeta- not germinate for several years. The Chapter 4 ❦ Weed Management 33 weed seeds from one prolific year of smother emerging weeds. All organic created when a plant is broadcast seeded weed seed production will take many mulches break down over time and tie in the alleyways. When selecting what years to be depleted. Preventing seed up important nutrients, so the use of species to use as a living mulch, choose production of new and hard-to-control mulch may require additional fertilizer. a plant that will outcompete weeds but weeds is very important. Also, suppress Reapply mulches annually or when will not creep or spread into the row of perennial weeds, regardless of the time needed to maintain weed suppression. small fruit plants. Some grass species, of year, to prevent them from estab- Choose mulch products such as sawdust such as hard fescue, meet these criteria lishing. or wood chips. Avoid mulches such as and have been used successfully as straw that provide a favorable environ- living mulches in bramble and blue- Critical Times for the Crop ment for rodents such as field mice and berry production. Living mulches may Critical times during the growing season voles that may damage blueberries. be used between rows of plasticulture for managing weeds in matted-row In one study, commercially avail- strawberries. Living mulches have also strawberries have been studied. A key able planter’s paper was found to be been tried between rows of matted-row time for weed management is in the effective for suppressing weeds during strawberries in research trials and on first few months during plant establish- the establishment year of matted-row grower farms. However, the strawberries ment. When weeds were not managed strawberries as compared to not using were poor competitors with the mulch, for longer than one month following mulch. The plastic used in plasticulture and there were other disadvantages such planting, yield and runner production strawberry production can be effec- as increased clipper damage. For more were lower than when plots were kept tive for managing weeds within the information on recommended practices weed free during the same time. When strawberry row. Be aware that light- for alleyway management, see the indi- weeds were not managed late in the transmitting plastics are not effective vidual crop chapters. growing season (September), there was for managing weeds without the use of little effect on yield and the number of Herbicides for Weed Control fumigant prior to laying the plastic. In a runners compared to when plots were Table 4.1 lists the effectiveness of various trial using a semitransparent blue plastic, kept weed free during the same time. herbicides for common weeds, which weeds grew so well that they levitated While this indicates that early season may be substituted for each other when the plastic, resulting in the strawberry weed management is most critical when such use is allowed according to the plants being swallowed underneath the establishing a new planting, key times of label. In some cases, fumigation for plastic. Fabric weed barriers also are a the year for weed management may vary weed management may be warranted. good option for suppressing weeds and depending on the weed species typi- Fumigation materials that may be are used by a number of black raspberry cally encountered and on soil moisture used are covered in Chapter 3, Table and blackberry growers. Plastic mulches levels. In the study, predominant weeds 3.3. Especially with perennial weeds, could be used similarly. Use of plastic included yellow nutsedge, common one application of a herbicide may not mulches and weed barriers in bramble groundsel, purslane, and numerous provide complete management, but plantings is discussed further in Chapter grass species. If, for example, common regrowth should be limited and competi- 8: Brambles. chickweed was predominant, then tive ability reduced. Follow-up spot Whether or not straw mulch is used late-season weed management may treatments will improve the long-term for winter protection in strawberry have been equally as important as early result of the initial herbicide application, fields, straw may be placed in the season weed management. but knowledge of the target weed’s life alleyways of strawberries in the spring With perennial crops as well, the cycle can be even more valuable. in order to offer some weed control. period of establishment is a critical time Chemical weed management can be Straw is also commonly used in bramble for weed control, though the period effective, economical, and safe when plantings during the establishment year of establishment is years rather than used correctly. It eliminates potential to suppress weeds. Straw should be just months for strawberries. Newly injury from close cultivation or culti- removed from these plantings after the planted crops rarely can compete with vating too deeply and reduces rodent first year because it can promote mois- vigorous weeds, which deprive them injury by eliminating cover. ture around the roots, which in turn can of nutrients, water, and sunlight. Crops Choose herbicides for use in the row promote root rots. Applying 4 to 6 inches that suffer greatly from competition with that are labeled, have adequate crop of an organic mulch (for example, rotted weeds may take years longer to reach safety, and target the weeds in your field. sawdust) at the base of the plants is a full production or may never reach full Use the correct amount of residual herbi- common practice in blueberry produc- production at all. cides for each soil type. These topics are tion. In addition to regulating fluctuating discussed in greater detail in individual Mulches soil moisture, the mulch suppresses crop chapters. Mulches control annual weeds and weeds. Repeatedly using a single herbicide provide additional horticultural benefits Alleyway Management will lead to an increase in resistant in many fields. When using mulch for The alleys between rows of plants are weeds. Use of a single herbicide will weed control, apply the mulch 3 to 4 well suited to the use of a living mulch also result in control of certain species, inches thick when the rows are weed for managing weeds. A living mulch is which will allow other weed species to free. Thinner layers of mulch may not 34 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2012-14

Table 4.1. Weed susceptibility to herbicides.

postemergent preemergent postemergent translocated nontranslocated b oast elect R ely inbar P cythe S urflan tinger andea acthal S olicam S Gallery S Callisto P rincep Karmex S Casoron Chateau a R oundup Cultivation Gramoxone A ) S r, R ) Fusilade , B r, ) & V & PA , N J, r, C) , B r, onbearing B r, S ) , B r, , B r) R ) , B r, R ) , B r, , B r) , B r) S ) , B r, , R ) S , R ) , B r, r, S , C) , B r, , B r) d evrinol , B r) rops labeled on labeled rops ( B ) S ( B ( B ( B ( B ) Velpar ( S ) 2,4- D ( B crop A ny ( B ( B ( S in M D ( N ( B ( S , R ) ( B ( B ( S , B ( S , B ) ( S ) D ( B ( B ( B in N J & M D ( B ) Kerb ( B ( S ) P rowl C ANNUAL AND BIENNIAL WEEDS Broadleaves (sa = summer annual, wa = winter annual, b = biennial) Bedstraw, catchweed Gc — G — — — — — P — — — P — F — — — — N N N — P P (sa, wa) Bittercress (sa, wa) G — G — — G — — P F — — G — P — — G — N N N — G F Buckwheat, wild (sa) G — G — — — — — — G G — G — — — — G G N N N G G F Carpetweed (sa) F G G G P G F G G G G P G G G G G G N N N N — G F Chickweed, common (wa) G G G G G G G G G G P — G G G G P G N N N N F–G G F Common cocklebur (sa) — F — — — N — — N F–G N G G P N G — G G N N N — G — Common mallow (wa, F — G G N N — N — N — — — — N — — G — N N N F P P sa, b) Filaree, redstem (wa,b) G — G G — G — F P P — — G G P — — G — N N N F F F Galinsoga, hairy (sa) G G F — N P–F G G P G N G G G N G F G G N N N F G F Geranium, wild or G — G — P G — — P — — — G — — — G G P N N N — G F cranesbill (b) Groundsel, common G — G G P G G P P F — — F F P — F–G G G N N N — G F (sa, wa) Henbit (wa) G — G G G F G G F G F — F–G G F–G G F G N N N N F–G G F Horseweed (sa) F G G G N N — G P P — — F–G F–G F F–G G G G N N N F–G P P Jimsonweed (sa) — F — G — N G G N G P G — F N G — G P N N N — G — Knotweed, prostrate (sa) F — G G G F–G — F–G F G P — G G G — F G — N N N — N N Lambsquarters (sa) G G G G G F–G G G G G F–G F G F G G G G P N N N G G F Morning glory spp. (sa) — F G F N N G G — G P F N F N G G F N N N N F F–G F Mustard, wild (wa) G G G G N F G G F G P G G G F G G G N N N N F–G F F Nightshade, black (sa) G G G G N P G G F G P P G G P — G G P N N N G G F Pepperweed, Virginia (sa) G — G — — F — — P G — — — F–G F–G — G G N N N N — — — Pigweeds (sa) G F G G F G G G G G P P–F P G G G G G P N N N G G F Pineappleweed (sa, wa) G — G G P G G G P G F–G — G G P — G G G N N N F Gd F Prickly lettuce (sa, wa, b) G — G G — G — G P G — — G P F — P G G N N N G G F Purslane (sa) F — G G G G G G G G F–G G G G G G G G P N N N F–G G F Ragweed (sa) F P G G N F G G P G N F G G P G G F G N N N G G F Shepherds purse (wa) G G G G P F G G P G P G G F F G G G N N N N F–G G F Smartweed, Pennsylvania G F–G G G N P G F–G F G F N G G P–F G F G P N N N G F F (sa) Sowthistle, annual (sa) G — — G — G — P–F P F — — G F P — — G — N N N — G F Tansy ragwort (sa) F — G — — P — — P — — — P — P — — G — N N N — Gd F Thistle, bull (b) G — G — N N — — P G — — F — F F–G G — N N N F P P Velvetleaf (sa) G G G G N N G F–G P G G G G F P G G G P N N N G G F Wild or field pansy (wa, G — — G G N — — — P — — Ge — P — P P N N N N — P P sa) Yellow rocket (wa, b) G — G P N N — — — N N — N F N — P–F G P N N N — P P Grasses and Sedges (sa = summer annual, wa = winter annual, b = biennial) Barnyardgrass (sa) G N G F F G N G G F G N F G G G N G N G G G G G F Bluegrass, annual (wa) G P G P F G G G F G P N F G G G N G N — P F G G F Bromegrass, annual (wa) G P G P — G G F G F — N — G G G N G N G G G — G — Cheat (wa) G — G — — G — — G G — N G F–G G — N G N G G G — — — continued Chapter 4 ❦ Weed Management 35

Table 4.1. Weed susceptibility to herbicides, continued.

Crabgrass, large (sa) G F G F G G N F–G G F–G G N F G G G N G N G G G G G F Fall panicum (sa) G N F F F G N G G F– G N G G G G N G N G G G G G F Foxtail (sa) G P F F G G N G G G G N F G G G N G N G G G G G F Goosegrass (sa) G N F F F G N F–G G G G N F G G G N G N G G G G G F Annual sedge (sa) — F G P — P–F N F–G N F–G — G — F–G N G — F — N N N — G — PERENNIAL WEEDS Broadleaves Aster, white flower Fc P G F N N P P — N N — N N N F–G N G G N N N F P P Chickweed, mouseear — — — G — — — G — G — — — G G — — — — — — — — — — Chicory F — G — N N — — — P–F — — G N N — G G G N N N F P P Clovers F — — — N P — — P P — — P — P — P P G N N N P P P Dandelion, common F — G G N G G G P G F — G G N — G G F N N N F P P Dandelion, false P — G — — P — — P — — P G P — — G — N N N F P P Docks P — G N N N — — — N F — F N N — G F F N N N P P P Field bindweed P P F–P F — P P P P P — — P P P F — F P N N N P P P Field horsetail P — G — — P — — P P — — P P P — — P — N N N P P P Goldenrod F P F–G P N N P P — N — — P–F N N F P–F G G N N N F P P Ground ivy F — G — N N — — — N — — N N N — P–F G — N N N F P P Hemp dogbane F P N P N N P P — N — — N N N F P–F F — N N N F P P Milkweed P — — — N N — — — N — — N — N — P–F G N N N N F P P Mugwort F — G — N N — — — N — — P N N — P F G N N N P P P Mulberry — P P P — N N N N N — P — N — P — G — N N N — P — Plantain G — G N N N — — P G P — F P N — G G N N N N F P P Poison ivy — P P P N N N N N N — P N P N P — G — N N N — P — Sorrel, red F P G F F N P P — N — P N N F P G F N N N F P P Thistle, Canada P P G P N F P P P N P P N P N F P G G N N N F P P Virginia creeper — P P P N N N N N N — P N P N P F G — N N N — P — Yarrow, common F — — — N N — — — — — — N N N — F G — N N N F P P Yellow woodsorrel G — G — F P G — — F — — G F F — F G N N N N F P P Wild carrot F — G — N N — — — N — — F F N — P–F G — N N N F P P Wild strawberry F — G — N N — — — N — — N P N — P–F G — N N N F P P Grasses and Sedges Bermudagrass P N N N N N N N — N — N F P N P N G N F–G F–G — F P P Bentgrass G — — — — — — — F G — N — — G — — — N G F F — P P Fescues — — G — N N — — — P — N F F N — N G N P–F P–F G F F P Johnsongrass (seedlings) G N F F — G N N — N G–F N — F F–G — N G N G G G G G F Johnsongrass (rhizomes) P — — N N N — — — P N N P P N — N G N G G G F G P Orchardgrass — — G N N N — — G P–F N N G F N — N G N G G F–Gd F Gd F Quackgrass P N G N N N N P G P–F N N P P N F N G N G G F F P P Velvetgrass P — — — — P G P — N G — — — G N — F G F G F Yellow nutsedge P P F P N N P P N N P F–G P F N F N F N N N N P P P a. S = strawberries; Br = brambles; B = blueberries; R = Ribes; C = currants. b. Rely is partially translocated. c. G = good; F = fair; P = poor; N = no control; — = insufficient data. d. Seedling state only. e. Sinbar does not control pansy postemergence. 36 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 take over. Use herbicide combinations, treat weeds that are dormant or under textured soils, such as loamy sands and herbicide rotations, and sequential or stress, as the herbicide will be absorbed sandy loams, are low in organic matter— spot treatments in a well-managed to a lesser extent. Most herbicides that often less than 2 percent. Medium- weed control program to eliminate or enter the plant through the leaves need a textured soils, such as loams, may have minimize problems. The recommended minimum rain-free period of at least 1 to 2 to 4 percent organic matter. Soils with herbicides in this guide have been evalu- 8 hours after application for maximum a high clay content have varying levels ated for crop safety and effectiveness. effectiveness. Postemergence herbicides of organic matter but always have a Information on all varieties is incom- may be selective or nonselective. They high CEC. See the section below on soil plete. Use herbicides with care on new may work only where they contact the properties for further details. Many varieties. weed, or they may translocate and work traditional “black” blueberry soils may systemically throughout the plant. be classified as loamy sands, but they Terminology Selective postemergence herbicides may have organic matter contents over Residual kill only certain susceptible weeds. 8 percent. Have your soil analyzed for Residual herbicides remain in the soil Poast, Select, and Fusilade DX are percent organic matter. This is a separate and kill weeds through their roots for examples that kill only grasses and will test that must be requested from most several weeks or up to several months. not have any effect on broadleaf weeds soils laboratories. If your soil has an Most frequently, they are effective only or harm broadleaf plants. 2,4-D selec- organic matter content higher than the on germinating seeds, so they must be tively controls many broadleaved weeds choices listed on the herbicide label for applied before weeds germinate. Some, at certain times in strawberries. your soil texture, choosing the correct however, have “kickback” activity on Nonselective postemergence herbi- rate may be difficult. Consult your local small weeds. Weeds begin to compete cides kill or injure any treated plant. Cooperative Extension service for assis- with most crops within 2 to 4 weeks They may be contact or translocated. tance in determining the correct herbi- of planting without application of a Contact herbicides work only where they cide rate to use on your soil if needed. residual herbicide. If weeds are present, are placed. Thorough spray coverage Application Pointers a postemergence herbicide can be is essential for good results. Roots of Herbicide application should be accom- combined with a residual herbicide to established annual weeds and perennial plished with a “conventional” fixed- burn down weeds and then provide weeds often survive. Gramoxone Inteon boom sprayer calibrated to accurately control of new weeds that may germi- and Scythe are examples of nonselective deliver the intended gallonage of water nate. Residual herbicides can be used to contact herbicides. Translocated herbi- per acre using flat fan nozzles at 30 to 40 control both grasses and broadleaves. cides move systemically in the weed psi, unless otherwise stated. Herbicide after treatment. Application at the proper Incorporated rate recommendations are made on a growth stage will often result in injury to Incorporated herbicides are mechanically broadcast basis (amount of herbicide or destruction of the roots as well as tops mixed with the soil. This application applied per sprayed acre, or 43,560 sq ft). of established annuals and perennial method is not well suited to crops with Good agitation is needed for uniform weeds. Results of translocated herbicides shallow roots such as strawberries and distribution of the chemical in the may not be evident for several days or blueberries. It is difficult or impossible spray solution. It is most important weeks. Roundup and other glyphosate to incorporate herbicides near the crown when wettable powder, flowable, or products are examples of nonselective of the blueberry plant, and shallow roots water-dispersible granules/dry flow- translocated herbicides. may be pruned by the incorporation able formulations are sprayed. Good equipment. Determining the Correct Rate agitation can be achieved mechanically Preemergence Improperly applied herbicides or herbi- with paddles or hydraulically with spray Preemergence herbicides are applied cides applied above recommended rates material from a bypass line. Do not use to the soil surface. Rainfall or overhead may cause damage to crop plants. the pressure regulator bypass for agita- irrigation before weeds emerge is needed Residual herbicide rates must be tion. If hydraulic agitation is used, be to move the herbicide into the soil. Use a matched with soil type and percentage sure the pump has the capacity to spray preemergence herbicide in combination of organic matter to obtain good weed and agitate at the same time. Tank shape with a postemergence herbicide if weeds management and crop safety. Determine also affects agitation. Corners and edges have emerged, unless the preemergence type and percentage of organic matter in tanks increase the agitation require- herbicide also is effective postemergence. for each soil on the farm with a separate ment. The boom should be modified to soil test for each soil. Rates for different reach under the crop canopy. The outside Postemergence soil types and percentage organic matter nozzle may be of the offset type to reach Postemergence herbicides kill weeds are listed for labeled herbicides within into the middle of the row. through their leaves. Carefully apply individual crop chapters. Nozzle tips may be made from many those that are nonselective to the weeds Be aware that most herbicide labels materials. Plastic and brass tips wear without allowing the herbicides to are written for “typical agricultural more rapidly and should be replaced contact the crop plants. The best time soils” and that many common blueberry annually. Use only stainless steel or to apply postemergence herbicides is fields are not “typical.” Most coarse- tungsten carbide nozzles with wettable when weeds are growing rapidly. Do not Chapter 4 ❦ Weed Management 37 powder, flowable, or water-dispersible tests that employ the “feel” method may columns with different herbicide rates granules/dry flowable formulations. be inaccurate. A mechanical analysis of for different levels of organic matter in These products are abrasive and wear your soil will determine the amounts of each soil type. other tips too quickly. Flat fan nozzle tips sand, silt, and clay in the mineral portion Soil pH also affects the performance are designed for herbicide application. of the soil. Have soil texture determined of some herbicides by influencing the Most herbicides should be applied with by mechanical analysis one time. The degree of attraction to soil particles. The a TeeJet 8002 to 8004 nozzle or equiva- texture will not change unless soil is lost pH of soils suited to blueberry produc- lent. Most herbicides can be applied by erosion or other means. Sand particles tion is lower than the recommended soil effectively with flat fan nozzles applying are the largest, silt is medium in size, and pH levels for other small fruit crops, between 15 and 50 gallons of water per clay particles are the smallest. Soils with which range between 6.0 and 6.5, and acre. Flood jet nozzles are economical a large percentage of sand particles are vegetable crops, which range between to use but do not provide the uniform considered to be coarse in texture and 6.0 and 7.0. Low pH (below 6.0) or high coverage obtained with flat fan nozzles. are called sand, loamy sand, or sandy pH (above 7.0) may affect the availability Nozzles that are designed to reduce drift loam. Soils with a moderate amount of of certain herbicides by changing the are available. each size soil particle are considered positive charge of the molecule. Effec- to be medium in texture and are called tiveness may be reduced and/or herbi- Influence of Soil and Water (Rainfall loams. Soils with a large percentage of cide carryover may be increased if the and Irrigation) on Herbicides clay particles are considered to be fine in herbicide is more tightly bound to the Most weed control programs rely on texture and are called clay loam or clay. soil. The risk of crop injury may increase nonresidual postemergence (knock- Soil particles are negatively (-) if a herbicide is less tightly bound to the down) herbicides and residual preemer- charged. The negative charge of soil soil and more available. Herbicides that gence herbicides to manage weeds. particles attracts positively (+) charged are affected by pH may have “Do Not Applications are typically sprayed once fertilizer molecules such as H PO +, Use” warnings on the label if the soil pH a year in the spring, or twice a year (in 2 4 K+, Ca++, Mg++, and many herbicides. is above or below a value that increases late fall and late spring). Residual herbi- The attraction of the positive charge the risk of crop injury, herbicide carry- cides applied at these times are relied on to the negative charge of the soil over, or poor weed control. to minimize weed growth through the particles slows leaching. Other fertil- summer months and harvest. Chemical Properties of the Herbicide izer molecules, such as NO3- and a After application to the soil surface, The solubility, or the ease with which an few herbicides, have a negative charge. most residual herbicides must be moved herbicide dissolves in water, affects the Negatively (-) charged molecules are not into the soil by rainfall or overhead irri- rate of movement through the soil (Table bound to the soil and are more subject gation to be effective. The amount of rain 4.2). A herbicide that is more soluble in to leaching, especially if they are highly or overhead irrigation needed depends water may be activated by less rainfall soluble in water. Since substances that on weeds targeted, soil properties, and or irrigation but may not provide the are positively charged are called cations, the chemical properties of the herbicide. length of control that could be obtained the measure of a soil’s ability to hold Many weeds, such as pigweed with a less soluble herbicide, especially onto cations is called the cation exchange species, produce huge numbers of tiny in a coarse-textured soil low in organic capacity (CEC). Sand is the largest seeds. Small seeds must germinate at or matter. particle in size and has the lowest CEC very near the surface of the soil. Other In addition, most residual herbicides value, less than 1. Silt is intermediate weeds, such as morninglory seeds or can become bound to soil particles. in size and has an intermediate CEC yellow nutsedge tubers, can germinate When attached, or bound to the soil, value, near 5. Clays are the smallest soil or sprout from deeper in the soil. Early these individual molecules of herbicide particles and have the highest CEC value in the season, herbicides must be moved are not available to the weeds or the of the mineral component of soil—near farther into the soil to affect weeds that crop. 35—depending on the type of clay. germinate or sprout from deeper in the Herbicides can be held onto by the Organic matter makes up only a soil. Later in the season, shallow-germi- soil to varying degrees (see Table 4.2). small part of most soils, usually between nating weeds may become established The degree of binding is influenced by 0.5 and 5.0 percent in soils across the and escape control if the herbicide the chemistry of the herbicide and the northeastern United States, but it has moved too deep into the soil to be CEC of the soil. Lower herbicide rates has the highest CEC value, near 200. available during weed emergence and are needed to prevent crop damage in Traditional “black” blueberry soils may establishment. soils with a low CEC. Plant nutrients, have organic matter contents well over such as NO -, and herbicides with a Soil Properties 5 percent. Even small changes in the 3 negative charge are not held by the soil, Soil can have a strong influence on percent organic matter in soils, especially leach more rapidly, and are less affected weed growth and residual herbicide sandy soils, can have a strong influence by soil texture than those with a positive effectiveness. The soil characteristics on herbicide performance. That is the charge. that influence herbicide effectiveness reason small changes in percent organic Nonresidual postemergence herbi- include texture, percent organic matter, matter may require herbicide rate cides have no activity after application and pH. Soil maps list soil texture. Soil changes. Rate tables may have several 38 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 for one of two reasons. Some herbicides Firestorm, and other labeled paraquat Trickle Irrigation and Herbicide are too tightly bound to the soil to be products, are too tightly bound to the Effectiveness available to plants after application. Care soil to have residual activity. These Efficiency, water conservation, and must be exercised in soilless growing herbicides are completely unavail- disease minimization are reasons to environments, where surprising residual able to plants after application. They consider trickle irrigation. The crop can activity can be observed from these remain tightly bound to the soil until be irrigated using less water provided herbicides. Other herbicides are highly broken down. Glyphosate is degraded by a smaller pump delivered at lower soluble in water and are not bound to or digested by soil microorganisms. pressure than with traditional overhead soil particles. Residual activity from Residual activity from glyphosate has sprinkler systems. In addition, evapora- these herbicides can be observed in the been observed when used in green- tion losses are lower. Since trickle lines soil, but it often lasts only a few days. houses, on plastic mulch, and near and microsprinklers operate under the They are rapidly leached out of the zone hydroponic growing systems. Paraquat crop, the fruit and foliage remain dry, of weed seed germination and degraded is degraded by sunlight and is less likely reducing the incidence of many diseases. by soil microorganisms. to cause problems when used on plastic Improved weed management is not a Glyphosate products—including mulch, in greenhouses, or near soilless benefit of trickle irrigation when herbi- Roundup products, Touchdown prod- growing systems. cides are used. Expect higher herbicide ucts, Glyphomax Plus, and other labeled and application costs and less effective glyphosate formulations—and paraquat and less consistent weed control from products, including Gramoxone Inteon, herbicides in trickle irrigated fields. No herbicide, not even the least soluble in water and most tightly bound to the soil, can withstand leaching from the volume of water that flows from an Table 4.2. Herbicide water solubility and soil adsorption characteristics. emitter hole in trickle irrigation tubing. Herbicide failure can be first observed Solubility Soil Adsorption in fields under trickle irrigation by small Residual Herbicides tufts of weeds growing at each emitter. Callisto (mesotrione) Moderate Moderate/strong As the season progresses, the weeds Casoron/Norosac (dichlobenil) Low Moderate grow more readily, and the spot enlarges Chateau (flumioxazin) Very low Not available as a wider area is leached free of herbi- Dacthal (DCPA) Very low Not available cide. Although the irrigation prevents Devrinol (napropamide) Moderate Strong the crop from water stress, weeds can Gallery (isoxaben) Very low Strong be fierce competitors for nutrients and Karmex (diuron) Low Strong sunlight and can interfere with harvest. Kerb (pronamide) Low to moderate Strong In many annual crops, the increased Norosac/Casoron (dichlobenil) Low Moderate weed pressure and interference with Princep (simazine) Very low Moderate cultivation has restricted trickle irriga- Prowl (pendimethalin) Very low Very strong tion to use with plastic mulch for weed Sandea (halosulfuron) Low to moderate Moderate management. Modifications to the trickle irrigation Sinbar (terbacil) Moderate Weak system can moderate the weed control Solicam (norflurazon) Low to moderate Strong problem. Any change in the system that Surflan (oryzalin) Very low Strong reduces the volume of water applied Velpar (hexazinone) High Weak at a point source will reduce herbicide Nonresidual Herbicides leaching. Reducing the distance between Formula 40 (2,4-D) Not available Not available the holes in traditional trickle tubing Fusilade (fluazifop-P-butyl) Very low Very strong to increase distribution is not likely to glyphosate products Very high Very strong eliminate the weed problem. Burying the paraquat products Very high Very strong tubing more than 4 inches deep before Poast (sethoxydim) Moderate to very higha Moderate planting new fields or under several Rely (glufosinate) Very high Weak layers of organic mulch will effectively reduce the adverse effects on residual Select products (clethodim) Not available Weak herbicides since their effectiveness is Scythe (pelargonic acid) Not available Not available usually confined to the upper 2 to 4 Stinger (clopyralid) Moderate Weak inches of soil. Switching from trickle Source: Weed Science Society of America (2002) Herbicide Handbook, 8th ed. Controlling Weeds in Nursery and Landscape tubing that drips to microsprinklers Plantings (2007) Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences. in crops where they can be used also a. pH dependent Chapter 4 ❦ Weed Management 39 effectively reduces the adverse effects of the irrigation on weed control. When trickle irrigation will be used for the residual herbicide weed control program, during the irrigation season choose herbicides that are least soluble in water and most tightly adsorbed by the soil (see Table 4.2). Adjust the application timing in the spring so the herbicides can be activated by 1 to 2 inches of rainfall or overhead irrigation before the trickle irrigation is used. This will allow the herbicides to move into and be attached to the soil before being subjected to the intense leaching of the trickle irrigation. Remember that choosing the herbicide(s) that is least soluble in water and most strongly adsorbed to the soil will delay, but not prevent, herbicide failure and weed breakthroughs in trickle irrigated crops. Coarse-textured sandy soils and soils low in organic matter that require frequent irrigation increase the likelihood of weed control failure, especially during prolonged periods of heat and drought stress. Plan to use repeated applications of nonresidual postemergence herbicides on a regular schedule to manage weeds in trickle irrigated crops. Do not exceed maximum annual use rates. Time the application of residual herbicides to derive the maximum benefit from their use when harvest approaches and preharvest interval (PHI) restrictions will not permit the continued use of the nonresidual postemergence herbicides.

Problem Weeds Troublesome species tend to become well entrenched in perennial plantings such as blueberries, brambles, and Ribes. In Chapter 7: Blueberries, these weeds’ biological features that make them difficult to manage are discussed, as well as cultural and chemical strategies, when known, that have been found to be effective. Yellow nutsedge, field and hedge bindweed, Canada thistle, dandelion, goldenrod species, horsetail, poison ivy, quackgrass, Virginia creeper, and white heath aster are covered in detail in Chapter 7. 40 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2012-14 41

Chapter 5 Introduction Crow The American crow, Corvus brachyrhyn- To the passing robin or deer, your fruit chos, while primarily a problem in apple Wildlife planting appears to be a grocery store. production, may be found in other fruit In most cases, growers can tolerate a crops. It pecks deep, triangular holes in little damage from wildlife, but losses the fruit. Damage may become excessive if measures are not taken to control wildlife damage. In Grackle Control in general, fruit-eating birds, such as robins The common grackle, Quiscalus quisula, and starlings, and browsing mammals, has a black body, an iridescent head, and Commercial such as deer, voles, and rabbits, are the a keel-shaped tail. Grackles consume most common wildlife problems. small fruit, such as blueberries, whole. Plantings Effective management begins by They often slash large fruit, such as cher- anticipating the extent of damage and ries and apples, and leave it damaged. responding with the appropriate control. Starling Before deciding on a control method, The European starling, Sturnus vulgaris, if any, you should consider the cost is an exotic (nonnative) species intro- and benefits. Economic costs are not duced into North America from Europe. the only costs that should be taken into It has a black-speckled appearance, consideration. Time constraints and the short tail—a feature that differentiates it impacts of the control methods on other Contents from grackles—and wings that appear nontarget wildlife should also be consid- triangular when the bird is in flight. Star- Introduction...... 41 ered. In many instances, an integrated lings are not protected by law. They can Birds...... 41 pest management (IPM) plan is the best cause extensive damage to fruit because Species of Birds...... 41 approach. Damage...... 42 they often descend on plantings in huge Legal Status...... 42 flocks. At roost sites, starlings have been Damage Control...... 42 Birds known to come in at 1,000 birds per Summary...... 43 On many farms, bird damage is minimal minute. Starlings eat small fruit such as Mammals...... 43 and growers choose to ignore the grapes and blueberries whole, and slash Voles...... 43 problem or just take the loss from birds large fruit such as cherries. They peck Cottontail Rabbits...... 44 into account as a management cost. holes in apples, consume the inside of the White-Tailed Deer...... 46 For others, problems from birds can be fruit, and leave the apple hollowed out. Conclusion...... 47 substantial, resulting in the consumption House Finch of or damage to large portions of the The house finch, Carpodacus mexicanus, fruit crop. Frequently, the amount of lost is a relative newcomer to the eastern fruit is not apparent until after control United States—its historic range is in the measures are implemented. western part of the country. In the 1940s, The type and amount of damage it was released on Long Island, New York, caused, effective control methods, and and has been spreading in numbers and legal protection vary among bird species. distribution since that time. The house As a result, it is very important for a finch has brown streaks and looks like a grower to be able to identify the birds sparrow. The male has patches of orange causing damage. A number of field or red under its chin and on its sides. The guides for identifying birds are avail- house finch starts at the top of a blueberry able at bookstores or libraries. Listed bush and pecks berries in rapid succes- below are the species that most often sion. Many are left damaged. It also pecks cause damage to fruit, along with a brief grapes open and feeds on the juice and description of each bird and the type of pulp within. It leaves small, irregular damage it causes. nicks on apples, which often make the Species of Birds fruit susceptible to disease. The house All the species listed below can be prob- finch causes extensive damage to fruit in lems on various fruit crops. Descriptions the western United States. In the eastern of damage to crops other than berry United States, it is not a major problem crops are included to aid in identification but may become one in the future. of causes of damage. 42 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2012-14

House Sparrow Bird damage to cherries and grapes is fruits and isolated trees, other methods The house sparrow, Passer domesticus, is also greatest to early ripening varieties. are available. also an exotic species introduced from Early ripening fruit may be damaged Scare Tactics and Noise Devices Europe. The male can be recognized more frequently because it matures at a Many growers use visual scare devices by his black bib and white cheeks. The time when other fruits are not available. and noisemakers to frighten birds away female is drab brown. House spar- Legal Status from fruit crops. Visual scare devices rows damage grapes, cherries, and Federal law protects all species of birds include streamers, spinners, aluminum other small-sized fruit, generally by except starlings, house sparrows, and pie tins, plastic owl and snake models, pecking holes. The house sparrow is not pigeons. All other species are protected and scare-eyes (large balloons with protected by law. and cannot be trapped or shot without a eyes painted on them). They are most Robin permit. The only exceptions to this rule effective when used in conjunction The American robin, Turdus migratorius, are blackbirds, cowbirds, and grackles, with sound devices. Because birds is a common and well-known bird. It which may be killed without a permit learn quickly that visual scare devices is probably the species most frequently when they are observed committing or are harmless, they should be used only reported as consuming small fruits and about to commit damage. When control- during short damage periods and should cherries. Robins consume whole cher- ling birds through lethal methods, use be changed regularly. Varying location, ries, grapes, blueberries, and other small extreme care in identifying the species color, and type of scare devices enhances fruit and frequently cause substantial causing damage. their effectiveness. damage. A number of noise devices are avail- Damage Control able. Cannons, exploders, sirens, and The type of control you choose will Others other noisemakers work best when the depend on a number of factors. Use A number of other species might cause sound is presented at irregular intervals your knowledge of damage patterns and similar problems, depending on the time and its source is moved frequently. species behavior to decide when and of year and the habitat surrounding Be aware that the loud sounds will be where to use control methods and the the orchard. Species include the cedar objectionable close to residential areas. types of control methods to use. waxwing (Bombycilla cedrorum), gray Taped distress calls are more effective, catbird (Dumetella carolinensis), northern Netting but the calls are usually species specific, mockingbird (Mimus polyglottos), and For many types of fruit, netting is so a grower must obtain a tape of the Baltimore oriole (Icterus galbula). the most effective way to reduce bird distress calls of the type of bird causing Damage damage. Netting can be placed directly the damage. A problem with both visual Damage to fruit does not occur over the plants or bushes, but for some and scare tactics is that birds become randomly. By being familiar with fruits, such as highbush blueberry, a accustomed to them over time. patterns of damage, a grower may be framework is built and the netting is Chemical Repellents suspended over the frame. If placed on able to reduce damage or the cost of One chemical repellent, methyl anthrani- a framework of trellis wire strung across control by concentrating control methods late (MA), currently is registered for use posts that are taller than implements and in particular areas and at times of the on small fruits in Pennsylvania. Methyl workers, inconveniences associated with season when damage is most severe. anthranilate is a colorless to pale-yellow netting are minimized. The major disad- Although all farms and orchards liquid with a grape-like odor. It has been vantages of netting include the high are susceptible to damage, it usually is used as a food and drug flavoring for initial cost, the time necessary to apply greatest on farms in close proximity to humans for years. In preliminary tests, it, and the inconvenience of working town environments where birds such fruit treated with MA were consumed around it. Although netting is expensive, as robins and starlings are abundant. significantly less than untreated fruit. it can be reused for a number of years if Damage is generally higher in isolated In addition, human consumers could it is removed carefully and stored over plantings. In large areas of fruit produc- not detect a difference in taste between winter. When deciding whether to use tion, so much fruit is available that the fruit that had been treated earlier in netting, growers should consider the amount of damage on any one site is the season and fruit that had not been costs of purchasing and installing it rela- fairly low. The size of the planting also treated. MA should not be applied to tive to the losses from bird damage. In influences the amount of damage. As blueberry plants, however, because it has many cases, it is likely that netting will a pattern, small plantings generally been known to cause foliar burns in field be more economically viable in smaller experience a greater degree of damage studies and has not been cost effective. plantings, both because of the greater than large plantings. Thus, damage can Methyl anthranilate is currently regis- percentage of losses and smaller area. be an important problem for small-scale tered for use on fruits and turf. Netting should be applied before berries producers. In the past, the repellent methiocarb color in order to minimize the number The time at which the fruit matures (Mesurol) was registered for use on of birds attempting to circumvent the appears to influence the amount of cherries and blueberries; however, this netting. Although netting is the most damage. For strawberries, bird damage product is no longer registered in effective means of bird control for small is highest on early maturing varieties. Pennsylvania. Chapter 5 ❦ Wildlife Damage Control in Commercial Plantings 43

Summary in tussocks of grass, and at the end of 1.5 inches wide. Bits of freshly cut For best results in reducing bird damage, burrows. vegetation and accumulations of vole growers should use a variety of simul- Voles are extremely prolific. Their droppings (brown or green in color and taneous techniques and start the control peak breeding activity occurs between shaped like rice grains) in the runway program before birds have established March and October, but when winters are positive evidence they are being a habit of feeding on the fruit. Control are mild, voles may breed all year long. used. Vegetation, small roots, or mold in is much more difficult after feeding A female meadow vole could potentially the runways indicate that the voles are patterns have become established. produce over 70 young in a year, and the no longer using them. Pine voles do not Growers should also keep records of young voles become sexually mature at use surface runways, so their presence is attempted control methods and their the age of 1 month. As a result, under much harder to detect. Tiny, elongated success rates. The methods listed above ideal conditions vole populations can tooth marks on fruit on the ground are are only suggestions. reach densities as high as 270 voles per signs of both meadow voles and wood- acre. Scientists have found that voles land voles. exhibit regular population fluctuations at Mammals Legal Status approximately four-year intervals. Popu- Voles are classified as nongame Various mammal species can cause lations apparently crash to levels as low mammals and can be controlled when damage to fruit trees and shrubs. Rabbits as 10 voles per acre after peak years and causing damage. and rodents such as mice and voles will then begin to build up again. Voles can damage the twigs, bark, and roots of cause extensive damage to fruit plant- Damage Control plants if given the opportunity. Deer will ings, particularly during peak population Natural Controls browse on foliage and twigs and can years. damage the bark. Hawks, owls, snakes, weasels, raccoons, Damage foxes, opossums, and house cats all feed Voles Voles can cause extensive damage to on voles. These predators are beneficial Voles are small rodents with short legs, plants by girdling canes and damaging because they help keep vole popula- stocky bodies, small eyes and ears, and roots. Damage occurs primarily during tions under control. Whenever possible, short tails. Two species, the meadow winter when other types of food are growers should encourage these preda- vole (Microtus pennsylvanicus) and the scarce. The most common form of injury tors, or at least not harass or kill them. woodland vole, formerly called the pine caused by meadow voles is cane girdling When natural controls are inadequate, vole (Microtus pinetorum), can damage at or near the ground surface. Since voles artificial methods must be used to control any of the small fruit crops and become burrow in the snow, they might damage vole populations. The fall is the best time serious pests. The meadow vole is trunks as high as the accumulated snow. for initiating control programs. A number approximately 5.5 to 7.5 inches long. It Young plants are especially susceptible of different control methods are listed has brown fur mixed with black, and its to attack. Occasionally, meadow voles below. The greatest success is usually tail is approximately twice the length of will burrow in the soil and damage roots, achieved by using a variety of techniques its hind foot. The woodland vole is Penn- resulting in weak, unhealthy plants. at once. sylvania’s smallest vole. It is 4 to 5 inches Voles frequently become problems any Habitat Modification long and has chestnut or auburn fur and time cover is present, such as in plastic- In plantings, the major food sources for a short tail approximately as long as the mulched and straw-mulched strawber- voles are normally not the crop plants, hind foot. ries, mulched blueberry plantings, or but roots and stems of grasses and Voles are vegetarians, feeding on when landscape fabric is used (e.g., in other groundcover. As a result, habitat grasses, tubers, and seeds. They also bramble plantings). They also can cause modification (e.g., reducing or elimi- consume the bark of young trees and extensive damage to trickle irrigation nating grasses and cover) is one of the bushes. Unlike many other small tape, especially when it is not buried. best long-term methods of controlling mammals, voles do not hibernate. Damage from woodland voles is voles. Repeated mowings that maintain Instead, they are active throughout the harder to detect because it occurs under- groundcover at a low height both limit year, at both day and night, with peak ground as voles consume small roots, food and cover and expose voles to pred- activity at dawn and dusk. girdle large roots, and eat bark from ators. Where possible, mow wherever Meadow voles create surface runways the base of trees and other plants. By grass is present in the planting. Delays in the grass; in winter, they are active in the time growers note weak, unhealthy between mowings result in excessive these runways beneath the snow. Wood- plants, the damage already is extensive. land voles build underground tunnels vegetation, which, when cut (especially in loose, crumbly soil. As they build the Signs of Voles with a sickle-bar mower) forms a thatch tunnels, they push out dirt, producing The most identifiable sign of meadow layer that protects voles. A flail or rotary small, conical piles of soil on the ground vole presence is a system of surface mower is preferred to reduce thatch. surface. Both types of voles build large runways in the grass. Meadow voles Establishing vegetation-free zones globular nests of dry grasses and leaves. create these runways by their feeding that extend at least 2 feet from the plants The nests are located close to tree trunks, activities and keep them free of vegeta- will discourage voles from living near tion. The runways are generally about the bases of plants, where they cause 44 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2012-14 the most damage. Vegetation-free zones and place the trap within the tunnel and ticide labels stipulate that bait can only can be established by mowing, applying perpendicular to it. be applied during the dormant season, herbicides, or cultivating shallowly. Do after harvest, and before bud burst in the Toxicants not allow mulch, prunings, or decaying spring. Used in conjunction with habitat modi- vegetation to accumulate around the For additional information on control- fication, rodenticides are an important bases of plants or within the rows. ling voles, see Penn State’s Wildlife component of most control programs Damage Control 9: Voles fact sheet, avail- Repellents because they provide the quickest and able as listed in Appendix E. Repellents containing thiram (a fungi- most practical means of bringing large cide) or capsaicin (the ingredient that populations of voles under control. To Summary makes chili peppers hot) are registered determine if a specific rodenticide can Keep the grass mowed as if it were your for vole control. Little data is available still be used, read the label very care- front lawn. This is an excellent way to on the effectiveness of repellents to fully. The label will provide information control rodents. Rodents require lots of deter vole damage; therefore, repellents on rates and applications and list legal cover to keep their natural predators— should not be used as the sole method uses for the product. Note any restric- hawks and cats—from finding them. If of vole control. A food-grade product tions placed on the product. the cover is removed, voles won’t stay in certified as organic is being marketed Bait type is an important consider- the area. Use snap traps to help maintain as a repellent and is not labeled as a ation in vole control programs. Acute populations at low levels. pesticide. rodenticides, such as those containing Thiram-based repellents are labeled zinc phosphide, are fast-acting poisons Cottontail Rabbits for use only on nonbearing trees and that usually require only a single feeding Cottontails are active year round and shrubs (i.e., those that won’t produce to achieve a lethal dose. In contrast, can been seen at dawn and dusk. They fruit for at least one year). Capsaicin- chronic rodenticides, which include tend to concentrate in favorable habitat based products are labeled for use on anticoagulants such as those found in such as brushy fencerows or field edges, ornamental trees, fruit and nut trees, Rozol pellets, require multiple feedings brush piles, or landscaped backyards fruit bushes and vines, nursery stock, over a period of several days before a where food and cover are suitable. They shrubs, and lawns. Capsaicin should be lethal dose is achieved. need cover such as burrows or brush applied only before the fruit sets or after Both acute and chronic rodenticides piles to escape predators. Cottontails are the harvest. Capsaicin is registered for are available in pelletted bait formu- rarely found in thick shrubbery or dense use on vegetable plants and agricultural lations, which are superior to grain forests; they generally spend their entire crops only before edible portions and/or baits because they are more effective lives in a 10-acre or smaller area. Lack of heads begin to form. against voles and are not as hazardous food or cover is usually enough motiva- This is an area in which control to ground-feeding birds and other tion for a rabbit to relocate. Population measures are evolving, and available nontarget wildlife. density varies with habitat quality, but materials vary. However, to prevent a Bait placement is critical to the an average of three to five rabbits per feeding pattern from developing, apply success of a control program. Broadcast acre is reasonable. repellents before damage becomes distribution and hand placing of pellets Description of Damage significant or, in the case of monitored at recommended rates will work, but the Rabbits can feed on plants year round. populations, before damage occurs. They best results are achieved by using bait Rabbits damage woody plants by must be reapplied frequently after a rain, stations. In addition, bait in stations is gnawing bark or clipping off branches, heavy dew, or new plant growth. Always less available to nontarget wildlife. stems, and buds. In winter, when the follow label directions for the repellent Timing also influences the success of ground is covered with snow for long being used. Never apply repellents to control programs. Wet weather reduces periods, rabbits can severely damage any portion of a plant likely to be eaten the effectiveness of rodenticides, so trees and shrubs. Some young plants are by humans or livestock unless the label apply baits when weather is likely to be clipped off at snow height, and larger permits it. fair and dry for at least 3 days. Baits are trees and shrubs can be completely most effective when naturally occurring Trapping girdled. foods, such as green vegetation and Trapping is not an efficient way of control- In addition, the character of the fruit drops, are limited. Late fall is an ling voles in large plantings, but it is an bark on woody plants influences rabbit important time to bait voles because it effective and safe control method in small browsing. Young canes have smooth, serves to reduce populations before the plantings or around selected plants. Use thin bark with green food material just onset of winter, when vole damage is standard, wooden-base snap traps (mouse beneath it. Such bark provides an easy most severe and snow cover precludes size) and bait them with peanut butter, food source for rabbits. The thick, rough rodenticide use. When winter survival oatmeal, or apple slices. For meadow bark of older canes often discourages is high, baits should be applied in the voles, place the traps in runways, flush gnawing. Even on the same plant, rabbits spring before the breeding season and with the ground and perpendicular to the avoid the rough bark but girdle the before renewed growth of groundcover runway. Place the trigger end directly in young sprouts that have smooth bark. diminishes bait acceptance. Most roden- the runway. For pine voles, locate a tunnel Chapter 5 ❦ Wildlife Damage Control in Commercial Plantings 45

Damage Identification than a rabbit’s reach when it stands on to foliage, but edible fruits should be Rabbit damage can be identified by the the expected snow depth. Small-mesh cleansed prior to consuming. Hot Sauce characteristic appearance of gnawing on (0.25-inch) hardware cloth also protects Animal Repellent, by Millers, which older woody growth and the clean-cut, against vole damage. contains capsaicin (the heat source in hot angled clipping of young stems. Damage Rabbits commonly damage vegeta- sauce), can also be applied to fruit trees; occurs primarily within 2.5 feet of the tion at a height of 2 to 3 feet, depending however, it must be applied either before ground. The clipping of small twigs and on the snow depth in winter. You can the fruit is on the plant or after it has buds appears as a knifelike slanting cut use larger mesh sizes, 0.5 to 0.75 inch, been removed. Capsaicin is a taste repel- with no apparent tooth marks. When to reduce cost, but be sure the cylinder lent. The warm sensation it leaves in the rabbits gnaw bark, they gnaw in patches. stands far enough away from the trunk throat of the animal is believed to cause The average width of a cottontail’s incisor that rabbits cannot eat through the holes. the animal to avoid eating that plant is 0.1 inch. Squirrels and voles also gnaw Commercial tree guards or tree wraps again. The effectiveness of capsaicin- bark, but their tooth marks are much are other alternatives. When rabbits are containing repellents varies depending narrower. Distinctive round droppings or abundant and food is in short supply, on the availability of other food sources. rabbit tracks in the immediate area also only hardware cloth will guarantee Trapping are good signs of their presence. protection. Trapping can be used to remove rabbits Legal Status Repellents from problem areas. Several excellent Rabbits are classified as game animals Several chemical repellents discourage styles of commercial live traps are and are protected as such. Exceptions rabbit browsing. For best results, use available from garden centers, hardware may be granted to property owners by repellents and other damage-control stores, and seed catalogs. Most commer- their states’ game commissions, allowing methods at the first sign of damage. cial traps are made of wire and last them to trap or shoot rabbits outside Always follow the application directions indefinitely with proper care. Live traps the normal hunting season on their own exactly. Since pesticide registrations can often be rented from animal control properties if damage is occurring. change frequently, check with your offices or pest control companies. local Cooperative Extension service for Dry corn and dried apples make Damage Control information on repellents or other new very good year-round bait. Dried leafy Many methods can be used to control products available for use in your area. alfalfa and clover are good cold-weather damage by cottontail rabbits. Exclu- Remember that some repellents are baits. Apples, carrots, cabbage, and other sion techniques, such as fences and tree poisonous and require safe storage fresh, green vegetables are good baits wraps, offer the most effective damage and use. in warmer weather, but these soft baits control. Such techniques are the only Most rabbit repellents are contact or become mushy and ineffective once methods to control damage in areas taste repellents that render the treated frozen. For best results, use baits similar where rabbit populations are high. In plant parts distasteful. Taste repellents to the fruit on which the target rabbits areas with moderate damage, repellents protect only the parts of the plant they are feeding. Position the bait at the rear have been used to successfully reduce contact; new growth that emerges after of the trap. Placing a trap involves the damage. Because of the cottontail’s high application is not protected, and heavy following easy steps: reproductive potential, trapping and rains may necessitate reapplication. 1. Place traps where you know rabbits other lethal techniques are not effective Odor repellents protect plants within feed or rest. Check for runways along over long time periods. a limited area and do not need to be the edge of cover. To locate an active Exclusion touching the plant. The degree of efficacy runway, look for rabbit droppings One of the best ways to protect a small is highly variable, depending on the and clipped twigs. Place sticks in the berry patch is to put up a fence. A fence behavior and number of rabbits and the ground in front of the trap to guide of 2- to 4-foot chicken wire, with the availability of alternative food sources. the rabbit into the trap. When rabbits are abundant, use other bottom tight to the ground or buried a 2. In winter, face traps away from control techniques along with chemical few inches, is sufficient to prevent young prevailing winds to keep snow and repellents. rabbits from getting through. The lower dry leaves from interfering with the Hinder and Deer-off are available for 1.5 to 2 feet should be covered with door. Move traps if they fail to make a use on consumable plants such as fruits. small-mesh wire. A fence might seem catch within a week. costly, but with proper care it will last Hinder consists of ammonium soaps of many years and reduce damage caused higher fatty acids. It is an odor repellent 3. Check traps twice a day to replenish by rabbits and other animals. that may be sprayed or painted on the bait or remove the catch. Laws exist Cylinders of 0.25-inch wire hardware foliage. Hinder has been found to be in various states that define the cloth will protect young plants. Due to effective in repelling rabbits and deer minimum amount of time between economic considerations, use is more from crops and ornamental plants. Deer- trap checks. Legally, in Pennsyl- likely in small plantings. The cylinders off consists of garlic oil, capsaicin, and vania, traps must be checked every should be placed 1 to 2 inches out from putrescent whole egg solids. It is an odor 36 hours; however, they should be the trunk and should extend higher and taste repellent that can be applied checked every 12 hours, particularly in 46 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2012-14

suburban areas where neighborhood The natural food habits of deer depend mammal. As such, they are protected. pets may be caught. on the time of year and the plant species Deer may be harassed throughout the A commercial wire trap can be made available. During the winter months, deer year, but harming deer is prohibited more effective by covering it with canvas consume evergreen and dry leaves, as outside of the legal hunting season, or some other dark material. This will well as dormant buds. In the spring and unless your livelihood comes from cause the trap to resemble a safe, secure summer, they eat new growth on woody growing crops or fruit. and herbaceous plants. From late summer environment. Be sure that the covering Damage Control does not interfere with the trap’s to early winter, fruits and nuts comprise a Hunting mechanism. large part of a deer’s diet. The white-tailed deer is a protected Habitat Modification Damage game species and the size of the deer Although frequently overlooked, Deer cause damage to fruit plants year herd is managed through regulated removing brush piles, weed patches, round, but the most serious damage hunting of antlered and antlerless deer. dumps, and other debris near fruit occurs on plasticulture strawberry plant- As a landowner, you should encourage plantings can be a useful way to manage ings in the fall before row cover applica- hunting in your area, especially if your rabbits. Keeping your grass mowed tion and on any planting in the winter fruit plantings are subject to heavy deer will remove potential cover that might months when the availability of natural damage. Posted areas serve as refuges attract cottontails. Filling old woodchuck foods is limited. In winter, browsing on for deer during the hunting season or skunk burrows will remove their canes and dormant terminal buds may and might compound the damage to potential as rabbit homes. Encouraging lead to stunted or misshapen growth and a planting by concentrating the deer the rabbit’s natural enemies—or at least lower fruit production. Severe winter population. Before opening the area to not interfering with them—may aid in browsing can reduce plant vitality and hunters, make sure the orchard is a safe reducing rabbit damage. Hawks, owls, even cause death. area for hunting. Consult your local foxes, mink, weasels, and snakes all help During the spring and summer, wildlife conservation officer for informa- control rabbits. natural sources of forage are readily tion on opening your land to hunters or available to whitetails; however, they on eligibility requirements for hunting. Summary still might browse new growth and eat The most effective method of reducing ripening fruit. In autumn, deer might Shooting rabbit damage to your planting is continue to browse and eat fruit within Even though your land is open for fencing or other forms of exclusion along the planting. hunting, you may still experience prob- with habitat modification. If numbers lems with deer when they are no longer of rabbits are low and alternative food Monitoring in season. Many states allow taking sources are available, repellents also The extent of deer damage can be deer for crop damage. Contact the local might be useful in reducing damage. monitored through direct and indirect wildlife conservation officer before you observation. Deer might be “caught in act to ensure complete understanding of White-Tailed Deer the act” during their active periods in all the regulations. The white-tailed deer is one of the most the evening and early morning. Indirect widely distributed and well-known observation involves recognizing signs Repellents mammals of North America, and it is a that deer leave behind. Repellents are most effective when common species throughout the Mid- Lacking upper incisor teeth, deer integrated into a damage-control Atlantic. Deer prefer early successional characteristically tear off vegetation, program that includes fencing, hunting, forests that are in the shrub-tree sapling leaving jagged edges that identify and several types of repellents. Apply stage. They are also abundant in agricul- browsed canes. In comparison, browsing repellents at the first sign of damage to tural areas where field crops and orchards by rodents and rabbits leaves a clean- prevent deer from establishing a feeding are interspersed with forest habitat. cut surface. The height of the damage, pattern at the site. Area repellents include Deer are most active during early however, might be the only factor tankage (putrefied meat scraps), ammo- morning and evening hours. They can necessary to eliminate any mammal nium soaps, bone tar oil, blood meal, and have a home range of several square other than deer. Another method for human hair. Contact repellents work by miles, but this varies with season, habitat, determining the source of damage is to taste and must be applied directly to the sex, and even individual characteristics. search for tracks. Deer leave a distinctive plant. These repellents work best if you Whitetails are creatures of habit—most split-hoofed track that can easily be seen apply them in the dormant season on use the same home range year after year. in damp soil or snow. Monitoring your dry days when temperatures are above They also tend to establish one part of fruit plantings for damage is an impor- freezing. Examples of contact repellents their home range for feeding and another tant, ongoing process and the first step in are putrescent egg solids, thiram, and hot part for resting. For instance, if deer a successful management plan. pepper sauce (capsaicin). Remember that establish an orchard as a source of food, whenever you apply a commercial repel- they will habitually move into the area Legal Status lent, you are required by law to comply a little before sunset to feed, and move White-tailed deer are classified by most strictly with the label. Home remedies back to the woods before dawn to rest. states’ game commissions as a game often have limited success. Human hair Chapter 5 ❦ Wildlife Damage Control in Commercial Plantings 47 can be obtained from a local barber through or under it. An electric fence one month before damage is anticipated. shop and placed in small bags (cloth or takes advantage of this behavior and This will allow the dogs to get used to the plastic—if plastic is used, punch three successfully trains the deer to stay 3 to 4 containment system and the area. to four holes in the bottom). Tie up the feet away from the wires. Summary tops and hang them around the planting Researchers at Penn State have Deer damage management is a compli- or individually in trees. Soap bars can be developed a low-cost, five-wire electric cated issue with many alternatives that placed in individual plants. Blood meal fence. Through tests conducted statewide, depend on financial considerations and and tankage can be hung around the the design has shown to be an adequate the amount of damage that can be toler- perimeter of the planting, initially 20 feet means of deer control. The fence incor- ated. A combination of control methods apart and then closer together if needed. porates high-tensile steel wire; in-line such as fencing and repellents is most Place these items about 30 inches off the wire strainers; and high-voltage, low- effective. If possible, opening your farm ground, about the average height of a impedance energizers. High-tensile fence to hunters after considering safety and deer’s nose. Remember, success depends can absorb the impact of deer and tree zoning regulations is a good way to on early preventative monitoring and limbs, thereby eliminating some of the reduce the deer herd on your property. alternation of materials. problems associated with soft-wire fences. Repellents containing thymol and In addition to Penn State’s five-wire fence, benzyidlethyl ammonium saccharide, other high-tensile electric fence designs Conclusion such as Ro-Pel, have been found to be are available. See Managing Deer Damage Wildlife damage can be reduced and less effective. These products may only in Maryland by Jonathan Kays (Appendix maintained at a tolerable level if the be applied to plants during the dormant E) for details on design. species causing damage is properly season or to young, nonbearing plantings. The disadvantages of electric fences identified and control methods are When applied to dormant plants, the new include required high maintenance and implemented before a damage pattern growth in the spring is not protected. regular inspections. You must maintain a is established. Anticipation of poten- Repellents have variable results—what 6- to 8-foot-wide mowed strip along the tial problems is the key to effective works for one grower might not work for fence perimeter to discourage deer from damage control. The use of a variety of another, and success differs from year to jumping and to decrease the weed load control techniques is essential since the year. Some repellents do not weather well on the fence. You must also regularly offending species can become accus- and require repeated applications during check the electric current to ensure that tomed to a single method. the season. Also, if deer are very hungry the shocking power is sufficient for Wildlife damage to fruit is a seasonal and the area lacks other more palatable turning the deer. The advantages include problem. In many instances, damage will food resources, they might ignore the a relatively low cost and, when properly occur only over a short time period of repellents. Success must be measured by maintained, a long life. days or weeks. Control methods might how much the damage has been reduced Scare Tactics be necessary only during those short since it is rarely eliminated. In areas Another method of deer control in time periods. Observation of damage where deer density is low and damage is plantings is the use of guard dogs. Deer and damage trends can reduce the time light, repellents may be a cost-effective quickly learn the extent of a dog’s range and money allocated to damage-control part of your IPM strategy. if it is chained. But free-ranging dogs can techniques. Fencing deter deer from feeding in any part of the Fencing deer out of the orchard is the planting. An electronic containment fence most efficient way to reduce damage can be buried or placed on an existing when deer density is high and damage fence. This will keep the dogs in the is extensive. The conventional 8-foot, orchard but allow them free access to all woven-wire fence effectively excludes areas. Most dogs will patrol the edge of deer by forming a barrier around the their territory; therefore, a closely mowed orchard. The fence consists of two strip along the fence line will enable widths of 4-foot woven wire and 12-foot them to patrol the entire area. Herding posts. To prevent deer from crawling breeds are the most effective because of under the fence, keep the wire close their natural tendencies to chase animals. to ground level. Unfortunately, deer- Long-haired breeds may be more apt to proof fencing is expensive, but it is patrol in colder weather and therefore effective, long lasting, and requires little come in contact with deer in more condi- maintenance. tions than the shorter-haired breeds. Place An alternative to barrier fencing is doghouses and feeders near established an electric fence. This type of fence is deer trails if they exist on your farm. This designed to change the deer’s behavior. will increase the likelihood of the deer Although deer can easily jump an coming in contact with the dog. Place electric fence, they will instead try to go dogs in the containment approximately 48 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2012-14 49

or cooler, and higher elevations) since Chapter 6 Introduction they are sensitive to high temperatures. Strawberry growers in the Mid-Atlantic They produce branch crowns and flower region are geographically well posi- buds throughout the season; however, Strawberries tioned to reach many major markets. initiation can be inhibited when temper- While consumers have become accus- atures are high. Plants will begin fruiting tomed to seeing strawberries year- in mid-May to mid-June, producing an round from other production areas, average-sized crop compared to short- Mid-Atlantic producers should realize day types. In most locations in this that they have a competitive advantage region, a second small crop is produced in being able to provide top-quality in midsummer. The third and heaviest fruit (i.e., fully ripe when harvested) to crop is produced in late summer and Contents this large consumer base, rather than early fall, usually beginning in August Introduction...... 49 attempting to compete with berries in and ending with the first hard frost. Types of Plants...... 49 the supermarket on the basis of price. However, in high-elevation locations, The Strawberry Plant...... 49 Most growers in the cooler and such as in western Maryland, the Anatomy and Morphology...... 49 mountainous areas of the region utilize heaviest crop is produced in mid- to late Pollination...... 50 matted-row field production, while plas- summer. General Considerations in Choosing a Site ...... 51 ticulture production is more common Topography...... 51 in warmer areas. Both ribbon-row The Strawberry Plant Crop History and Fumigation...... 51 production and high tunnel production Soil Characteristics...... 51 are also used, but to a lesser extent. In Anatomy and Morphology Irrigation Availability...... 51 general, there appears to be increased The strawberry plant is a nonwoody Obtaining Plants...... 51 interest in day-neutral production as perennial made up of a crown, leaves, Cultural Systems...... 52 consumers become more accustomed to runners, and a root system (Figure June-Bearers: Matted-Row Production...... 52 the availability of “off-season” straw- 6.1). Many management practices were June-Bearers: Plasticulture Production...... 57 berries. Cultural information pertinent to developed based on those features. June-Bearers: Ribbon-Row Production...... 64 all of these systems is described below, The crown is a compressed modified Day-Neutrals: Matted-Row Production...... 64 with information specific to each system stem where leaves, runners, branch Day-Neutrals: Plasticulture Production...... 64 crowns, and flower clusters (inflores- Considerations for Organic Production...... 67 described later in this chapter. cences) arise. Branch crowns, as their Protected Culture...... 67 name implies, are smaller crowns that Harvest and Postharvest Handling...... 68 Types of Plants branch off from the main crown. Plants Economics...... 68 Two main types of strawberry plants Pests...... 75 can have one or two additional flower are grown commercially. They are Diseases...... 75 clusters on each branch crown. Branch defined primarily by the time of flower Nematodes...... 78 crown formation is promoted by the bud initiation and therefore fruiting. Insects, Mites, and Molluscs...... 78 short, cool days of fall and can also occur Short-day or June-bearing types initiate Weeds...... 102 in the spring. flowers when days are short, less than 14 Site Preparation...... 102 Leaf size is variable. Older leaves Weed Control After Planting...... 102 hours. Day-neutral types initiate flowers usually die during the winter and are Plasticulture Weed Control...... 105 season-long within certain temperature replaced by new leaves in the spring. Matted-Row Weed Control with ranges. Leaves are produced all season with Herbicides...... 105 Short-day or June-bearing types are most production occurring during long Sample Weed Control Program for widely grown in the Mid-Atlantic region, days, though the process slows when Matted-Row Strawberries...... 105 producing most of the fruit harvested temperatures are above 86°F. Leaf during the main May–June season. With production stops when temperatures are this type of plant, flower buds are mainly below 32°F in the fall. Having a well- initiated when days are short in the fall established leaf canopy is important to (late August through early November); provide energy for flower bud initiation. however, short days in spring (March) Roots are most abundantly produced also stimulate some flower bud initiation. during the spring and fall and are active Short-day types are actually facultative until the soil freezes. Strawberry plants short-day plants—they will initiate have two types of roots. Primary roots flower buds either when days are shorter conduct water and nutrients to the than 14 hours or when temperatures are crown and last more than one season. below 60°F. In successive years, primary roots are Day-neutral or everbearer types are produced higher on the crown, so about less widely grown, performing better in an inch of soil should be thrown over the the cooler regions of the area (zones 6a 50 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 plants during renovation to encourage and is referred to as the king or primary which is an extension of the flower stem new primary root development. With flower. The king flower yields the largest or pedicel. This portion develops into the good care, plants are able to produce fruit, but because it opens first, it is more berry. Each receptacle is covered with as new healthy primary roots above the susceptible to frost than later-formed many as 500 pistils arranged in a spiral old ones, thus allowing plants that have flowers. The secondary flowers open 1 pattern. At the base of each pistil is an had a poor root system in the past to to 2 days after the king flower, followed ovary containing an ovule (potential recover. Feeder roots branch off from by tertiary flowers. Successive flowers seed). the primary roots and live only for a few produce smaller fruit. Pollination is achieved when pollen days or weeks. Their function is water from the anthers reaches the stigmas— Pollination and nutrient absorption. Strawberry self-pollination occurs when the pollen is Strawberry flowers usually have five plants have shallow root systems, which from the same flower; cross-pollination or more petals surrounding 20 to 35 result in sensitivity to deficient or excess occurs when pollen comes from a stamens that differ in size and length water and high salt levels in the soil. different flower. Following fertilization within the same flower. Each stamen Those issues should be addressed when and achene (seed) development, recep- consists of the filament and the pollen- choosing and preparing a planting site. tacle tissue around the achenes swells to producing anther. Anthers are a deep In light sandy soils, the roots penetrate form the berry. golden yellow when they contain pollen, the soil to 12 inches deep with half of Some self-pollination is accomplished but they turn pale as pollen is released. the roots located in the lower 6 inches. in strawberry flowers as the pollen Inside the circle of stamens is a cone- In heavy soils, roots only grow about 6 matures and is released from the anthers shaped structure called the receptacle, inches deep. Runners (stolons) are the plants’ means of vegetative propagation, as daughter plants arise from them. Runners form during long days with warm temperatures, beginning in late Leaves spring and continuing until fall. For short-day or June-bearing types, runners form when days are more than 10 hours long and temperatures are at least 70°F. Formation stops when days are less than 10 hours long and temperatures Fruit truss are freezing. In day-neutral types, the majority of runners are formed when days are long and temperatures are moderate. Runner formation is more sporadic for day-neutral types than short-day types. After the development of numerous lateral roots, the daughter plants become independent Runner Crown of the mother plant, usually after 2 to (stolon) Daughter plant 3 weeks of attachment. In matted-row production, daughter plants will be responsible for producing most of the fruit. Dormant plants in matted-row Young roots Branch crown production should be planted as early as possible to allow time for them to establish and form runners and daughter plants. Daughter plants that have had more time to develop have larger crowns and more flower buds, which result in higher yields. In later years, taking good care of renovated plantings during the summer encourages earlier production of runners, early establishment of Mature roots daughter plants, and higher yields the following year. Flowers are borne in clusters (Figure 6.2). The terminal flower opens first Figure 6.1. The strawberry plant. Chapter 6 ❦ Strawberries 51 when they split open. The shaking of Secondary planting by adding manure, or by flowers by the wind and raindrops planting cover crops or green manure serves to transfer pollen within the Tertiary crops. For a complete discussion of these flower. Wind and self-pollination, topics, see Chapter 2. however, seldom provide complete Irrigation Availability pollination of all pistils of a flower. Irrigation is highly recommended for Sometimes even flowers that have growing matted-row strawberries and pollen-laden anthers seem to set fruit is a necessity for plasticulture berries. far better when cross-pollinated than King or Therefore, sites should be chosen when fertilized with their own pollen. primary where an ample water source is acces- Incomplete pollination results in small or sible. Trickle irrigation applies water misshapen fruits, thus pollen transfer by only where it is needed, thereby using insects is recommended. water efficiently and minimizing weed Honey bees and many species of germination between the rows. It also wild bees visit strawberries for nectar serves double-duty as a way to apply and pollen, though strawberries are not Figure 6.2. Arrangement of strawberry nutrients quickly and efficiently through especially attractive as pollen or nectar blossoms on fruit truss. fertigation. However, because overhead sources. Even though many types of irrigation also is necessary to protect insects visit strawberry flowers, only blossoms from frost, relatively few bees are of real consequence in trans- should be avoided due to erosion and matted-row growers install trickle irri- ferring pollen effectively. Most growers tillage concerns. If steeply sloping sites gation. Plasticulture growers need both would benefit from the consistent use must be used, plant wider rows across trickle and overhead irrigation. of one colony of honey bees per acre, the slope or on the contour. Because strawberry plants are shal- especially if wild bees are not plentiful Crop History and Fumigation lowly rooted, they need water in the enough for the flower to receive the Strawberries perform best on soils with form of rainfall or irrigation many times recommended 16 to 25 bee visits. high organic matter that have never been during the growing season. Water must King blossoms, besides being the first planted to strawberries, or, alternatively, be available during establishment, when to open, are the largest, have the shortest on land that has been in a proper crop runners are forming and daughter plants stamens, possess the most pistils, and, rotation. Repeatedly coming back to the are rooting, and during flower bud if fully pollinated, produce the largest same field with strawberries, especially formation. Plants first respond to severe berries of greatest value. These flowers on a short rotational cycle, invites poor moisture stress by decreasing runner benefit the most from insect visits. As plant stands and low yields. See Chapter production, thereby decreasing the flowering continues down the cluster, 1, Preplant Considerations, for discus- number of daughter plants and the yield pollen becomes plentiful, receptacles are sions of problematic and preferred for the following season. Flower bud smaller with fewer pistils, stamens are preceding crops. If a field has not been formation occurs in the fall preceding taller, and flowers are less likely to set planted to problematic preceding crops the fruit season (August 20 to October fruit and more likely to produce smaller or strawberries for the past five years, 30), during which sufficient water and berries, thus requiring less pollinator it probably does not need to be fumi- fertilizer are important for producing activity. gated unless plant-parasitic nematode the optimum number and size of Cool temperatures decrease the populations or disease pressure are high. berries. Plants should receive about 1 to number of insect visits to flowers and Details on nematodes, fumigation and 2 inches of water per week. Plantings slow down flower development. More other potential alternatives to chemical on sandy soils will need to be watered malformed berries can be observed in fumigation are discussed in Chapters more frequently than those on heavier cool, wet weather, with wind exposure, 1, 2, and 3 and Appendix A. If chemical soil types. Tensiometers can assist in and during periods of heavy rainfall. fumigation is needed, plan to fumigate determining when irrigation is needed, soil the fall before planting with matted- though they work best on lighter soils. General Considerations in row culture and in late spring with See Appendix E: Sources of Additional Choosing a Site plasticulture strawberries. Information to obtain information on Considerations for all crops as discussed Soil Characteristics their correct use and interpretation. in introductory chapters apply to Strawberries grow and produce satis- strawberries and should be consulted. factorily in a wide range of soil types, Obtaining Plants Additional points that apply specifically with best yields achieved in deep fertile to strawberries are given below. Purchase plants from a reputable soils with high organic matter and nursery. See Appendix C for a listing of Topography good internal drainage. Black root rot nurseries carrying small fruit nursery A slope of 5 to 7 percent will allow is commonly diagnosed in strawberry stock. Certified (disease- and insect-free), for adequate air drainage for frost plantings with compacted heavy soils. virus-tested plants that are true to name avoidance, while slopes over 12 percent Organic matter can be improved before are essential for a successful operation. 52 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 6.1. Number of strawberry plants per acre for different in-row and between-row timings are listed in Table 6.2. Rates spacings. are given as a general guide. Soil tests, leaf analyses, history, and plant vigor Matted Row/Ribbon Row should be used as guides specific to Between-Row Spacing your site, especially concerning nitrogen In-Row Spacing 36 inches 42 inches 48 inches 54 inches 60 inches rates. Strawberry matted rows should 3 inches 58,080 49,783 43,560 38,720 34,848 be vigorous enough to reach 12 to 18 6 inches 29,040 24,891 21,780 19,360 17,424 inches in width by mid-August. If the 12 inches 14,520 12,446 10,890 9,680 8,712 beds become wider and runners develop 18 inches 9,680 8,297 7,260 6,453 5,808 late into the fall, then nitrogen use is 24 inches 7,260 6,223 5,445 4,840 4,356 probably excessive, and rates should be Plasticulture reduced. If compost is used for nutrient addition, timing should be adjusted to Bed Spacing In-Row Spacing 48 inches 54 inches 60 inches 66 inches 72 inches allow time for breakdown and nutrient release in time for needs to be met. For 12 inches D* 21,780 19,360 17,424 15,840 14,520 example, since June-bearing strawberries 14 inches D 18,669 16,594 14,935 13,577 12,446 have a high nutrient demand in the fall 16 inches D 16,335 14,520 13,068 11,880 10,890 as they produce flower buds for the crop 18 inches D 14,520 12,907 11,616 10,560 9,680 the following season, compost will need *Signifies spacing between plants within each row of a staggered double row. Spacing between double rows to be applied in midsummer. does not change number of plants needed. Plants and Varieties (Cultivars) Use certified dormant plants packed For the number of plants required per higher risk, but it may result in higher dry in polyliners. These plants can be acre, consult Table 6.1. returns. Both June-bearing and day- stored at 30°F for a longer period than Dormant crown plants should be neutral cultivars can be used in either freshly dug plants. Plant only virus- ordered no later than the December before system with modifications. Information free plants. Choose varieties that are planting since cultivars in high demand is provided on each of these options suitable for your market needs, using often sell out rapidly. Request a shipping below, as well as on less frequently used several different varieties to spread the date that will allow you to have the options such as ribbon-row production, harvest over several weeks. Commonly plants as soon as the soil can normally protected culture (high-tunnel or grown standard cultivars across this be prepared. When plants arrive, check greenhouse production), and organic region are Earliglow (early season) the roots for moisture and moisten if production. and Darselect and Allstar (midseason). necessary. June-Bearers: matted-row Wendy is gaining in popularity for the Plug plants for use in plasticulture Production early season. Honeoye (early midseason) (see “Cultural Systems”) should be Matted-row production was the and Jewel (mid-late season) are also ordered 6 months or more before standard system of strawberry commonly grown in cooler locations. planting. Call the producers to obtain production in the region for many years Many other cultivars are also available information on cultivar availability. and is still the system used on most and are described in Table 6.3 (including strawberry acreage in the region. One state-specific recommendations). Cultural Systems advantage of this system is a relatively Planting low cost of establishment. This system is Variation in cultivars, growing condi- Planting should take place as early in the best suited to colder areas of the region tions, and available marketing channels spring as possible after the ground will and is most frequently used for pick- make many different production systems no longer freeze and as soon as possible your-own operations. feasible for strawberry producers in after delivery of plants. If planting this region. Growers new to strawberry Fertility must be delayed, keep plants at 30 to production may wish to contact local A soil sample should be tested during 32°F in plastic bags in a refrigerator or extension personnel or simply observe the summer or fall before planting. walk-in cooler free from apples or other production methods used locally to help Testing during this timeframe allows the ethylene-producing harvest. determine which production system(s) grower to apply lime and phosphorus If cold storage is not available, keep to try. Matted-row production, as the during the fall before planting and to the plants in a shady area, heeled-in if name implies, relies on the establishment disk them down into the top 6 inches of possible, until they are planted. Place of a filled-in row of strawberries from soil. The optimum pH for strawberries roots in water about half an hour before plants that are planted on a relatively is 6.0 to 6.5. After the initial soil fertility planting and do not allow them to dry wide spacing and is a relatively low-cost adjustment, only nitrogen is applied out during the planting process. Mother way of producing strawberries. Plasti- annually, unless tissue (leaf) analysis plants are set 18 to 24 inches apart in culture production is more intensive and recommends other nutrients. Nitrogen, the row, with rows on approximately has a higher cost and, thus, is somewhat phosphorus, and potassium rates and 3- to 4-foot centers, depending on Chapter 6 ❦ Strawberries 53

Table 6.2. Recommended fertilizer amounts for June-bearing matted-row strawberry plantings. Rates are intended as approximations. Soil testing, leaf analysis, and plant vigor should be used to fine tune rates for your site. If phosphorus levels are above optimum, no additional phosphorus is typically recommended other than strategically placed low starter rates for spring planting.

Nitrogen (N) Soil Phosphorus Level (P2O5) Soil Potassium Level (K2O) Soil (lbs/acre) Low Med Opt Low Med Opt Suggested Application Methods Establishment Year Clays and clay loams 30 100 70 40 150 100 50 Broadcast and plow down or disk in 20–30 0 0 0 0 0 0 Sidedress when first runners start 20–30 0 0 0 0 0 0 Topdress in mid-August 70–90 100 70 40 150 100 50 Total recommendations for season Loams and silt loams 30 100 70 40 150 100 50 Broadcast and plow down or disk in 30–40 0 0 0 0 0 0 Sidedress when first runners start 30–50 0 0 0 0 0 0 Topdress in mid-August 90–120 100 70 0 150 100 50 Total recommendations for season Sandy loams, loamy sands, 30 100 70 40 165 115 65 Broadcast and disk in deep and sands 20–30 0 0 0 0 0 0 Sidedress 2 weeks after planting 20–30 0 0 0 0 0 0 Sidedress when runners start 30–40 0 0 0 0 0 0 Topdress in mid-August 10–20 0 0 0 0 0 0 Topdress in February or March 110–150 100 70 40 165 115 65 Total recommendations for season Apply 1–2 pounds of boron (B) per acre with broadcast fertilizer unless tissue or soil test indicates above-normal levels.

First Harvest Year and Later Clays and clay loams 30 100 70 40 150 100 50 Topdress at renovation 15–20 0 0 0 0 0 0 Topdress in mid-August Sandy loams, loams, and silt loams 30 100 70 40 150 100 50 Topdress at renovation 20–30 0 0 0 0 0 0 Topdress in mid-August Loamy sands and sands 40–50 100 70 40 165 115 65 Topdress at renovation 20–30 0 0 0 0 0 0 Topdress in mid-August All except for heavier soils in northern 20–30* 0 0 0 0 0 0 Topdress in February or March* locations* *Growers on heavier soils in more northern locations do not need this application unless irrigation or rainfall has been excessive, and may experience soft fruit if excess nitrogen is spring applied.

equipment constraints. Place the plants Table 6.2 for rates and timing). Allow finger weeders) and that is equipped in the soil with the roots spread out. runners to spread to fill a 12- to 18-inch with shoes to sweep runners into the The center of the crown must be level matted row with at least a 24-inch row is especially useful. Several herbi- with the soil surface—not too low that walkway between each row. Increase cides are now labeled for use during it is covered by the soil, nor too high the spacing of the walkway to fit your the planting year (see section on weed that the roots are left exposed. Planting equipment, but limit each row to a width management in this chapter), but pay strawberries too deep can result in poor of not more than 18 inches. Flower buds close attention to following the labeled plant performance and even death. of June-bearing strawberries should directions. Sinbar can also be used in Overhead irrigate strawberries immedi- be removed the first year to prevent early fall of the planting year to control ately after planting to settle the soil next flowering and fruiting stress on the winter annuals, while several herbicides to the roots, reduce transplant shock, young plant. Removing the flowers can be used in late fall prior to mulch and promote establishment. A starter allows plants to direct their resources application. More specific information fertilizer used according to package into establishing a strong root system on weed management is presented at the directions helps plant growth. and developing a healthy leaf canopy end of this chapter and in Chapter 4. that will “fuel” the following year’s crop. Care during the Establishment Year Overwintering the Planting Most blossoms can be removed in two Nitrogen is recommended 3 to 4 weeks Mulch strawberry beds during the passes two weeks apart. Weeds should after planting and again in late August, winter to protect them from severe be kept under control. Equipment that and more frequently on sandy soils (see cold, fluctuating temperatures, and soil cultivates shallowly (rotary hoes or 54 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 6.3. June-bearing matted-row strawberry cultivars. Recommendations for use in: Susceptibility to:* Vert. Red Powdery Leaf Leaf Cultivar NJ MD VA WV DE PA Season Wilt Stele Mildew Spot Scorch Description Annapolis Yes Yes No Yes Yes No Early I R S S S Medium to large fruit with good flavor. Produces many runners and dense beds, increasing botrytis incidence. Better for more northern sites. Earliglow Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Early R R I I R Still a great early season cultivar for flavor and disease resistance. Moderately productive; size runs down quickly. Itasca Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Early U R R U S Medium to large fruit, bright red with good size but somewhat soft. Flavor is average. First harvest begins with Earliglow, but long season results in high yields. Northeaster Yes Yes Trial Yes No Trial Early R R S I I Large aromatic fruit; may have a perfumy flavor. Similar yields and season to Earliglow. Early berries start out large, but still run down quickly. Sable No No No No No No Early U R S R R Dense foliage low to ground, results in susceptibility to Botrytis and angular leaf spot. Yields are high, but even the primary berries are small. Medium red fruit with sweet flavor. AC Wendy Trial Trial Yes Yes Trial Trial Early S MR MR U U Has color and firmness similar to Evangeline, one of its parents, but has improved size and excellent flavor. Productive. Bish Trial Trial No Trial Trial Trial Early– U U U U U Developed for plasticulture in North mid Carolina, but runners well in matted-row. Excellent flavor. In PA, many blossoms opened black resulting in low yields. Resistant to anthracnose fruit rot. Only available from a limited number of southern nurseries. Brunswick No No No No No Trial Early– U R I R I Yields well, but has average flavor. mid More likely to perform better in cooler locations. Susceptible to phytophthora crown rot. Cavendish Yes Yes Trial No Trial Trial Early– I R S R R Large fruit with good flavor. Productive, mid but ripens unevenly in some years. Daroyal Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Early– U U U U U From France. Berries are of dark red mid color with similar size to Darselect. Medium in firmness. No data available on performance In the Mid-Atlantic region. Honeoye No Yes Yes Yes No Trial Early– S S T R R Very productive, with a perfumy flavor, mid but becomes very dark, soft, and bland in hot weather. Better in cooler locations. Susceptible to twospotted spider mites. L’Amour Trial Trial Trial No Trial Trial Early– U U U R I Nicely shaped fruit with good size, mid medium-red color and above-average flavor. Perfect degree of firmness.

continued Chapter 6 ❦ Strawberries 55

Table 6.3. June-bearing matted-row strawberry cultivars, continued. Recommendations for use in: Susceptibility to:* Vert. Red Powdery Leaf Leaf Cultivar NJ MD VA WV DE PA Season Wilt Stele Mildew Spot Scorch Description Allstar Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Mid R–T R T R I Productive, with good flavor. Performs well across the region. Drawback is its light orange-red color when ripe. Very susceptible to angular leaf spot. Clancy No No No No No No Mid U R U R S Deep red color with good size, but yields were low in PA. Produces few runners. Growers in cooler locations may want to trial small amounts. Darselect Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Mid U U U I S Nice size, shape, and flavor. Yields are typically good but somewhat lower than expected. Quite susceptible to anthracnose fruit rot and powdery mildew. Fungicides required for successful production due to multiple disease susceptibilities. Not suited to organic production. Delmarvel No Yes Yes No Yes No Mid R R U R R Performed well in the Delmarva peninsula, with high yields and vigorous plants. Somewhat less impressive in PA. Susceptible to Rhizoctonia, especially after fumigation. May be difficult to find a source of plants. Donna Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Mid U U U U U From France. Conical to wedge-shaped glossy fruit that is firm and medium in size. No data available on performance in the Mid-Atlantic region. Eros Trial Trial No No Trial Trial Mid S R U I I Allstar hybrid. Productive. Good size and flavor, but light in color. Fruit can be very soft and prone to botrytis infection. Kent Trial No No No No Trial Mid S S T S S Cold hardy and vigorous. Fruit is large but borne on short pedicels, so fruit rots can be a problem, especially anthracnose fruit rot and Botrytis. Average flavor. Lester Trial No No Yes No No Mid S R U R R Productive berry with good flavor. Size starts out good, but runs down quickly. Fruit is susceptible to botrytis. May be difficult to find a source of plants. Mesabi Trial No Trial Yes No Trlal Mid R R R I I Productive, but fruit can be dark, soft, and flavorless in hot weather. Susceptible to twospotted spider mite damage. Mira Trial No Trial No No Trial Mid S R I I I Nice fruit, medium-red color, good flavor. Has produced very high yields in some PA locations. Raritan No Yes No Yes No No Mid S S S S S Flavorful. First fruits are large but size runs down quickly. Very susceptible to anthracnose fruit rot. May be difficult to find a source of plants.

continued 56 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 6.3. June-bearing matted-row strawberry cultivars, continued. Recommendations for use in: Susceptibility to:* Vert. Red Powdery Leaf Leaf Cultivar NJ MD VA WV DE PA Season Wilt Stele Mildew Spot Scorch Description Cabot Trial No Trial Yes No Trial Mid–late S R I R I Huge fruit, high yields. Produces few runners. Primary berries are oddly shaped. Good flavor, but fruit center may be hollow. For pick-your-own. Sell by volume rather than weight. Susceptible to Phytophthora crown rot and cyclamen mites. Heavy foliage encourages problems with gray mold. Herriot Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Mid–late U U U R U From the NYAES-Geneva breeding program. Fruit is bright red and firm. Flavor is mild but very good with pineapple overtones. Fruit size is similar to that of Jewel. Plants are vigorous and productive. Jewel Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Mid–late S S R R R All-around good performer. Nice size and shape with good color and flavor. Productive. Lateglow No No Yes Yes No Yes Mid–late R R T R R Large fruit, but light colored and somewhat soft. Good flavor. Plants are very vigorous. Mayflower Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Mid–late U U U U U A variety bred in the UK on which little information is currently available. Seneca Yes Yes Trial Yes No Trial Mid–late S S U U U Firm berry with good size, round shape, and medium-red color. Flavor is mild. Good for shipping. Sparkle No Yes No No No No Mid–late S R S U U Soft berry with good flavor. Better suited for home gardens than for commercial production. Winona No No No No No No Mid–late T R I R R Berries may color unevenly and have short pedicels, so fruit is in close contact with the ground and is prone to various rots. Conical berries of average flavor. AC Valley Sunset Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Late U U U R R Large bright red berries with good flavor. May be somewhat perfumy. Somewhat softer than other berries. Ovation Yes Yes Trial No Yes No Late U U S T I Nicely shaped berries with medium-red color. Good flavor. Yields are low for the amount of foliage. Appears to be better suited for warmer areas. Record Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Late U U U U U Large dark berry with a somewhat flattened shape and medium firmness. Moderate yields. Susceptible to botrytis and fruit anthracnose. Has a hint of cinnamon In its flavor. *R = resistant; T = tolerant; S = susceptible; I = intermediate; U = unknown Chapter 6 ❦ Strawberries 57 heaving. Mulch keeps soil temperatures of blossom injury from frost. Row that tend to be more problematic are root relatively warm in the winter and cool covers are often sufficient protection for rots because plantings are maintained in the spring, thereby delaying spring the light frosts that occur near the last for several years and gray mold because growth and reducing the damage from expected frost date. Additional infor- moisture levels in the foliage tend to be spring frost. mation on frost protection is presented higher. Particularly troublesome insects Mulch is generally applied in early to in Appendix A and in the plasticulture in matted-row plantings are spittlebugs, late December, depending on location, production section of this chapter. which lay their eggs in weeds in and once plants have stopped growing and around fields, root weevils because Renovation appear to be dormant. Plants reach populations can build in the soil over the Strawberry beds must be renovated dormancy after several hard frosts have years, and tarnished plant bugs during annually (immediately after harvest) to occurred and take on a “flattened” later harvests since plant bug popula- thin the plants, reinitiate root growth, appearance. With most cultivars, leaves tions increase as the season progresses. retain vigor, and maintain berry size develop a red tinge, indicating that in subsequent years. Follow the steps June-Bearers: Plasticulture nutrients have been translocated to the below when renovating the beds. Production roots for winter storage. At this time, soil Plasticulture utilizes raised beds, black 1. Apply a postemergence herbicide for temperature at a 4-inch depth is at about plastic mulch, trickle irrigation, high- weed control. Most commonly, 2,4-D 40°F. A soil thermometer inserted to this density planting, and floating row (Formula 40) herbicide is applied for depth can be monitored as a guide for covers. Capital input into this system broadleaf weed control. However, the correct time for mulch application. is fairly high ($6,500 to $10,000 per acre Stinger or a postemergence grass Apply 1½ to 2 tons of wheat or rye straw for establishment), but yields and fruit herbicide can also be used, depending per acre. Straw should be free of weed quality have the potential to be very on the target weed species. Wait 7 to seed. The mulch should be thin enough high. Plasticulture production is very 8 days for weeds to translocate the for part of the strawberry leaves to be intensive, so it is highly recommended herbicide. visible in warmer (zones 6b and warmer) that growers unfamiliar with this system locations such as Maryland, New Jersey, 2. Mow off the leaves as close to the start small. This system has given the Delaware, and Virginia. In cooler loca- ground as possible without damaging highest yields in locations that have long tions in Pennsylvania and West Virginia the crowns. growing seasons and are influenced by (zones 6a and cooler), a 4- to 6-inch layer 3. Narrow the row widths to 6 to 12 the moderating effect of a body of water, of “fluffed” straw is recommended. inches using a cultivator or rototiller. such as southeastern Pennsylvania, Scatter any dense piles of mulch. Allow ½ inch of heavier soils and southern New Jersey, and the shore areas When new leaves start to develop, 1 inch of lighter soils to cover the of Maryland, Virginia, and Delaware. usually in mid-March to early April (soil crowns to stimulate new root growth. Low yields are common in cooler areas temperatures will have risen to 40°F), (zones 6a and cooler) with shorter 4. Topdress older plantings at reno- pull the mulch back and leave it between growing seasons due to an insufficient vation with nitrogen (N), phosphorus the rows. Remove only enough to allow period available for plant growth and (P), and potassium (K) as indicated in the plants to develop. Keep some mulch flower bud initiation in the fall. Earlier Table 6.2. Omit P or K if high. close to the plants to prevent rain from fall application of row covers can splashing soil on the fruit. If mulch 5. Apply preemergent herbicides, most partially compensate for this constraint was not applied in the winter, putting commonly Sinbar. on marginal sites, but be aware that early it between the rows before harvest is a 6. Irrigate to incorporate fertilizer and application of row covers in the fall has good practice. Mulch protects the berries herbicide. a residual effect of advancing bloom from waterborne fungal spores, such as and fruiting in the spring. Select fields those that cause leather rot, and provides 7. Continue to irrigate with 1 to 2 inches of water per week through August protected from westerly winds and with a hospitable environment for harvesters, a southern exposure to minimize wind but increases slug populations. and into September, especially during dry spells. Neglecting the planting desiccation and maximize heat accumu- Frost Protection will decrease runner production and lation. Availability of a means of frost There is no one temperature at which the number of flower buds initiated, protection is critical. frost damage occurs uniformly. resulting in lower yields next year. Soil Characteristics Appendix A discusses the critical As with any strawberry system, soil temperatures associated with frost and Pest Management Notes Specific to with a high organic matter content Matted-Row Plantings freeze damage to strawberries. The and in a proper rotation will produce Because matted-row plantings are slower duration of temperature for damage can the healthiest crop. Light- to medium- to dry out than plasticulture plantings be nearly instant to 2 hours, depending textured soils with medium (2 percent) and weeds are often a greater problem on wind, humidity, and cultivar. to high (6 percent) organic matter levels in this system, certain diseases and Overhead irrigation is recommended, are best for bed preparation, nutrition insects can be more problematic than but if it is not available, late varieties management, and plant development in with plasticulture plantings. Diseases can be planted to decrease the chances strawberry plasticulture. If organic matter 58 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 6.4. Recommended nutrients for annual plasticulture strawberry plantings. Rates are intended as approximations. Soil testing, leaf analysis, and plant vigor should be used to fine tune rates for your site. Preplant applications are applied to the entire area to be planted. Post-bedding application rates are on a mulched-area basis. If phosphorus levels are above optimum, no additional phosphorus is typically recommended.

Soil Phosphorus Level (P2O5) Soil Potassium Level (K2O) N Low Med Opt Low Med Opt Soil lbs/acre Suggested Application Methods Clays, clay loams, loams, 50–60 100 70 40 150 100 50 Disc in before bedding and silt loams 20–30 0 0 0 0 0 0 Inject through drip at first flowering* 70–90 100 70 40 150 100 50 Total recommended Sandy loams, loamy sands, and sands 60–75 100 70 40 165 115 65 Disc in before bedding 15–20 0 0 0 0 0 0 Inject at first flowering* 15–25 0 0 0 0 0 0 Inject at fruit enlargment (2 weeks later)* 90–120 100 70 40 165 115 65 Total recommended Apply 1–2 pounds of boron (B) per acre with broadcast fertilizer unless tissue or soil test indicates above-normal levels. *Ideally, spring N applications in the amounts listed above can be split into multiple applications calculated at 0.5 lb of N per acre per day, applied starting at green-up.

is too low (less than 1 percent), a cover Alternatively, organic sources of firmness, and boron is needed for good crop should be grown for the season nitrogen (e.g., poultry manure) can fruit set. before planting. Since beds are typically be incorporated prior to bed forming, Petiole sap testers can be used to formed in August, the cover crop can thereby providing nutrients in a slow- monitor the plants’ current nitrogen be grown earlier in the season the year release form and eliminating the need or potassium status in the field, and of planting. Soil should be well worked for spring fertigation. Boron, often adjustments to the nitrogen rate can prior to planting, as this is a prerequisite deficient on deep sandy soils, is an be made immediately. (See Appendix for making well-formed beds. important minor element for strawberry D for sources of petiole sap testers.) production. Once visible deficiency Current values were established in Fumigation symptoms (“bumpy” fruit and small Florida (see Appendix E for the source If needed, a fumigant such as Vapam can crinkled new leaves) are noticeable, of this information) and may need to be be injected through the trickle system at yield losses have already occurred. It adjusted downward if plants appear too least 2 weeks before planting. Alterna- is important to monitor boron tissue vigorous. Values between 600 and 800 tively, other fumigation options can be levels in the spring because they begin ppm NO -N when plants resume growth employed as outlined in Chapter 3. 3 to decrease markedly as spring growth and prior to bloom, falling to 300 to 500 Fertility commences. If tissue levels fall below during bloom and 200 to 500 during The soil should be tested the spring prior 20 ppm, an application of 1/8 pound of harvest, are considered sufficient. Values to planting. The soil pH, phosphorus, boron per acre (10 ounces of Solubor, 20 are expressed as either NO3 (nitrate) or - potassium, calcium, and magnesium percent boron) injected through the drip NO3 N (nitrogen in the nitrate form), should be adjusted according to the soil irrigation system is recommended. Care depending on the brand of sap tester. test recommendations prior to planting. must be taken to apply boron accurately If the meter readout is given as NO3, Depending on soil type and climate, because it is extremely toxic if applied in values will need to be divided by 4.43 to the plants will need a total of 90 to 120 excess. The difference between enough compare to the values presented above. pounds of nitrogen per acre per season, boron and too much boron is small. Tissue analysis kits should be used to with 120 pounds per acre needed on Plant nutrition is always important submit samples of the most recently fully sandier soils in warm climates, and in any system. However, in plasticulture expanded leaves in the spring at early 90 pounds per acre needed on heavier strawberry production, the short time bloom. Values for interpretation at this soils with an early frost date. Apply available for plant growth, the large time of the year are given in Appendix B. quantity of fruit produced and, hence, two-thirds of the nitrogen (60 to 70 Bed Preparation pounds per acre) prior to planting and high plant demand for nutrients, and A center-crowned firm bed with the remaining 30 to 50 pounds per acre the critical role of top quality fruit in tight plastic is the goal. Soil should (higher end of range on sandier soils) in the economics of this system make be well worked and free from clods the spring through fertigation. Most or optimum nutrition essential. Nitrogen before attempting to form the beds. all of the nitrogen should be applied by is important for quantity and quality of Depending on the equipment, the steps early bloom for optimal yields, with split fruit production. Potassium is important of bed forming, fertilizer incorporation, applications making more efficient use of in flavor development and is transported fumigation shanking, installation of applied nutrients. Timing and amounts into the fruit in large quantities during drip tubing, and plastic laying may be are presented in Table 6.4. ripening. Calcium is important for Chapter 6 ❦ Strawberries 59 combined into one operation. However, with emitters that are 12 inches apart. it will almost definitely be needed in the on heavier soils, it is often best to shape Drip irrigation tape should be installed spring for frost protection. the beds with the fertilizer incorporated, 3 to 4 inches below the soil surface at the Plant Types and Varieties (Cultivars) then lay the plastic and drip tube. time of making beds and laying plastic. Plants are available as plugs, runner tips High beds promote warmer soil Drip tape that is 6 to 8 mil in that can be rooted into plugs, dormant temperatures, which increase plant thickness is adequate for plantings (frigo) plants, or fresh-dug plants. Clean, growth in the fall and spring. They also that are expected to be used for only virus-tested planting stock should be improve soil and air drainage and make one growing season. Plantings that are used regardless of the type of plant. harvest easier and faster. Wide beds expected to be fruited for two seasons Plugs are the standard for the region; allow better sunlight penetration into the should have 8- to 10-mil drip tape. The if they are available for planting plants, which results in higher yields. flow rate of the drip tape will affect the early enough, they result in the most Embossed black plastic 1¼ mil thick and amount of water that is applied in a consistent yields and stands. However, 54 or 60 inches wide is generally used, given amount of time; however, a range there is typically a strong demand for with beds 30 to 40 inches wide at the top of flow rates can be used to apply a these plants. If you plan on using plug and 6 to 10 inches high. Beds are usually given amount of water. A common flow plants, place orders early. Contact nurs- on 4- to 5½-foot centers. They should rate for drip tape is 0.45 gallons per eries during the winter to ask when they be oriented north to south, if possible. 100 feet per minute. Another factor to begin accepting orders. With east-to-west beds, the plants in the consider when selecting the drip tape Alternatively, runner tips are rela- southern row on each bed grow larger, is the flow rate of the water source. To tively easy to root into plugs if you have and fruit on the southern edge of the bed provide adequate water to the entire a mist system. It will take about 35 days is more likely to be sunscalded. Water area that will be irrigated, the amount of from tip to plug plant. To root your own drainage from the field must be taken water outputted from the emitters at one tips, first obtain tips from a reputable into account since beds will act as small time cannot exceed the source flow rate. nursery (see Appendix C for nursery dams if they block the areas of water Two to three days prior to planting, sources of tips). After you obtain the flow from the field. growers must ensure that the irrigation tips, inspect them and discard any tips No herbicide with residual activity system is working and that the bed is that are of questionable quality. Trim should be broadcast onto the plastic after thoroughly wetted. Typically, this is the runner stubs to ½ inch, sort the tips it is laid since rainfall can concentrate accomplished by turning on the trickle by size, and plant similarly sized tips these chemicals at the planting holes and irrigation system and allowing it to run in the same tray. Trays with 50 cells are cause crop injury. until the soil has been visibly wetted just standard, and any standard soilless to the outside of the bed. Since the drip Irrigation mix can be used. Because cleanliness is tape may be installed in the middle of Drip irrigation is essential in plasti- essential, use new media and make sure the bed, it may take many hours—typi- culture production. With drip irrigation, the trays have been disinfected if they cally at least 3 to 4 hours—in order to less water is required than with overhead are being reused. Place the “hook” of the wet the soil laterally across the entire irrigation, diseases are reduced due to tip in the media, making sure the crown bed width. Wetting the beds 2 to 3 days less wetting of the foliage, and soluble is not buried. Place the trays under mist before planting allows the soil to drain fertilizers can be applied throughout the in an enclosed structure such as a green- prior to planting so that the soil is moist growing season. house or high tunnel, setting the misting but not muddy. The soil type affects the distribution to keep the leaves wet for the first 7 days Plants that are well watered during of water within the soil. Coarser soils using fogger nozzles of an intermediate the fall will make the most growth with larger amounts of sand have discharge rate. Using shade cloth is and produce the highest yields. Drip limited lateral movement of water recommended when temperatures are irrigation will be needed again in the from the emitters. Water applied to hot. The time for misting will vary with spring since adequate moisture is critical soils with larger amounts of clay will degree of cloudiness, but 5 seconds of for maintaining large fruit size, which move well laterally. To thoroughly actual misting time every 15 minutes is is important for high value. Apply wet the soil, growers with sandy soils a reasonable starting point. Only mist sufficient trickle irrigation to supply should consider selecting drip tape with during the day. After the first week, a minimum of 1 inch of water (more emitters that are closer together (4 to gradually reduce the misting time until during hot spells) to the bed each week. 6 inches) and place two drip tapes per no mist is applied around day 12. The To apply 1 inch of water to a bed that is raised bed, thus providing for greater plants should have roots by this time. Be wetted 2.5 feet wide using a trickle tape wetting of the entire bed. Care must sure not to let the media dry out. When with a flow rate of 0.45 gallons per 100 be taken to ensure that the tape is not the plants are 2 weeks old, fertilize them feet per minute at 10 psi would require directly in line with the planting row to with 100 ppm of nitrogen with calcium 5.8 hours of run time per week, or avoid punctures. For growers that have nitrate as the nitrogen source. At 3 approximately three two-hour irrigation soils with higher levels of clay and/or weeks, place the trays outside, but not cycles. Overhead irrigation may be organic matter, it is sufficient to use one on bare soil, to start “hardening off” the needed after planting to cool the plants; drip tape down the middle of the bed plants. An area covered with landscape 60 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 fabric works well. Trays can also be kept dormant crowns can be used. Dormant in the plastic. Apply overhead irrigation in the structure if air flow is good. A crowns are planted during mid to late to encourage early germination and broad-spectrum fungicide can be applied July in warmer locations and from to wash any seeds off the plastic so prior to planting. Also, plants should mid-June to mid-July in cooler areas. that the ryegrass does not become a be inspected and treated for twospotted This type of planting stock is probably competitive weed problem when the spider mites before planting. As always, most useful to growers in cooler areas planting holes are punched. The ryegrass growers should follow label restrictions of the region (zones 6a and cooler) or will reduce soil washing in the aisles and requirements closely. Producing to those wishing to try cultivars not after heavy rains or irrigation for plant plug plants outside is also possible (see available as plug plants. establishment. If a “living” mulch is Appendix E for sources of information). On each bed, double rows 12 inches grown for the fall and winter season, do Be sure to put down a layer of ground- apart with plants 12 inches apart within not apply preemergence herbicides to cover fabric before beginning outdoor each row in a staggered pattern are the aisles until after the mulch is large plug production. commonly used. However, increasing enough to withstand potential injury or Dormant plants, used primarily the distance to 18 inches between the to accomplish its purpose even if injured. in more northern locations, are less rows on each bed may improve yields Floating row covers should be expensive than plugs, are available in a without increasing plant costs (a 36- to applied when daytime highs outside the greater choice of varieties, and allow for 40-inch-wide bed is needed), while a cover are in the low 70s (mid-October for earlier planting and plant establishment. closer spacing may compensate for late most areas). The planting may need to be However, planting, blossom removal, planting. Plant numbers needed per acre uncovered if a warmer spell occurs. The and runner removal require increased are given in Table 6.1. young planting is extremely susceptible labor costs, and decreased viability of Beds should be thoroughly wetted to deer grazing, but floating row covers plants due to prolonged storage may 2 or 3 days prior to planting. A water- typically deter the deer at this time of require some replanting of the plants wheel transplanter can be used to plant the year. Heavier row covers (0.9 to 1.4 that fail to establish. plugs or to punch holes for planting ounces per square yard) can be used for Fresh-dug plants, used in the south- dormant plants. However, actual more than one year, resulting in lower eastern states, are dug and shipped just planting of dormant plants should be per-year costs despite the higher initial prior to planting, which takes place in done by hand. For dormant plants, a cost. Covers can be held down by a mid-October in Florida. Due to the late V-shaped tool is useful for inserting roots number of means; the most effective availability of plants, this option is of into the soil. If the weather is warm, holders are stone or gravel in netted, limited value for growers in the Mid- overhead irrigation should be used to oyster-bottom bags. Atlantic region. cool the plants and plastic after planting. Overwintering the Planting Chandler is the most widely available Be sure to place the crown of the Floating row covers are a must for winter plug plant cultivar and the most transplant at the soil level when protection because they reduce wind consistent performer. Sweet Charlie, planting (see Figure 6.1). Deep planting desiccation and buffer the planting from also available as plugs, is valuable for an can promote decay of the plant, while temperature extremes. In more northern early crop but produces relatively low shallow planting allows the plant to locations, straw mulch, applied when soil yields and is decreasing in popularity desiccate. temperatures at a 4-inch depth drop to within the region. Camarosa performs Care during Fall Establishment 40°F, has been used successfully. However, well in warmer areas. Wendy, Allstar, Plants should not be water stressed keeping it on the plastic mulch is difficult and Darselect, as well as Festival in during the fall since healthy fall growth if it is used without a row cover. In warmer areas, appear to have potential. is necessary for high yields next spring. these locations, removing the row cover, Additional information on cultivars is Pests should be monitored closely and placing the straw, and replacing the available in Table 6.5. weeds that emerge from the planting row cover over the straw to keep it in Planting holes should be hand pulled. Runners place has worked quite well. Once the In the plasticulture system, high yields produced during at least the first half plants are covered with straw, the plant are dependent on plants producing of the fall season should be removed to no longer receives any sunlight to form branch crowns. Therefore, for this allow the plants to direct their resources branch crowns or flower buds. Therefore, system, strawberry plugs should be to branch crown and flower bud this technique is only recommended on planted late enough in the season to formation. Clean cultivation can be used marginally cold sites. Straw should then discourage excessive runner formation if erosion and water management are be removed from the beds and placed and early enough to promote plant not problems on the site. Bare, undis- in the walkways as soon as the plants establishment and branch crown turbed ground can provide some frost resume growth (or soil temperatures reach formation. Plugs should be planted protection. If erosion is a concern, row 40°F 4 inches deep), and the row covers during early to mid-September in middles can be seeded to a living mulch alone pulled back on. Row covers should warmer locations of the region (zones 6b of annual rye grass to reduce soil loss. be removed as soon as the plants begin to and warmer) and in mid- to late August Broadcast 50 pounds of annual ryegrass bloom. The plants will need to be covered for colder sites (zone 6a). Alternatively, seed per acre before holes are punched again if frost is forecast. Chapter 6 ❦ Strawberries 61 continued Produces significantly lower yields and smaller lower significantly Produces primarily for its Utilized fruit than Chandler. tender. Winter earliness. as climate for the same growing Intended higher yields slightly In FL, produces Festival. Mild flavor. fruit than Festival. and larger program. breeding the NC State Released from Fruit Chandler. before fruit 7–10 days Produces shaped. and nicely is large in other regions characteristics but in many Ventana Similar to in the Untested vigorous. is less vegetatively region. in this with this cultivar experience Grower nicely large, Produces has been good. system flavor. fruit with excellent colored in North for plasticulture Developed Carolina. blossoms opened PA, many In flavor. Excellent yields in a matted-row in low black resulting number of a limited from Only available trial. southern nurseries. Yield and color. shape, size, has nice Fruit than for is lower in this system potential Chandler. when ripe. orange fruit remains sweet Large, of areas in warmer High yields in plasticulture of PA regions yields in cooler Low NJ and MD. and MD. very Fruit can develop but very firm fruit. Large white. while tips remain dark color fruit with Deep red of Florida. the Univ. From yields and small low but produced good quality, trial. fruit in PA Description R U U U U R U S S U Anthrac- nose U U U U U U I I T U Leaf Leaf Scorch I U U U U U R R I U Leaf Leaf Spot R U U U MR U U T S U Powdery Powdery Mildew U U U U S U U R U U Red Stele Susceptibility to:* U U U U S U U R–T U U Vert. Vert. Wilt Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial No Trial Trial Trial No PA Yes Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Yes Yes Trial DE Yes Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Yes Yes Trial WV Yes Trial Trial Trial Trial No Trial Yes Yes Trial VA Yes Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Yes Yes No MD Yes Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Yes Trial Trial NJ Early Early Early Early Early Early–mid Early–mid Mid Mid Mid Season Yes Yes No Yes No No No No Yes Yes Fresh-Dug Fresh-Dug Plants No No Yes No Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Dormant Plants Yes Yes No Yes No Yes No No Yes Yes Tips Available as: Available Plugs Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes No No Yes Yes Table 6.5. June-bearing plasticulture production. for cultivars strawberry Table Charlie Sweet Radiance Florida Galletta Palomar Wendy AC Bish L’Amour Allstar Camarosa Carmine Cultivar 62 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 Good fruit quality. Disease susceptibilities, Disease susceptibilities, Good fruit quality. limit may fruit anthracnose, especially to adoption for this system. if this in this system quantities on limited Try otherwisecultivar performs on your well foliage drying helps in this system Faster site. Botrytis susceptibility. overcome Variable production. in Florida Standard Fruit region. performance in the Mid-Atlantic and very performis conic firm. May in better tunnels than in the field. to Also tends can be small and yields low. Fruit just outside Has performedbe soft. in areas well however. the region, verycolor. firm fruit with good blocky, Large, Good for shipping. to Susceptible in northern Europe. Popular in the mid- Untrialed rot. crown Phytophthora Atlantic. yields in tunnel low in CA. In PA, planted Widely color, and field production, though fruit size, good. were and flavor Try of interest. this a cultivar fruit makes Large and rot for crown Watch quantities. in limited susceptibilities. cyclamen mite compact and fruit has are plants In California, In Untrialed colored. and is darkly good flavor region. the Mid-Atlantic consistent A flavor. fruit with excellent Large and the performer environments across for this production system. standard tend May shaped fruit with good flavor. Nicely yields. Low when ripe. colored a bit light stay to Description S U S PR S U U U U VS U Anthrac- nose S I U U U U U I U T I Leaf Leaf Scorch I I U S U U S R U S T Leaf Leaf Spot U U U PR U I R S U R S Powdery Powdery Mildew U R U U S U U R U S U Red Stele U S U S S S S U U U U Susceptibility to:* Vert. Vert. Wilt Trial Trial Trial No Trial Trial No Trial Trial Yes Trial PA Yes Trial Yes No No Trial Trial Trial Trial Yes Yes DE Trial Trial No No Yes Trial Trial Trial Trial Yes Trial WV Yes Trial Trial No No Trial No Trial Trial Yes No VA Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial No Trial Trial Yes Trial MD Trial Trial No No Trial Trial No Trial Trial Yes Yes NJ Mid Mid Mid Mid Mid Mid Mid Mid–late Mid–late Late Late Season No No Yes Yes No No No No Yes Yes No Fresh-Dug Fresh-Dug Plants Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Dormant Plants No No Yes No No No No No Yes Yes No Tips No No Yes No No No No No Yes Yes No Available as: Available Plugs R = resistant; PR = partially resistant; T = tolerant; S = susceptible; VS = very susceptible; I = intermediate; U = unknown VS = very I = intermediate; susceptible; S = susceptible; T = tolerant; PR = partially R = resistant; resistant; Darselect Eros Festival Gaviota Seneca Sonata Ventana Cabot Camino Real Chandler Ovation Table 6.5. June-bearing plasticulture production, for cultivars continued. strawberry Table * Cultivar Chapter 6 ❦ Strawberries 63

Spring Frost Protection cultivars will, with 3 weeks common and over the mulched beds since runoff Plants grown in the plasticulture 4 to 5 weeks of harvest possible. When greatly increases the actual appli- system are extremely susceptible to insufficient growth and flower bud cation rate into the holes where the frost damage since they will bloom initiation has taken place, however, this strawberry plants are located. earlier than plants grown in matted- harvest period will be greatly shortened. 6. Do not apply floating row covers for row production. For this reason, plas- The high quality of the fruit produced the fall since there should have been ticulture plantings should be grown in this system results in premium sufficient time for plant growth and on sites that have overhead irrigation prices. Other harvest advantages of flower bud initiation during August capabilities. One layer of row cover this system are that the fruit is easier and September. alone will provide 2 to 6 degrees of frost to reach, containers fill faster due to 7. Cover the planting with row covers protection on clear, still nights preceded larger-sized fruit, and harvest can take for the winter in cooler locations by a sunny day, and 1 to 2 degrees place soon after a rain since the beds dry (optional for zones 7a and warmer) of protection when the frost event is out quickly. Many growers market the preceded by a cloudy day or if condi- fruit of first-harvest-year fields for direct Double-cropping with another crop tions are breezy. Pulling the covers on sale or wholesale product and then (replacing the strawberry plants using during midafternoon will allow heat allow “u-pick” on renovated second- the same plastic) can be accomplished to build up under the cover. Overhead year fields since berry size tends to using warm-season crops in warmer irrigation alone or in addition to row decrease and damage to plastic is of less areas and cool-season crops where the covers can be used for frost protection. concern. Straw mulches can be laid in growing season is shorter. When used in conjunction with row row middles prior to fruit ripening and Growers are sometimes tempted to covers, the irrigation system is set up harvest. See “Harvest and Postharvest hold over plasticulture plantings for a on top of the covers, turned on when Handling” below for additional points. third harvest season. However, this is the temperature under the row cover not recommended. As discussed under Carrying over Plantings drops below 33°F and turned off when “The Strawberry Plant—Anatomy and Since establishment-year inputs are high it rises above 33°F. This typically cuts Morphology,” as strawberry plants and following-year inputs are quite low the time that irrigation must be run in grow, the crown elongates and new with the plasticulture system, many half. A second option is to use a double roots are produced above the old ones. growers hold their plantings over for layer of row cover, which provides In matted-row systems, the new roots a second year of harvest. Yields from additional protection. This technique is establish in the soil that is thrown onto carryover plantings can be high if the probably economically feasible only for the plants during the renovation process, planting is well managed, but berry size small-acreage plantings and works best and younger daughter plants also help will decrease, harvest may not be quite when a durable fabric is used that can be renew the planting. In plasticulture as early, and pest pressure is higher. reused for multiple years. See the section systems where only the original mother Renovating a planting for a second year on frost protection in Appendix A for plants remain, the elongated crowns of harvest consists of several steps: additional information and operating becomes more exposed to cold tempera- guidelines concerning frost protection. 1. After harvest, leaves should be tures during the winter, increasing the mowed off as close to the crown likelihood of winter injury. The plant Harvest as possible without damaging the is also dependent on the original root When raised beds, black plastic, and crown. This will stimulate growth of system with few new roots able to floating row covers are used, bloom new foliage. All loose foliage and fruit establish since they are produced above and harvest are advanced by as much should be removed from the field as it the old roots but cannot root. These as a month compared to matted-row is likely to harbor diseases. factors, together with a frequent buildup plantings. This early fruit commands a 2. Plants with five to eight branch of insects and diseases in the planting, high price, but at the cost of the burden crowns will benefit from crown commonly results in poor plant stands, of protecting the planting from spring thinning. To crown thin, insert an low yields, and numerous pest problems frosts. To keep bloom from starting too asparagus knife though the center in older plasticulture plantings. early, the row cover can be removed of the crown and remove about half, as soon as growth begins in the spring Pest Management Notes Specific to being careful not to damage the and replaced only when temperatures Plasticulture Plantings remaining half. are expected to drop low enough to Because plasticulture plantings are cause damage to the plant. This may, 3. Maintain irrigation throughout the maintained for only one or two seasons, however, result in lower yields than if summer. disease and insect pressure tends to be lower than in matted-row plantings. In the row cover was kept on. To spread 4. Fertigate 40 to 60 pounds of nitrogen addition, because of good soil and air out harvest dates, cover removal from per acre in late August or early drainage due to raised beds, root rots, different areas of one cultivar can be September, using the high end of the botrytis, and leather rot tend to be less staggered, or different cultivars can be range in warmer areas (NJ and south). used. ‘Chandler’ will produce crops for problematic. Because of increased air 5. Control weeds between the rows, but a longer period of time than matted-row temperatures, however, anthracnose can never spray any residual herbicide be a very large problem, especially in 64 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 carryover plantings of Chandler, which should periodically be restored to the establishment. Plants may be held over is exceedingly susceptible to this disease. top of the ridge. for a second harvest year. In addition, twospotted spider mites 4. Winter injury may be much more Day-Neutrals: PLASTICULTURE survive the winter very well under the severe on raised beds as compared to Production row cover, and should be monitored in matted rows, probably a result of the Information on soil characteristics, bed the spring. As mentioned briefly above, mulch settling in the aisles and heat preparation, irrigation, and harvest for deer damage can be a major problem, dissipation from the beds. June-bearer plasticulture production though the deer are often deterred once 5. Removing weeds manually may (outlined above) also largely applies to row covers are applied in the fall. erode beds. day-neutral plasticulture production. Apply a fungicide to control leaf Day-Neutrals: Matted-row Differences between systems exist in spots after plants are established. Apply Production timing of operations, plant sources, a fungicide plus insecticide or miticide to Day-neutral strawberries can be grown management of soil fertility, likely pest also control aphids and mites just before in a matted-row system as described problems, and other cultural operations covering plants with floating row covers for June-bearers with some differences are detailed below. if needed. Aphids and mites should be in management details. However, they monitored, and if present, insecticides Timing of Operations may be most successfully produced in and miticides should be applied during Plants are normally planted in April or a plasticulture system (see below). For the late summer and early fall to prevent May when low temperatures are not matted-row production, day-neutral them from reaching damaging levels in expected to drop below the mid to upper strawberry cultivars, which usually the spring. Removing dead leaves before twenties with harvest beginning in mid tend to produce fewer runners than new growth starts can help reduce to late June. In plasticulture day-neutral June-bearing strawberries, need to be disease and mite problems, especially production, plants are usually grown planted at a close spacing, with plants 5 gray mold and twospotted spider mites. and fruited for only one year. In areas to 10 inches apart in the row. An efficient that are cool throughout the summer June-Bearers: Ribbon-Row planting design is a staggered double such as high elevation areas (maximum Production row with plants set 7 inches apart, offset temperatures typically reaching the low Ribbon-row plantings on raised beds 4 inches from center with 4 feet or less to mid-eighties), the highest yields will have been successful in some areas, between row centers. Runners must be be obtained during the summer. In areas and, if managed properly, this system removed throughout the first season where the summer becomes hot (temper- has high yield potential. It may also and flowers should be removed for the atures typically reaching the high be used to avoid marginally wet soil first 6 weeks after planting. Mulching eighties or nineties), the highest yields conditions. In this system, strawberry day-neutral plants is essential since will be obtained in the fall and little plants are planted 3 to 6 inches apart mulch prevents large fluctuations in production will occur from late July to on raised beds 10 to 12 inches high. moisture availability and temperature. late August. Plantings may be held over Plants are allowed to produce fruit in Use 4 inches of clean straw or a white- for a second harvest season, but fruit size the first season to suppress runnering. on-black plastic (white side up) to reflect will drop off considerably. In warmer Any runners that do form are removed heat. Plants fruit from mid-August areas, by the time the second fall crop is throughout the first season, directing the through the first hard frost the first year produced, much of the fruit will be small plant’s resources into crown enlargement and produce three crops in subsequent as fruit size continues to decrease as the and branching, which then allows more years, as discussed in the “Types of plants produce more branch crowns and sites for flower bud initiation on each Plants” section. Fertilizer requirements grow larger. plant. A heavy layer of straw mulch are higher. Nitrogen should be applied must be applied over the winter in areas at 20 pounds per acre each month from Bed Preparation without predictable snow cover since June through September of the planting Beds can be prepared and plastic should the likelihood of winter injury to the year and also in May and September of be laid as soon as the soil is workable crowns is great. While this system can the fruiting years. This amount should in the spring. Beds are typically 4 to 10 produce very high yields, be aware of be increased to 30 pounds of nitrogen inches high and should be a minimum the following: per acre in June, July, and August of the of 24 inches wide at the top, preferably 1. Removing runners is labor intensive fruiting years. In a matted-row system, wider. An aluminized or white-on-black and thus costly. day-neutral plantings are normally plastic (white side up) is recommended to 2. Special attention must be given to kept for only 2 or 3 years as berry size reflect heat. This will keep soil tempera- maintaining optimal soil moisture decreases quickly. Tarnished plant bugs tures cool and may shorten the length levels in the raised bed. It dries out are especially problematic in plantings of of time during midsummer that fruit much more rapidly than the matted day-neutral cultivars because high popu- production is suspended. Aluminized row. lations are reached by the end of the plastic is more expensive, but resultant 3. Care must be taken to continually growing season. Cultivars are described higher yields have more than paid for the rebuild the raised bed because it in Table 6.6. The first set of flower trusses additional cost. Availability of aluminized erodes and settles over time. Soil should be removed to encourage plant Chapter 6 ❦ Strawberries 65

Table 6.6. Day-neutral strawberry cultivars. Recommendations for use in: Susceptibility to:* Vert. Red Powdery Leaf Leaf Cultivar NJ MD VA WV DE PA Wilt Stele Mildew Spot Scorch Description Albion Trial Yes Yes Trial Yes Trial R U U U U Recent release from Univ. of California. Grower reports from the Mid-Atlantic are positive. Produces lower yields than Seascape, but a high percentage of marketable fruit partly compensates for the difference. In PA trial, berries held up well even during prolonged wet spells. Extremely large fruit is nicely colored and slightly firm with good flavor. Cyclical in bearing habit; doesn’t like heat. Aromas Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial No S U I S U In PA trial, fruit were relatively large for a day-neutral and had a rich red color but were a bit too firm. Flavor was fair to good. Diamante Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial No U U U U U Produces very large berries that are too firm, similar to or firmer than Camarosa. Flavor and color were good. Lower yields than Seascape. Everest No Yes No Yes No No S R R U U Soft fruit with mild flavor. Watch rotations due to verticillium susceptibility. Very susceptible to fruit anthracnose. This cultivar’s strong point is its high yields on suitable sites. Evie 2 Trial Trial Yes Trial Yes Trial U U U U U Fruit has improved size over Everest, but color is lighter. Fruit is very soft and flavor can be bland. Proper management of water and fertilizer is needed. In PA trial, yields were considerably lower than for Seascape or Everest. Evie 3 Trial Trial Trial Trial Yes Trial U U U U U Combines the high yields of Everest with the quality characteristics of Evie 2. Fern Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial No U U U U U In PA trial, produced light-colored berries that were a bit soft with average size and not much flavor. Reminiscent of Latestar. Mara Des Bois Trial No Trial Trial No Trial U U U U U From France. Considered a “gourmet” berry. Fruit is small but very flavorful. May be best suited for tunnel production to protect fruit. Very susceptible to fruit anthracnose. Monterey Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial U U S U U Large fruit with good flavor, not quite as firm as Albion. Plants are very vigorous. Susceptible to powdery mildew. Untested in the Mid-Atlantic region. Portola Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial U U U U U Large fruit that has been somewhat light in color in California. Vigorous plants. Untested in the Mid-Atlantic region. Quinault Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial No U U U U U In PA trial, produced small squishy berries with odd shape, light color and little flavor. Tribute Yes No No Yes No No T R I T T Flavor a bit milder than for Tristar, but still tart. Fruit size is relatively small. Firm. Plants are fairly vigorous. Tristar Yes No No Yes No No R R R T T Flavor is good but can be tart. Firm fruit; size is small in hot weather. San Andreas Trial Trial Yes Trial Trial Trial U U U U U Large fruit with very good flavor. May be somewhat light in color. Firm. Cyclical in bearing habit but berries are of excellent quality. Sensitive to heat. Reported to have more resistance to diseases than other Univ. of Calif. releases. Seascape Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes U S S I R Sweet flavor. Nice shape, medium-red color, good size for a day-neutral, high yields. Fruit tends to split during wet periods. This is currently the top day-neutral for overall performance in the Mid-Atlantic. Selva Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial No U U U U U In PA trial, fruit was soft and light-colored with little flavor. Size was average. *R = resistant; T = tolerant; S = susceptible; I = intermediate; U = unknown 66 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 plastic may be limited. Current suppliers fertigation one or two times per week an additional few weeks. Thus, yields of plastic are listed in Appendix E. during routine watering cycles. will be somewhat reduced. Rows should be oriented north to south Plant Sources Variety Selection to minimize sunscald, unless other As with June-bearer plasticulture Seascape is the most widely used day factors such as erosion potential are of production, plug plants allow for ease neutral variety in the East. Seascape greater concern. of planting and rapid establishment has a sweet flavor, desirable shaped Soil Fertility of the planting. With day-neutrals, fruit, and medium red color. Its short- A soil sample should be submitted however, because production will begin comings are only average fruit size, during the fall prior to planting the shortly after planting, a larger plug size a strong tendency to soften and split strawberries. The pH should be between is recommended. Few sources of plug during adverse weather conditions, 6.0 and 6.5 for maximum availability plants of recommended day-neutral and susceptibility to powdery mildew. of plant nutrients, so lime should be cultivars exist, and shipping the larger Albion produces considerably lower worked in well ahead of planting. size plants recommended for this system total yields, but its large fruit are durable Adequate nutrients must be available (see below) is generally not economically even during rainy spells, resulting in throughout the growing season to feasible. Thus, growers intending to use a very high proportion of marketable produce high yields. Because yields as plug plants should plan for growing fruit. Flavor is good when fruit is fully high as 20,000 pounds of fruit per acre plug plants on their own. Plugs can be ripe. Additional information on these may be obtained from plants that are established easily in a nonheated green- cultivars and characteristics of other planted in the spring of the year, suffi- house as long as temperatures inside the day-neutral cultivars are outlined in cient nutrient availability is important. greenhouse do not reach below freezing. Table 6.6. Plant nutrient needs are thought to be Bare root day neutral plants should Planting similar to those of high-yielding June- be obtained 8 to 10 weeks before the Plants can take temperatures as low as bearing cultivars, which can produce desired planting date. The plants’ roots 25°F before damage will occur to the similar per-acre yields. A soil test is should be trimmed sufficiently to allow crown. Plants may be planted any time recommended prior to planting, as some them to be planted into 32- to 40-cell after lows are expected to be higher than of the phosphorus and potassium may planting trays without being “J-rooted.” 25°F as long as air temperatures will already be available from native or past Using deep trays (3 inches) will allow remain above freezing for 2 to 3 days added nutrients. for more roots to be retained and will after planting. This will allow plants to Plant nutrients can be worked encourage additional new root growth. become established. into the soil prior to making the bed The plants should be planted in a good Be sure to thoroughly wet the beds a and applying the plastic, or they can quality soilless mix that is well drained. day or two before planting. On each bed, be applied through the drip tape. A A slow-release fertilizer such as 20-20-20 a double row of plants should be planted number of different sources can be used with micronutrients should be incorpo- that are 12 inches apart in each row and to provide nutrients. Organic inputs rated into the mix at a rate of 1.5 ounces 12 to 16 inches between rows. Stagger such as composts and green manure per cubic foot or as recommended by the the plants in the double rows to utilize crops can provide adequate nutrition. manufacturer. Alternatively, plants may the entire plastic surface as the plants Mineralization of nutrients from organic be watered with a 100 ppm N solution of mature. The plugs should be planted so sources into plant-available forms is soluble fertilizer beginning 3 weeks after that the roots are covered, but also make a gradual process, so organic nutrient planting. The plants should be kept cool, sure the growing point is not covered. sources should be worked into the preferably between 40 and 60°F, as this Water the plants shortly after planting. soil a minimum of two weeks prior to will encourage root development and Remove any blossoms at planting. A trial planting. Also due to low mineralization prevent the plants from getting too tall. in Garrett County, MD, indicated that rates (as low as 10 percent of the total During this time, remove flower trusses it is not necessary to remove blossoms nitrogen may become available per as they emerge and any runners that from plug plants after the plants year) you may need to add considerable may appear. Plants should be monitored have been planted. While no recent amounts of the product. Commercial for pests such as two-spotted spider studies have been done to determine granular fertilizers should be incorpo- mites and foliar diseases and be treated the necessity of flower removal from rated into the soil just prior to forming if necessary. The plugs should be ready dormant plants, it is recommended to beds and applying the plastic. for planting into the field in approxi- remove the first flush of flower blossoms If organic sources of nutrients are mately 8 weeks. to allow the plants to become estab- used, which tend to work as slow-release Dormant plants may also be planted lished without the additional stress of fertilizers, all of the nutrients can be directly through the plastic using a producing a crop. applied prior to planting. If inorganic V-shaped planting tool after holes are sources are used, either half can be punched. Production will not begin until Irrigation worked in prior to planting with the 3 to 4 weeks after the time that plug Adequate moisture is critical for remainder fertigated weekly, or all of plants would have begun producing, producing large fruit at any time, but the nutrients can be applied through plus yield per harvest will be lower for especially during the summer months. Chapter 6 ❦ Strawberries 67

After the plants are established, apply harvest in some locations, only pesti- organically for at least one year before sufficient trickle irrigation to supply cides that have a very short to zero-day berries were harvested in an organically a minimum of 1 inch of water to the harvest interval can be used. In addition, certified system. bed each week, more during hot spells. due to the nearly constant presence of According to the National Organic For a bed that is wetted 2.5 feet wide flowers, care should be taken to protect Standard, organic growers using plastic using a trickle tape with a flow rate of pollinators. See Table 3.1 for ratings of mulch must remove it from the field “at 0.45 gallons per 100 ft per minute at 10 pesticide safety to honey bees. the end of the first growing or harvest psi, this would require 5.8 hours of run season.” Interpretation of what this Considerations for Organic time per week, or approximately three means for plasticulture production can Production two-hour irrigation cycles per inch of vary by certifying agency. While consistency is improved with water applied. As discussed above, the institution of National Organic Protected Culture nutrients may be fertigated during Standards, some of the standards may Some growers have expressed interest irrigation cycles. be interpreted differently. Therefore, in alternative production systems, Frost Protection working closely with your certifying primarily with the intent of producing Frost protection may be a concern for fall agency is best to ensure that your berries earlier in the year or during the production. Production may be extended interpretation is the same as that of your off-season when production otherwise considerably if row covers are pulled certifying agency so that your organic might not be possible. Both high tunnel on during early frost events. For spring certification is not compromised. and greenhouse production involve frost protection of plantings that are While rotations are important in any higher costs than field production, and being fruited for a second year, see frost production system, they are especially recommendations may not yet exist protection information mentioned in important in organic production as a for solving some potential problems. earlier sections and Appendix A. preventative pest management strategy. Production difficulties can be consid- Growers should rotate an area out of erably different in type or magnitude Harvest Considerations strawberries for a minimum of 5 years from those encountered in field Because day-neutral strawberries (longer if possible) between plantings. production. For these reasons, growers produce fruit for a long period, condi- Also, avoid rotating in crops that host are advised to proceed with caution tions at harvest time will vary greatly strawberry pests, such as verticillium when embarking on a new enterprise during the season. Fruit quality will be wilt. Consider including cover crops in these areas. We expect, however, that greatest if the strawberries are harvested in the cropping rotation to aid in pest interest in these systems will grow and at least three times per week, but during management and improve soil fertility. that the amount of production under wet or hot periods, even more frequent Typically, strawberries in matted-row protected cultivation will increase as picking may be needed. See “Harvest production are kept for 3 to 5 harvest more information becomes available. and Postharvest Handling” below for years. Organic strawberry growers may additional details. find keeping plantings for a shorter time High Tunnel Production Strawberries can be grown in high Pest Management Notes Specific to (maximum of 2 harvest years) beneficial tunnels using production methods Day-Neutral Plantings to help avoid weed, insect, and disease similar to those used for strawberry plas- Because day-neutral plantings fruit for a problems that tend to increase in older ticulture (see June-bearers: Plasticulture longer period and at different times than plantings. Production) with plug plants. Use of June-bearers, pest issues can be slightly One question in organic production tunnel space for June-bearing strawberry different. Tarnished plant bug and sap is whether the source plants need to be production is somewhat inefficient, beetle populations build as the summer produced organically. The standards and in most cases, yield increases from progresses; hence, it is important to for planting plug plants and crowns tunnel production are not great enough scout for these pests and take corrective are dependent on whether they will be to make up for the cost of the structure. measures if needed. Long-necked seed used in an annual or perennial cropping Regardless, some growers wish to grow bug, which produces symptoms similar system. Plug plants or crowns kept for strawberries in tunnels to ensure that the to tarnished plant bug damage, has only one year are considered annual crop will not be lost to adverse weather also been problematic in day-neutral seedlings or planting stock and must conditions. Because temperatures are plantings. Japanese beetles, typically be organically produced (e.g., as with warmer in the tunnel than in the field, only a sporadic problem on strawberry annual strawberry plasticulture, with plug plants can be planted later than in foliage, can burrow into fruit that is day-neutral plantings harvested the first the field if necessary. Of June-bearing produced during the summer. Powdery year, or if blossoms are not removed cultivars normally recommended for mildew can be problematic on Seascape, and berries are picked the first year in strawberry plasticulture, Chandler and some day-neutral cultivars are quite traditional matted rows). Berries picked seems especially adaptable to this susceptible to fruit anthracnose. Disease more than one year from planting can be system. Sweet Charlie is likely to break susceptibilities specific to various day- marketed as organic even if nonorganic dormancy far too early in high tunnels, neutral cultivars are covered in Table 6.6. plug plants and crowns were used, flowering in January. Soil preparation Because of frequent and constant summer as long as the plants were managed and planting are carried out as for 68 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 field production, with the exception Greenhouse Production Harvest and Postharvest that narrower beds and/or closer bed Considerable work on greenhouse handling spacing can be used to allow more strawberry production has taken place strawberry plants to fit in the tunnel. at Cornell University and at USDA’s Berries generally ripen 28 to 30 days after Plants should be well watered during Appalachian Fruit Research Station in full bloom. Pick berries in containers no the fall. Row covers for winter protection Kearneysville, West Virginia. Production deeper than 4 inches. Fruit should be are necessary in single-bay tunnels only costs will be fairly high. At Cornell, a picked in the morning after plants have in the coldest locations and will also be break-even price of $3.00 per pint was dried, and berries should be kept out of needed in multibay tunnels where the calculated. Growers interested in addi- direct sun. Pick at least three times per plastic is removed for the winter. Care tional information should consult the week when berries are fully colored, during the spring is similar to that of NRAES Strawberry Production Guide retaining the caps. For longest shelf life, field production, with the exception that or other sources of information (see immediately cool berries to 33°F, using pollinators may need to be introduced Appendix E to obtain). Briefly described, convection to remove field heat. Straw- since resident pollinators are not likely to in this system dormant crowns are berries should then be refrigerated at 32 be active when the plants start to bloom. planted in pots, grown outdoors until to 33°F. This is especially important if Bumble bees or mason bees have been late fall, and then cold stored at 28 to fruit is sold wholesale. However, since used successfully for pollination, but 30°F. Both June-bearing and day-neutral refrigeration may affect the sheen on the care must be taken to keep temperatures types have been used successfully. fruit, some growers who sell the fruit on in ranges within which they can survive. Plants are moved into the greenhouse their farms prefer avoiding refrigeration Honey bees can be used, but they tend to at intervals for fruit production 10 to by picking only what they can sell the become disoriented in the tunnel. Yields 13 weeks later. Supplemental light and same day. Regardless of how fruit will be can be easily advanced by 3 weeks over a day/night temperature regime of marketed, hiring enough labor to finish field plasticulture production and can be 75/55°F is used. Nutrients are provided harvesting by noon is wise. This allows expected to be at least 25 percent higher. both in the mix and with a complete berries to be harvested before they build If day-neutrals are grown in high fertilizer solution that supplies 50 to 100 up field heat, which increases the rate of tunnels, it may make more sense to plant ppm nitrogen. Bumble bees were found ripening and decay. This is of less concern them in late summer and fruit them for to work well as pollinators. with pick-your-own operations since the the fall and spring, rather than plant in Powdery mildew and twospotted fruit is more likely to be used quickly. the spring and fruit for the summer and spider mites are likely to be problems, fall. The high temperatures reached in as in high tunnel production. In Economics high tunnels during the summer are not addition, other insects that are common The strawberry budgets given here were conducive to strawberry production, greenhouse pests (e.g., fungus gnats prepared to provide general infor- making the amount of fruit produced and thrips) and gray mold have been mation and do not apply to any specific relatively low for the effort and cost. encountered as problems. Vigilant operation. Use them, with appropriate Powdery mildew is likely to be a scouting and early release of biocontrol modifications, as guides for preparing problem on either type of plant. Inter- agents can prevent many of these budgets for individual situations. pretation of which pesticides can be pests from developing into significant Budgets can be used: used in tunnels varies from state to problems. • for general farm business planning state. In most cases, pesticides used in purposes greenhouse production or those that Vertical Systems don’t specifically state that they are Out-of-the-ground or elevated systems • as a basis for obtaining credit take advantage of high planting densities only for field production can be used. • to project cash flows However, state regulations should be to produce high yields in small spaces. • to assess profitability checked. Twospotted spider mites are However, the use of vertical, tabletop, or very likely to problematic, so monitoring other specialized systems for strawberry Using these sample budgets as guides should be continual from the time of production in the eastern United States should help ensure that all costs and planting onward. Predatory mites have has yet to show significant advantages receipts are included in budgets you given good control when released while over production in the ground. The prepare for your farm. Costs are often spider mite populations are still low (i.e., intensive management required for difficult to estimate in budget prepa- fewer than 20 mites on a few isolated unconventional systems presents a chal- ration because they are numerous and leaves). In situations where tunnels have lenge for many growers, and the high variable. Therefore, you should think of been kept closed during the winter, thus cost of these systems is often difficult to these budgets as a first approximation resulting in mild soil conditions, soil- recoup. Growers should first gain expe- and then make appropriate adjustments dwelling insects such as sowbugs and rience and success with the crop using a using the “Your Farm” column to add, earwigs may build to high populations. conventional system before considering delete, and adjust items to reflect your On occasion, they become a fruit-feeding more specialized systems. specific growing conditions and resource pest, causing losses of marketable fruit. situation. Chapter 6 ❦ Strawberries 69

The sample cost of production unit price required to cover all costs at a • Strawberry plugs are used for budgets were developed using a given yield; it is also the average cost per planting at the rate of 17,424 plugs computerized budget generator. Input unit of production. Breakeven yield is an per acre. data reflect recommended production estimate of the yield required to cover all • An overhead irrigation system is practices and current input costs. Major costs at a given price. used for frost protection and a trickle subheadings in the budgets are variable Berry production involves large system is used in season for calcu- costs, fixed costs, and total specified initial investments and can be very lating water application. costs. They are defined as follows: risky; weather- and animal-related crop Variable costs are costs that vary losses are common and crop prices can depending on the level of production. be highly variable. Use of whole-farm These include such inputs as fertilizer, risk management tools such as AGR-Lite herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, and crop insurance can help you reduce these labor. risks. Fixed costs are costs that do not vary A land charge of $200/acre has by level of production and are incurred been included in the budgets, but this by virtue of owning assets such as charge can vary greatly from location machinery and land. Depreciation and to location. If you own the land, you taxes are examples. could include your principal, interest Total specified costs are the sum of payments, and property taxes as a fixed variable and fixed costs. Most land- cost. If you lease the land, then the preparation activities are assumed to be annual rental cost could be included as a custom hired in these budgets because variable cost. the small acreages for many berry farms Production assumptions used in do not justify the ownership of these generating the budgets in both systems implements. If you use your own tillage include the following: equipment, the variable costs for custom • Fumigation is not used in matted-row hire should be subtracted from the production, though under certain budgets and your labor variable costs conditions, fumigation may be and machinery fixed costs should be warranted. Fumigation is used for substituted. plasticulture production. For matted-row production, cost- • Irrigation system costs are calculated of-production budgets are presented assuming that water is applied to 5 for the years of land preparation (Table acres. 6.7), planting (Table 6.8), and mature production (Table 6.9). For plasticulture • Fungicides are rotated to reduce the production, cost-of-production budgets likelihood of disease resistance. are presented for the year of land prepa- • The numbers of pesticide and ration and planting (Table 6.11) and the irrigation applications are average. In first harvest year (Table 6.12). any given year or location, growers Returns to risk and management is will need to adjust these for their the estimated profit attributable to the particular sets of circumstances. acceptance of risk and the contribution • Berries are harvested and sold as of management expertise by the grower ready picked in quart pulp containers. (Table 6.10 for matted-row production and Table 6.13 for plasticulture Matted-Row Strawberry Budgets— production). The tables estimate the Additional Assumptions return to the grower for a range of prices • Plant spacing is 24 inches within the and yields. Because yields, grades, and row and 40 inches between rows prices are so variable, growers should (approximately 6,500 plants per acre). use representative values for their • An overhead irrigation system is used operations. It is important to account for for water application. cash flows over the life of the investment when assessing the overall profit- Plasticulture Production of Strawber- ability of the enterprise, so prorated ries—Additional Assumptions land preparation and planting costs are • Vapam is applied through the trickle subtracted in the estimates. Breakeven irrigation system as a soil fumigant. prices and yields are shown in the tables. Breakeven price is an estimate of the 70 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 6.7. Summary of estimated costs per acre, 2011: year of land preparation for strawberries. Item Unit Price ($) Quantity Amount ($) Your Farm ($) Variable Cost Custom Soil test acre 10.00 1.00 10.00 Spread lime acre 12.20 1.00 12.20 Moldboard plowing acre 22.00 1.00 22.00 Disking acre 17.90 1.00 17.90 Grass seeding acre 11.20 1.00 11.20 Herbicides Glyphosate 4 gal 12.78 0.50 6.39 Seed Annual ryegrass seed lb 0.35 25.00 8.75 Labor Seasonal hour 12.00 0.50 6.00 Operator hour 15.00 0.46 6.84 Diesel Fuel gal 3.50 1.12 3.92 Repairs and Maintenance Tractors acre 1.40 1.00 1.40 Implements acre 1.16 1.00 1.16 Interest on Operating Capital 3.05 Total Variable Cost 139.81 Fixed Cost* Tractors acre 2.68 1.00 2.68 Implements acre 2.39 1.00 2.39 Total fixed cost 5.07 Land Charge acre 150.00 1.00 200.00 Total Specified Costs 344.88

* Estimated fixed costs in this budget assume that all field operations for land preparation are done by custom operators. Ownership of tillage equipment, grain drills, and grass seeders is not economically justified for growers engaged solely in small fruit production. Fixed costs in this budget reflect the ownership of a sprayer and mower. Chapter 6 ❦ Strawberries 71

Table 6.8. Summary of estimated costs per acre, 2011: planting year for matted-row strawberries. Item Unit Price ($) Quantity Amount ($) Your Farm ($) Variable Cost Custom Moldboard plowing acre 22.00 1.00 22.00 Spread dry fertilizer acre 9.85 2.00 19.70 Disking acre 17.90 1.00 17.90 Pest scouting acre 35.00 1.00 35.00 Fertilizer 10-10-10 lb 0.21 300.00 63.00 Urea lb 0.25 130.00 32.50 Fungicides Captan 80W lb 6.99 6.00 41.94 Rally/Nova 40W oz 3.31 5.00 16.55 Herbicides Devrinol W lb 12.35 8.00 98.80 Sinbar WDG lb 48.66 0.50 24.33 Insecticides/Miticides Assail 30SG oz 5.76 6.90 39.74 Brigade WSB lb 21.31 1.00 21.31 Portal oz 1.27 32.00 40.64 Other Straw ton 160.00 1.20 192.00 Strawberry plants thsd 145.00 6.50 942.50 Overhead irrigation acre 200.00 1.00 200.00 Labor Seasonal hour 12.00 57.38 688.50 Operator hour 15.00 4.10 61.50 Diesel Fuel gal 3.50 39.55 138.43 Repairs and Maintenance Tractors acre 29.12 1.00 29.12 Implements and Irrigation acre 82.16 1.00 82.16 Interest on Operating Capital 120.07 Total Variable Cost 2,927.69 Fixed Cost Tractors acre 61.00 1.00 61.00 Implements and Irrigation acre 212.19 1.00 212.19 Total fixed cost 273.19 Land Charge acre 200.00 1.00 200.00 Total Specified Costs 3,400.88 72 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 6.9. Summary of estimated costs per acre, 2011: mature planting of matted-row strawberries. Item Unit Price ($) Quantity Amount ($) Your Farm ($) Variable Cost Custom Spread dry fertilizer acre 9.85 1.00 9.85 Pest scouting acre 35.00 1.00 35.00 Fertilizer Urea lb 0.25 90.00 22.50 Fungicides Captan 80W lb 6.99 18.00 125.82 Elevate 50WDG lb 45.55 3.00 136.65 Switch 62.5 WDG oz 4.80 14.00 67.20 Herbicides 2,4-D amine gal 14.82 0.25 3.71 Chateau WDG oz 6.34 3.00 19.02 Devrinol W lb 12.35 8.00 98.80 Sinbar WDG lb 48.66 0.25 12.17 Insecticides Admire Pro oz 3.19 24.00 76.56 Brigade WSB lb 21.31 1.00 21.31 Endosulfan 3EC gal 35.75 0.33 11.89 Provado 1.6F oz 0.93 8.00 7.44 Other Overhead irrigation acre 200.00 1.00 200.00 Plant analysis kit each 25.00 1.00 25.00 Straw ton 160.00 2.00 320.00 Pulp box, 1 qt each 0.15 7,000.00 1,050.00 Tray, 1 qt each 1.35 875.00 1,181.25 Labor Seasonal hour 12.00 39.88 478.50 Operator hour 15.00 5.30 79.47 Berry harvest qt 0.75 7,000.00 5,250.00 Diesel Fuel gal 3.50 46.03 161.12 Repairs and Maintenance Tractors acre 35.56 1.00 35.56 Implements and irrigation acre 91.08 1.00 91.08 Interest on Operating Capital 334.72 Total Variable Cost 9,854.62 Fixed Cost Tractors acre 74.27 1.00 74.27 Implements acre 229.95 1.00 229.95 Total fixed cost 304.22 Land Charge acre 200.00 1.00 200.00 Total Specified Costs 10,158.84

Table 6.10. Returns to risk and management for matted-row strawberries, 2011. Yield (qt/A) Price ($/quart) 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,000 Breakeven Yield $1.50 -$1,970 -$1,539 -$1,107 -$676 -$245 9,568 $2.00 $530 $1,461 $2,393 $3,324 $4,255 4,431 $2.50 $3,030 $4,461 $5,893 $7,324 $8,755 2,883 $3.00 $5,530 $7,461 $9,393 $11,324 $13,255 2,137 $3.50 $8,030 $10,461 $12,893 $15,324 $17,755 1,697 $4.00 $10,530 $13,461 $16,393 $19,324 $22,255 1,408 Breakeven price $1.89 $1.76 $1.66 $1.58 $1.53 Prorated land preparation and planting costs included based on a productive life of 3 years. A 1-quart pulp box of strawberries weighs approximately 1.4 pounds. Chapter 6 ❦ Strawberries 73

Table 6.11. Summary of estimated costs per acre, 2011: planting year for strawberry plasticulture. Item Unit Price ($) Quantity Amount ($) Your Farm ($) Variable Cost Custom Soil test acre 10.00 1.00 10.00 Spread lime acre 12.20 1.00 12.20 Moldboard plowing acre 22.00 1.00 22.00 Spread dry fertilizer acre 9.85 1.00 9.85 Disking acre 17.90 2.00 35.80 Fertilizer and Lime 10-10-10 lb 0.21 300.00 63.00 Urea lb 0.25 75.00 18.75 Lime ton 14.50 2.00 29.00 Other Black plastic mulch ft 0.03 5,800.00 174.00 Drip tape ft 0.02 5,800.00 116.00 Strawberry plugs thsd 260.00 17.42 4,530.24 Overhead irrigation acre 200.00 1.00 200.00 Row covers ft 0.25 5,800.00 1,450.00 Vapam gal 11.00 27.30 300.30 Labor Seasonal hour 12.00 31.88 382.50 Operator hour 15.00 2.58 38.67 Diesel Fuel gal 3.50 37.61 131.63 Repairs and Maintenance Tractors acre 26.65 1.00 26.65 Implements and irrigation acre 56.96 1.00 56.96 Interest on Operating Capital 123.31 Total Variable Cost 7,730.86 Fixed Cost Tractors acre 55.92 1.00 55.92 Implements and irrigation acre 149.34 1.00 149.34 Total fixed cost 205.26 Land Charge acre 200.00 1.00 200.00 Total Specified Costs 8,136.12 74 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 6.12. Summary of estimated costs per acre, 2011: mature planting for strawberry plasticulture. Item Unit Price ($) Quantity Amount ($) Your Farm ($) Variable Cost Custom Pest scouting acre 35.00 1.00 35.00 Fertilizer Soluble 20-20-20 lb 1.90 60.00 111.00 Fungicides Abound gal 282.60 0.09 25.43 Captan 80W lb 6.99 6.00 41.94 Elevate 50WDG lb 45.55 3.00 136.65 Topsin-M 70WSB lb 11.84 1.00 11.84 Switch 62.5 WDG oz 4.80 14.00 67.20 Herbicides Gramoxone Inteon gal 32.83 0.09 3.10 Insecticides Agri-Mek oz 1.59 16.00 25.44 Brigade WSB lb 21.31 1.00 21.31 Endosulfan 3EC gal 35.75 0.33 11.89 Other Overhead irrigation acre 200.00 1.00 200.00 Plant analysis kit acre 25.00 1.00 25.00 Pulp boxes, 1 qt each 0.15 8,000.00 1,200.00 Tray, 1 qt each 1.35 1,000.00 1,350.00 Labor Seasonal hour 12.00 27.88 334.50 Operator hour 15.00 2.89 43.41 Berry harvest qt 0.75 8,000.00 6,000.00 Diesel Fuel gal 3.50 37.38 130.79 Repairs and Maintenance Tractors acre 26.93 1.00 26.93 Implements and irrigation acre 81.63 1.00 81.63 Interest on Operating Capital 183.66 Total Variable Cost 10,069.72 Fixed Cost Tractors acre 56.47 1.00 56.47 Implements acre 211.35 1.00 211.35 Total fixed cost 267.82 Land Charge acre 200.00 1.00 200.00 Total Specified Costs 10,537.54

Table 6.13. Returns to risk and management for plasticulture strawberries, 2011. Yield (qt/A) Price ($/quart) 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,000 10,000 Breakeven Yield $2.50 -$1,881 -$450 $982 $2,413 $3,844 7,314 $3.00 $1,119 $3,050 $4,982 $6,913 $8,844 5,420 $3.50 $4,119 $6,550 $8,982 $11,413 $13,844 4,306 $4.00 $7,119 $10,050 $12,982 $15,913 $18,844 3,571 $4.50 $10,119 $13,550 $16,982 $20,413 $23,844 3,051 $5.00 $13,119 $17,050 $20,982 $24,913 $28,844 2,663 $5.50 $16,119 $20,550 $24,982 $29,413 $33,844 2,362 Breakeven price $2.81 $2.56 $2.38 $2.23 $2.12 Prorated land preparation and planting costs included based on a productive life of 1 year. A 1-quart pulp box of strawberries weighs approximately 1.4 pounds. Chapter 6 ❦ Strawberries 75

Pests likely tips the balance, allowing these Dead plants and fallen leaves should be organisms to colonize the roots. removed and burned or buried. Several Information on individual diseases and Controls: Planting in well-drained and fungicides are effective for controlling insects is presented below, with cultural well-aerated soils such as those with gray mold. Bloom sprays are especially controls discussed in the text. Pesticide a high organic matter content (greater important and should be applied at early information is presented in tables that than 6 percent) is strongly recom- (5 to 10 percent) bloom and full bloom follow. Because it is important to avoid mended. Research found that black root 7 to 10 days later. A third spray may be buildup of resistant strains of fungi and rot incidence was reduced by using needed if excessively rainy conditions or insects, especially mites, activity groups raised beds. Avoid soil compaction and a prolonged season of bloom exists. (for rotational use to avoid buildup excessive irrigation. Mulching in order of resistant strains) of fungicides, and Common Leaf Spot (Birds-Eye Leaf to lessen winter injury, purchasing their efficacy on common diseases are Spot) disease-free plants, and rotating crops presented in Table 6.14, and activity Symptoms: Small, dark spots (1/8 to 1/4 for a minimum of 3 to 5 years are also groups and efficacy of insecticides and inch across) that develop white to gray factors in controlling black root rot. No miticides are listed in Table 6.15. Fungi- centers, which may fall out, leaving a fungicides are currently recommended cides, insecticides, and miticides that hole with a purple margin (Figure 6.3). for control. can be used to assist in management are Symptoms are most easily noticeable on given in Table 6.16, arranged by various Gray Mold (Botrytis Blight) leaves, but leaf petioles, runners, berry growth stages for the life cycle of the caps, and even berries can show them. Symptoms: Under rain-free conditions, crop. Pests are listed at the stages where a characteristic gray, fuzzy coating or Causal Agent: The fungus Mycosphaerella they are most likely to be problematic web develops on the fruit. Rot may first fragariae. or when treatment is most effective. appear at the base of the fruit or when Information in Table 6.16 should be Epidemiology: In the spring, new leaves the berry is in contact with the soil, supplemented with the reading below. are infected by spores that originate other damp surfaces, or other rotten Table 6.17 presents additional restrictions from overwintering leaves. Infection can fruit, and can destroy the berry within beyond preharvest intervals and reentry continue to take place anytime during 48 hours. Gray “fuzz” may be absent in intervals (REIs) that appear on the label. the year except during hot, dry weather. the field, but storing the fruit in a humid Controls: Any practice that encourages Diseases environment will cause it to become drying of foliage is helpful, as is removal apparent within 1 to 2 days. Black Root Rot of dead plants and leaves and mowing Causal Agent: Botrytis cinerea. Symptoms: An uneven “patchy” The fungus at renovation. Several fungicides are appearance in the strawberry bed. Epidemiology: Botrytis cinerea can live effective for control. as a parasite as well as a saprophyte on Usually, older plantings or replanted Leaf Scorch fields are affected. Plants become stunted decaying plant debris. This fungus is and produce few berries and runners. always present and the fruit rot starts Symptoms: Dark-red to purple spots Feeder rootlets disintegrate and struc- with a blossom infection that eventually on the leaves that gradually enlarge tural roots of the mother plant blacken invades the developing fruits, causing and may eventually merge to occupy and deteriorate, leaving a white core. them to rot. This is why timing bloom large portions of the leaves. Unlike with Brown lesions may be apparent on the sprays appropriately (see below) is common leaf spot, centers of the spots do normally white or tan roots. essential, particularly during a wet not fall out and remain a similar shade as the rest of the spot, though dead leaf Causal Agent: Several factors comprise bloom season since this prevents the tissue may dry and turn brown (Figure this “disease complex.” This complex is initial infection of the fungus into the 6.3). Lesions also develop on petioles associated with a number of pathogenic flower parts. As the disease progresses, and other aboveground portions, most soil fungi (most commonly Rhizoctonia spores are produced and are easily noticeably the caps. Severe cases of and Pythium species), lesion nematodes, blown or splashed onto healthy foliage. scorch reduce plant vigor and yields. environmental conditions (e.g., drought, Once the fungus becomes established, winter injury to the root system, and the it can produce spores continuously Cause: A fungus, Diplocarpon earlianum. throughout the growing season. freezing or water logging of the soil), Epidemiology: Leaf scorch is favored by nutrient deficiencies, fertilizer burn, Controls: Moisture is necessary for the long periods of leaf wetness and rain. pesticide injury, or a combination of all spores to germinate and infect plants, so The fungus can survive on both living of these factors. the disease is favored by high humidity and dead plant tissues and develops Epidemiology: Because this is a and relatively cool conditions. Therefore, under a wide range of temperatures. complex, a disease cycle is not as clear practices that help reduce humidity However, extremely hot (greater than as that of other diseases. Rhizoctonia and and increase air movement, such as 86°F), cold (less than 36°F), or dry condi- Pythium are present in nearly all unfu- controlling weeds and utilizing wider tions slow its development. spacing of rows and plants, help control migated soils, and poor plant health due Controls: Mowing and removal of gray mold. The fungus thrives on debris, to cultural or environmental conditions foliage at renovation interrupts disease so sanitation is essential for control. 76 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 progression. The disease is typically Leaf scorch worse in older plantings. Some cultivars are resistant (see Tables 6.3, 6.5, and 6.6). Any practice that promotes drying of foliage is helpful. Fungicides applied for control of leaf spot may be effective on leaf scorch (see Tables 6.14 and 6.16). Angular Leaf Spot Symptoms: Water-soaked lesions on the lower leaf surface contained between Common leaf Leaf blight small veins of the leaf. Small, light- spot green “blocks” on the leaf are apparent when the leaf is held up to the light and viewed. In severe cases, blocks of damaged tissue coalesce and die, making it difficult to differentiate this disease from other leaf spots. Symptoms accrue on older leaves. The fruit cap may turn brown or black while the berry otherwise appears normal. Under moist Figure 6.3. Common strawberry leaf diseases. conditions, the bacterium produces an exudate that, when dry, appears as a whitish, scaly film. The pathogen not tissue replaces damaged tissue following leaf spots, but eventually spots develop only infects the foliage and fruit crops renovation and periods of dry warm into purple, V-shaped lesions with a but can also invade the plant’s vascular weather. Cultivars vary in susceptibility, brown central area that can occupy system, causing a general decline. but none are resistant. Because this a large portion of the leaf. The wide Causal Agent: A bacterium, Xanthomonas disease is caused by a bacterium rather portion of the V is toward the edge of fragariae. than a fungus, fungicides have no effect. the leaf (Figure 6.3). This disease can Copper sprays applied early in destroy much of the foliage, especially Epidemiology: The disease originates the season at 7- to 10-day intervals or in late summer. Brown lesions also may in plant material from the nursery, but prior to expected wet spells may help, form on petioles, runner stolons, and symptoms may never develop until the but phytotoxicity becomes a concern fruit trusses, disrupting translocation plants are exposed to prolonged cold, with multiple sprays. Discontinue use and negatively affecting growth of these wet conditions. The bacteria that cause after four to five sprays or sooner if plants parts. Leaf blight may also infect angular leaf spot are systemic (i.e., phytoxicity symptoms appear. There is fruit caps, causing them to turn brown, cannot be eliminated from the plant). some indication that copper hydroxide as well as the fruit, causing phomopsis This bacterium overwinters in infected formulations may be more effective than soft rot. plants and dead leaves. Exudate from copper sulfate formulations. infected leaves can be splashed to unin- Causal Agent: The fungus Phomopsis fected plants by water. Young tissue is Other Leaf Spots obscurans (syn. Dendrophoma obscurans). easily infected. Temperatures just above Besides common leaf spot, leaf scorch, Epidemiology: The fungus overwinters freezing and moist conditions favor and angular leaf spot, other types of on old attached leaves. Splashing rain disease development. Thus, this disease leaf spots can infect cultivated straw- spreads inoculum early in the season. is most problematic in years or on sites berry and, often, wild strawberry Cultural Controls: Cultural controls where frequent or prolonged overhead species. These include black leaf spot consist of removing the older leaves frost protection is needed. (anthracnose leaf spot), septoria leaf through mowing at renovation to reduce spot, cercospora leaf spot, and alternaria Controls: Avoidance of this disease inoculum. Fungicides applied for other leaf spot. These leaf diseases are caused is currently almost impossible, as it leaf spots, in addition to those applied by different fungi and more than one appears that nursery stock is largely specifically for leaf blight, will help in type of leaf spot is usually present. infected. Since the bacteria prefer cool control. temperatures and wet conditions, such Usually, disease development is favored as those that occur when overhead by rain and warm, humid weather Leather Rot irrigation is used for frost protection, any conditions. Symptoms: Symptoms vary depending practice that minimizes the amount of Phomopsis Leaf Blight on fruit stage. On immature, green fruit, frost protection needed (site and cultivar infected areas appear dark brown or Symptoms: In the early stages, selection) and maximizes drying of normal green with a brown outline. On symptoms are very similar to those of foliage is recommended. Healthier leaf ripe, mature fruit, they appear bleached Chapter 6 ❦ Strawberries 77 and range in color from light lilac to aid in control. Removing overwintering Verticillium Wilt purple, or there may be no change in leaves may be of some benefit. Several Symptoms: Strawberry plants are most color. Infected fruits are characteristically fungicides provide control. susceptible in their first year of growth. tough and leathery, having a bitter taste. Red Stele The first symptoms appear rapidly in Fruit rot occurs when berries come in late spring, especially after periods of contact with the soil. A serious crown rot Symptoms: Plants showing above- environmental stress. The outer and can develop along with the fruit rot. ground symptoms frequently occur older strawberry leaves wilt and dry, in patches where the soil is wettest. Causal Agent: The soil-inhabiting turning a reddish yellow to a dark Symptoms depend on the severity of fungus Phytophthora cactorum. brown at the margins and between the root rotting. Severely diseased plants veins. The inner leaves remain green and Epidemiology: When weather condi- are stunted, the younger leaves turn a turgid until the plant dies. This symptom tions are warm and rainfall is abundant, blue green and the older ones turn red, helps to distinguish verticillium wilt the pathogen releases its spores into yellow, or orange. Plants eventually wilt from the root and crown diseases caused the soil. These infested soil particles are and die. As the number of diseased roots by Phytophthora species, in which both dispersed to the fruits by splashing rain increases, plant size, yield, and berry young and mature leaves wilt. or wind. The fungus attacks berries in size decrease. When a young, infected the field at all stages of growth. root is cut open lengthwise, the stele or Causal Agent: The soilborne fungus Controls: Practices such as mulching core above the rot is red. This diagnostic Verticillium alboatrum. with straw to keep the fruit off the symptom occurs when the soil is cool. As Epidemiology: Disease intensity may ground aid in minimizing rain splash the disease progresses, the lateral roots depend on fertilization practices and and help control leather rot. die, giving the main roots a “rattail” the amount of “residual” field inoculum appearance. from previous crops. Plants with lush Powdery Mildew growth owing to high nitrogen applica- Symptoms: Powdery mildew is most Causal Agent: The soil-inhabiting tions are more severely affected than often observed as a foliage disease, but fungus Phytophthora fragariae. plants receiving moderate amounts it also occasionally causes a serious fruit Epidemiology: Healthy roots are of nitrogen. Previous crops consisting rot. The pathogen can affect flowers infected by spores produced on other of solanaceous plants (e.g., tomatoes, and fruit in all stages of development. infected roots. Spores move through potatoes, eggplant, peppers) may have Flower parts may be invaded prior to the soil and penetrate the tips of roots, harbored the pathogen and caused a pollination, resulting in poor fruit set, growing within the root system. A few buildup of soil inoculum. It is advisable immature fruit becoming hard and not days after infection, roots begin to rot, not to plant a new strawberry bed ripening normally, and mature, ripe more spores are produced by the fungus following crops of this family. fruit being soft and pulpy and maybe within this rotted tissue, and eventually failing to color. When the fruit surface spores and rotted roots become incorpo- Controls: Planting resistant cultivars is affected, the mycelium may be seen rated into the soil. and disease-free plants will help control verticillium wilt. A rotation schedule of 3 primarily on seeds, which may loosen Controls: Red stele, or red core, is the to 5 years is also recommended. and easily rub off. In spring the fungus most serious disease of strawberries in sporulates on leaves, causing leaflets to areas of cool, moist soil conditions, espe- Anthracnose curl upwards along the edges. Lower cially heavy clay soils saturated with Symptoms: Anthracnose is a problem leaf surfaces may turn reddish or water during cool weather. The spores of mainly in rainy, warm harvest seasons. purplish and a powdery, “frosty” growth this pathogen can travel long distances It is especially troublesome in the of the fungus is often seen. in surface water, so it’s important to plasticulture production system with Causal Agent: The fungus Sphaerotheca maintain good drainage in strawberry susceptible cultivars such as Chandler. macularis. beds—a practice that also minimizes Symptoms of anthracnose fruit rot are runoff. In addition, soil compaction Epidemiology: The fungus causing light-brown spots on fruit that typi- should be avoided. Purchasing planting this disease is an “obligate parasite,” cally turn dark brown or black and then stock that has been inspected and meaning that it needs to reside in a enlarge. Flowers and flower buds can tested for P. fragariae, as well as planting living host for its survival. It can be also become infected and appear to dry disease-resistant cultivars, is recom- found overwintering in old but living out. The first symptom of anthracnose mended for control of this root rot. There leaves. Powdery mildew occurs on a crown rot is that plug plants fail to are several different strains of red stele wide range of hosts and almost every- grow following transplanting. However, fungi, and not all cultivars of straw- where strawberries are grown. Disease symptoms are often not apparent until berries marketed as “red stele resistant” development is more likely under the plants collapse or die, usually in the are equally resistant to all strains of conditions of high humidity and warm fall or spring following transplanting the pathogen. Ridomil and Aliette or temperatures. during warm weather. When the crown Phostrol aid in managing red stele (see is cut through lengthwise, a brownish, Controls: Planting resistant cultivars and Table 6.16). using adequate plant and row spacing horizontal V shape can be found, originating near the base of a petiole. Leaf 78 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 spots either resemble ink spots or appear Thus, the first step in nematode control tobacco ringspot viruses cause serious as irregular lesions at the tips or margins should be a diagnostic test to determine problems in raspberries, blackberries, of leaves, depending on the species which nematodes are present and what blueberries, and strawberries. As a causing the infection. On the runners their population levels are. A properly vector of plant disease, dagger nema- and petioles, lesions begin as small red collected soil sample can be sent to a todes, even in low numbers, can cause streaks and then turn dark, sunken, and nematode diagnostic lab for analysis. major problems in susceptible crops. elongated. Results will determine if the site is at Causal Agent: Several species in the Causal Agent: Several different Colletot- risk. See Chapter 1 and Appendix B for genus Xiphinema. information on sampling for nematodes. richum species cause the fruit rot, crown Epidemiology: Dagger nematodes feed rot, and/or leaf spot, as well as lesions Lesion Nematodes from outside of the roots, rather than on petioles and runners. Symptoms: Often, the first symptoms living within them. These organisms use Epidemiology: The primary source noticed are that the plants are small and specialized feeding mouthparts known of the disease inoculum is infected fail to make expected growth. Plants as stylets to penetrate the root, causing transplants from the nursery. The should be checked for small, dark lesions direct damage to the root and also plants normally do not show symptoms present on the roots as a result of the transferring viruses from plant to plant. until after being transplanted to the damage caused by nematode feeding, Survival and movement of the organism production field. Inoculum overwinters hence the name lesion nematode. As can is dependent on soil conditions. Dagger mainly in infected plants and plant be expected, higher populations result nematodes survive best and move most debris. The inoculum is primarily in increased damage to the planting, easily in soils low in organic matter, disseminated by splashing water. This causing stunted, weak plants that are while very wet or very dry soils are fungus needs plant tissue to survive, so predisposed to secondary root-rotting detrimental to them. the inoculum does not remain in the soil pathogens. This organism is implicated Controls: Nematodes must be controlled for long periods of time as with many in the disease complex known as black before the crop is planted. Cover other rots. root rot (see above). cropping with rapeseed as a biofumigant Controls: Mulching with straw and Causal Agent: While there are several over two successive years as part of using drip irrigation rather than species of root lesion nematodes, Prat- a rotation or growing two crops of overhead irrigation can decrease the ylenchus penetrans is most often asso- rapeseed within one year can be effective spread of inoculum. The use of raised ciated with black root rot of strawberries. (see Chapter 2 and Appendix A for beds on plastic mulch seems to increase additional information). Fumigation can Epidemiology: All stages of the life the incidence, possibly because of higher also be used prior to planting. cycle of lesion nematodes can be found microenvironment temperatures or in strawberry roots. P. penetrans attacks Insects, mites, and Molluscs because water drops bounce and splash nearly 400 species of plants including Managing insect pests is an important off the plastic. Immediate plowdown of both weed and crop hosts. Besides part of growing strawberries. The infected areas of a field, if occurring only directly causing damage to the plant numerous species of insects that attack in certain areas, may keep infection from by feeding, the injury sites on the roots strawberries may injure plants by occurring throughout the entire field. serve as open entry points for fungi to feeding on the leaves, flowers, buds, Several fungicides aid in control. invade the root tissue. roots, fruits, or crowns. Many important Nematodes Controls: Nematode problems, once pests are not easy to detect, such as Plant-parasitic nematodes are economi- well established, are difficult to control. root feeders (grubs and root aphids), cally significant pathogens on small Therefore, good nematode management nighttime feeders (cutworms, straw- fruit and cause a variety of problems. should focus on preventative measures. berry rootworms, and the adults of The symptoms of nematode damage In general, nematodes can be controlled most types of root weevils), or those may not be immediately obvious in by using fumigants (see Chapter 3). that are extremely small (cyclamen and new plantings; therefore, by the time Decisions regarding chemical control spider mites). However, their damage is the symptoms are noticed, it is usually options should be based on the site’s apparent, and they can devastate a crop too late for corrective measures to be history and the results of a nematode if left unmanaged. effective. Because of the insidious nature diagnostic test (see Appendix B). The current approach to managing of nematode problems, growers must pests is referred to as integrated pest be aware of the risk to new plantings Dagger Nematodes management (IPM). With IPM, control and the options available for nematode Symptoms: While dagger nematodes is achieved through understanding control. feed on the roots of plants, the main an insect’s biology and utilizing this Parasitic nematodes have sometimes concern is their efficiency as vectors of knowledge to determine optimum been called the “hidden enemy” in tomato ringspot and tobacco ringspot strategies. In many cases, using effective agriculture. Without diagnostic testing, viruses. Consequently, viral symptoms cultural practices allows the grower to their presence is often not evident until and/or poor growth are often the first avoid pest problems in the first place. it is too late for corrective measures. symptoms noticed. Tomato ringspot and When insecticides must be applied, the Chapter 6 ❦ Strawberries 79 grower applies them when they will be Life Cycle: Adults overwinter in base, giving the insects the appearance most effective and minimizes destruction protected places. They return to fields of having long necks. These insects of beneficial insects. about the time of bud burst and feed on are very furtive, quickly hiding under Insects in the following sections are all sorts of tender foliage and plant parts. fruit, mulch, or dead leaves when the divided by their feeding sites, which will Tarnished plant bugs often disperse into foliage is disturbed. It is likely that their help growers determine where to look strawberry plantations when weeds, presence is frequently unnoticed. for symptoms of damage or for the insect especially blooming broadleaves, or Life Cycle: Very little is published on itself. other crops (e.g., alfalfa) in surrounding this species. However, it is likely that areas are mowed or disked. Several Flower and Fruit Feeders the adults overwinter in nearby woods. generations occur each year—adults They are reported to frequently feed on Tarnished Plant Bug and Other True Bugs, and nymphs of all stages are found from seeds of St. Johnswort, goldenrod, and Lygus spp. (Heteroptera: Miridae) April until heavy frost in the fall. strawberry but also appear in lawns and Symptoms of Damage: Tarnished plant Monitoring and Controls: Growers gardens. bugs tend to feed on the seeds and should sample fruit clusters on a weekly Monitoring and Controls: Because these underlying fruit tissue at the tip of the schedule when fruit begins to form. insects feed on other types of seeds, young berries. Consequently, the tips do Shaking flower and fruit clusters over a their presence in strawberry plantings not expand, causing the injury known light-colored plate or sheet of paper will appears to be rather unpredictable. No as “button berry” or apical seediness. dislodge nymphs and allow them to be insecticides are labeled specifically for Although feeding from several plant seen more easily. Sample 30 to 50 flower this insect. However, materials with a bugs and the long-necked seed bug clusters throughout the field. Divide non-species-specific label can be used, causes similar symptoms, the tarnished the number of trusses sampled by the plus it is likely that insecticides applied plant bug appears to be the chief number of plant bug nymphs found. for other insects may make treatment for culprit. Small, underdeveloped berries When this number is 4 or less (i.e., if this insect alone rarely needed. may be caused by other factors, most there is more than one nymph per four notably poor pollination and cold injury. trusses on average), a spray is advisable. Strawberry Sap Beetle, Stelidota geminata However, poorly pollinated fruits will An insecticide application may also be (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae) not have developed seeds, while cold necessary if nymphs are present just Symptoms of Damage: Adult sap injury usually manifests itself as folding before bloom. For specific materials, see beetles bore into ripe or nearly ripe of the fruit, causing the seeds to be Table 6.16. Do not spray pesticides toxic fruit, making small holes usually where clumped on the side of the berry rather to bees during bloom (see Table 3.1 in the fruit touches the ground. When than at the tip. Chapter 3). According to research from disturbed, adult beetles quickly drop out Identification: The adult tarnished plant New England, the varieties least suscep- of the fruit and disappear into the mulch bug, about ¼ inch long, is brownish tible to plant bug injury are Canoga, layer or cracks in the ground, which marked with yellowish and black dashes Catskill, Honeoye, Sparkle, and Veestar. makes them easily missed, except at high and has a “brassy” appearance (Figure Darselect is very attractive to tarnished populations. 6.4). These insects are very active, taking plant bug. Later maturing cultivars and Identification: The adult strawberry to flight with the slightest disturbance. day-neutrals in late summer are more sap beetle is a small, brown, oval beetle This inconspicuous sucking plant bug severely affected as tarnished plant bug less than ⅛ inch long (Figure 6.5). In is a general feeder that attacks a wide populations increase. extremely overripe berries, another variety of cultivated and wild plants. Long-Necked Seed Bug, Myodocha serripes beetle, the picnic beetle (Glischrochilus (Hemiptera: Rhyparochromidae) quadrisignatus or G. fasciatus), may also Symptoms of Damage: Long-necked be found. The picnic beetle is larger and seed bugs, as their name indicates, feed on seeds, resulting in “button berry” or apical seediness. Symptoms are nearly identical to those of tarnished plant bug. See the above section on tarnished plant bugs for other possible causes of deformed berries. Infrequently, a large proportion of the fruit is affected by this insect.

Identification: The adult is about 3/8 Actual size: inch long and a varied shade of brown. Actual size: The most distinctive feature of these 1 ( /16 inch) 1 insects is their disproportionately itty- ( /4 inch) bitty head relative to their bodies. Their Figure 6.4. Tarnished plant bug adult. heads are slender and elongated at the Figure 6.5. Strawberry sap beetle adult. 80 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 usually has four orange blotches on its plowing down residue in these fields Monitoring and Controls: Vinegar traps back (Figure 6.6). soon after harvest removes potential can be used to detect whether adults Life Cycle: Sap beetles lay eggs in the breeding sites. A pesticide may be used, are present and thus when management but chemical control practices are not as steps should be taken, but they will fruit, and their small (⅛ to 3/8 inches long), white larvae may be seen in the effective against the hidden beetles and not trap sufficient numbers of flies fruit, hopefully not first by the consumer. larvae as cultural control practices. to make a difference in populations. Important cultural controls are to keep As the berries begin to ripen in May and Spotted Wing Drosophila, Drosophila suzukii June, adult sap beetles are attracted from Matsumura (Diptera: Drosophilidae) harvest intervals as short as possible and pick very cleanly. Cull fruit should their overwintering sites in nearby woods Symptoms of Damage: The first to the patch. They bore into ripe, nearly always be removed from the vicinity symptom typically noticed is the and destroyed. Composting the fruit ripe, or decaying fruit, and lay eggs. The presence of small, white larvae in larvae then feed on the fruit. Mature only allows spotted wing drosophila to otherwise marketable fruit. Day-neutral continue to multiply as decomposed larvae leave the fruit and burrow into the cultivars are much more likely to be soil to pupate briefly before emerging as fruit also serves as a food source. infested than June-bearing cultivars, as Insecticides that contain pyrethroids or a new generation of adults and moving to populations of spotted wing drosophila other crops. spinosyns as the active ingredient have are much higher in the fall than in early been effective and also have relatively Monitoring and Controls: Sap beetles summer. Tiny holes in the fruit made by short preharvest intervals. See Table are huge problems on farms where large oviposition wounds might be observed 6.15 for ratings. Because this pest has amounts of ripe fruit are left behind along with collapse of surrounding many generations per growing season, during harvest; therefore, they are often tissue. development of resistance to pesticides a larger problem in pick-your-own Identification: This pest is very similar is a very large concern. operations than in grower-harvested in size and shape to common vinegar Slugs (Mollusca) operations. Cultural controls consist of flies (also known as fruit flies). Distin- harvesting as much fruit as possible from guishing characteristics are that nearly Symptoms of Damage: While slugs are the field and collecting and destroying all males of spotted wing drosophila not insects, they can cause considerable unmarketable fruit. Do not plant more have a large, black wing spot just damage similar to insect damage. Slugs strawberry acreage than can be properly forward of the wing tip on each wing, of all sizes make small, moderately deep managed during harvest. Renovating and all males have two black bands (sex holes in ripening berries, which can be the field as soon as possible after harvest combs) on each front leg. This is the only almost anywhere on the fruit, although will destroy remaining uncollected fruit species to have these bands. Certain feeding usually takes place under the and disturb the pupating beetles in the other species of vinegar flies also have cap. As slugs move about they leave a ground. A heavy layer of mulch can also spots on their wings, but their spots trail of slime, which can be a tell-tale sign encourage sap beetle buildup. are either located right at the tip of the of their presence even after the trail has When other cultural practices wing or the spots are smaller. Females dried. Most of the feeding takes place at encourage a buildup of the sap beetle are distinguished from other vinegar fly night or on dark, overcast days; however, population, heavy damage can occur species by their large sawlike ovipositor. the Arion slug is very aggressive and has even when there is not an abundance Females have no spots on the wings or been seen feeding on bright, sunny days. of overripe fruit. Sap beetles attack bands on the legs. Most injury from slugs is encountered a succession of ripening fruits and during damp, rainy, spring months. vegetables such as sweet corn, brambles, Life Cycle: It is not known how well Identification:Slugs and snails, both cucumbers, peaches, melons, tomatoes, spotted wing drosophila adults will of which are mollusks, look alike in the grapes, and apples, so minimizing and survive the winters in this region. Even if they survive poorly, new flies could early stages, but slugs do not form a be readily introduced in fruit that is shell in their older stages. Slugs are ¼ to bought from other regions. Each female 8 inches long, depending on the species. can lay between 200 and 600 eggs. Eggs They vary in color from cream to grayish hatch in only 1 to 3 days, and larvae black, with some species being spotted. then feed in the fruit for 5 to 11 days Life Cycle: Slugs are favored by mulch before pupating either in the fruit or on in the field and are able to overwinter the ground for 4 to 15 days. It is thought in protected places beneath the mulch. that 8 or 9 generations may develop Eggs are laid in groups in cracks and per growing season in the Mid-Atlantic holes in the soil. Thus, the entire life Actual size: region. The number of generations will cycle may be completed in the straw- vary depending on temperatures. Very berry field. Slugs require 3 to 7 months high temperatures cause the males to to attain adulthood. 1 ( /4 inch) become sterile, and thus populations Monitoring and Controls: Slug control may drop during periods of hot summer begins with removing nesting and Figure 6.6. Picnic beetle adult. temperatures. Chapter 6 ❦ Strawberries 81 breeding places, such as boards, stones, Sowbugs/Pillbugs (Arthropoda: Crustacea) Strawberry Bud Weevil or Strawberry trash piles, and compost piles. Traps Clipper, Anthonomus signatus (Coleoptera: Symptoms of Damage: Sowbugs Curculionidae) made of wet boards or burlap bags typically are not a problem in straw- may be set in the evening. Remove berry production, feeding on dead or Symptoms of Damage: The stems of and destroy the trapped slugs in the decaying organic matter only. However, fruit buds are girdled and clipped by the morning. If slug damage is severe, a within the region sowbugs have been weevil, and the buds are left dangling in pesticide application may be necessary. observed as pests in high tunnel culture midair or lying on the ground. Flower Bait formulations usually provide or in field production where an organic petals may have a shot-hole appearance control where slugs are a problem. matter source may have transported when they open due to adult clippers Diatomaceous earth, a desiccant, may large populations of sowbugs into the feeding on pollen through the sides of also be applied. For smaller plantings, planting. Sowbugs burrow into and feed the blossoms prior to their opening. traps using beer in shallow cans have on strawberry fruit, typically where it Damage is generally worse in rows been effective when used repeatedly. is in contact with the ground. To date, near the woods. Some cultivars may compensate for clipper damage to Flower Thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) there have been no reported problems of sowbugs girdling plants, though this has primary berries by increasing size of Symptoms of Damage: Thrips feed been reported with other crops. later fruit. in and on the blossoms. They make Identification: This dark reddish-brown numerous, very shallow punctures on Identification: Sowbugs and pillbugs weevil is about 1/10 inch long, with the tender parts of the flowers from which are up to ¾ inch long, and have an head prolonged into a slender, curved they suck out plant juices. Injured elongated oval shape and no wings. snout about half as long as the body. Its blossoms drop off or the young berries They are commonly a grayish brown, back has two large black spots. may remain hard and brown, and fail to though the shade varies. Their bodies grow. Damage is more prevalent during consist of a overlapping plates, and Life Cycle: Adults overwinter in fence dry seasons. they have seven pairs of legs. They are rows and woodlots. They move into frequently found in damp places hiding strawberry fields around the end of Identification: Thrips are tiny, cigar- underneath mulch, dead foliage, or any April and feed on immature pollen. shaped insects that feed on flower parts. object that provides cover. Pillbugs can The female deposits a single egg inside Several species occasionally infest the roll up completely into a little ball when nearly mature flower buds, then girdles flowers of strawberries. The adults are disturbed, while sowbugs can only the bud and clips its stem so it hangs slender, winged, about 1/25 inch long, partially curl up. by a thread or falls to the ground. This and orange or yellow. Young thrips are process provides shelter for the egg smaller, wingless, yellowish, and active. Life Cycle: Individuals can live up to three years and reproduce at any time and developing larvae. The eggs hatch Life Cycle: Thrips breed on grasses and of the year but most commonly in the in about a week into white, legless weeds in spring, moving to strawberries spring. There can be one or two genera- grubs, which mature in 3 or 4 weeks. at blooming time. They insert their eggs tions per year. The female has a brood Adult weevils emerge from the buds in plant tissue at the base of flowers and pouch on her underside in which she in June, feed on the pollen of various in tender, new foliage. carries eggs for 3 to 7 weeks and young flowers, and then seek hibernating sites Monitoring and Controls: Thrips can be for an additional 6 to 8 weeks. in midsummer. Weevils remain in these easily scouted by placing 10 blossoms sites until the following spring. Only one Monitoring and Controls: Removal in a small, resealable plastic bag and brood appears each year. of hiding place and minimizing use of counting the thrips. Fewer than 100 mulches may be necessary. Allowing Monitoring and Controls: Mulches and thrips (10 per blossom) are not thought the soil to dry out to the extent possible full canopies may appeal to emerged to cause significant losses. Sprays should between plantings may help, as these adults, encouraging them to remain in be applied during the prebloom period creatures require high moisture levels the field, which causes successively more or during the night to minimize toxicity because they are crusteaceans and damage in succeeding years. Harvesting to bees and in a manner to optimize breathe with gills. In high tunnels, crops from a field for less than 3 years, coverage. Thrips seldom become so removing the plastic covering for the mowing leaves at renovation, and abundant that control is required. A winter may help, thus allowing the plowing under old beds immediately heavy infestation is necessary to reduce soil to freeze. Sluggo Plus, a bait with after harvest help lessen the chances of the set of fruit. If infestations are severe, active ingredients of iron phosphate and clipper damage. Starting shortly after an insecticide application may be spinosad, appears to give fairly good flower bud emergence when tempera- needed. Growers who use insecticides to control. tures are above 65°F, growers should control tarnished plant bug or straw- check their fields carefully for the first berry clipper typically have not had signs of clipped buds and perforated crops that have been affected by thrips. flower petals. Scouting should continue at least weekly until most flower buds have opened. Pay particular attention to fields near woods and hedgerows. 82 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Sample five separate 10-foot sections. color and take on a dusty appearance, Count the number of clipped buds, sometimes described as “bronzing.” noting whether they are still fresh and Feeding and egg deposition occur green or turned brown. Newly cut buds on the undersides of leaves, and fine mean the weevils are still active. Divide webbing may appear there. Because the total number of freshly cut buds the mites suck sap from the leaves and observed by the total number of linear can interfere with normal physiological Actual size: row feet inspected. If more than one processes such as sugar production, freshly cut bud per linear row foot is plants may become stunted and yield 1 ( /8 inch) found, a pesticide treatment is justified may be greatly reduced. Since mites (see Table 6.16 for specific recommenda- are small and feed on the undersides of Figure 6.7. Potato leafhopper adult. tions). Treatment of only the field border leaves, they may be overlooked until rows may be sufficient in some instances. the population is so large that serious If a spray application is made, check damage has occurred. mouth parts. Potato leafhopper adults again 7 days later. If one live clipper Identification: The eight-legged adult, or one freshly cut bud per foot of row and nymphs feed along veins on the about 1/50 inch in length, varies in color undersides of strawberry leaves. While is found, a second application may from pale greenish yellow to green and feeding, they plug the sap-conducting be needed. Established fields with no is usually marked with two dark spots. vessels, causing the leaves to become history of clipper injury or new plantings With the aid of a magnifying lens, nearly curled, stunted, and yellowed. Young may need either no clipper control or clear spherical mite eggs can also be seen. only one well-timed spray when the plants suffer the most, with injury above threshold is reached. resulting in short petioles and small, Life Cycle: These mites overwinter distorted leaves that bend down at right as mature, fertile females in protected Ground Beetles, Harpalus spp. and other places in the field. The length of the life species (Coleoptera: Carabidae) angles. With potato leafhopper damage, the leaves have roughly triangular, cycle varies with seasonal and weather Symptoms of Damage: These insects are chlorotic (yellowed) blotches at the leaf conditions but may be completed in normally considered beneficial because edges. about 2 weeks. Reproduction may be they attack and feed on such destructive continuous from early spring until late Identification: Adults are brownish to pests as cutworms and armyworms. fall. The female lays two to six eggs green insects about 1/8 inch long. With However, they will attack ripening per day up to about 70 eggs per mite. strawberries, the potato leafhopper, strawberries lying on the ground. The Eggs hatch in about 4 days, so there can Empoasca fabae (Harris), is the most skin of the injured fruit is broken and be 10 to 15 generations per year. Hot, common problem species (Figure 6.7). the entire surface is eaten on some dry weather favors rapid population Adults fly quickly when disturbed. berries. Examining the injured berries increases. Young nymphs are tiny, light green, and under a dissecting scope indicates that easily identified by the habit of moving Monitoring and Controls: Starting in the the beetles feed primarily on strawberry sideways. spring as soon as mulch or row covers seeds. are removed, examine the undersides Life Cycle: Potato leafhoppers are Identification:Ground beetles are hard of leaves weekly for mites using a 10x migratory and arrive in the Mid- shelled, black or brown beetles with hand lens. Overwintered twospotted Atlantic region from their southern nocturnal habits. During the day they spider mites will be reddish orange in overwintering grounds sometime in may be found under rocks and other color. Removing dead leaves early in the May. The timing of migration relies objects. spring helps with control. Plasticulture on the movement of weather fronts. plantings should also be checked before Life Cycle: There are many species of Leafhoppers attack a wide range of plant row covers are applied in the fall since ground beetles, with little known about species that include several fruits. their life cycles in general. the protected warm environment under Monitoring and Controls: Increased the row covers allows spider mite popu- Monitoring and Controls: Damage by pressure from leafhoppers in straw- lations to survive well over the winter. these insects is rare, so controls are not berries may be observed after the Spider mites have many natural enemies generally recommended just for this surrounding vegetation has been that often keep them in check, including pest, nor is routine monitoring needed. harvested or mowed. Apply an insec- insects and other mites. Insecticide treat- However, the symptoms of damage are ticide if leafhoppers become a problem. ments often cause spider mite outbreaks puzzling when they appear. by destroying these natural enemies. Spider Mites, Tetranychus spp. (Acari: Foliage Feeders Tetranychidae) Commercially available mite predators provide excellent control of Leafhoppers (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) Symptoms of Damage: At low popula- twospotted mite populations if released tions, a slight amount of fine stippling Symptoms of Damage: Leafhoppers are while spider mite populations are low. of the lower leaves is present. Heavily sucking insects that remove nutrients Cultural practices such as annual reno- from plants with their needlelike infested fields lose their healthy green Chapter 6 ❦ Strawberries 83 vation of strawberry beds reduces the Strawberry Rootworm, Paria fragariae of these insects occurs in a year in potential for twospotted mite outbreaks. (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) northern regions; two generations occur Cultivars vary in their tolerance or Symptoms of Damage: The most severe in southern regions. They are not usually resistance to mites. Honeoye is especially damage is caused by adult beetles eating seen during hot weather but appear with susceptible, as is Mesabi. Local growing holes in the leaves. When adults become cool weather in the fall. conditions greatly influence resistance. If abundant, leaves are riddled with holes Monitoring and Controls: Practicing more than 25 percent of inspected leaves and plants are sometimes killed. The clean culture is important because the have mites present, a sharp population larvae eat the rootlets. Heavy infesta- beetles prefer to feed and breed on rise is noted, or if plant symptoms tions reduce plant growth and runner certain weeds. worsen, then a miticide is needed. When formation. applying miticides, thorough coverage Strawberry Leafroller, Ancylis comptana Insect Identification: The strawberry is a must, so use plenty of water (at fragariae, and Other Leafrollers (Lepidop- rootworm is a shiny, oval beetle, usually tera: Tortricidae) least 100 gallons per acre) and pressure brown varying to black, with four darker high enough to treat the undersides of Symptoms of Damage: In the early blotches on the wing covers. It is slightly the leaves. To help manage resistance, stages, a larva may feed on either side more than 1/8 inch in length. miticides with different modes of action of a leaf. As the larva becomes larger, it should be alternated during subsequent Life Cycle: The beetles hibernate under usually feeds on the upper surface. Here, applications. Because these mites can mulch, in crevices in soil, or in other by means of fine, silken threads, it folds be borne by the wind in their silken protected places. They begin feeding the leaflet at the midrib and feeds inside webbing, newly planted fields can and laying eggs when warm weather this enclosure. Only the epidermis of become quickly infested. In certain fields arrives. Feeding punctures have been the leaf is eaten, but continuous feeding or areas within fields, “hot spots” of mite observed in May and gradually grow causes the entire leaflet to turn brown activity may develop. Early treatment of more numerous until mid-June. Eggs are and die. Sometimes two adjacent leaflets hot spots may be sufficient for control. laid during this period on older leaves are tied together and, in heavy infesta- near the ground. As the larvae hatch, tions, an entire leaf or even several Strawberry Whitefly, Trialeurodes packardi they burrow into the ground up to 6 leaves may be webbed together. Some- (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) inches, where they feed on plant roots times newly formed leaves are attacked Symptoms of Damage: The nymphs for about 2 months. Adults of the first and webbed together before they unfold. secrete a sweet, sticky substance generation have been observed in July, This type of damage may be seen during known as honeydew, which collects with continued emergence throughout late May and in June when first-gener- on the leaves and serves as an ideal August. The newly emerged beetles feed ation larvae are abundant. The same medium for the growth of sooty mold. extensively on the foliage of strawberries damage is caused by larvae of the second This fungal growth gives the plants a in early fall. generation in late July and August. black appearance and the foliage may Monitoring and Controls: To be sure Insect Identification: The adults are lose vitality and decay. In addition, that this pest is the one causing leaf reddish-brown moths that have a honeydew on leaves during harvest can perforation, examine the field after dark wingspread of about ½ inch. Strawberry result in an unpleasant stickiness. with a flashlight. Populations are easier leafrollers are the caterpillars (larvae) Insect Identification: The adult is a to detect from mid-July into the fall. of moths. Young larvae are usually pale small (1/16 inch), white, four-winged Ten to twenty beetles per square foot is green but change to gray brown as they flylike insect. considered quite high. Foliar feeding become fully grown, reaching about ½ Life Cycle: This species overwinters in late summer and fall is usually more inch long. No special markings or distin- as an egg attached to the underside of severe than that observed in spring. guishing characteristics are present. Larvae change into yellowish-brown a leaf by a short stalk. The egg hatches Flea Beetle, Altica ignita (Coleoptera: into a pale-green, louselike insect that Chrysomelidae) pupae, which remain inside the folded crawls over the leaf, punctures it with leaf until ready to emerge as moths. Symptoms of Damage: Adults and its bristlelike mouthparts, and feeds on Other leafrollers such as the oblique- larvae feed on leaves, flowers, and the sap. It soon takes on the appearance banded and the variegated leafroller young fruit, but the symptom most of a scale insect. About a month after may also be a problem. frequently noticed is damaged leaves egg hatch, the adult emerges to begin a Life Cycle: Two or more generations riddled with small holes. new brood. The insects are often most may occur each year. The time required abundant later in the season. Insect Identification: The adults are for the second generation to complete shiny, greenish metallic bronze jumping Monitoring and Controls: If nymphs its development is somewhat shorter beetles about 1/6 inch long. Mature are abundant in the spring, a need for than that of the first generation because larvae are hairy, about 3/16 inch long, and control is indicated. The insecticidal soap of higher daily temperatures. First- dull yellowish to dark olive green. M-Pede provides effective control of generation moths are active from about whitefly populations without seriously Life Cycle: The adults hibernate in April to June, and second- and third- disturbing the natural enemy complex. winter and appear in spring to lay eggs generation moths are present from July on strawberry foliage. One generation 84 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 through late September. First-generation on roots until the soil temperatures cool and malformed when they emerge. A moths deposit small, translucent eggs on and then remain dormant until spring. damaged plant takes on a characteristi- the foliage of strawberries, usually on Monitoring and Controls: When cally “flat” appearance. Foliar symptoms the undersides, about mid-May. numerous, adults can be controlled with are sometimes mistaken for herbicide Monitoring and Controls: Strawberry the use of broad-spectrum insecticides, damage. Later, the mite feeds on the leafrollers are very susceptible to though growers should watch for spikes blossoms and causes a distortion of the attack by various hymenopterous and in twospotted spider mite populations fruits. Infested plants usually become dipterous parasites, which usually keep following application. Entomopatho- unproductive within a season. their populations below economic levels. genic nematodes are effective for larvae, Insect Identification: This mite is so tiny Although these parasites vary greatly in but they have a limited shelf life and (1/100 of an inch) that it is nearly invisible abundance from season to season, they must be applied strictly according to to the unaided eye. Magnification at have been responsible for controlling directions. 20x or greater eases identification. leafrollers when there are two or fewer The cyclamen mite is white to caramel Stem and Crown Feeders larvae per plant. This insect rarely causes colored in its adult stage and milky serious damage in the region. If insecti- Meadow Spittlebug, Philaenus spumarius white in its immature stage. Eggs are cides are needed, apply during the early (Homoptera: Cercopidae) clear and oval shaped. larval stages, usually mid- to late May. Symptoms of Damage: Most noticeable Life Cycle: Adult females overwinter Products containing Bacillus thuringiensis are spittle masses on plants that can in crowns and at the bases of petioles of (e.g., Dipel) provide good control of deter harvesters. The spittle masses first leaves. Immature development may be young larvae, do not disturb the natural appear on the stems and leaves at about completed in less than 2 weeks, making enemy complex, and are safe for bees. the time of bloom. Spittlebugs have a rapid population increase possible. Good coverage is critical for Bacillus sharp beaks, which they use to pierce the Populations begin to rise in April when thuringiensis products to be effective. stems of plants and suck the plant juices. blossoming starts and peak during Japanese Beetle, Popillia japonica Newman Feeding activities of large numbers of fruiting. A sharp decline occurs during (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) these insects cause plants to become July and August, and a second lower stunted and berries to fail to attain full Symptoms of Damage: Adults are peak occurs near the end of September. size. typically only a concern when foliage Monitoring and Controls: Cyclamen feeding reaches high levels on June- Insect Identification: Meadow mites may be killed by hot, dry summers bearing plants since the beetles typically spittlebug nymphs are small, orange to in some areas and may also be held are not found in high numbers until green insects enclosed in white, frothy, in check by predators. In establishing after the harvest season has passed. irregular masses ½ inch or more in a new planting, using plants free of However, on day-neutral strawberries, diameter. cyclamen mites is important. After the Japanese beetles have bored into green Life Cycle: The insect overwinters as mite becomes established, control is fruit, causing up to 40 percent loss on an egg. Nymphs appear in May or June difficult and may be more of a problem individual harvest dates. A well-known and complete their development in 5 in plantings maintained over longer pest of fruits and ornamentals, Japanese to 8 weeks. The insects first feed at the periods of time. Localized populations beetles feed on more than 275 host base of the plants but later move up of this pest can be spot treated with plants. Adults that fall into harvest to the more tender foliage. Egg laying pesticides. Use high water volumes (200 containers burrow toward the bottom occurs primarily during September and gallons per acre) when spraying. Use of of the container and can be found as October. Eggs are inserted into the lower some broad-spectrum insecticides may nuisance insects in the sold product. parts of the strawberry plant. Only one cause increases in cyclamen mite popula- Larvae cause damage to roots as part of generation appears each year. tions by killing their predators. the white grub complex (see below). Monitoring and Controls: Control Strawberry Aphid, Chaetosiphon spp. Identification: Adults are just under may be indicated if nymphs (without (Homoptera: Aphididae) ½ inch long and are metallic green to frothy masses) are present when the first Symptoms of Damage: Heavy feeding bronze with some coppery red color on blossom clusters separate. An insecticide can cause leaf distortion; however, virus the wings. Larvae are C-shaped, white spray may be applied before bloom transmission is the main concern. Aphids grubs that feed on the root system. when two or more spittle masses are suck the nutrient-rich juices from plants Life Cycle: One generation occurs per found per foot of row. Weedy fields are and cause weak vegetative growth and year. Grubs that overwinter in the soil more heavily attacked. lower yields. While feeding, aphids pupate in late May with adults emerging Cyclamen Mite, Steneotarsonemus pallidus excrete large quantities of honeydew, from mid-June through mid-July. Adults (Acari: Tarsonemidae) similar to whiteflies. will live for 30 to 45 days and can be Symptoms of Damage: The cyclamen Insect Identification: Aphids are small, found throughout the summer. Females mite feeds on the young, unfolding slow-moving, green insects. Winged lay approximately 50 eggs in the soil, leaves in the crown of the plant, which forms are found in the spring and fall. which hatch after 2 weeks. Larvae feed causes them to appear stunted, crinkled, Chapter 6 ❦ Strawberries 85

Life Cycle: Aphids pass the winter on about 3 months. The adults remain in are small and metallic green, differ from the undersides of old leaves lying on the upper 6 inches of soil until extreme the species of root weevils listed above the soil. Winged forms first appear in dryness or cold weather drives them in that adults can fly and are active spring and may be found through May deeper into the soil. Their entire life cycle during the day. Root weevil larvae have and June. Wingless females, the most (1 to 2 years) is spent in the soil. no legs, distinguishing them from white common form, are white at first and Monitoring and Controls: Controlling grubs, which have three pairs. later become greenish white to yellow. symphylans before or at the time Life Cycle: Black vine weevils overwinter During the growing season most aphids of planting is best. To check for in the soil as immature, legless, ¼- to are found feeding on new shoots and symphylans, turn over at least 10 shov- ½-inch long, C-shaped white grubs. buds, the undersides of young leaves, elfuls of soil. Sift the soil while looking Mature grubs form resting (pupal) and petioles. for active symphylans. An average of cells in the soil in early spring. Adults Monitoring and Controls: Because one symphylan per shovelful signals usually emerge during late May through virus transmission is the main concern, that a treatment is necessary before mid-June. Black vine weevils require eliminate all wild strawberries from planting. If symphylans are abundant, 30 to 60 days to feed on foliage before fence rows and neighboring fields. an insecticide should be broadcast and producing as many as 500 eggs over Look for signs of aphid activity on the incorporated into the soil of the infested a period of 14 to 21 days in July and undersides of young leaves and new area before planting takes place. August. Eggs are laid in the soil near the shoots in spring, after harvest, and in the bases of host plants. They hatch in 10 to Root Weevils (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) fall. Where virus diseases are a problem, 14 days into small, white grubs that feed aphids should be controlled. Symptoms of Damage: Adults of all until fall temperatures drive them deeper species eat notches in the leaves, but this into the soil, where they overwinter. Only Root Feeders injury is not significantly detrimental to one generation of the pest occurs per year Garden Symphylan, Scutigerella immacu- the plant. Larval or grub feeding on the in the region, though some adults may lata (Symphyla) roots is highly destructive to plants from survive the winter and continue to lay midsummer through fall and into early Symptoms of Damage: Garden eggs. spring. At first grubs feed on feeder roots symphylans feed on the roots of straw- Monitoring and Controls: Sprays may and then move early in spring to the large berry plants, weakening or killing them. be directed toward adults while they roots, sometimes completely girdling Infestations seldom encompass an entire are feeding aboveground but before them. Injured plants look stunted and field but rather involve one or more egg laying commences; however, this is darker, and symptoms on above-ground small areas. Usually, the first indication seldom completely effective. Evening portions can look similar to those that of a symphylan infestation is a small sprays are more likely to be effective. Old might be caused by a root rot. area of stunted, unhealthy plants. Crop plantings may be destroyed and plowed losses continue in the same area of the Insect Identification: Several species of under, but to avoid mass migration of field year after year, with the infected root weevils attack strawberries. In the adults to new fields, leave a row or two area increasing in size by about 10 to 20 Mid-Atlantic region, the species most of the old planting as a trap crop in which feet each year. frequently cited is the black vine weevil the adults can lay their eggs. Then plow (Otiorhynchus sulcatus Fabricius), but Insect Identification: Symphylans under these rows in late fall or early the strawberry root weevil (O. ovatus L.) are not insects but are more closely winter and plant rye. Recently, thia- and rough strawberry root weevil (O. related to centipedes and millipedes. methoxam became available to control rugostriatus Goeze) are also implicated. Symphylans have 12 pairs of legs and larvae, but control has varied, perhaps Green leaf weevils have been present in 14 body segments. Mature symphylans due to uncertainty concerning the most large numbers in a few areas, mostly in are white, slightly less than ¼ inch in effective time to apply the material. northwestern Pennsylvania or in fields length, and have a pair of long, beaded Insecticidal nematodes may be used bordered by woods. Adults of black antennae. for controlling root weevils on straw- vine weevil are black, flightless, about berries. Heterorhabditis bacteriophora and Life Cycle: Symphylans overwinter in 3/8 inch long, and have a pronounced Heterorhabditis marelatus have been used the soil as adults. In spring they move nose or snout. The black vine weevil has successfully against black vine weevil into the top 6 inches when the soil small golden tufts of scales on its pitted larvae feeding on strawberry crowns temperature rises above 45°F. Eggs are wing covers. All adults are females and and roots. Insecticidal nematodes must deposited in soil crevices and tunnels are active night feeders. When disturbed be protected from extreme air and soil in late April, May, and June. The eggs they drop quickly to the ground. During temperatures (soil temperatures should hatch 2 to 3 weeks later into tiny, white daylight hours adults hide in dark places be between 60 and 85°F) and they require nymphs that resemble the adults in on stems of very dense plants or in moist soil (irrigate before and after appearance except that they have only ground litter and mulch. Strawberry root applying) to obtain larval control. Failing 6 pairs of legs. As the nymphs develop, weevil and rough strawberry root weevil to follow package recommendations may they grow bigger and add a pair of legs are also black and vary from 3/16 to 3/8 result in little or no control. at each molt until they have 12 pairs. inch in length. Green leaf weevils, which Development from egg to adult requires 86 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

White Grubs (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) Strawberry Root Aphid, Aphis forbesi (Homoptera: Aphididae) Symptoms of Damage: Damage is most likely to occur when strawberries Symptoms of Damage: Infested plants are planted on newly plowed sod that are characterized by a lack of vigor, had been infested with grubs. Grubs unnaturally pale foliage, and immature feed on the roots of strawberry plants or desiccated fruit. Second-year plants and either kill or severely weaken rarely suffer as much damage as new them. The most severe damage plantings because they are well estab- usually occurs between the time of lished and have many more roots to planting and runner development. support the population. Insect Identification: White grubs can be Insect Identification: Bluish-green the larvae of Japanese beetles, oriental insects feeding on new leaves or roots. beetles, and May beetles or “June bugs.” Life Cycle: In autumn, females deposit See the description above for Japanese their shiny black eggs on the stems and beetles, and Oriental beetle in the blue- leaves of strawberry plants. The eggs berry chapter for identification of those hatch early the following spring and species. Larvae of May beetles are large, the young, bluish-green nymphs feed thick bodied, and dirty white. When on newly developed strawberry leaves. fully grown, they range from about 1 to When the aphids become abundant, 1½ inches in length. When dug from the they are soon found by ants, which ground, the larvae always lie in a curved carry them to strawberry roots. Here the position that forms the letter “C.” May aphids feed by sucking the sap from root beetles are dark brown and vary from tissues. The ants also take aphids from ½ to 7/8 inch in length. They are often one plant to another, thus spreading attracted to lights and can sometimes be the infestation. In return the ants feed seen in considerable numbers around on a sugary excretion produced by the street lights during May. The beetles aphids. A number of generations of remain concealed near the soil during wingless females are produced during the day, but at dusk they emerge and fly the summer. Under favorable condi- to ornamental and forest trees to feed. tions, growth may be completed in as They return to the soil just before dawn. little as 2 weeks, after which the females Life Cycle: Eggs are deposited 1 to are soon capable of giving birth to 50 or several inches deep in the soil. They are more living young. When cold weather apparently deposited most abundantly approaches in the fall, winged forms in sod that has not been disturbed for again appear and move from the roots to years, although they occur in almost any the foliage. soil porous enough to permit female Monitoring and Controls: When beetles to crawl into it. Eggs hatch in 2 preparing ground for a new strawberry to 4 weeks. Tiny larvae feed largely on planting, make a thorough and deep vegetable matter in the soil for the rest cultivation early in the spring to help of the first season. When cold weather destroy ant colonies. This will reduce comes, most species of white grubs the chances of a root aphid infestation. burrow below the frost line and remain Other cultural practices include not there until the following spring. Grubs planting strawberries in light sandy soil spend all of the next summer feeding after corn or melons, keeping plants in a on the roots of plants. Depending on vigorous growing condition and irri- species, the life cycle may be complete in gating if possible, practicing rotation, and one year or as many as three. destroying infested strawberry beds and Monitoring and Controls: Avoid volunteer plants. planting strawberries on newly plowed grassland. Danger of insect damage can (Text continued on p. 102) be reduced by rotating crops and cleanly cultivating the crop that precedes strawberries. If necessary, a soil treatment of insecticide may be used, especially on land recently in sod. Chapter 6 ❦ Strawberries 87

Table 6.14. Activity groups and effectiveness of fungicides for strawberry disease control. Not all fungicides listed below are labeled for all the diseases listed. This table is intended to provide information on effectiveness for diseases that appear on the label, plus additional diseases that may be controlled from application. See Table 6.16 for labeled uses. Products that are mixes of two active ingredients contained in products below are not listed; activity would be expected to be similar to that of a tank mix if rates of active ingredient applied are similar to those that would be applied in a tank mix. Phomopsis Angular Powdery Anthracnose Fungicide Activity Groupa Leaf Blight Leaf Spot Leaf Scorch Leaf Spot Mildew Gray Mold Fruit Rot Leather Rot Abound 11 +b + — 0 ++ + ++ +++ Aliette 33 0 0 — 0 0 0 0 +++ Cabrio 11 ++ ++ ++ 0 ++ ++ +++ +++ Captan M ++ ++ ++ 0 0 ++ ++ + Captevate 17+M + + ++ 0 0 +++ ++ + Copper M 0 0 0 + 0 0 0 0 Elevate 17 0 0 — 0 0 +++ 0 0 Evito 11 — — — — ++ — ++ — Flint 11 — — — — ++ — — — Orbit, Tilt 3 — ++ — 0 +++ 0 0 0 Ph-D 19 — — — — — + — — Phostrol 33 0 0 — 0 0 0 0 +++ Pristine 7+11 ++ +++ +++ 0 +++ +++ +++ +++ Procure 3 — 0 — 0 +++ 0 0 0 Quintec 13 0 0 — 0 +++ 0 0 0 Rally 3 +++ ++ +++ 0 +++ 0 0 0 Ridomil Gold 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 +++ Rovral 2 + + + 0 0 +++ 0 0 Scala 9 0 0 — 0 0 +++ 0 0 Syllit M ++ ++ ++ 0 — — — — Switch 9+12 0 + ++ 0 0 ++ ++ 0 Thiram M ++ ++ ++ 0 0 ++ + + Topsin-M 1 ++ ++ +++ 0 +++ +++ 0 0 a. Chemistry of fungicides by activity groups: 1 = benzimidazoles and thiophanates; 2 = dicarboximides; 3 = demethylation inhibitors (includes triazoles); 4 = acylalanines; 7 = carboxamides; 9 = anilinopyrimidines; 11 = strobilurins; 12 = phenylpyrroles; 13 = quinolines; 17 = hydroxyanilides; 19 = polyoxins; 33 = unknown (phosphonates); M = chemical groups with multisite activity. Fungicides with two activity groups listed contain active ingredients from two activity groups. b. 0 = not effective; + = slight effectiveness; ++ = moderate effectiveness; +++ = very effective; — = insufficient data. This table is modified from Table 6, Fungicide Effectiveness for Strawberry Disease Control, in the 2012 Midwest Commercial Small Fruit and Grape Spray Guide. 88 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 6.15. Activity groups and effectiveness of insecticides, miticides, and molluscides on strawberry pests. Not all insecticides listed below are labeled for all the insects listed. This table is intended to provide information on effectiveness against insects that appear on the label, plus additional insects that may be controlled from application. See Table 6.16 for labeled uses. Products that are mixes of two active ingredients contained in products below are not listed; activity would be expected to be similar to that of a tank mix if rates of active ingredient applied are similar to those that would be applied in a tank mix. Activity Cyclamen Leaf- Leaf- Adult Root Sap Spider Spittle- Spotted Wing Tarnished White Pesticide Groupa Aphids Clipper Mite hoppers rollers Weevils Slugs Beetles Mites bug Drosophila Plant Bug Grubs Acramite un —b — — — — — — — +++ — — — — Actara 4A +++ — — +++ — — — — — — — ++c — Admire Pro 4A +++ — ++ +++ — — — — — — — — +++ AgriMek 6 — — ++ ++ — — — — ++ — — — Assail 4A ++ — — +++ + — — + — — — ++ — Aza-Direct un — — — + + — — — — — — — — Brigade 3 +++ +++ — ++ ++ ++ — +++ + +++ +++ +++ — Coragen 28 — — — — +++ — — — — — — — — Courier 16 — — — + — — — — — — — — — Danitol 3 ++ +++ — ++ ++ ++ — ++ + +++ +++ +++ — Deadline — — — — — — — +++ — — — — — — Diazinon 1B +++ — + + ++ + — ++ + ++ +++ + ++ Dibrom 1B ++ — — — — — — ++ — — — — — Dipel 11 — — — — ++ — — — — — — — — Esteem 7 ++ — — — ++ — — — — — — — — Intrepid 18 — — — — +++ — — — — — — — — Kanemite 20 — — ++ — — — — — ++ — — — — Kelthane un — — ++ — — — — — ++ — — — — Lorsban 1B ++ +++ — — ++ — — — — — — ++ ++ Malathion 1B +++ — — ++ — — — + — ++ +++ ++ — M-Pede — ++ — — — — — — — + — — — — Oberon 23 — — — — — — — — ++ — — — — Platinum 4A +++ — — +++ — — — — — — — — — Portal 21 — — +++ — — — — — +++ — — — — Provado 4A +++ — — +++ — — — — — — — — — Pyganic 3 + — — — — — — — — — ++ — — Radiant 5 — — — — +++ — — — — — — — — Rimon 15 — — — — +++ — — + — — — — — Savey 10 — — — — — — — — +++d — — — — Sevin 1A +++ + — ++ + — — ++ — ++ + ++ — Sluggo — — — — — — — +++ — — — — — — Spintor, Entrust, 5 — — — — +++ — — — — — +++ — — Success Synapse 28 — — — — +++ — — — — — — — — Thionex 2A +++ 0 +++ ++ + — — + — +++ + +++ — Vendex 12B — — — — — — — — ++ — — — — Zeal 10 — — — — — — — — +++d — — — — This table is modified from Table 7: Effectiveness of Pesticides for Control of Strawberry Insects and Mites in the 2012 Midwest Commercial Small Fruit and Grape Spray Guide. a. Chemical activity group or subgroup: 1A = carbamates; 1B = organophosphates; 2A = chlorinated cyclodienes; 3 = pyrethrins and synthetic pyrethroids; 4A = neonicotinoids; 5 = spinosyns; 6 = avermectins; 7 = juvenile hormone mimics; 10 = mite growth inhibitors with unknown or nonspecific sites of action; 11 = Bt microbials; 12B = organotin miticides; 15 = benzoylureas; 16 = chitin biosynthesis Inhibitor, type 1;18 = ecdysone agonists/molting disruptors; 20 = Site II electron transport inhibitors; 21 = Mitochondrial complex I electron transport inhibitors; 23 = lipid synthesis inhibitors; 28 = anthranilic diamides; un = unknown mode of action. b. 0 = not effective; + = slight effectiveness; ++ = moderate effectiveness; +++ = very effective; — indicates that insufficient data exists to rank effectiveness of this insecticide or miticide on these pests. c. Moderate effect on nymphs, but little or no effect on adults. d. Effective on eggs and immatures, but has little or no effect on adults. Chapter 6 ❦ Strawberries 89

Table 6.16. Pesticides for strawberry disease and insect control. Note: The recommendations below are correct to the best of our knowledge. Other formulations with the same active ingredient as some of the products listed below may exist and may or may not be labeled for the same uses. Always consult the label before making pesticide applications. Read the text for information on cultural practices to minimize pest incidence. If control cannot be achieved with a particular material, it is possible that resistant populations exist. Use a material in a different activity group, which will have a different mode of action. See Table 3.2 for use status, chemical names of active ingredients, and reentry intervals. See Table 3.1 for toxicity to nontarget organisms, and Tables 6.14 and 6.15 for activity groups and efficacy ratings to help determine products that best suit your situation. See Table 6.17 for other use restrictions such as quantity allowable per season. Information was current as of July 1, 2012. Pest Timing of Treatment/Comments Product Labeled Rate/A (Days to Harvest) BEFORE PLANTING Insects White grubs These subterranean arthropod pests should be controlled before planting. Lorsban 4E, 2 qt (prebloom, 21) Never plant strawberries in newly turned earth, especially after sod. Before planting strawberries, plant nonpreferred cover crop for two years, or apply insecticide. Do not apply Lorsban after berries start to form or when berries are present. Root weevil (larvae) Parasitic nematodes (Heterorhabditis bacteriophora) should be applied Parasitic nematodes, 1–2 billion per acre during evening or early morning, and when soil is moist to increase likelihood of successful colonization. Nematodes Dagger or lesion nematodes No nematicides are available for sale as of this writing. Sales of Nemacur were prohibited after May 31, 2008. Existing stock may be used until depleted. Fumigation can also be used for control. See Chapter 3 and discussion in this chapter for additional information. AT PLANTING Diseases Red stele As a preplant dip of the crowns and roots for 15–30 minutes. Plant within Aliette WDG, 2.5 lbs/100 gal of solution (0.5), or 24 hours after dipping. Phostrol, 2.5 pt/100 gal of solution (—) Insects Aphids, whiteflies, grubs, Just prior to or during transplanting as a plant material or plant hole Admire Pro, 10.5–14 fl oz (14), or strawberry root weevil, treatment. Admire and Platinum are systemic. See label for additional Platinum, 5.0–12.0 fl oz (50) leafhoppers information. ESTABLISHMENT YEAR Diseases Leaf spot As symptoms appear. Fungicides applied for common leaf spot may assist Captan 50W, 3–6 lb (0) or Captec 4L, 1.5–3 qt (0), or with control of other leaf spotting diseases such as scorch and blight. Rally 40W, 2.5–5.0 oz (0), or For resistance management, do not make more than two sequential Cabrio EG, 12–14 oz (0), or applications of strobilurin (group 11) fungicides. Note that for products Pristinea, 18.5–23 oz (0) containing captan, the REI is 24 hr. Leaf blight As symptoms appear. Few fungicides are labeled for this use. Fungicides Rally 40W, 2.5–5.0 oz (0) applied for leaf spot may give some control. Powdery mildew As symptoms appear. See footnote “b” below concerning severe toxicity of Aboundb, 6.2–15.4 oz (0), or Abound to McIntosh, Gala, and related apple cultivars. Abound, Cabrio, and Cabrio EG, 12–14 oz (0), or one of the active ingredients in Pristine are in the same chemical class, and Rally 40W, 2.5–5.0 oz (0), or cannot be rotated with each other for resistance management purposes. Pristinea, 18.5–23 oz (0), or Do not make more than two sequential applications of fungicides from this Procure 480SC, 4–8 fl oz (1), or activity group. See fungicide efficacy table for classes of fungicides. Evito 480SC, 2.0–5.7 fl oz (1), or Flint, 2.0–3.2 fl oz (0), or Quintec, 4–6 fl oz (1), or Orbit, 4 fl oz (0), or Tilt, 4 fl oz (0)

continued 90 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 6.16. Pesticides for strawberry disease and insect control, continued. Pest Timing of Treatment/Comments Product Labeled Rate/A (Days to Harvest) Insects and Mites (unless blossoms have not been removed and are open) Spider mites Savey and Zeal are effective on eggs and immatures, but not adults, and Agri-Mek 0.15EC, 16 fl oz (3), or therefore must be used when mite populations are low. Brigade and Danitol Acramite 50WS, 0.75–1.0 lb (1), or are also labeled for spider mites but must be used at high rates with good Oberon 2SC, 12–16 fl oz (3), or coverage when applied for spider mites, or they may decrease predatory Vendex 50WP, 1.5–2.0 lb (1), or mite numbers without controlling spider mites. Releases of predatory Kanemite 15SC, 21–31 fl oz (1) or mites can also give good results. See text for additional information on this Portal, 2 pt (1), or subject, and Table 3.1 for toxicity of insecticides to predatory mites. Athena Athena, 13.5–17 fl oz (3), or is a premix of a miticide and insecticide that may be used when control of Savey 50DF, 6 oz (3), or common insect pests is also needed. Zeal, 2–3 oz (1) Spittlebugs Spittlebugs are frequently a larger problem in weedy fields. Good weed Thionex 3EC, 1.33 qt or 50WP, 2 lb (12) perennial control will discourage large populations of spittlebugs from establishing strawberries only (see comments), or in the planting. Thionex use is being phased out. Thionex may not be used Provado 1.6F, 3.8 fl oz (7), or on annual (plasticulture) strawberries after July 31, 2012, or on perennial Brigade WSB, 6.4–32 oz (0), or (matted-row) strawberries after July 31, 2016. Labels on product bought Dibrom 8, 1 pt (1), or before initiation of the phase-out may have shorter PHIs than what is Danitol 2.4 EC, 10.67 oz (2), or indicated here but could only be used until July 31, 2012, as labeled. Sevin 4F, 1–2 qt or 80S, 1.25–2.5 lb (7), or Malathion 8F, 1.5–2 pt or 57EC, 1.5–3.0 pt (3), or Assail 70WP, 0.8–1.7 oz or 30SG, 1.9–4.0 oz (1) Plant bugs (Lygus bugs) Tarnished plant bugs are attracted to certain weed species for egg laying, Thionex 3EC, 1.33 qt or 50WP, 2 lb (12) perennial and tend to be a larger problem with late-season cultivars. Rimon should strawberries only (see comments), or be targeted against nymphs. Do not apply Dibrom if temperature is above Dibrom 8, 1 pt (1), or 90°F. Thionex use is being phased out. Thionex may not be used on annual Malathion 8F, 1.5–2 pt or 57EC, 1.5–3.0 pt (3), or (plasticulture) strawberries after July 31, 2012, or on perennial (matted- Brigade WSB, 6.4–32 oz (0) or row) strawberries after July 31, 2016. Labels on product bought before Danitol 2.4EC, 10.67 oz (2), or initiation of the phase-out may have shorter PHIs than what is indicated Assail 70WP, 1.7–3.0 oz or 30SG, 4.0–6.9 oz (1), or here but could only be used until July 31, 2012, as labeled. Rimon, 12 fl oz (1), or Sevin 80S, 1.87–2.5 lb or 4F, 1.5–2 qt (7) Aphids As needed. See labels of individual insecticides for additional information. Thionex 3EC, 1.33 qt or 50WP, 2 lb (12) perennial Do not apply Dibrom if temperature is above 90°F. Thionex use is being strawberries only (see comments), or phased out. Thionex may not be used on annual (plasticulture) strawberries Brigade WSB, 6.4–32 oz (0), or after July 31, 2012, or on perennial (matted-row) strawberries after July Malathion 8F, 1.5–2 pt or 57EC, 1.5–3.0 pt (3), or 31, 2016. Labels on product bought before initiation of the phase-out may Diazinon 50WP, 1 lb or AG500, 1 pt (5), or have shorter PHIs than what is indicated here but could only be used until Dibrom 8, 1 pt (1), or July 31, 2012, as labeled. Admire can be applied as a foliar and soil-applied Provado 1.6F, 3.8 fl oz (7), or material. Aza-Direct, 16–56 fl oz (0), or Actara, 1.5–3.0 oz (3), or Assail 70WP, 0.8–1.7 oz or 30SG, 1.9–4.0 oz (1), or Voliam Flexi, 2.0–4.0 oz (3) As a soil application through drip irrigation or as otherwise described on the Admire Pro, 10.5–14.0 fl oz (14), or label. Admire and Provado have the same active ingredient, as do Actara Platinum, 5.0–12.0 fl oz (50) and Platinum. See labels for additional information. Leafhoppers When injury appears. See text discussion. No cultural controls are effective. Malathion 8F, 1.5–2 pt or 57EC, 1.5–3.0 pt (3), or M-Pede is an insecticidal soap, and should be targeted against first- Assail 70WP, 0.8–1.7 oz or 30SG, 1.9–4.0 oz (1), or generation nymphs. Courier also should be targeted against nymphs. Actara 1.5–3.0 oz (3), or Sevin 80S,1.25–2.5 lb or 4F, 1–2 qt (7), or Voliam Flexi, 2.0–4.0 oz (3), or Courier SC, 9.0-12.0 fl oz (3), or M-Pede, 2.0% solution (0)

continued Chapter 6 ❦ Strawberries 91

Table 6.16. Pesticides for strawberry disease and insect control, continued. Pest Timing of Treatment/Comments Product Labeled Rate/A (Days to Harvest) Whiteflies As needed. See labels of individual insecticides for additional information. Thionex 3EC, 1.33 qt or 50WP, 2 lb (12) perennial M-Pede is an insecticidal soap, and should be targeted against first- strawberries only (see comments), or generation nymphs. Courier also should be targeted against nymphs. Oberon 2SC, 12–16 fl oz (3), or Thionex use is being phased out. Thionex may not be used on annual Malathion 8F, 1.5–2 pt or 57EC, 1.5–3.0 pt (3), or (plasticulture) strawberries after July 31, 2012, or on perennial (matted- Assail 70WP, 1.7–3.0 oz or 30SG, 4.0–6.9 oz (1), or row) strawberries after July 31, 2016. Labels on product bought before Provado 1.6F, 3.8 fl oz (7), or initiation of the phase-out may have shorter PHIs than what is indicated Esteem 0.86EC, 10 fl oz (2), or here but could only be used until July 31, 2012, as labeled. Admire can be Actara, 3.0–4.0 oz (3), or used as a foliar and soil-applied material. M-Pede, 1–2% solution (0), or Voliam Flexi, 4.0–5.0 oz (3), or Courier SC, 9.0-12.0 fl oz (3), or Vetica, 12.0–18.5 fl oz (3), or As a soil application through drip irrigation or as otherwise described on the Admire Pro, 10.5–14.0 fl oz (14), or label. Admire and Provado have the same active ingredient, as do Actara Platinum, 5.0–12.0 fl oz (50) and Platinum. See labels for additional information. Strawberry root weevil (adults) When damage appears or adults are present. Adults feed at night. Brigade WSP, 8–32 oz (0), or Actara, 4.0 oz (3), or Malathion 8F, 1.5–2 pt (3) or 57 EC, 1.5–3.0 pt Japanese beetle (adults) Treatment is only necessary if feeding damage becomes severe. Activity of Sevin 80S, 1.25–2.5 lb, or 4F, 1–2 qt (7), or Pyganic is short in duration. Assail 70WP, 1.7–3.0 oz or 30SG, 4.0–6.9 oz (1), or Coragen, 3.5-5.0 fl oz (1), or Pyganic EC 1.4 II, 1–4 pt (0) HARVEST YEAR(S): LEAF EMERGENCE Diseases Leaf spot As symptoms appear. Fungicides applied for common leaf spot may assist Captan 50W, 3–6 lb (0) or Captec 4L, 1.5–3 qt (0), or with control of other leaf spotting diseases such as scorch and blight. Rally 40W, 2.5–5.0 oz (0), or For resistance management, do not make more than two sequential Cabrio EG, 12–14 oz (0), or applications of strobilurin (group 11) fungicides. Note that for products Pristinea, 18.5–23 oz (0) containing captan, the REI is 24 hr. Leaf blight As symptoms appear. Few fungicides are labeled for this use. Fungicides Rally 40W, 2.5–5.0 oz (0) applied for leaf spot may give some control. Powdery mildew As symptoms appear. See footnote “b” below concerning severe toxicity of Aboundb, 6.0–15.5 oz (0), or Abound to McIntosh, Gala, and related apple cultivars. Abound, Cabrio, and Cabrio EG, 12–14 oz (0), or one of the active ingredients in Pristine are in the same chemical class, and Rally 40W, 2.5–5.0 oz (0), or cannot be rotated with each other for resistance management purposes. Pristinea, 18.5–23 oz (0), or Do not make more than two sequential applications of fungicides from this Procure 480SC, 4–8 fl oz (1), or activity group. See fungicide efficacy table for classes of fungicides. Orbit, 4 fl oz (0), or Tilt, 4 fl oz (0), or Evito 480SC, 2.0–5.7 fl oz (1), or Flint, 2.0–3.2 fl oz (0), or Quintec, 4–6 fl oz (1) Leather rot After the ground thaws but before first bloom. Apply to soil as a band Ridomil Gold SL, 1 pt/treated A (0) application or through drip irrigation. Red stele After the ground thaws but before first bloom. Apply to soil as a band Ridomil Gold SL, 1 pt/treated A (0) application or through drip irrigation. When plants start active growth (foliar application). Repeat at 30- to 60- Aliette WDG, 2.5–5.0 lb (0.5), or day intervals if conditions favoring disease development persist. Phostrol, 2.5–5.0 pt (—)

continued 92 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 6.16. Pesticides for strawberry disease and insect control, continued. Pest Timing of Treatment/Comments Product Labeled Rate/A (Days to Harvest) Insects and Mites Spider mites Twospotted spider mite females are ready to lay eggs now. Scout in early Agri-Mek 0.15EC, 16 fl oz (3), or spring. Overwintered twospotted mites will be reddish orange in color. If Acramite 50WS, 0.75–1.0 lbs (1), or 25% of leaflets have two-spotted mites, control is needed. Savey and Zeal Oberon 2SC, 12–16 fl oz (3), or are effective on eggs and nymphs, but not adults, so they must be used Vendex 50WP, 1.5–2.0 lb (1), or when mite populations are low. Brigade and Danitol are also labeled for Portal, 2 pt (1), or spider mites but must be used at high rates with good coverage for mite Kanemite 15SC, 21–31 fl oz (1), or control, or they may decrease predatory mite numbers without controlling Athena, 13.5–17.0 fl oz (3), or spider mites. Releases of predatory mites can give good results. See text for Savey 50DF, 6 oz (3), or additional information and Table 3.1 for toxicity of insecticides to predatory Zeal, 2–3 oz (1) mites. Athena is a premix of a miticide and insecticide that may be used when control of common insect pests is also needed. Cyclamen mites Miticides must penetrate into the crown for control. Therefore, apply when Thionex 3EC, 1.33 qt or 50WP, 2 lb (12) perennial foliage is minimal. Use high water volume (200 gal/acre) and pressure. strawberries only (see comments), or Avoid infested planting stock. Certain species of predatory mites can help Portal, 2 pt (1) with control. Thionex use is being phased out. Thionex may not be used on annual (plasticulture) strawberries after July 31, 2012, or on perennial (matted-row) strawberries after July 31, 2016. Labels on product bought before initiation of the phase-out may have shorter PHIs than what is indicated here but could only be used until July 31, 2012, as labeled. Aphids As needed. See labels of individual insecticides for additional information. Thionex 3EC, 1.33 qt or 50WP, 2 lb (12) perennial Do not apply Dibrom if temperature is above 90°F. Thionex use is being strawberries only (see comments), or phased out. Thionex may not be used on annual (plasticulture) strawberries Brigade WSB, 6.4–32 oz (0), or after July 31, 2012, or on perennial (matted-row) strawberries after July 31, Malathion 8F, 1.5–2 pt or 57EC, 1.5–3.0 pt (3), or 2016. Labels on product bought before initiation of the phase-out may have Diazinon 50WP, 1 lb or AG500, 1 pt (5), or shorter PHIs than what is indicated here but could only be used until July Dibrom 8, 1 pt (1), or 31, 2012, as labeled. Provado, 3.8 fl oz (7), or Voliam Flexi, 2.0–4.0 oz (3), or Aza-Direct, 16–56 fl oz (0), or Assail 70WP, 0.8–1.7 oz or 30SG, 1.9–4.0 oz (1) As a soil application through drip irrigation. See label for additional Platinum, 5.0–12.0 fl oz (50) information. Watch days-to-harvest limitation. Whiteflies As needed. See labels of individual insecticides for additional information. Thionex 3EC, 1.33 qt or 50WP, 2 lb (12) perennial M-Pede is an insecticidal soap, and should be targeted against first- strawberries only (see comments), or generation nymphs. Courier should be targeted against nymphs as well. Oberon 2SC, 12–16 fl oz (3), or Thionex use is being phased out. Thionex may not be used on annual Malathion 8F, 1.5–2 pt or 57EC, 1.5–3.0 pt (3), or (plasticulture) strawberries after July 31, 2012, or on perennial (matted- Provado, 3.8 fl oz (7), or row) strawberries after July 31, 2016. Labels on product bought before Assail 70WP, 1.7–3.0 oz or 30SG, 4.0–6.9 oz (1), or initiation of the phase-out may have shorter PHIs than what is indicated M-Pede, 1–2% solution (0), or here but could only be used until July 31, 2012, as labeled. Voliam Flexi, 4.0–5.0 oz (3), or Courier SC, 9.0-12.0 fl oz (3), or Esteem 0.86EC, 10 fl oz (2), or Vetica, 12.0–18.5 fl oz (3), or As a soil application through drip irrigation. See label for additional Platinum, 5.0–12.0 fl oz (50) information. Watch days-to-harvest limitations.

continued Chapter 6 ❦ Strawberries 93

Table 6.16. Pesticides for strawberry disease and insect control, continued. Pest Timing of Treatment/Comments Product Labeled Rate/A (Days to Harvest) HARVEST YEAR(S): FLOWER BUD EMERGENCE Diseases Leaf spot, leaf blight, and See comments for materials applied at leaf emergence. Same materials as at leaf emergence. powdery mildew Angular leaf spot See text discussion of angular leaf spot for details on application. Copper hydroxide or copper sulfate, various formulations and rates. Insects and Mites Spider mites See management notes for at leaf emergence. Same materials as at leaf emergence. Cyclamen mites See management notes for leaf emergence applications. Same materials as at leaf emergence. Spittlebugs Spittlebugs are frequently a larger problem in weedy fields. Good weed Thionex 3EC, 1.33 qt or 50WP, 2 lb (12) perennial control will discourage large populations of spittlebugs from establishing strawberries only (see comments), or in the planting. Thionex use is being phased out. Thionex may not be used Brigade WSB, 6.4–32 oz (0), or on annual (plasticulture) strawberries after July 31, 2012, or on perennial Danitol 2.4 EC, 10.67 oz (2), or (matted-row) strawberries after July 31, 2016. Labels on product bought Dibrom 8, 1 pt (1), or before initiation of the phase-out may have shorter PHIs than what is Sevin 4F, 1–2 qt or 80S, 1.25–2.5 lb (7), or indicated here but could only be used until July 31, 2012, as labeled. Malathion 8F, 1.5–2 pt or 57EC, 1.5–3.0 pt (3), or Assail 70WP, 0.8–1.7 oz or 30SG, 1.9–4.0 oz (1) Aphids See management notes for leaf emergence applications. Same materials as at leaf emergence except for Platinum or Admire. Strawberry bud weevils (clippers) Tend to be a larger problem in rows near woods. The threshold for treatment Lorsban 4E, 1 qt (prebloom, 21), or is one cut bud per linear foot of row. Only rows near woods may need to be Sevin 4F, 1–2 qt or 80S, 1.25–2.5 lb (7), or treated. Do not apply Lorsban after berries start to form or when berries are Danitol 2.4EC, 16–21.3 oz (2), or present. Brigade WSB 6.4–32 oz (0) Whiteflies See management notes for leaf emergence applications. Same materials as at leaf emergence except for Platinum or Admire. HARVEST YEAR(S): WHEN BLOSSOMS IN CLUSTER SEPARATE Diseases Same as for flower bud emergence, if problematic Insects Spittlebugs See management notes for applications made at flower bud emergence. Same materials as at flower bud emergence. Strawberry bud weevils (clippers) See management notes for applications made at flower bud emergence. Same materials as at flower bud emergence. Plant bug (Lygus bugs) Scout for tarnished plant bugs by tapping flower clusters over a white Thionex 3EC, 1.33 qt or 50WP, 2 lb (12) perennial surface such as a plate or sheet of paper. Treatment threshold is one nymph strawberries only (see comments), or per 4 flower clusters. Tarnished plant bugs are attracted to certain weed Dibrom 8, 1 pt (1), or species for egg laying, and tend to be a larger problem with late-season Malathion 8F, 1.5–2 pt or 57EC, 1.5–3.0 pt (3), or cultivars. Rimon should be targeted against nymphs. Do not apply Dibrom Brigade WSB, 6.4–32 oz (0), or if temperature is above 90°F. Thionex use is being phased out. Thionex may Danitol 2.4EC, 10.67 oz (2), or not be used on annual (plasticulture) strawberries after July 31, 2012, or on Assail 70WP, 1.7–3.0 oz or 30SG, 4.0–6.9 oz (1), or perennial (matted-row) strawberries after July 31, 2016. Labels on product Rimon, 12 fl oz (1), or bought before initiation of the phase-out may have shorter PHIs than what Sevin 80S, 1.87–2.5 lb or 4F, 1.5–2 qt (7) is indicated here but could only be used until July 31, 2012, as labeled.

continued 94 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 6.16. Pesticides for strawberry disease and insect control, continued. Pest Timing of Treatment/Comments Product Labeled Rate/A (Days to Harvest) Strawberry leafroller Apply just before bloom. Insecticides rarely needed for control as parasitic Diazinon 50WP, 1 lb or AG500, 1 pt (5), or wasps often provide sufficient control. Bt products can provide safe control, Brigade WSB, 6.4–32 oz (0), or but good coverage is a must. Do not apply Dibrom if temperature is above Dibrom 8, 1 pt (1), or 90°F. Sevin 80S, 1.25–2.5 lb or 4F, 1–2 qt (7), or Malathion 57EC, 1.5–3.0 pt or 8F, 1.5–2 pt (3), or Synapse, 3–5 oz (1), or Bt, various products and rates (0), or Vetica, 12.0–18.5 fl oz (3) or Apply when pest is newly hatched or young. Entrust is OMRI approved. Radiant SC, 6–10 fl oz (1), or Success, 4–6 fl oz (1), or SpinTor 2SC, 4–6 fl oz (1), or Entrust, 1.25–2.0 oz (1) Aphids See comments for applications made at leaf emergence. Same materials as at leaf emergence except for Platinum or Admire. Thrips Do not apply Dibrom if temperature is above 90°F. Dibrom 8, 1 pt (1), or Malathion 8F, 1.5–2 pt (3), or Assail 70WP, 1.7–3.0 oz or 30SG, 4.0–6.9 oz (1), or Apply when pest is newly hatched or young. Entrust is OMRI approved. SpinTor 2SC, 4–6 fl oz (1), or Success, 4–6 fl oz (1), or Entrust, 1.25–2.0 oz (1), or Rimon, 9–12 fl oz (1), or Radiant SC, 6–10 fl oz (1) Whiteflies As needed. Same materials as at leaf emergence except for Platinum or Admire. HARVEST YEAR(S): EARLY (5–10% BLOOM) Diseases Botrytis fruit rot (gray mold) Blossom protection is critical for gray mold control. Unopened blossoms Elevate 50WDG, 1.5 lb (0), or are not in danger, but newly opened and aging blossoms are. Research Switch 62.5WDG, 11–14 oz (0), or consistently has shown that excellent gray mold control can be achieved Captan 50W, 3–6 lb or Captec 4L, 1.5–3 qt (0), or with just two fungicide sprays, applied at early bloom and full bloom. Thiram 75WDG, 4.4 lb (3), or However, if the bloom period is prolonged or wet, an additional application Topsin M 70WSB, 0.5 lb (1) plus Captan 50WP, 3 lb at late bloom might be needed. Repeat at harvest, if wet conditions occur. or Captec 4L, 1.5 qt (0), or Note that for products containing captan, the REI is 24 hr. Pristinea, 18.5–23 oz (0), or Captevate 68WDG, 3.5–5.25 lb (0), or Scala SC, 18 fl oz if used alone, or 9–18 fl oz in tank mixtures (1), or Ph-D, 6.2 oz (0) Leaf spot and leaf blight See comments for materials applied at leaf emergence. Topsin M is also Same materials as at leaf emergence, or labeled for leaf scorch. Topsin M 70WP, 0.75–1.0 lb (1) Angular leaf spot See text discussion of angular leaf spot for details on application. Copper hydroxide or copper sulfate, various formulations and rates. Leather rot Begin foliar application between 10% bloom and early fruit set, and Aliette WDG, 2.5–5.0 lb (0.5), or continue on a 7- to 14-day interval as long as conditions are favorable for Phostrol, 2.5–5.0 pt (—) disease development. When disease pressure is heavy, use the minimum time interval, high rates, and the maximum number of applications. Insects Do not apply insecticides during bloom.

continued Chapter 6 ❦ Strawberries 95

Table 6.16. Pesticides for strawberry disease and insect control, continued. Pest Timing of Treatment/Comments Product Labeled Rate/A (Days to Harvest) HARVEST YEAR(S): MIDBLOOM Diseases Botrytis fruit rot (gray mold) See comments for early bloom. Same materials available as at early bloom. Alternate materials from different pesticide classes for resistance management. Leaf spot and leaf blight See comments at leaf emergence. Same materials as at leaf emergence. Alternate materials from different pesticide classes for resistance management. Angular leaf spot See text discussion of angular leaf spot for details on application. Copper hydroxide or copper sulfate, various formulations and rates. Insects Do not apply insecticides during bloom. HARVEST YEAR(S): LATE BLOOM Diseases Botrytis fruit rot (gray mold) This fungicide application may not be necessary unless a prolonged bloom Same materials available as at early bloom. period or wet conditions occur. Remember to alternate or tank-mix materials for resistance management. Leaf spot and leaf blight Same comments as at leaf emergence. Same materials available as at early bloom. Remember to alternate or combine materials for resistance management. Insects Do not apply insecticides during bloom. HARVEST YEAR(S): GREEN FRUIT Diseases Angular leaf spot See text discussion of angular leaf spot for details on application. Copper hydroxide or copper sulfate, various formulations and rates. Anthracnose fruit rot Before disease develops, then on a 7- to 10-day schedule. Abound, Cabrio, Aboundb, 6.0–15.5 oz (0), or Evito and one of the active ingredients in Pristine are in the same chemical Captan 50W, 6 lb (0), or class, and cannot be rotated with each other for resistance management Cabrio EG, 12–14 oz (0), or purposes. Do not make more than two sequential applications of fungicides Pristinea, 18.5–23 oz (0), or from this activity group. See fungicide efficacy table for classes of Evito 480SC, 2.0–5.7 fl oz (1), or fungicides. Note that for Captevate and products containing captan, the REI Captevate 68WDG, 5.25 lb (0), or is 24 hr. Switch 62.5WDG, 11–14 oz (0) Leather rot At fruit set. Do not use more than 1.5 qt per treated acre per year. Apply to Ridomil Gold SL, 1 pt/treated A (0) soil as a band application or through drip irrigation. Begin foliar application between 10% bloom and early fruit set, and Aliette WDG, 2.5–5.0 lb (0.5), or continue on a 7- to 14-day interval as long as conditions are favorable for Phostrol, 2.5–5.0 pt (—) disease development. When disease pressure is heavy, use the minimum time interval, high rates, and the maximum number of applications. Insects and Mites Plant bugs (Lygus bugs) Same comments as when flower buds in cluster separate. Same materials available as when flower buds in cluster separate.

continued 96 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 6.16. Pesticides for strawberry disease and insect control, continued. Pest Timing of Treatment/Comments Product Labeled Rate/A (Days to Harvest) Spittlebugs Spittlebugs are frequently a larger problem in weedy fields. Good weed Thionex 3EC, 1.33 qt or 50WP, 2 lb (12) perennial control will discourage large populations of spittlebugs from establishing strawberries only (see comments), or in the planting. Thionex use is being phased out. Thionex may not be used Provado 1.6F, 3.8 fl oz (7), or on annual (plasticulture) strawberries after July 31, 2012, or on perennial Brigade WSB, 6.4–32 oz (0), or (matted-row) strawberries after July 31, 2016. Labels on product bought Danitol 2.4 EC, 10.67 oz (2), or before initiation of the phase-out may have shorter PHIs than what is Sevin 4F, 1–2 qt or 80S, 1.25–2.5 lb (7), or indicated here but could only be used until July 31, 2012, as labeled. Malathion 8F, 1.5–2 pt or 57EC, 1.5–3.0 pt (3), or Assail 70WP, 0.8–1.7 oz or 30SG, 1.9–4.0 oz (1) Strawberry leafroller See comments for when flower buds in cluster separate. Same materials available as when flower buds in cluster separate. Spider mites See comments made at leaf emergence concerning miticides. Same materials available for use as at leaf emergence. Remember to alternate activity groups for resistance management. Aphids As necessary. Scout on new growth during the season. Do not apply Dibrom Thionex 3EC, 1.33 qt or 50WP, 2 lb (12) perennial if temperature is above 90°F. Thionex use is being phased out. Thionex may strawberries only (see comments), or not be used on annual (plasticulture) strawberries after July 31, 2012, or on Brigade WSB, 6.4–32 oz (0), or perennial (matted-row) strawberries after July 31, 2016. Labels on product Malathion 8F, 1.5–2 pt or 57EC, 1.5–3.0 pt (3), or bought before initiation of the phase-out may have shorter PHIs than what Diazinon 50WP, 1 lb or AG500, 1 pt (5), or is indicated here but could only be used until July 31, 2012, as labeled. Dibrom 8, 1 pt (1), or Provado 1.6F, 3.8 fl oz (7), or Voliam Flexi, 2.0–4.0 oz (3), or Aza-Direct, 16–56 fl oz (0), or Actara, 1.5–3.0 fl oz (3), or Assail 70WP, 0.8–1.7 oz or 30SG, 1.9–4.0 oz (1) Strawberry root weevil (adults) When damage appears or adults are present. Adults feed at night. Brigade WSP, 8–32 oz (0), or Actara, 4 oz (3), or Malathion 8F, 1.5–2 pt (3) or 57EC, 1.5–3 pt (3) Whiteflies As needed. M-Pede is an insecticidal soap, and should be targeted against Thionex 3EC, 1.33 qt or 50WP, 2 lb (12) perennial first-generation nymphs. Courier also should be targeted against nymphs. strawberries only (see comments), or Thionex use is being phased out. Thionex may not be used on annual Esteem 0.86EC, 10 fl oz (2), or (plasticulture) strawberries after July 31, 2012, or on perennial (matted- Oberon 2SC, 12–16 fl oz (3), or row) strawberries after July 31, 2016. Labels on product bought before Malathion 8F, 1.5–2 pt or 57EC, 1.5–3.0 pt (3), or initiation of the phase-out may have shorter PHIs than what is indicated Assail 70WP, 1.7–3.0 oz or 30SG, 4.0–6.9 oz (1), or here but could only be used until July 31, 2012, as labeled. Provado 1.6F, 3.8 fl oz (7), or Voliam Flexi, 4.0–5.0 oz (3), or Courier SC, 9.0–12.0 fl oz (3), or Actara, 1.5–3.0 fl oz (3), or M-Pede, 1–2% solution (0) Leafhoppers When injury appears. See text discussion. No cultural controls are effective. Malathion 8F, 1.5–2 pt or 57EC, 1.5–3.0 pt (3), or M-Pede is an insecticidal soap and should be targeted against first- Sevin 80S, 1.25–2.5 lb or 4F, 1–2 qt (7), or generation nymphs. Courier also should be targeted against nymphs. M-Pede, 2.0% solution (0), or Voliam Flexi, 2.0–4.0 oz (3), or Courier SC, 9.0–12.0 fl oz (3), or Actara, 1.5–3.0 oz (3), or Assail 70WP, 0.8–1.7 oz or 30SG, 1.9–4.0 oz (1) Japanese beetles (adults) Feeding on fruit is likely to be a problem only for day-neutral cultivars. Sevin 80S, 1.25–2.5 lb, or 4F, 1–2 qt (7), or Assail 70WP, 1.7–3.0 oz or 30SG, 4.0–6.9 oz (1), or Voliam Flexi, 4.0–5.0 oz (3), or Coragen, 3.5-5.0 fl oz (1), or Pyganic EC 1.4 II, 1–4 pt (0)

continued Chapter 6 ❦ Strawberries 97

Table 6.16. Pesticides for strawberry disease and insect control, continued. Pest Timing of Treatment/Comments Product Labeled Rate/A (Days to Harvest) HARVEST YEAR(S): PINK FRUIT THROUGH HARVEST Diseases Anthracnose fruit rot See comments made at green fruit stage. Same materials available as at green fruit stage. Remember to use materials from different pesticide classes for resistance management. Botrytis fruit rot (gray mold) Apply if symptoms appear. Same materials available as at early bloom. Note days-to-harvest limitations for all products. For products containing captan, note that the REI is 24 hours even though the PHI is 0 days. Angular leaf spot See text discussion of angular leaf spot for details on application. Copper hydroxide or copper sulfate, various formulations and rates. Insects and Molluscs Slugs Applied as a soil surface treatment. Most effective if applied in evening after Deadline Bullets, 10–40 lb (—), or rain or irrigation. Do not allow Deadline to contact fruit. Mechanical traps Sluggo, 20–44 lb (0) are effective. Plant bugs (Lygus bugs) Scout by tapping flower clusters over a white surface. Treatment threshold Thionex 3EC, 1.33 qt or 50WP, 2 lb (12) perennial is one nymph per 4 flower clusters. Tarnished plant bugs are attracted to strawberries only (see comments), or certain weed species for egg laying, and tend to be a larger problem with Dibrom 8, 1 pt (1), or late-season cultivars. Rimon should be targeted against nymphs. Note that Malathion 8F, 1.5–2 pt or 57EC, 1.5–3.0 pt (3), or materials with long days-to-harvest limitations will not be usable closer Brigade WSB, 6.4–32 oz (0), or to harvest. Do not apply Dibrom if temperature is above 90°F. Thionex use Danitol 2.4EC, 10.67 oz (2), or is being phased out. Thionex may not be used on annual (plasticulture) Assail 70WP, 1.7–3.0 oz or 30SG, 4.0–6.9 oz (1), or strawberries after July 31, 2012, or on perennial (matted-row) strawberries Rimon, 12 fl oz (1), or after July 31, 2016. Labels on product bought before initiation of the phase- Sevin 80S, 1.87–2.5 lb or 4F, 1.5–2 qt (7) out may have shorter PHIs than what is indicated here but could only be used until July 31, 2012, as labeled. Sap beetles As necessary. Keep ripe fruit harvested. This cultural control is highly Brigade WSB, 6.4–32 oz (0), or effective. Rimon only affects larvae and should be applied when adults are Danitol 2.4EC, 16–21.3 oz (2), or noticed. Rimon,12 fl oz (1), or Assail 70WP, 1.7–3.0 oz 30SG, 4.0–6.9 oz (1) Thrips Do not apply Dibrom if temperature is above 90°F. Dibrom 8, 1 pt (1), or Malathion 8F, 1.5–2 pt (3), or Assail 70WP, 1.7–3.0 oz or 30SG, 4.0–6.9 oz (1), or Apply when pest is newly hatched or young. Entrust is OMRI approved. SpinTor 2SC, 4–6 fl oz (1), or Success, 4–6 fl oz (1), or Entrust, 1.25–2.0 oz (1), or Rimon, 9–12 fl oz (1), or Radiant SC, 6–10 fl oz (1) Spittlebugs Spittlebugs are frequently a larger problem in weedy fields. Good weed Thionex 3EC, 1.33 qt or 50WP, 2 lb (12) perennial control will discourage large populations of spittlebugs from establishing strawberries only (see comments), orProvado 1.6F, in the planting. Materials with long days-to-harvest limitations will not be 3.8 fl oz (7), or usable closer to harvest. Thionex use is being phased out. Thionex may not Brigade WSB, 6.4–32 oz (0), or be used on annual (plasticulture) strawberries after July 31, 2012, or on Danitol 2.4 EC, 10.67 oz (2), or perennial (matted-row) strawberries after July 31, 2016. The PHI is 4 days Sevin 4F, 1–2 qt or 80S, 1.25–2.5 lb (7), or for annual strawberries and 12 days for perennial strawberries. Labels on Malathion 8F, 1.5–2 pt or 57EC, 1.5–3.0 pt (3), or product bought before initiation of the phase-out may have shorter PHIs Assail 70WP, 0.8–1.7 oz 30SG, 1.9–4.0 oz (1) than those indicated here and can be used until July 31, 2012, as labeled.

continued 98 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 6.16. Pesticides for strawberry disease and insect control, continued. Pest Timing of Treatment/Comments Product Labeled Rate/A (Days to Harvest) Leafhoppers When injury appears. No cultural controls are effective. Materials with long Malathion 8F, 1.5–2 pt or 57EC, 1.5–3.0 pt (3), or days-to-harvest limitations will not be usable closer to harvest. M-Pede Sevin 80S, 1.25–2.5 lb or 4F, 1–2 qt (7), or is an insecticidal soap and should be targeted against first-generation Assail 70WP, 0.8–1.7 oz or 30 SG, 1.9–4.0 oz (1), or nymphs. Courier also should be targeted against nymphs. Voliam Flexi, 2.0–4.0 oz (3), or Courier SC, 9.0–12.0 fl oz (3), or Actara, 1.5–3.0 oz (3), or M-Pede, 2.0% solution (0) Aphids See comments for green fruit. Materials with long days-to-harvest Same materials available as at green fruit. limitations will not be usable closer to harvest. Strawberry root weevil (adults) When damage appears or adults are present. Adults feed at night. Brigade WSB, 8–32 oz (0), or Insecticide applications made at night may enhance control. Actara, 4 oz (3), or Malathion 8F, 1.5–2 pt or 57EC, 1.5–3 pt (3) Whiteflies See comments for green fruit. Materials with long days-to-harvest Same materials available as at green fruit. limitations will not be usable near harvest. Japanese beetles Feeding at this time is likely to be of concern only for day-neutral cultivars. Sevin 80S, 1.25–2.5 lb, or 4F, 1–2 qt (7), or Watch days-to-harvest limitations. Assail 70WP, 1.7–3.0 oz or 30SG, 1.9–4.0 oz (1), or Voliam Flexi, 4.0–5.0 oz (3), or Coragen, 3.5–5.0 fl oz (1), or Pyganic EC 1.4 II, 1–4 pt (0) Spotted wing drosophila Because spotted wing drosophilapopulations are highest in the fall, Danitol 2.4 EC, 10.67–21.3 oz (2) infestation is likely to be of concern primarily for day-neutral cultivars. Danitol rates appear on a 2(ee) label. Brown marmorated stink bug Brown marmorated stink bug has not been a problem on strawberries to Danitol 2.4 EC, 10.67–21.3 oz (2) date, though potential for damage to day-neutral strawberries exists. HARVEST YEAR(S): RENOVATION Diseases Red stele After harvest in the fall. Apply to soil as a band application or through drip Ridomil Gold SL, 1 pt/treated A (—) irrigation. For annual plantings, begin foliar applications 14–21 days after planting Aliette WDG, 2.5–5.0 lb (0.5), or and continue on a 30- to 60-day interval as long as conditions favor disease Phostrol, 2.5–5.0 pt (—) development. For perennial plantings, begin applications when plants start active growth in spring. If disease conditions persist or reoccur, make additional applications on a 30- to 60-day interval. When disease pressure is heavy, use the minimum time interval, high rates, and the maximum number of applications. Chemical treatment cannot compensate for an excessively wet site. Insects and Mites Cyclamen mites Same materials available as at leaf emergence. Same materials available as at leaf emergence. White grub complex White grub complex refers to any or all of the grubs(larvae) of Asiatic Admire Pro, 7.0–10.5 fl oz (14), or garden beetle, European chafer, Japanese beetle, or Oriental beetle. Admire Platinum, 5.0–12.0 fl oz (50) must be soil incorporated with at least 0.25 inches of water within 2 hours of application. Admire may be applied in spring or at renovation, but not at both times in the same year. Leafhoppers See comments made for pink fruit through harvest. Same materials available as at pink fruit through harvest.

continued Chapter 6 ❦ Strawberries 99

Table 6.16. Pesticides for strawberry disease and insect control, continued. Pest Timing of Treatment/Comments Product Labeled Rate/A (Days to Harvest) Japanese beetles Treatment is only necessary if feeding damage becomes severe. Activity of Sevin 80S, 1.25–2.5 lb, or 4F, 1–2 qt (7), or Pyganic is short in duration. Assail 70WP, 1.7–3.0 oz or 30SG, 4.0–6.9 oz (1), or Voliam Flexi, 4.0–5.0 oz (3), or Coragen, 3.5–5.0 fl oz (1), or Pyganic EC 1.4 II, 1–4 pt (0) HARVEST YEAR(S): POSTRENOVATION Diseases Leaf spot, leaf blight, and See comments made at leaf emergence. Remember to alternate materials Same materials available as at leaf emergence. powdery mildew from different activity groups for resistance management. Leather rot In the fall in fields where a problem. Apply to soil as a band application or Ridomil Gold SL, 1 pt/treated A (—) through drip irrigation. Insects Strawberry root weevil (adults) When damage appears or adults are present. Adults feed at night. Brigade WSP, 8–32 oz (0), or Actara, 4 oz (3), or Malathion 8F, 1.5–2 pt, or 57EC, 1.5–3.0 pt (3) Strawberry root weevil (larvae) Treat within one month after renovation when larvae are small and actively Platinum, 12 fl oz (50) feeding. Strawberry leafroller See comments made for this insect at time flower buds in cluster separate. Same materials available as when flower buds in cluster separate. Aphids See comments made at green fruit. Actara and Platinum have the same Same materials available as at green fruit, or active ingredient. Platinum, 5.0–12.0 fl oz (50), or Admire Pro, 10.5–14.0 fl oz (14) Strawberry rootworm When feeding damage is detected. Insecticide applications made at night Pyganic EC 1.4 II, 1–4 pt (0) may enhance control. Whiteflies As needed. Actara and Platinum have the same active ingredient. Same materials available as at green fruit, or Platinum, 5.0–12.0 fl oz (50), or Admire Pro, 10.5–14.0 fl oz (14) Leafhoppers See comments made at pink fruit through harvest. Same materials available as for pink fruit through harvest, or Platinum, 5.0–12.0 fl oz (50) Japanese beetles Treatment is only necessary if feeding damage becomes severe. Activity of Sevin 80S, 1.25–2.5 lb, or 4F, 1–2 qt (7), or Pyganic is short in duration. Assail 70WP, 1.7–3.0 oz or 30SG, 4.0–6.9 oz (1), or Voliam Flexi, 4.0–5.0 oz (3), or Coragen, 3.5–5.0 fl oz (1), or Pyganic EC 1.4 II, 1–4 pt (0) White grub complex For treatment of grubs of Asiatic garden beetle, European and masked Admire Pro, 7.0–10.5 fl oz (14), or chafer, Japanese beetle, and Oriental beetle in perennial systems only. Platinum, 5.0–12.0 fl oz (50) Apply during egg-laying period.

Note: (—) = days to harvest not specifically stated on label, though use pattern may otherwise define time frame for use. a. Pristine may cause injury to foliage of Concord or related grape varieties such as Worden and Fredonia. Do not use Pristine on these varieties and use special care when applying to prevent contact with these sensitive varieties. Thoroughly rinse spray equipment, including the inside of the tank, hoses, and nozzles after and before using the same equipment on these sensitive grape varieties. b. Do not allow Abound to drift to McIntosh, Gala, or related apple cultivars (Bancroft, Bromley, Cortland, Cox, Discover, Empire, Jonamac, Kent, McIntosh, Spartan, and Summared). Do not use the same spray equipment for other materials that will be applied to these cultivars, even if thoroughly cleaned. 100 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 6.17. Additional restrictions on strawberry fungicides and insecticides. Note: The information below is correct to the best of our knowledge. Other formulations with the same active ingredient as some of the products listed below may exist and may be labeled for the same uses. Always consult the label before making pesticide applications. Information was current as of July 1, 2012.

Abound Do not apply more than two sequential applications of Abound before alternating with a fungicide with a different mode of action. See label for several additional resistance management strategies. See Table 6.14 for activity groups of fungicides labeled for use on strawberries. Do not allow to drift to McIntosh, Gala, or related apple cultivars (Bancroft, Bromley, Cortland, Cox, Discover, Empire, Jonamac, Kent, McIntosh, Spartan, and Summared). Do not use the same spray equipment for other materials that will be applied to these cultivars, even if thoroughly cleaned. Acramite Limited to two applications of Acramite per season. Applications must be at least 21 days apart. Actara Do not exceed 12 oz of Actara or 0.188 lb ai of thiamethoxam per acre per growing season. Minimum interval between applications is 10 days. Admire Pro Do not apply more than 10.5 fl oz (0.38 lb ai) of Admire Pro per acre per season. See additional notes in Provado restrictions concerning use of Admire and Provado in the same season. Agri-Mek Do not exceed 16 fl oz per acre per application or 64 fl oz per acre per season. Allow at least 21 days following second application before making another application. Aliette Do not exceed 30 lbs of product per acre per season. Assail Do not exceed a total of 0.26 lb ai per acre per growing season, make more than 2 applications per season, or apply more often than once every 7 days. Athena Do not make more than two consecutive applications or four total per season. Do not apply more than 68 fl oz of Athena, 0.075 lb of avermectin, or 0.5 lb of bifenthrin per season. Brigade Do not apply more than 0.5 lb ai (80 oz of product) per acre per season. Cabrio Do not apply more than two sequential applications of Cabrio before alternating with a fungicide with a different mode of action. See label for several additional resistance management strategies. See Table 6.14 for activity groups of fungicides labeled for use on strawberries. Captan Do not apply more than 24 lb of 50WP or maximum specified of a different formulation per acre per season. Captec Do not apply more than 24 qt per acre per season. Captevate Do make more than two consecutive applications of Captevate. Do not apply more than 21.0 lb per acre per season. Coragen Do not make more than two applications per insect generation or apply more than 15.4 oz of Coragen per acre per crop. Rotate to an insecticide in a different chemical class for the subsequent generation of a targeted insect. Courier Do not make more than two applications per crop cycle. Danitol Do not make more than two applications of Danitol within 12 consecutive months. Diazinon Do not apply more than one foliar and one soil application per crop. Dibrom 8E Do not apply more than 5 pts per acre per season. Elevate Do not apply more than 6 lbs of Elevate per acre per year. Esteem 0.86EC Do not make more than two Esteem 0.86EC applications per growing season. Do not exceed 20 fl oz Esteem 0.86EC per acre per season. Do not apply earlier than 30 days after the last Esteem application. Evito 480SC Do not make more than two sequential applications of Evito without rotating to a fungicide with a different mode of application for at least one spray. Flint Do not apply more than 19.2 oz of Flint per acre per year. Do not exceed six applications of Flint or other strobilurin fungicides per year. Do not make more than two sequential applications of Flint or other Group 11 fungicides per year without rotating to fungicides in a different chemical class. Kanemite Do not apply more than a total of 62 fl oz of Kanemite 15SC per acre per season. Do not make more than two applications of Kanemite 15SC per year. Allow a minimum of 21 days between applications of Kanemite 15SC.

continued Chapter 6 ❦ Strawberries 101

Table 6.17. Additional restrictions on strawberry fungicides and insecticides, continued.

Lorsban Do not make more than 2 foliar applications of Lorsban or another product containing chlorpyrifos per year. Do not make a second application of any product containing chlorpyrifos within 10 days of the first application. Oberon Do not use more than 16 fl oz of Oberon in a seven-day interval, more than 48 fl oz per crop season, or more than three applications per crop season. Ph-D Alternate with fungicides with a different mode of action. Do not make more than five applications of Ph-D per season. Portal Do not apply more than 4 pts per acre per season or make more than two applications per season. Allow at least 14 days between applications. Pristine Do not apply more than two sequential applications before alternating with a fungicide with a different mode of action. See label for several additional resistance management strategies. See Table 6.14 for activity groups of fungicides labeled for use on strawberries. Pristine may cause injury to foliage of Concord or related grape varieties such as Worden and Fredonia. Do not use Pristine on these varieties and use special care when applying to prevent contact with these sensitive varieties. Thoroughly rinse spray equipment, including the inside of the tank, hoses, and nozzles after use and before using the same equipment on these sensitive grape varieties. Procure Do not exceed 32 oz of Procure 480SC per acre per season. Provado Allow at least 5 days between foliar applications of Provado. Do not apply more than 11.4 fluid ounces of Provado 1.6F per year. For resistance management purposes do not follow a soil application of Admire. Do not apply more than a total of 0.14 lb active ingredient of Provado per acre per season. Quintec Do not apply more than two consecutive applications of Quintec. See label for additional resistance management strategies. Radiant Do not make more than 2 consecutive applications of group 5 insecticides without rotating to another class of effective insecticides for at least 1 application. Do not make more than 5 applications per calendar year or apply more than 39 fl oz of Radiant SC per crop per year. Rally Apply no more than 30 oz of Rally per acre per year. Ridomil Gold Apply up to 3 times per crop. Do not apply more than 1.5 qt per acre per year. Rimon Do not apply more than 36 oz per acre per season. Rovral Do not make more than 1 application per season. Do not apply Rovral after the first fruiting flower. Savey Limited to one application of Savey per year. Do not use in strawberry nurseries. Scala Do not use a fungicide from Group 9 (anilinopyrimidine compounds) for more than 2 of 6 or 3 of 7 applications in any one season. When applying Scala alone, do not make more than two consecutive applications without alternating to an equal number of applications of a fungicide from a different resistance management group. Among fungicides labeled for use on strawberries, Switch and Scala are in the same resistance management group. Sevin Do not apply more than 5 times, or more often than once every 7 days. Spintor, Entrust, Do not apply more than a total of 0.45 lb ai of spinosad per acre per crop. Rotate to a different class of insect control products after two Success successive applications of Spintor, Entrust, or Success. Do not make more than 5 applications per year. Switch Do not exceed 56 oz of Switch per acre per year. Do not make more than 2 applications before using a fungicide in another resistance management group. Synapse Do not apply more than 15 oz per acre per crop season. Thionex Thionex use is being phased out. See label for details and other restrictions. Tilt Do not apply more than 16 fl oz per season. Topsin M 70WSB Do not apply more than 4 lb of product (2.3 lb ai) per acre per season. Vendex 50WP Make no more than 2 applications per season. Apply no more than 4 lb per acre per season. Voliam Flexi Do not apply more than 15 oz of Voliam Flexi, 0.188 lb of thiamethoxam, or 0.2 pounds of chlorantraniliprole per acre per season. Allow at least 10 days between applications. Zeal Do not make more than 1 application of Zeal per growing season. Do not apply more than 3 oz of Zeal per acre per season. 102 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

similar to that of Goal. When using Weeds strawberries since a large proportion of their shallow root system may be preemergence herbicides, best results are A general discussion of weed exposed to herbicides’ effects. For this obtained by management options for small fruit reason, cultivation is and will remain 1. carefully matching the chemical with plantings is presented in Chapter 4, and an important tool. Cultivation and the weeds you need to control (see should be consulted for additional infor- hand-hoeing should begin as soon as Table 4.1), mation. Topics covered include cultural weeds begin to germinate. Repeat as 2. applying the rate appropriate for your practices such as site selection and often as required to prevent the estab- soil type and organic matter content preparation, mechanical management, lishment of weeds not controlled with (see Table 6.18), and use of mulches (including plastic). herbicides. Mechanical cultivation and Herbicides are discussed in detail as hand-hoeing may again be necessary 3. preparing soil properly, well. Weed management as it pertains when herbicides lose their effectiveness, 4. incorporating herbicides that must be specifically to strawberry plantings is usually about two months after planting. incorporated to be effective, and discussed below. Cultivation should be shallow and done 5. having preemergence herbicides in carefully to avoid damaging established Site Preparation place before weeds emerge. plants. The cultivator may be used Good weed control starts long before the to reposition runners and daughter Apply preemergence herbicides in field is planted. As discussed in Chapter plants early in their development. The spring before weed seeds germinate to 2, cover cropping with competitive crops cultivator should be set to throw soil control summer annual weeds—this for 1 to 2 years before planting reduces shallowly into the row to anchor the means the herbicide should be in the the number of weed species in a given runners and encourage rooting of the soil when dogwoods are in full bloom. field. This practice also increases organic daughter plants. Consider applying a Applying preemergence herbicides in matter if plowed in at the end of the year. supplemental preemergence herbicide late summer will control winter annual Weeds can also be controlled before in midsummer after the desired number weeds. planting by growing other row crops of daughter plants—usually four to five such as corn. This is especially desirable Postemergence herbicides, used for plants per square foot in matted-row for a crop such as strawberries where controlling weeds after they have production—have rooted. Use poste- few chemical options exist after the crop emerged from the soil, fall into the mergence herbicides recommended is planted. This particularly strategy is categories of contact or translocated for newly planted strawberries when effective for getting yellow nutsedge (systemic). Contact herbicides such susceptible weeds are observed. Hand- under control in a prospective straw- as paraquat (Gramoxone), pelargonic pull weeds in the row that escape the berry field since both the cultivation acid (Scythe), carfentrazone (Aim), and above measures. and the herbicides registered for corn acifluorfen (Ultra Blazer) kill only the As mentioned above, herbicides are can control this noxious weed. Because foliage covered by the spray, so thorough classified as either preemergence or strawberry plants are poor competitors coverage is important. Because these postemergence in reference to their time due to their low stature, they are espe- herbicides do not translocate (move of application relative to whether the cially weak competitors against yellow within the plant), the roots survive. weed has emerged from the soil. nutsedge. Hence, control of perennial weeds is only Nonselective herbicides such as Preemergence herbicides are applied temporary since these plants will regrow glyphosate or fumigants like metam- before weed emergence and thus prevent from their root system. Translocated sodium (Vapam) can be applied during weeds from establishing. Labels often herbicides such as glyphosate (Roundup, site preparation prior to planting. A state that preemergence herbicides must others), 2,4-D, clopyralid (Stinger), major weed control objective in site be activated by rainfall, cultivation, or fluazifop (Fusilade), sethoxydim (Poast), preparation is to eliminate perennial irrigation. Typically, the purpose of these and clethodim (Select) move within the broadleaf weeds. Once strawberries are activities is to solubilize the herbicide plant and kill portions with which they planted, many perennial weed species, and move it into the zone of weed germi- may or may not have come in contact, especially broadleaves, are impossible nation, as well as to prevent herbicide eventually killing the entire plant. to control with herbicides due to few losses as a vapor. Of preemergence herbi- Postemergence herbicides also can effective options, so controlling them cides labeled for strawberries, DCPA be classified as selective or nonselective. before planting is the most viable option. (Dacthal) and napropamide (Devrinol) Selective herbicides kill only certain work by inhibiting cell division mainly classes of weeds, while nonselective Weed Control after Planting in the roots, and terbacil (Sinbar) works herbicides kill all weeds. Scythe, Many growers wish they could get by inhibiting photosynthesis. Sinbar, Gramoxone, and glyphosate are nonse- season-long control with preemergence besides having this effect on germinating lective herbicides and therefore kill herbicides. However, this usually weeds, also kills recently emerged or damage any plant with which they requires use of a relatively high herbicide weeds (those just at the cotyledon stage). come in contact. Scythe and Gramoxone rate, so with longer weed control comes Chateau is a premergence herbicide disrupt cell membranes. Glyphosate a higher risk of stunting the crop plant. that inhibits the manufacture of chloro- inhibits amino acid production and This may be especially problematic with phyll, and also has burndown activity, thus the production of protein in the Chapter 6 ❦ Strawberries 103 plant. Fusilade, Poast, and Select are grasses and certain broadleaved weeds, occur during subsequent applications. translocated selective herbicides that including chickweed, at the germination Tank-mixing with 2,4-D when treating work on grasses by inhibiting fatty acid stage. It will not control established dormant matted-row strawberries in synthesis, thus killing their growing weeds. Devrinol at half the maximum early spring improves the spectrum of points. The translocated herbicides 2,4-D rate can be applied to weed-free soil weeds controlled, as does tank-mixing and Stinger are growth regulators—they immediately after transplanting straw- with Gramoxone when applying a work through a variety of effects and berries. It can also be applied to new and shielded spray between the rows of are effective primarily on broadleaves. established plantings in the late summer strawberries grown on plastic mulch. When using postemergence herbicides, or early fall, but only after the desired Oil concentrate at 1 percent of the spray best results are obtained by: number of daughter plants have estab- solution volume or nonionic surfactant 1. carefully matching the chemical with lished since Devrinol inhibits daughter at 0.25 percent of the spray solution the weeds you need to control (see plant rooting. In addition, Devrinol can volume may be added to improve Table 4.1), be applied from late fall through early control of emerged weeds but also may winter (not on frozen ground) or in early increase the risk of crop injury. Chateau 2. treating when weeds are actively spring. Application in the fall just before provides control of wild pansy (Johnny- growing and not under drought winter mulching is especially useful Jump-Up), chickweed, groundsel, and stress, since Devrinol will prevent growth of many other broadleaf weeds common in 3. adding an appropriate surfactant or any small-grain seedlings emerging strawberry plantings. other adjuvant if the label calls for it, from the mulch and will provide control Terbacil (Sinbar) is a preemergence 4. applying contact herbicides when of spring-germinating weeds. While herbicide that also is effective against crop and weeds are within the recom- Devrinol is useful at several times, there susceptible weeds when newly germi- mended size and/or leaf stage, is a limit of 4 pounds of ai (8 pounds nated. Sinbar controls many annual of Devrinol 50DF) per acre per year. 5. applying under calm conditions to broadleaf weeds but may be weak on Devrinol is broken down by sunlight avoid spray drift, pigweed species. During the estab- and therefore must be incorporated by lishment year, Sinbar can be used at low 6. verifying whether two postemergence rainfall, ½ inch of irrigation, or shallow rates after transplanting but before new herbicides can be combined without cultivation within 24 hours after appli- runner plants start to root. If strawberry affecting crop tolerance or weed cation. This moves the herbicide into the transplants have developed new foliage control when considering tank mixes. soil and prevents breakdown. Do not prior to application, the spray must be To use herbicides effectively, there is apply from bloom through harvest. followed immediately by ½ to 1 inch no substitute for thorough knowledge of DCPA (Dacthal) is a soil-applied of irrigation or rainfall to wash the soil and herbicide characteristics. There preemergence herbicide that can be Sinbar off the strawberry foliage since may be some confusion about the proper applied before transplanting if shallowly unacceptable crop injury may result rate of herbicides to use on the crop. incorporated or at any time after trans- through foliar absorption. University Most recommendations are given as a planting to weed-free soil. In established data from Rutgers have shown that more range. What factors dictate proper appli- plantings, it can be applied to weed-free consistent weed control and less crop cation rates? Generally, heavier soils soil in the fall or spring but not after injury occurs when Sinbar 80WP at 1 oz/ require more of an herbicide than lighter bloom. Dacthal primarily controls acre is applied at 3-week intervals rather soils because the chemicals adsorb to annual grasses and certain small-seeded than higher rates. Applications should clay particles and organic matter in broadleaf weeds such as field pansy, be begun 3 to 6 weeks after transplanting heavier soils. In addition, the presence chickweed, lambsquarters, and purslane. when the strawberries have three new of undecomposed organic matter on the Flumioxazin (Chateau) is a soil-applied full-size trifoliate leaves, but before soil surface can lower herbicide effec- preemergence herbicide that also has weeds exceed 1 inch in height. Research tiveness. Control may be more difficult burndown activity, similar to Goal. at Penn State also shows that applying if the herbicide is applied over mulching It must be applied to plants that are Sinbar in higher volumes of water may materials. Table 6.18 gives rate ranges for dormant and is labeled only for use on decrease negative effects by decreasing preemergent strawberry herbicides on established plants during the fall and the concentration of Sinbar applied. different soil types, and Table 6.19 gives spring. Damage will occur to green During the establishment year, Sinbar additional recommendations for weed tissue that comes in contact with the can also be applied in late summer control in strawberries by time of year. herbicide. Chateau can be difficult to or early fall to control winter annual Brief descriptions of herbicides clean out of a sprayer. Sprayers used for weeds, such as chickweed, following the available for use on strawberries follow. Chateau must be thoroughly cleaned application with irrigation or rainfall. In Do not use these materials without according to label “Clean Out Instruc- late fall, but before the ground is frozen, consulting Table 6.19 for recommended tions” if the tank or any part of the Sinbar can be applied to extend weed rates, timings, and restrictions. sprayer will be used for nondormant control through the following harvest Napropamide (Devrinol) is a soil- applications or on other crops. season. In established plantings, Sinbar applied, selective, preemergence Otherwise, unexpected damage may can be used at renovation after the old herbicide that controls many annual leaves have been removed but before 104 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 new growth begins. It can also be used in before removal (when dandelions have When two applications are used to established plantings prior to mulching emerged through the straw but before control susceptible hard-to-kill perennial in late fall, though at higher rates than in strawberries begin active growth) to be weeds, spray the first application in the the establishment year. valuable. However, 2,4-D application spring at least 30 days before harvest Growers should note that Sinbar is particularly useful at renovation to and the second application after harvest 80WP may be applied at a maximum of 8 control dandelion and other established at renovation. Spray additives are not ounces per year. Lower rates are recom- broadleaved weeds. Apply immediately needed or required by the label and are mended for light, textured soils and soils after harvest and allow 5 to 7 days for not recommended. with 1 to 2 percent organic matter. Sinbar maximum translocation before mowing. Do not tank-mix Stinger with other should not be used on soils with less Previously issued labels allowed use in herbicides registered for use in straw- than ½ percent organic matter. Do not late fall when the plants were dormant. berries. Stinger has residual soil activity; add surfactant, oil concentrate, or any However, if applied before plants were therefore, observe restrictions concerning other spray additive or tank mix with fully dormant 2,4-D had the potential to subsequent crops to avoid injury from any other pesticide unless the mixture is damage developing flower buds. Labels herbicide carryover. approved on the Sinbar label. currently issued do not include the late- Clethodim (Select) and sethoxydim Strawberry varieties vary in their fall timing. Some crops, such as tomatoes (Poast) are foliar-applied, postemer- sensitivity to Sinbar. Some varieties (e.g., and grapes, are especially sensitive to gence, translocated herbicides for grass Earliglow) are tolerant while others (e.g., 2,4-D. Follow label instructions to avoid control. Both can be applied at any time Guardian) are known to be sensitive. drift to sensitive crops. Do not apply after the planting is established when When low rates (fewer than 4 ounces unless possible injury to the crop is grasses are at the specified growth of product) are applied to unstressed acceptable. stages. For best results, treat annual plants, injury is unlikely on most Clopyralid (Stinger) can be used legally grasses when they are actively growing varieties. When using maximum labeled only in states with a “Special Local and before tillers are present. Both rates in established plantings, consider Needs” label (in the Mid-Atlantic region: Select and Poast control many annual treating a small area to determine Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Maryland, and certain perennial grasses. Select whether the variety you are growing is and Virginia). controls annual bluegrass but will not sensitive. Stinger is a foliar-applied, selective, consistently control goosegrass. Neither

Pendimethalin (Prowl H2O) is a postemergence, translocated herbicide. will control yellow nutsedge, wild onion, preemergence herbicide that controls In new plantings, it can be used in late or broadleaf weeds. Control may be many annual grasses and some small- summer and early fall. In established reduced if grasses are large or if hot, dry seeded broadleaf weeds. As the formu- plantings, it can be used in the spring weather or drought conditions occur. lation name implies, the material is at least 30 days prior to harvest, and Repeated applications may be needed to water based, which offers certain advan- after harvest through early fall. Stinger control certain perennial grasses. Crop tages. However, large amounts rainfall controls weeds in the composite and oil concentrate should be added as 1 or irrigation after application may result legume plant families. Common annuals percent of the spray solution (1 gallon in reduced performance. In matted-row controlled include galinsoga, ragweed of oil per 100 gallons of spray solution). production during the establishment species, common cocklebur, groundsel, Using oil concentrate may increase the year, it can be used as a broadcast spray pineappleweed, clover, and vetch. Peren- risk of crop injury when hot or humid either before planting, or soon after nials controlled include Canada thistle, conditions prevail. To reduce the risk planting before new foliage begins to goldenrod species, aster species, and of crop injury, omit additives or switch grow. Applying later than this can result mugwort (wild chrysanthemum). Spot to a nonionic surfactant when grasses in stunting of plants. Once the plants treatment of Canada thistle colonies with are small and soil moisture is adequate. have begun growing, it can be applied Stinger is often all that is required since Do not tank-mix with or apply within 2 between the rows if a shielded sprayer fields are rarely completely infested. to 3 days of any other pesticide unless is used. Other allowable timings for use Stinger will not control many common labeled because the risk of crop injury are after the plants are dormant in the broadleaved weeds such as pigweed and may be increased or control of grasses fall and after renovation. In plasticulture lambsquarters. Stinger is very effective may be reduced. plantings, this material can be used on weeds less than 2 to 4 inches tall, but Paraquat (Gramoxone), pelargonic between the rows. it is less effective and takes longer to acid (Scythe), carfentrazone (Aim), 2,4-D amine is a foliar-applied, selective, work when weeds are larger. Use 2 to 4 and acifluorfen (Ultra Blazer) are postemergence, translocated herbicide fluid ounces to control annual weeds less foliar-applied, postemergence, contact used to control established annual and than 2 inches tall. Increase the rate to 4 (nontranslocated) herbicides sometimes perennial broadleaved weeds. It will to 8 fluid ounces to control larger annual referred to as “burn-down” materials. not control grasses. It can be used in the weeds. Apply the maximum rate of 10½ They only affect the parts of plants 2 spring when the strawberries are still fluid ounces ( /3 pint) in one application with which they contact, so incom- dormant. Some growers find applying or split into two applications to suppress plete coverage results in incomplete 2,4-D in the spring over the straw mulch or control perennial weeds, but do not control. They are most useful for annual exceed 10½ fluid ounces in one year. Chapter 6 ❦ Strawberries 105 weeds, especially when the weeds Weeds between the mulched beds can any perennial weeds. Spot treat perennial are small. They only burn the tops off be controlled with standard herbicides. weeds even if only small patches exist. of perennial weeds, which have the Band the treatment between the strips During the fall that precedes planting, capacity to regrow from their roots. of plastic. New options for controlling seed a rye cover crop that will over- Scythe can be somewhat less effective weeds between rows are Chateau 51DF winter and build soil organic matter; than Gramoxone, and relatively large and Prowl H2O. Chateau 51DF may be lime and fertilize according to soil test volumes of the herbicide are required. applied between the rows of plastic at 3 results to raise soil fertility levels. However, Scythe has the advantage of ounces per acre using a shielded sprayer 2. Prevent establishment of weeds by being safer to the applicator and can be as soon as possible after planting. using timely applications of preemer- used up until the day of harvest. Adding Devrinol 50DF at 4 pounds per gence herbicides and cultivation acre will broaden the spectrum of weeds Plasticulture Weed Control throughout the establishment year. controlled. Prowl H O may be applied Fumigation or use of herbicides between 2 At planting in the spring, use 2 to 4 at 1.5 to 3.0 pints per acre, calculating the time that beds are raised and plastic pounds of Devrinol 50WP (or other the rate on only the area treated, not is laid is essential to control weeds. formulation) or 6 to 12 pints of Dacthal concentrating the entire per acre rate into Labeled residual herbicides cannot 6F per acre (for grasses) plus 1 to 2 the row middles. Grasses between the be used over the top of the plastic to ounces of Sinbar 80WP per acre (for rows and around plant holes can also be provide adequate weed control around broadleaves) immediately after planting. controlled postemergence with applica- the plant hole. Several weed control Be sure to see Sinbar precautions about tions of Poast 1.5EC. See recommenda- options are listed below to control organic matter and variety sensitivity. tions for Poast 1.5EC in Table 6.19. troublesome winter annuals and other Irrigation or rainfall immediately after weeds that grow around plant holes. Matted-Row Weed Control with herbicide application is needed to incor- Herbicides porate the herbicide, and, in the case of Option 1: Prepare soil, apply fertilizer, Recommendations for use of herbicides Devrinol, avoid degradation by sunlight. then apply fumigant. See Chapter 3 for at various stages of the crop’s growth Dacthal may be preplant incorporated. additional information on fumigation. are described in detail in Table 6.19. The Sinbar application can be delayed Wait 20 days to allow the fumigant to Various herbicide options exist, but not 3 to 4 weeks after planting. However, if act and disperse. Then prepare raised all will be needed. In addition, other applied after strawberries have produced beds as described above and apply 4 to 6 steps can be taken to minimize weed new foliage, it must be irrigated off of pounds per acre of Devrinol 50DF to the problems. A sample—and commonly foliage immediately after application. surface of the bed and the area between used—weed control program for matted- In the summer of the planting year, beds. Lay drip irrigation and plastic row production is given below to aid in the initial herbicide application will be mulch. “putting everything together” into an effective for 6 to 8 weeks. Following ~or~ integrated weed management program. this, cultivation is essential for good Option 2: Apply fertilizer, prepare raised strawberry weed control. Frequent Sample Weed Control Program for cultivation will control seedling weeds. beds, and inject metam sodium (Vapam Matted-Row Strawberries HL) at 56 to 75 gallons per acre or 37 Poast or Select will control grass weeds, Weed control is often cited as the largest gallons per mulched acre. Immediately and Stinger may be applied later in the challenge in matted-row production. reshape beds (if necessary to form a firm, summer to control certain broadleaved However, you can achieve excellent crowned bed) and apply 4 to 6 pounds weeds that escape cultivation. These weed control by following a weed control per acre of Devrinol 50DF to the surface herbicides only control weeds that are program using the following steps. of the bed and the area between beds, present at the time of application. and lay drip irrigation and plastic mulch. 1. Eliminate perennial weeds before In late summer and early fall of the Wait 20 days between fumigation and planting strawberries. planting year (late August or early planting to allow the fumigant to act and One or two years before strawberry September), cultivate and then apply 2 disperse. planting, eliminate perennial weeds by to 4 pounds Devrinol 50WP (or other growing rotational crops (corn, pumpkin, formulation) plus 2 to 3 ounces of Sinbar. ~or~ others) that compete with weeds and This application is important because it Option 3: Apply fertilizer and prepare allow for the use of herbicides that will prevent establishment of many fall raised beds as described above. Apply control perennial weeds. For instance, germinating weeds. Be sure to irrigate 4 to 6 pounds per acre of Devrinol Dual can be used in sweet corn to control or time applications to coincide with 50DF to the surface of the bed. Apply yellow nutsedge. Stinger can be used rainfall to incorporate the Devrinol and drip irrigation and plastic mulch. Inject in small grains and corn to suppress wash Sinbar off of strawberry foliage. metam sodium (Vapam HL) through the Canada thistle. In addition, rotational In late fall after plants are dormant, drip system at 37 gallons per mulched crops that get frequent cultivation are inspect the planting. If many broad- acre. Wait 20 days between fumigation often perennial weed free. leaved weeds are present, note which and planting to allow the fumigant to act In the late summer or fall the year before types of weeds are present to be ready and to disperse. strawberry planting, apply Roundup, for spring applications of 2,4-D or 2,4-D, or Stinger, if necessary, to clean up Stinger. 106 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Just before mulching apply 4 to 6 winter or early spring, and Stinger can winter. If the maximum seasonal rate pounds of Devrinol 50WP (or other be applied prior to 30 days from harvest. of 8 ounces per acre of Sinbar has not formulation) per acre. This is important However, due to previous herbicide and been used, the balance (up to 4 ounces to prevent germination of wheat or straw mulch use, herbicides at this point per acre) may also be applied prior to rye seed (and other weed seeds) in should not be necessary. mulching. the mulch. Mulch immediately after During renovation after harvest, Repeat the “bearing year” program in Devrinol application or irrigate it in. The apply the full rate (1½ quarts) of 2,4-D subsequent years. maximum rate of Devrinol 50WP per amine (Formula 40 or Amine 4) or 4. Spot treat weeds that escape before year is 8 pounds per acre, so subtract another postemergent herbicide (if a they get out of hand. previous application rates from 8 and better match with your weeds) imme- apply the balance. If the maximum diately after harvest and then wait 5 to seasonal rate of 8 ounces per acre of 7 days so it can translocate within the Sinbar has not been used, the balance weeds. Next, mow off strawberry foliage (up to 4 ounces per acre) may also be and fertilize and narrow rows. Then applied prior to mulching. apply Sinbar at the maximum use rate Use plenty of clean rye or wheat for your soils and irrigate. Stinger may straw mulch. Many growers grow their also be used at renovation and if Canada own rye straw, harvesting it before it thistle is present. forms heads. In any event, be sure that In the summer, spot treat perennial the straw used for mulch is not forming weed patches (Canada thistle) with seed heads. Straw infested with weed Stinger (if your state has a Special Local seedheads, such as Canada thistle, Needs label), if the maximum yearly rate should be avoided. (2/3 pint) hasn’t already been reached. 3. Use methods of weed control that are In the late summer or early fall, apply 2 tailored to your weed species during to 4 pounds of Devrinol 50WP per acre. the harvest years. See Step 2 for late-fall application, In the spring of the first bearing year, after plants are dormant. Be sure to Poast may be applied within 7 days of apply the balance of your Devrinol (4 harvest, but grass weeds are unlikely to to 6 pounds) just prior to mulching or be present. An application of 2,4-D can in late fall to control volunteer grain be made to emerging dandelions in late and other weed seed germination over

Table 6.18. Per-acre rates per application for preemergence (residual) herbicides for common soil types for strawberries. Rates for each active ingredient are followed by the corresponding rates of a commonly available product containing the active ingredient listed.

Soil Type / % Organic Matter Sand Loamy Sand Sandy Loam Loam Silt Loam Clay Loam Herbicide 0–1 1–2 0–1 1–2 0–1 1–2 2–4 1–2 2–4 1–2 2–4 1–2 2–4 Flumioxazin (oz ai) 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 Chateau 51WDG (oz) 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 DCPA (lb ai) 4.5–6 4.5–6 4.5–6 4.5–6 4.5–6 4.5–6 4.5–6 6–7.5 6–7.5 6–7.5 7.5–9 7.5–9 7.5–9 Dacthal 6F (pt) 6–8 6–8 6–8 6–8 6–8 6–8 6–8 8–10 8–10 8–10 10–12 10–12 10–12 Napropamidea (lb ai) 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 Devrinol 50DF (lb) 4–8 4–8 4–8 4–8 4–8 4–8 4–8 4–8 4–8 4–8 4–8 4–8 4–8 Terbacilb (oz ai) — 1.6 — 1.6 — 2.4 2.4 2.4 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 Sinbar 80WDG (oz) — 2 — 2 — 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 Pendimethalin (lb ai) 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.2 1.2 1.4

Prowl H2O (pt) 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.5 2.5 3.0 — = Not labeled (do not use). a. Use the lower recommended rate when tank-mixing with another preemergence herbicide, unless annual grass pressure is severe. b. Use one-half the recommended rate when tank-mixing with another preemergence herbicide. Chapter 6 ❦ Strawberries 107

Table 6.19. Herbicides for matted-row strawberry weed control. Note: See text for description of plasticulture weed control options. The information below is correct to the best of our knowledge. Other formulations with the same active ingredient as some of the products listed below may exist that may or may not be labeled for the same uses. Always consult the label before making pesticide applications. Read the text for information on cultural practices to minimize pest incidence. See Table 3.2 for limits on states in which these cannot be used, use status (general versus restricted), days-to-harvest limitations, and reentry intervals, and Table 6.18 to more closely determine the rate for your soil type where necessary. Information was current as of July 1, 2012.

Product Rate/A Weeds Timing of Treatment/Comments Active Ingredient Rate/Aa (Days to Harvest)b TRANSPLANTING YEAR: NEW PLANTINGS—AT PLANTING OR POSTTRANSPLANT Preemergent Annual grasses, certain small- Apply preplant incorporated with shallow DCPA, 6–9 lb Dacthal 6F, 8–12 pt (—) seeded broadleaf weeds cultivation before transplanting, or apply anytime after transplanting to weed-free soil. Annual grasses, suppresses or Apply to weed-free soil immediately after Napropamide, 1–2 lb Devrinol 50DF, 2–4 lb controls certain annual broadleaf transplanting. Activate with one-half inch sprinkler (prebloom) weeds irrigation within 24 hours after application. If left on the soil surface, napropamide (Devrinol) is broken down by sunlight. Irrigation moves the herbicide into the soil and prevents breakdown by the sun. Controls many annual broadleaf weed Apply 1 to 2 dry ounces of Sinbar 80WDG per acre after Terbacil, 0.05–0.10 lb Sinbar 80WDGc, 1–2 oz (110) species, but may be weak on pigweed transplanting but before new runner plants start to root. species Do not add surfactant, oil concentrate, or any other spray additive, or tank-mix with any other pesticide unless the mixture is approved on the Sinbar 80WDG label. If strawberry transplants are allowed to develop new foliage prior to application, the spray must be followed immediately by 0.5 to 1.0 inches of irrigation or rainfall to wash the Sinbar 80WDG off the strawberry foliage, or unacceptable crop injury may result. University data has shown that more consistent weed control and less crop injury occurs when 0.05 lb/A, 1 dry ounce of Sinbar 80WDG is applied at 3 week intervals. Begin applications 3 to 6 weeks after transplanting, when the strawberries have 3 new full size trifoliate leaves, but before weeds exceed 1 inch in height. Applying Sinbar is higher volumes of water per acre may minimize injury by decreasing the concentration of Sinbar applied. Certain varieties differ in their sensitivity to Sinbar. Determine varietal tolerance before spraying field. Do not apply Sinbar 80WDG to soils with less than 0.5% organic matter. Do not use more than 8 ounces of Sinbar per acre per year.

Controls most annual grasses and This product may be applied pre- or posttransplant. Pendimethalin, 0.7–1.4 lb Prowl H2O, 1.5–3.0 pt (35) certain small-seeded broadleaf However, most data as of this writing indicate that weeds application of this material prior to transplanting is safer. May also be applied through sprinkler irrigation prior to transplanting if adequate measure are taken to prevent backflow. See label.

continued 108 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 6.19. Herbicides for matted-row strawberry weed control, continued. Product Rate/A Weeds Timing of Treatment/Comments Active Ingredient Rate/Aa (Days to Harvest)b NEW PLANTINGS—SUMMER THROUGH EARLY FALL Preemergent Controls many annual broadleaf Apply 2 to 6 dry ounces of Sinbar 80WDG per acre Terbacil, 0.10–0.3 lb Sinbar 80WDGc, 2–6 oz (110) weed species, but may be weak on in late summer or early fall to control winter annual pigweed species broadleaf weeds. Use lower rates on coarse textured sandy soils low in organic matter, and higher rates on fine textured silt and clay soils high in organic matter. Do not add surfactant, oil concentrate, or any other spray additive, or tank-mix with any other pesticide unless the mixture is approved on the Sinbar 80WDG label. If the crop is not dormant at the time of application, the spray must be followed immediately by 0.5 to 1.0 inches of irrigation or rainfall to wash the Sinbar 80WDG off the foliage, or unacceptable crop injury may result. Certain varieties differ in their sensitivity to Sinbar. Determine varietal tolerance before spraying field. Do not apply Sinbar 80WDG to soils with less than 0.5% organic matter. Do not use more than 8 ounces of Sinbar per acre per year. Applying Sinbar in higher volumes of water per acre may minimize injury by decreasing the concentration of Sinbar applied.

Controls most annual grasses and A second application of this material is allowed Pendimethalin, 0.7–1.4 lb Prowl H2O, 1.5–3.0 pt (35) certain small-seeded broadleaf between the rows after the plants are established, weeds but it must not be allowed to contact the plants. Reduce per acre rate to correspond to the area sprayed (i.e., do not concentrate the entire per acre amount into the row middles). Do not exceed 6 pints per acre per season. Postemergent Emerged annual grasses and certain The use of oil concentrate may increase the risk of Clethodim, 0.094–0.125 lb Select 2EC, 6–8 fl oz plus oil perennial grasses crop injury when hot or humid conditions prevail. To concentrate at 1% of the spray reduce the risk of crop injury, omit additives or switch solution volume (1 gal per 100 Clethodim (Select) controls annual to nonionic surfactant when grasses are small and gal of spray solution) (4), or bluegrass, but will not consistently soil moisture is adequate. Control may be reduced Selectmax 0.97EC, 12–16 fl control goosegrass if grasses are large or if hot, dry weather or drought oz plus nonionic surfactant at conditions occur. For best results, treat annual grasses 0.25% of the spray solution when they are actively growing and before tillers are volume (1 qt/100 gal of spray present. Repeated applications may be needed to solution) (4), or control certain perennial grasses. Yellow nutsedge, wild onion, or broadleaf weeds will not be controlled. Sethoxydim, 0.2–0.4 lb Poast 1.5EC, 1–2 pt plus oil Do not tank-mix with or apply within 2 to 3 days of concentrate at 1% of the spray any other pesticide unless labeled as the risk of crop solution volume (1 gal per 100 injury may be increased or reduced control of grasses gal of spray solution); do not may result. exceed 2.5 pints of Poast per acre per season (7)

continued Chapter 6 ❦ Strawberries 109

Table 6.19. Herbicides for matted-row strawberry weed control, continued. Product Rate/A Weeds Timing of Treatment/Comments Active Ingredient Rate/Aa (Days to Harvest)b Certain annual and perennial A Special Local Needs label [24(c)] has been approved Clopyralid, 0.047–0.25 lb Stingerd, 2–10.5 fl oz (30) broadleaf weeds in the composite for the use of Stinger to control weeds in strawberries and legume plant families including in Maryland, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. Canada thistle If newly planted, do not make an application in spring directly after planting; instead, make a late summer application that year after plants are well established and, if needed, a spring application the following year. See comments in text and later in this table. ESTABLISHED STRAWBERRY BEDS: NEW PLANTINGS—LATE FALL DORMANT Preemergent Annual grasses, certain broadleaf Apply to weed-free soil in the fall and repeat in early DCPA, 6–9 lb Dacthal 6F, 8–12 pt (—) weeds spring, but do not apply after bloom. Annual grasses and certain broadleaf Apply in late fall through early winter (not on frozen Napropamide, 2–4 lb Devrinol 50DF, 4–8 lb weeds including chickweed spp. ground) or in early spring. Do not apply from bloom (prebloom) through harvest. Rainfall or irrigation will increase effectiveness. Do not exceed 8 lb of Devrinol 50DF per year. Controls many annual broadleaf Apply just prior to mulching in late fall to extend Terbacil, 0.10–0.2 lb Sinbar 80WDGc, 2–4 oz (110) weeds, but may be weak on pigweed weed control through harvest the following spring. species. Controls certain grasses Use lower rates on coarse textured sandy soils low in organic matter, and higher rates on fine textured silt and clay soils high in organic matter. Do not add surfactant, oil concentrate, or any other spray additive. Certain varieties differ in their sensitivity to Sinbar. Determine varietal tolerance before spraying field. Do not apply Sinbar 80WDG to soils with less than 0.5% organic matter. Do not use more than 8 ounces of Sinbar per acre per year.

Most annual grasses and certain Apply after plants are fully dormant in the fall or Pendimethalin, 0.7–1.4 lb Prowl H2O, 1.5–3.0 pt (35) small-seeded broadleaf weeds in early winter. Do not exceed 6 pints per acre per season. Preemergent with some burndown activity Broadleaf weeds, such as wild or May be applied only if field was planted in the spring Flumioxazin, 1.5 oz Chateau WDG, 3 oz (—) field pansy (not the fall). A maximum of 3 oz per acre of Chateau may be applied per calendar year.

continued 110 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

BEARING YEARS—LATE WINTER OR EARLY SPRING Preemergent Annual grasses, certain broadleaf Apply to weed-free soil in the early spring. Do not DCPA, 6–9 lb Dacthal 6F, 8–12 pt weeds apply after bloom. (prebloom) Many broadleaf weeds, and Apply to established stands of strawberries in Flumioxazin, 1.5 oz Chateau WDG, 3 oz (—) suppresses or controls wild pansy late winter or early spring when strawberries are dormant, or in a hooded shielded spray between the rows before fruit set. Tank-mix with 2,4-D to improve the spectrum of weeds controlled in matted- row production. Oil concentrate at 1% of the spray solution (1 gal per 100 gal of spray solution) or nonionic surfactant at 0.25% of the spray solution (1 qt per 100 gal of spray solution) may be added to improve the control of emerged weeds, but also may increase the risk of crop injury. A maximum of 3 oz per acre of Chateau may be applied per calendar year. Annual grasses and certain broadleaf In early spring, only if not already applied the previous Napropamide, 2–4 lb Devrinol 50DF, 4–8 lb weeds late fall or early winter. Do not apply to frozen ground. (prebloom) Do not apply from bloom through harvest. Rainfall or irrigation will increase effectiveness. Do not exceed 8 lb of Devrinol 50DF per year.

Most annual grasses and certain Apply as an alternative to fall application. Do not Pendimethalin, 0.7–1.4 lb Prowl H2O, 1.5–3.0 pt (35) small-seeded broadleaf weeds apply if new growth has already begun to emerge from the crowns. Do not exceed 6 pints per acre per season. Postemergent Many emerged broadleaf weeds Apply to established stands in late winter or early 2,4-D, 1–1.5 lb Formula 40, 1–1.5 qt (—) including dandelion spring when the strawberries are dormant. Do not apply unless possible injury to the crop is acceptable. Do not apply 2,4-D between mid-August and winter dormancy, as it may negatively affect flower bud formation.

continued Chapter 6 ❦ Strawberries 111

Table 6.19. Herbicides for matted-row strawberry weed control, continued. Product Rate/A Weeds Timing of Treatment/Comments Active Ingredient Rate/Aa (Days to Harvest)b Certain annual and perennial A Special Local Needs Label [24(c)] has been Clopyralid, 0.047–0.25 lb Stingerd, 2–10.5 fl oz (30) broadleaf weeds in the composite approved for the use of Stinger to control weeds in and legume plant families strawberries in Maryland, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. Apply in one or two applications. When Common annuals including two applications are used to control susceptible hard- galinsoga, ragweed species, to-kill perennial weeds, spray the first application in common cocklebur, groundsel, the spring at least 30 days before harvest and second pineappleweed, clover, and vetch application at renovation, after harvest (see below). Stinger is very effective on small seedling annual and Perennials including Canada thistle, emerging perennial weeds less than 2 to 4 inches tall, goldenrod species, aster species, and but is less effective and takes longer to work when mugwort (wild chrysanthemum) weeds are larger. Use 2 to 4 fluid ounces to control annual weeds less than 2 inches tall. Increase the rate to 4 to 8 fluid ounces to control larger annual weeds. Apply the maximum rate of 10.5 fluid ounces, in one or split into two applications to suppress or control perennial weeds, but do not exceed 10.5 fluid ounces in one year. Spray additives are not needed or required by the label, and are not recommended. Do not tank-mix Stinger with other herbicides registered for use in strawberries. Stinger is a postemergence herbicide with residual soil activity. Observe restrictions on crops that follow use of Stinger, or injury may occur from herbicide carryover. Emerged annual grasses and certain See “New Plantings—Summer through Early Fall” for Clethodim, 0.094–0.125 lb Select 2EC, 6–8 fl oz plus oil perennial grasses comments. concentrate at 1% of the spray solution volume (1 gal per 100 Clethodim (Select) controls annual gal of spray solution) (4), or bluegrass, but will not consistently Selectmax 0.97EC, 12–16 fl control goosegrass. oz plus nonionic surfactant at 0.25% of the spray solution volume (1 qt/100 gal of spray solution) (4), or Sethoxydim, 0.2–0.4 lb Poast 1.5EC, 1–2 pt plus oil concentrate at 1% of the spray solution volume (1 gal per 100 gal of spray solution); do not exceed 2.5 pints of Poast per acre per season (7) BEARING YEARS—RENOVATION THROUGH SUMMER Postemergent Many emerged broadleaf weeds Apply to established stands immediately after the 2,4-D, 1–1.5 lb Formula 40, 1–1.5 qt (—) including dandelion last picking. Do not apply between mid-August and winter dormancy due to negative effects on flower bud formation.

continued 112 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 6.19. Herbicides for matted-row strawberry weed control, continued. Product Rate/A Weeds Timing of Treatment/Comments Active Ingredient Rate/Aa (Days to Harvest)b Preemergent Primarily broadleaf weeds but not Apply at postharvest renovation after old leaves Terbacil, 0.2–0.4 lb Sinbar 80WDGc, 4–8 oz (110) pigweed species have been removed but before new growth begins. If using Sinbar, another product may also be needed Certain grasses to control annual grasses. Use lower rates on coarse textured sandy soils low in organic matter, and higher rates on fine textured silt and clay soils high in organic matter. Do not add surfactant, oil concentrate, or any other spray additive. Certain varieties differ in their sensitivity to Sinbar. Determine varietal tolerance before spraying field. Do not apply Sinbar 80DG to soils with less than 0.5% organic matter. Do not use more than 8 ounces of Sinbar per acre per year.

Annual grasses and certain small- Apply after mowing, but prior to emergence of new Pendimethalin, 0.7–1.4 lb Prowl H2O, 1.5–3.0 pt (35) seeded broadleaf weeds growth. Do not exceed 6 pints per acre per season. Annual grasses, certain broadleaf Apply to weed-free soil. DCPA, 6–9 lb Dacthal 6F, 8–12 pt (—) weeds Postemergent Certain annual and perennial A Special Local-Needs Label [24(c)] has been Clopyralid, 0.047–0.25 lb Stingerd, 2–10.5 fl oz (30) broadleaf weeds in the composite approved for the use of Stinger to control weeds in and legume plant families strawberries in Maryland, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. Apply in one or two applications. When Common annuals controlled two applications are used to control susceptible hard- include galinsoga, ragweed species, to-kill perennial weeds, spray the first application in common cocklebur, groundsel, the spring at least 30 days before harvest and second pineappleweed, clover, and vetch application at renovation, after harvest (see below). Stinger is very effective on small seedling annual and Perennials controlled include emerging perennial weeds less than 2 to 4 inches tall, Canada thistle, goldenrod species, but is less effective and takes longer to work when aster species, and mugwort (wild weeds are larger. Use 2 to 4 fluid ounces to control chrysanthemum) annual weeds less than 2 inches tall. Increase the rate to 4 to 8 fluid ounces to control larger annual weeds. Apply the maximum rate of 10.5 fluid ounces, in one or split into two applications to suppress or control perennial weeds, but do not exceed 10.5 fluid ounces in one year. Spray additives are not needed or required by the label, and are not recommended. Do not tank-mix Stinger with other herbicides registered for use in strawberries. Stinger is a postemergence herbicide with residual soil activity. Observe restrictions on crops that follow use of Stinger, or injury may occur from herbicide carryover. For control of Canada thistle from after harvest to early fall, apply Stinger after the majority of basal leaves have emerged but prior to bud stage.

continued Chapter 6 ❦ Strawberries 113

Table 6.19. Herbicides for matted-row strawberry weed control, continued. Product Rate/A Weeds Timing of Treatment/Comments Active Ingredient Rate/Aa (Days to Harvest)b Emerged annual weeds between Apply as a directed shields spray to control emerged Paraquat, 0.5 lb Gramoxone Inteon 2SC, 2 pt, rows, variable suppression of weeds between the rows after crop establishment. plus nonionic surfactant at perennial weeds 0.25% of the spray solution Do not allow spray or spray drift to contact the crop or volume (1 qt per 100 gal of spray injury may result. Use shields to prevent spray contact solution) (21) with the crop plants. Do not exceed a spray pressure of 30 psi. Do not apply more than 3 times per season.

See the label for additional information and warnings. Postemergent Emerged annual grasses and certain See “New Plantings—Summer through Early Fall” for Clethodim, 0.094–0.125 lb Select 2EC, 6–8 fl oz plus oil perennial grasses comments. concentrate at 1% of the spray solution volume (1 gal per 100 Clethodim (Select) controls annual gal of spray solution) (4), or bluegrass, but will not consistently Selectmax 0.97EC, 12–16 fl control goosegrass. oz plus nonionic surfactant at 0.25% of the spray solution volume (1 qt/100 gal of spray solution) (4), or Sethoxydim, 0.2–0.4 lb Poast 1.5EC, 1–2 pt plus oil concentrate at 1% of the spray solution volume (1 gal per 100 gal of spray solution); do not exceed 2.5 pints of Poast per acre per season (7) ESTABLISHED PLANTINGS—LATE FALL DORMANT Preemergent Annual grasses, certain broadleaf Apply to weed-free soil in the fall and repeat in early DCPA, 6–9 lb Dacthal 6F, 8–12 pt (—) weeds spring. Do not apply after bloom. Annual grasses and certain broadleaf Apply in late fall through early winter (not on frozen Napropamide, 2–4 lb Devrinol 50DF, 4–8 lb weeds including chickweed spp. ground) or in early spring. Do not apply from bloom (prebloom) through harvest. Rainfall or irrigation will increase effectiveness. Do not exceed 8 lb of Devrinol 50DF per year. Many annual broadleaf weeds, but Apply just prior to mulching in late fall to extend Terbacil, 0.2–0.4 lb Sinbar 80WDGc, 4–8 oz (110) not pigweed species weed control through harvest the following spring. Use lower rates on coarse textured sandy soils low Certain grasses in organic matter, and higher rates on fine textured silt and clay soils high in organic matter. Do not add surfactant, oil concentrate, or any other spray additive. Certain varieties differ in their sensitivity to Sinbar. Determine varietal tolerance before spraying field. Do not apply Sinbar 80WDG to soils with less than 0.5% organic matter. Do not use more than 8 ounces of Sinbar per acre per year.

Most annual grasses and certain Apply after plants are fully dormant in the fall or in Pendimethalin, 0.7–1.4 lb Prowl H2O, 1.5–3.0 pt (35) small-seeded broadleaf weeds early winter.

continued 114 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 6.19. Herbicides for matted-row strawberry weed control, continued. Product Rate/A Weeds Timing of Treatment/Comments Active Ingredient Rate/Aa (Days to Harvest)b Postemergent Emerged annual grasses and See “New Plantings—Summer through Early Fall” Clethodim, 0.094–0.125 lb Select 2EC, 6–8 fl oz plus oil certain perennial grasses for comments. concentrate at 1% of the spray solution volume (1 gal per 100 Clethodim (Select) controls gal of spray solution) (4), or annual bluegrass, but will not Selectmax 0.97EC, 12–16 fl consistently control goosegrass. oz plus nonionic surfactant at 0.25% of the spray solution volume (1 qt/100 gal of spray solution) (4), or Sethoxydim, 0.2–0.4 lb Poast 1.5EC, 1–2 pt plus oil concentrate at 1% of the spray solution volume (1 gal per 100 gal of spray solution); do not exceed 2.5 pints of Poast per acre per season (7) a. Adding a surfactant to these herbicides may improve their effectiveness (see labels). b. (—) indicates that days-to-harvest limitations are not specified on the label; however, use directions may limit timing to certain periods of the year or growth stages. c. Limited to a total of 8 ounces of Sinbar applied per growing season. d. One to two applications per year not to exceed 0.67 pint per acre per year. Make only one application in the spring. Additional Notes • All the rates in this table are given on a full-acre basis. If the material is to be banded along or over the row, use the following formula to calculate the banding rate: rate/A banded = rate/A broadcast x (band width in inches ÷ row spacing in inches). • With all chemicals, follow label instructions and warnings carefully. • Use pesticides safely. Consult label for restrictions. • It is unlawful to use recommended chemicals for crops not covered on the label or to use chemicals not cleared for such use on strawberry plantings. • Formulations, other than those listed, with the same active ingredient, may be labeled for the same uses. Chapter 7 ❦ Blueberries 115

Chapter 7 Introduction The Blueberry Plant Blueberries are grown throughout the The highbush blueberry originated in Mid-Atlantic region. A large, well- areas with acidic soils containing high Blueberries organized blueberry industry is located levels of organic matter and with water in New Jersey where “berryland soils,” abundantly available from a water table a type of soil made up primarily of sand only 24 inches down. This caused the and a small amount of organic matter, blueberry to develop features that make are found. Other areas of the region with it well adapted to this type of envi- well-drained, low-pH soils, where native ronment, rather than to agricultural soils. indicator plants such as wild blueberries, Anatomy and Morphology rhododendrons, and mountain laurel The blueberry plant is a perennial, Contents grow, are also well suited to blueberry consisting of a shallow root system and Introduction...... 115 production. Blueberries are cultivated woody canes that originate from the Types of Plants...... 115 by many growers on heavier soils with a crown. The root system is very fibrous The Blueberry Plant...... 115 high native pH, but special well-planned with many fine feeder roots but no Anatomy and Morphology...... 115 measures must be taken if production root hairs. Root hairs, which most crop Cold-Hardiness and Chilling is to be successful. When the soil type is plants have, increase the root’s surface Requirements...... 115 too heavy (clays or clay loams) and/or area for water and nutrient uptake. The Pollination...... 116 the soil is of a limestone parent material, absence of root hairs on blueberry plants General Considerations in Choosing a Site... 116 yields will likely be low and struggles makes them very sensitive to changing Topography...... 116 with nutrient availability and plant vigor soil-water conditions. In nature, blue- Previous Crops and Field Borders...... 117 are likely to be continual. berry plant roots are colonized by a Soil Characteristics...... 117 Blueberries are long-lived plants. The Irrigation Availability...... 117 fungal symbiont that forms mycorrhizae commercial life of a blueberry planting Culture...... 117 (“fungus roots”). This symbiotic rela- can be 50 years or longer, making it Soils and Soil Preparation...... 117 tionship allows the plant to better absorb worthwhile to take the time during Obtaining Plants...... 118 nutrients, particularly nitrogen, and establishment to make sure that plant Varieties...... 118 occurs to a lesser extent when blueberry needs are being met. Planting and Establishment...... 122 plants are conventionally cultivated. Fertility...... 123 Whether this relationship occurs more Mulching...... 123 Types of Plants frequently in organic culture is not Irrigation...... 124 Several species of blueberries are indig- known. Frost Protection...... 124 enous to the United States. These include A mature cultivated blueberry bush Pruning...... 124 the lowbush blueberry (Vaccinium usually has 15 to 18 canes. Growth habit Harvest and Postharvest Handling...... 125 angustifolium), commercially important varies among cultivars—some bushes Economics...... 126 primarily in Maine and Canada; the grow very upright, while others have Pests...... 131 rabbiteye blueberry (V. ashei), grown a more spreading growth habit. Fruit Fungal and Bacterial Diseases...... 131 commercially in the southern United is borne on buds formed the previous Viruses and Phytoplasmas...... 133 Nematodes...... 134 States; and the highbush blueberry (V. growing season. corymbosum), the commercially most Insect and Mite Pests...... 134 Cold-Hardiness and Chilling widely grown blueberry in the Mid- Vertebrate Pests ...... 154 Requirements Atlantic, the Pacific Northwest, and the Weeds...... 154 Blueberries generally tolerate tempera- Midwestern United States. The infor- Weed Identification...... 154 tures to -20°F, although some cultivar mation given here pertains primarily to Practices for Minimizing Weeds variation exists. Most highbush cultivars Between the Rows...... 154 highbush blueberry production. require 750 to 800 hours of chilling Practices for Minimizing Weeds in While the highbush blueberry plant is below 45°F as a prerequisite for breaking the Rows...... 155 indigenous to North America, it has been dormancy. In the Mid-Atlantic region, Herbicides...... 155 grown as a domesticated commercial this requirement is usually met no later Problem Perennial Weeds...... 159 fruit crop for only 80 years. The original than early February. After the chilling breeding work and research was requirement is met and temperatures conducted by Miss Elizabeth White of begin to warm, water begins to move Whitesbog, New Jersey, and Dr. Fred- into plant tissues as a precursor to erick Coville, USDA botanist, shortly bud expansion. This increased water after the turn of the century. content makes the plants more susceptible to damage at low temperatures. Other types of blueberry plants such as rabbiteye and southern highbush types 116 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 have lower chilling requirements and secreted explicitly to attract insect polli- occurred, honey bee colonies should be can therefore come out of dormancy nators to the open blossoms. Individual removed from the field. too early in the year when planted in blueberry flowers remain receptive to The use of bee attractants to increase northern areas. Blueberries, like most pollen for only a few days, and adequate the efficacy of honey bee pollination fruit crops, will bloom in the early pollination must occur in this time for has been given minor attention. In spring, so choosing a site that is free of proper fruit set to occur. one study, spraying a synthetic honey frost is important. Blueberry pollen is most effectively bee queen mandibular pheromone dislodged from anthers by bees that have increased the yield of Bluecrop by at Pollination sonicating (“buzz-pollinating”) foraging least 6 percent and farm gate revenue A blueberry bush is capable of setting behavior. These bees vibrate their wing by $364 per acre. Plant hormone sprays, 100 percent of its flowers; a 70 to 80 muscles, which shakes the pollen free such as gibberellic acid, have also been percent set represents a commercially from the anther structures. Bumble bees shown to increase fruit set in poorly viable yield. Highbush varieties are (Bombus spp.) and the southeastern pollinated blueberry fields; however, this moderately to highly self-fertile. blueberry bee (Habropoda laboriosa), both hormone induces parthenocarpic fruit However, most will benefit from cross- of which are present in the Mid-Atlantic set (seedless berries), resulting in small, pollination, which can increase the region, have this foraging behavior, later maturing berries. number of seeds per berry, fruit size, while honey bees (Apis mellifera) do not. A bumble bee look alike, the carpenter and weight and hasten berry ripening, Although honey bees are less efficient bee (Xylocopa spp.), is not a good blue- all of which improve yield. Therefore, at pollinating blueberry flowers, they berry pollinator. These bees rarely visit abundant insect pollinators (bees) are make up for this by having larger blueberry flowers legitimately and needed to achieve optimal pollination, populations than non-Apis bees, whose instead pierce the flower base with their even in solid-block plantings of highly populations fluctuate by year and are tongues to steal nectar. Such illegitimate self-fertile varieties. Interplanting two often inadequate for large plantings. floral visits provide little or no polli- or more highbush cultivars will often As such, wild bees should not be relied nation. Compounding this problem is benefit fruiting characteristics. upon as the sole source of pollination. the fact that honey bees learn to utilize No concrete data exist that indicate Regardless of species, one rule of thumb the holes made by carpenter bees, and what the best arrangement of cultivars is to have four to eight bees foraging on research has shown that 80 to 90 percent is for optimum pollination; however, each blueberry plant at any given time of foraging honey bees may switch alternating blocks of four rows of each during the warmest part of the day. to flower-robbing behavior if enough cultivar is commonly suggested as a Some growers are interested in using carpenter bee damage to blueberry good middle ground for both pollination commercial bumble bee colonies for flowers has occurred. No recommenda- and cultural care considerations. Two blueberry pollination. However, not tions exist for ridding a blueberry field cultivars that bloom at the same time enough data are compiled to recommend of carpenter bees since any chemical are needed. Although cultivar-ripening this practice since commercial bumble measures taken would likely have periods vary, there is sufficient overlap bee colonies are currently more negative impacts on legitimate pollinators of bloom periods to allow most cultivars expensive to rent than honey bee as well. While actual yield loss due to to serve as pollen sources for each other. colonies and have much smaller popu- carpenter bee damage has not been docu- Individual cultivars can bloom for lation sizes (fewer than 300 adults per mented, excessive carpenter bee activity a period of 7 to more than 20 days, colony). could interfere with optimal fruit set. depending on environmental conditions. Providing one or two strong honey Providing enough honey bee colonies to Plants of early blooming cultivars tend to bee colonies (i.e., those having 30,000 overcome this potential problem would have a longer flowering period than later- or more adult bees and six or more be the best solution to ensure profitable blooming cultivars. The top four cultivars frames of brood) per acre of blueberries blueberry yields. grown in the Mid-Atlantic region bloom is usually sufficient. Beehives should be in the following sequence: Weymouth distributed throughout large fields to (early season), Duke (early midseason), general Considerations in ensure adequate flower visitation. Hives Choosing a Site Bluecrop (midseason), and Elliott should be introduced when about 5 (late season). Pick-your-own farms, in Consult considerations for crops as percent of the flowers have opened, but particular, tend to have several cultivars discussed in introductory chapters. no later than when 25 percent are at full to extend the blueberry-picking season. Additional points that apply specifically bloom. If introduced too early, honey Blueberry flowers have several to blueberries are given below. bees will find alternative plant sources characteristics that encourage cross-polli- and may prefer them over blueberry Topography nation. Inverted flowers with narrow flowers until the competitive plants stop Blueberries, like most fruit crops, will corolla openings protect the repro- blooming. Eliminating blooming weed bloom in the early spring, so choosing a ductive structures from wind and rain, species in the field will help focus bee site that is free of frost, or being prepared preventing excessive self-pollination. activity on blueberry plants. Pesticide to provide frost protection, is important. The heavy, sticky pollen grains cannot use during bloom should be avoided to When blueberries are in full bloom, the be wind blown, and fragrant nectar is prevent killing bees. Once petal drop has flowers can be injured by temperatures Chapter 7 ❦ Blueberries 117 slightly below freezing (28°F). The calcium levels and suitability of soils rapeseed will all contribute needed earliest flowering varieties are most for blueberry production and should be organic matter if plowed under when susceptible to frost injury, so avoid consulted for further information (see green. For a complete discussion of planting these on frost-prone sites. Appendix E for ordering information). preplant cover crops, see Chapter 2. Manure can be applied, but it should Previous Crops and Field Borders Irrigation Availability be composted or applied well ahead As with small fruit crops in general, Blueberries are very sensitive to fluctu- of planting to allow time for salts to be avoid planting following sod since white ating soil moisture levels due to their leached. grubs can be especially injurious to shallow root systems and fine roots. Added sulfur is generally recom- young roots. Green manure crops grown Long-term damage to the plants’ fine mended to lower soil pH, but sulfur for one or two years before planting are root system is possible when roots die off needs to be incorporated thoroughly extremely valuable for new blueberry during dry spells. Therefore, installing to be effective throughout the rooting plantings, which require a high organic trickle irrigation is highly recommended zone. The amount of time required matter content (5 percent is preferred). in plantings. While overhead irrigation to lower the soil pH varies with the Buckwheat is a good cover crop to for frost protection is not needed acidifying material used. The reaction precede blueberries because of its ability in every year, having it available is of elemental sulfur (also known as to tolerate a low soil pH. prudent. ground or powdered sulfur) with Frequently, wild blueberries may be the soil is dependent on soil microor- found in surrounding woods or unculti- Culture ganisms, which are not active unless soil vated areas. These plants can be sources temperatures are warm. Thus, elemental of viruses and other diseases, so keep Soils and Soil Preparation sulfur applied in the fall may have little new plantings at least 500 feet from wild When choosing a site for blueberry effect in lowering the soil pH until the plants. production, begin soil testing and soil following year, and the full effects may See Chapter 1 and later information preparation one to two years before not be realized for at least 6 months. on specific blueberry pests for more you plan to plant (see Appendix B for The time required for the soil pH to information on these subjects. a listing of laboratories in the region). Few areas in the Mid-Atlantic region can be lowered, along with the benefits of Soil Characteristics support blueberries without a consid- building organic matter for one or two Blueberry roots will not tolerate erable amount of soil amending prior to years, is why early site selection prior extremely dry or excessively wet soils. planting. The best soils for blueberries to planting is important. Reactions with Blueberries will thrive in light soils that are sandy loams that are moist, porous, sulfate forms such as iron sulfate take are high in organic matter and have a and acidic. Soil pH should be between place regardless of soil temperature as relatively low native pH. Blueberries 4.5 and 5.0. A lower soil pH can result microorganisms are not needed for soil fall into the category of plants known in manganese or aluminum toxicity; a reactions to take place. as “calcifuges,” which means “lime- higher pH results in the unavailability See Table 7.1 for the amount of sulfur fleeing.” While heavy (clay or clay loam) of certain nutrients, most notably iron. required to adjust your soil pH levels. soils can be amended with organic In southern New Jersey where highbush Sulfur is most frequently available in matter to improve aeration, and high blueberries originally grew, soils are a powdered form, but it is difficult to pH soils can be amended with sulfur to usually sandy loams, the water table work with in this state, so some growers lower the soil pH, nutritional problems is shallow, organic matter is high, and apply it as a slurry. Pelletized sulfur is are likely to be a continual concern and the soil pH is naturally between 4.3 relatively easy to manage. Because sulfur plant productivity is likely to be lower and 5.0. Most areas outside of southern does not move through the soil readily, than in soils that are better suited for New Jersey do not have these soil surface sulfur applications after the blueberry production. When a soil too characteristics, so soil must be amended plants are in place are relatively inef- high in calcium is used for blueberry and plantings must be mulched and fective for lowering the pH. Lowering production, magnesium deficiency is a irrigated. Even the best of soils will often the soil pH only in the plant row is also recurring problem due to competition have no more than 2 percent organic unadvisable because soil interactions of the nutrients for uptake. When matter and common limestone and clay with the high-pH soil in the row middles lowering the pH of a high-pH soil, the soils tend to be more alkaline than is will make maintaining the proper pH same chemical processes that change needed for blueberries. Because most within the row difficult. Thus, incorpo- desirable nutrients, such as iron and blueberry cultivars are not well adapted rating sulfur throughout the blueberry zinc, into plant-available forms also to heavy upland soils, most soils will field is recommended. Iron sulfate may change elements that can be toxic, such require considerable amendment with also be used at four to six times the rate as aluminum and manganese, into more organic matter if plants are to thrive. in the table for elemental sulfur. Do not available forms as well. In addition, Organic matter content can be increased use aluminum sulfate to lower the soil blueberries are extremely sensitive to by growing cover crops for two or more pH because aluminum is toxic to blue- high salt concentrations. The NRAES successive years prior to planting the berries and is already present in many Highbush Blueberry Production Guide blueberries on the site intended. Crops soils in the region in quantities that can has an excellent in-depth discussion on such as sudangrass, hairy vetch, and 118 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 negatively impact blueberry plants once find that the plants establish much Varieties the pH is lowered. more quickly. As long as plants are not Appropriate cultivar selection is crucial For organic production, select a site pot bound and effort is made to ensure for any perennial crop. Blueberry that has a soil pH as close to the ideal good root-soil contact at planting, potted cultivars can be selected so they can range (between 4.5 and 5.0) as possible. plants are a reasonable though expensive be harvested from July through mid- Fewer options may exist for lowering alternative. If the plant is pot bound, the September, if so desired. Cultivars are the soil pH as compared to conventional root ball must be cut so that the roots discussed below in order of ripening and production. Options may include peat will branch once the plant is placed in are subgrouped as “standard cultivars” moss, pine bark, organic cottonseed the hole. Remove the pot and place the and “recent cultivars.” Standard meal, and sulfur. Working closely with plant on its side. Then, cut through the cultivars are those on which long- your certifying agency when considering perimeter of the root mass four to six term data on production are available. options is best to ensure organic certifi- times, rotating the root ball between “Recent” cultivars may have been cation is not compromised. each cut. Cuts should be evenly spaced available for many years, but because At least one year before planting, around the perimeter of the root mass. of the longevity of blueberry plantings eliminate all noxious weeds (see For organic production, planting and the time it takes to evaluate new “Controlling Weeds”). Phosphorus (if stock does not need to be organi- cultivars or plant availability, there needed) should be added the fall before cally produced since blueberries are still is not much information on their planting. Potassium can be added either perennial crops. However, the planting performance. However, some truly are in the fall or spring. must be managed organically on a recent—released in the last few years as certified organic area for one year before of this writing. All of the cultivars in the Obtaining Plants harvested berries can be marketed as “recent” category are currently recom- Blueberries may be purchased as one- organic. Since harvesting newly planted mended for trial only. year-old cuttings, as two- or three-year- blueberries the first year after planting old bare-root plants, or as potted plants. is not recommended, this generally does Early Season Generally, two-year-old plants are the not affect marketing. Standard Cultivars best buy. One-year-old cuttings require The number of plants required per Bluetta very close management or mortality will acre at various spacings is given in • Bush is compact, low growing, and of be high, and the larger size of the three- Table 7.2. For a list of nurseries from medium vigor. year-old plants is often not worth the which to order blueberry plants, consult • Fruit is medium sized, soft, and blue- extra cost. Potted plants are often more Appendix C. black with fair flavor. expensive as well, but many growers • Stem scars tend to be broad; fruit can hang for a long time. • Consistent production may be a problem. Table 7.1. Amount of sulfur required to lower the soil pH.* • Winters well and does not break Target pH of Soil dormancy too early. 4.5 5.0 • Moderately resistant to mummy Sand Loam Clay Sand Loam Clay berry disease; highly susceptible to Present pH of Soil (lbs/acre) (lbs/acre) anthracnose and red ringspot virus.

4.5 0 0 0 — — — Chanticleer 5.0 175 520 610 0 0 0 • Released in 1997. 5.5 350 1,050 1,130 175 520 610 • Very early, but the early bloom time 6.0 520 1,520 1,610 350 1,050 1,130 can increase susceptibility to spring 6.5 650 2,000 2,090 520 1,520 1,610 frosts. 7.0 830 2,530 2,610 650 2,000 2,090 • Yields tend to be biennial. 7.5 1,000 3,010 3,090 830 2,530 2,610 • Very good flavor. *Iron sulfate may be used at four to six times the above rates (see text). • Early plantings not deemed successful by growers. • Needs a well-drained soil. Table 7.2. Number of blueberry plants required per acre at various spacings. • Slightly susceptible to anthracnose. Between Rows • Average resistance to both phases of In Rows 8 feet 9 feet 10 feet 11 feet 12 feet mummy berry.

4 feet 1,361 1,210 1,089 990 908 Earliblue 5 feet 1,089 968 870 792 726 • Bush is vigorous, upright. 6 feet 908 807 726 660 605 • Fruit is large, firm, and light blue Example: At a spacing of 5 feet x 10 feet, 870 plants are needed per acre. with fair flavor. Chapter 7 ❦ Blueberries 119

• Not recommended commercially in • Berry is large, light blue, and excep- Duke many areas because of erratic fruit tionally flavorful. • A vigorous, upright bush bearing set. • Scar is small and dry. medium-sized, light-blue, firm fruit • Fruit does not drop easily when ripe. • Relatively resistant to anthracnose. with a small dry scar. • Plants have some resistance to • Highly susceptible to mummy berry • Blooms late, avoiding early frosts, but powdery mildew. blight; average resistance to mummy ripens relatively early, slightly after • Especially susceptible to phomopsis berry fruit infection. Bluetta. twig blight and fusicoccum canker. • Plant has numerous canes that are • Relatively susceptible to anthracnose. Bluejay stocky and moderately branched. • Average resistance to mummy berry • Bush is vigorous, upright, and open. • Buds and wood tolerate fluctuating blight; relatively susceptible to • Berries are long stemmed and hang winter temperatures well. mummy berry fruit infection. in loose clusters; they hold on to the • Harvest can be completed in two or bush without losing their quality and three pickings. Polaris until most are ripe. • Flavor is mild but is said to improve • A cold-hardy half-high release from • Fruit is of medium size. in storage. Minnesota (1996). • Berries are firm and light blue with a • Moderately resistant to anthracnose. • Moderate productivity and average small stem scar. • Good resistance to mummy blight berry size, but has very good flavor • Wood and buds are resistant to low (primary shoot infection); moderately and aroma. winter temperatures. susceptible to mummy berry fruit • Not self-pollinating. • Flowers are less resistant to frost than infection. • Susceptible to anthracnose. Bluecrop. • Stem blight problems have been • Average resistance to both phases of • Average resistance to anthracnose. documented. mummy berry. • Resistant to both phases of mummy berry. Ivanhoe Weymouth • Field resistant to shoestring virus. • Vigorous, upright bush with • Old variety (from 1936) that has been • Production is sometimes erratic. numerous stocky, moderately widely grown. branched canes. • Fruit is relatively dark, a bit soft, of Blueray • Medium-sized light-blue fruit with average size, and has a mild, sweet • Plant is vigorous and propagates good to excellent flavor. flavor. easily. • Buds and wood tolerate fluctuating • Resistant to many diseases, except • Fruit is borne on small, tight clusters winter temperatures well. phomopsis. and canes tend to bend over, making • Moderately resistant to anthracnose; • Relatively resistant to anthracnose. it difficult to harvest mechanically; good resistance to mummy blight • Average resistance to mummy berry tight clusters can cause berries to (primary shoot infection); moderately blight; relatively susceptible to drop, especially in hot weather. susceptible to mummy berry fruit mummy berry fruit infection. • Berries are large, dark blue, and firm infection. with medium scar and excellent flavor. Recent Releases • Consistent yields in small-scale New • Consistently productive, but may Jersey test plot. Hannah’s Choice overproduce if not pruned properly. • Vigorous, upright bush. • Upright habit; very hardy. Nui • Released in 2000. • Highly susceptible to mummy berry • Produces a very high-quality, large • Fruit has superior firmness, disease and anthracnose; also suscep- berry. sweetness, and flavor with peachy tible to red ringspot virus. • Winter hardiness is questionable and overtones. growth is slow. • Large first-pick berries, with some Collins • Relatively susceptible to anthracnose. size decrease in later picks. • Ripens about 5 to 7 days after • Resistant to mummy berry blight; • Relatively resistant to anthracnose. Earliblue. relatively resistant to mummy berry • Average resistance to both phases of • Susceptible to winter injury. fruit infection. mummy berry. • Bush is vigorous and upright with • Less productive in some areas than some spreading canes. Patriot others. • May not sucker freely. • Plant is upright and vigorous, though • Fruit is large, firm, light blue, and has only medium in height. Early Midseason very good flavor and a small scar. • Fruit is large and firm with a small Standard Cultivars • Has narrow soil adaptation and dry scar and excellent flavor. Bluehaven produces only moderately. • Developed in Maine and has excellent • Bush is upright and productive but cold hardiness, but blooms early and not sufficiently hardy for northern is subject to frost. areas. • Resistant to root rot. • Average resistance to anthracnose. 120 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

• Average resistance to mummy berry Pink Champagne Bluegold blight; relatively resistant to mummy • A specialty selection, not intended for • Very productive and cold hardy berry fruit infection. mainstream production. within the region. • Fruit is dark-pink and slightly smaller • Has a very vigorous, bushy growth Reka than that of Bluecrop. habit. • An introduction from New Zealand. • Good flavor and firmness. • Ripening is concentrated. • Upright, very vigorous habit that has • Sporadic yields in New Jersey related • Below-average to very good flavor, been very productive where grown. to marginal flower bud hardiness. depending on location. • Trial results in PA indicate potential • May be better adapted to southerly • Primary downside to cultivar is that for high yields. areas. the stem sometimes remains, or when • Berries are small with a spicy flavor. • Fall foliage color and winter twig removed the skin tears. • This cultivar’s outstanding charac- color have ornamental value. • Entire clusters may come off at one teristic is that it appears to be very time. adaptable to a wide range of soil Sweetheart • New growth is a golden color. types. • Characteristic of note is excellent • Average resistance to anthracnose. • Average resistance to anthracnose. flavor. • Highly susceptible to mummy berry • Relatively resistant to both phases of • Holds up well in storage. blight; relatively resistant to mummy mummy berry. • Released in 2010. berry fruit infection. • Harvest is concentrated; do not Spartan allow to hang on bush as it develops Chippewa • Plants are vigorous, upright, and overripe flavors. • A cold-hardy half-high release from open. • Tends to overcrop; cross-pollinate and Minnesota (1996). • Fruits are large, firm, light blue, and prune hard to maintain size. • Compact bushes with medium to highly flavored. • Has some southern ancestry; hardiness large, light blue, firm, sweet fruit. • Plant performs poorly on amended not yet known. • For trial in areas where cold tolerance upland soils. • Reflowers to small degree in mild is needed. • Blooms late, but harvests relatively autumn, but not enough to produce a • Relatively susceptible to anthracnose. early; late bloom date helps prevent significant crop. • Resistant to both phases of mummy frost injury. berry. • Relatively susceptible to anthracnose. Midseason • Average resistance to both phases of Standard Cultivars Elizabeth mummy berry. • Extremely flavorful, with medium to Bluecrop large berries. Sunrise • Best midseason variety presently • No longer commercially important • Moderately vigorous bush with taller, available. because of inconsistent productivity, easily managed structure. • Bush is vigorous and upright, but but of interest to home gardeners • Fruit is similar to that of Bluetta in canes tend to be slender and whippy, because of excellent flavor. size and color, but scar and firmness which may make fruit difficult to • Resistant to anthracnose. are superior. harvest mechanically. • Relatively resistant to mummy • Very good flavor. • Is slow to send up new canes on berry blight, relatively susceptible to • Preliminary data from PA trial upland soils. mummy berry fruit infection. indicate potential. • Fruit is medium and numerous, firm, • Suitable for commercial packing and with small scars, good flavor, and is Legacy pick-your-own. resistant to cracking. • Has some V. darrowi (an evergreen • Average resistance to anthracnose. • Consistently high production and blueberry native to Florida) in its • Average resistance to both phases of good winter hardiness; season tends background and holds its leaves mummy berry. to be prolonged, requiring several through much of the winter, so its • Resistant to red ringspot virus. harvests. winter hardiness is suspect. • Outstanding characteristic is Recent Releases • Berries appear to be ripe (completely blue) well before full sweetness is extremely high yields due to a long Draper achieved, so they need to be picked harvest season while maintaining • Released in 2004 from the breeding 5 to 7 days after the full blue color is superior flavor and quality. program at Michigan State. present. • Medium to large fruit. • Ripens with Duke, but with better • Field resistant to shoestring and red • For trial only in milder or protected flavor. ringspot virus; moderately resistant to locations. • Relatively susceptible to mummy mummy berry and powdery mildew; • Resistant to anthracnose. berry blight. susceptible to anthracnose. • Average resistance to both phases of mummy berry. Chapter 7 ❦ Blueberries 121

Northland • Average in firmness, fruit continues • Resistant to anthracnose. • Fruit is of average quality and soft, so to soften after harvest. • Resistant to both phases of mummy it tends not to store well. • Similar fruit size to Bluecrop. berry. • Plants are bushy. • Robust upright plants. • Consistently productive. • Relatively susceptible to anthacnose. Chandler • Resistant to mummy berry. • Resistant to mummy berry shoot • Extremely large fruit ripens over a • Relatively resistant to anthracnose. blight, average resistance to mummy long harvest season, so this cultivar • Average resistance to mummy berry berry fruit infection. has good potential, especially for blight; relatively resistant to mummy • Intended for niche markets rather pick-your-own operations. berry fruit infection. than wide usage. • Winter hardy in northeastern PA, so far. Puru Mid- to Late Season • Very good “true blueberry” flavor. • Purported to have excellent flavor Standard Cultivars • Average resistance to both phases of and fruit quality. mummy berry. Berkeley • Upright, moderately vigorous bushes • Bush is tall, open, and spreading with light-blue, medium to large fruit. Darrow but tends to drop fruit, affecting the • Winter hardiness is uncertain. • Very large fruit on vigorous, upright efficiency of mechanical harvesting. • Average resistance to anthracnose. plants. • Berries are very large, light blue, firm, • Average resistance to a both phases of • Fruit is firm with excellent flavor and and store well in spite of a large stem mummy berry. can be slightly acidic. scar. • Average resistance to anthracnose. Toro • Flavor is only fair but sweet. • Relatively resistant to mummy • Vigorous, upright bush that is consis- • Clusters tend to be hidden by heavy berry blight, relatively susceptible to tently productive. foliage, which slows hand-picking. mummy berry fruit infection. • Fruit is large with small, dry scars • Ships poorly unless picked early in and good color and flavor. ripening period. Nelson • Begins ripening with Bluecrop but has • Production can be inconsistent. • A vigorous, upright bush. a concentrated ripening, and harvest • Winter hardiness is limited. • Fruit is large, of size similar to can be completed in two pickings. • Canes are very stout, sometimes Spartan, firm, and light blue with • Tolerates fluctuating winter tempera- making pruning difficult. very good flavor. tures well. • Slow to produce new canes. • Initial tests show it to tolerate cold • Not very self-fertile, so should be • Tends to be susceptible to fungal temperatures well. planted with another cultivar. diseases during wet seasons; also • Test-plot yields in New Jersey and • Average resistance to anthracnose. especially susceptible to some viral Michigan have been high. • Relatively resistant to mummy berry diseases. • Average resistance to anthracnose. blight; average resistance to mummy • Average resistance to anthracnose. • Average resistance to both phases of berry fruit infection. • Relatively susceptible to both phases mummy berry. of mummy berry. Recent Releases Ozarkblue Cara’s Choice Bonus • Very late flowering. • Released in 2000 as a specialty • Large fruited. • Slow to produce new canes. cultivar for exceptional fruit quality. • Very little testing has been done on • Quality is similar to that of Bluecrop. • Low- to moderate-sized spreading this cultivar. • Average resistance to anthracnose. plants. • Average resistance to anthracnose. • Average resistance to both phases of • Exceptionally firm, sweet, and • Average resistance to mummy berry mummy berry. flavorful. blight, relatively susceptible to Rubel • Medium-sized fruit. mummy berry fruit infection. • A wild selection with small, firm fruit. • Moderate yield; about half that of Brigitta Blue • Bush is erect and very productive. Bluecrop. • Upright, vigorous, cold-hardy bush • Flavor is fair. • Moderately susceptible to with moderate productivity. • Fruit retains stems during drought or anthracnose; resistant to mummy • Fruit is large, very light blue, and firm if harvest is delayed. berry blight; average for mummy with a small dry scar. • Has higher concentrations of antioxi- berry blight fruit infection. • Plant with other cultivars to ensure dants than larger-fruited cultivars. Razz good pollination. • Susceptible to stunt and resistant to • Released in 2011 as a specialty • Clusters are loose and ripening is red ringspot virus. cultivar with unique raspberry flavor. concentrated. • Relatively resistant to anthracnose. • Untested outside of NJ, where yields • Excellent fruit quality and shelf life. • Relatively resistant to mummy berry are approximately 75 percent of • Slow to “shut down” in the fall, so blight, average resistance to mummy Bluecrop. don’t fertilize after early season. berry fruit infection. 122 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Sierra Elliott • Likely to have good resistance to • A vigorous, upright, productive bush. • Almong the last to fruit of all anthracnose and both phases of • Fruit is medium sized with a small standard cultivars. mummy berry based on parentage. dry scar, good color, and excellent • Bush is vigorous and upright; plants flavor and firmness. very productive and hardy. Liberty • Because Sierra is an interspecific • Berry size is small and berries are • Released in 2004 from the breeding hybrid of four species, its cold light blue with firm flesh and only program at Michigan State. hardiness is unknown. fair flavor. • In PA trial, is producing more foliage • Average resistance to anthracnose. • Fruit can be tart and berry can be than fruit. • Relatively susceptible to both phases fully blue when not fully ripe, so fruit • Berries are nice size. of mummy berry. should be allowed to remain on bush • Ripens with Elliott, but with better after coloring. flavor than Elliott. Recent Releases • Interplanting with another late- • Likely to have good resistance to Superior blooming variety has provided anthracnose and both phases of • A cold-hardy release from Minnesota. cross-pollination and improved size mummy berry based on parentage. • For trial in areas where cold tolerance and flavor. Planting and Establishment is needed. • Stores well. Plants are typically planted in the spring • Compact plants. • Resistant to anthracnose. • Medium-sized berries with sweet to as soon as soil can be worked. Tradi- • Resistant to mummy berry blight; tionally, moistened peat moss is added tart flavor and good firmness. relatively susceptible to mummy • Untrialed in the Mid-Atlantic region. at the rate of one gallon per plant to each berry fruit infection. planting hole; however, the high cost Pink Lemonade Jersey of peat moss has resulted in the use of • A specialty selection, not intended for • Bush is vigorous and erect with open alternative sources of organic matter. mainstream production. fruit clusters and is very good for Composted sawdust, cranberry leaves, or • Fruit is bright pink and medium in machine harvesting. woodchips can also be worked into the size. • Medium-sized, firm fruit with good planting hole, replacing about one-half • Fruit has mild flavor and good color and good flavor. of the original soil with the organic firmness. • May have fruit set problems; tends to material. Note: Do not use mushroom • Hardiness in colder areas unknown. set fruit without undergoing polli- compost because the pH of this compost • Moderate yields, but blooms early nation, so fruit does not size. is not conducive to blueberry plant resulting in spring frost susceptibility. • Considered by some to have the growth. • May need to be planted with a sweetest flavor. Plants should be watered immedi- rabbiteye cultivar for good cross- • Susceptible to fusicoccum canker. ately after planting. Newly set plants pollination. • Relatively resistant to anthracnose. will leaf out and will show a second flush of growth approximately 2 weeks Late Season • Resistant to mummy berry blight; average resistance to mummy berry later. This is an indication that the root Standard Cultivars fruit infection. system has begun to take up water and Coville nutrients from the soil. The first appli- • Bush has very vigorous spreading Lateblue cation of fertilizer should be made at this habit. • Bush is erect, vigorous, and very time. Plants should be fertilized with 10 • Has open fruit clusters; excellent for productive. pounds of actual nitrogen per acre in the machine harvest. • Berries are firm, light blue in color, form of ammonium sulfate at 48 pounds • Needs high bee concentration for best have small stem scars, and are fine per acre. Soils that are not naturally pollination. flavored but tart. within the pH range of 4.5 to 5.0 should • Berry is large, medium blue, highly • High temperature during harvest use ammonium sulfate as the first appli- aromatic, and rated highly for strong may lead to excessive stemminess. cation and for the life of the planting blueberry flavor. • Average resistance to anthracnose. because it helps to maintain the correct • Does not set fruit well on occasion, • Average resistance to mummy berry pH range and provides needed nitrogen. which can limit its productivity. blight; relatively susceptible to After this first application of fertilizer, • Narrow soil adaptation and produces mummy berry fruit infection. plants should be heavily mulched along only moderately. the length of the row with about 4 inches Recent Releases • Fruit is relatively susceptible to of composted sawdust or other organic Aurora anthracnose. matter. Avoid using fresh sawdust since • Released in 2004 from the breeding • Has average resistance to both phases it may burn the tender green stems and program at Michigan State. of mummy berry. because it competes with the plants • Ripens very late; slightly later than for nitrogen. The second application of Elliott. fertilizer should be made in mid-June to • Huge berries with excellent flavor. supply an additional 5 to 10 pounds per Chapter 7 ❦ Blueberries 123 acre of actual nitrogen to the planting. when the pH needs to be lowered or of higher rates applied at one time early Ammonium sulfate can once again be in locations where the soil pH tends to in the season. Dormant applications of used as the nitrogen source. rise. Research has shown that blueberry fertilizer to blueberries are not recom- Immediately after planting, prune plants prefer the ammonium form of mended since very little fertilizer is back 25 percent of the wood and rub off nitrogen. Also, blueberry plants are taken up into the plant before the leaves all the flower buds. Also, completely sensitive to nitrates, which can cause are present—a greater proportion of remove the flowers from plants during root damage at high levels. Fertilization fertilizer is more likely to be leached into their second year so plants become practices recommended for the planting the groundwater. well-established. Sacrificing this small year are outlined in the “Planting and Mulching amount of fruit is well worth the Establishment” section. As a rule of Because the blueberry plant is very dividend of establishing a planting that thumb, nonbearing plants require 20 sensitive to fluctuating soil moisture, will fruit for 50 years or more if well- pounds of nitrogen per acre per year, mulching is essential for a healthy maintained. Some of the crop should which should be split into 2 applica- planting and consistent yields. also be removed the third year, again tions of 10 pounds each. Depending Hardwood bark mulch (such as that encouraging sound establishment. on soil type and growing conditions, used for landscaping), rotted sawdust, Fall planting (mid- to late October) this requirement may be as much as and chopped corncobs are good may also be done if growers wish to plant 30 pounds of nitrogen per season. mulches. Mixtures of sawdust and bark at a less busy time of the year. Success After the plants begin bearing, tissue mulch have been used successfully, will vary depending on fall tempera- analysis should be used for nutrient providing better infiltration of rain tures, and growers may find that some recommendations. Fully bearing mature than sawdust alone. Apply mulches plants become heaved out of the ground. plants, depending on soil type and plant to a depth of 4 inches and replenish Mulching once plants are in minimizes condition, will need about 65 pounds whenever necessary. As previously this problem. Nitrogen fertilization of nitrogen per acre. The prior season’s mentioned, avoid mulches with a high should not take place until the following tissue analysis (see Appendix B for a pH, such as mushroom compost. Also spring, using the rates for first and second listing of labs and interpretation levels) avoid uncomposted leaves, which may applications given above, applied at is the best method to fine-tune your be high in natural toxins. Applying bud break and 6 weeks later. Otherwise, blueberry fertility program. Table 7.5 uncomposted sawdust or woodchips follow recommendations below for care shows recommended starting points for may tie up nitrogen as the mulch decom- during the establishment year. nitrogen application rates for a blueberry poses. Increased amounts of nitrogen Establishing permanent sod middles planting. After the first year, nitrogen fertilizer will be required to compensate; between the blueberry rows is a should be applied annually using half however, predicting how much is impos- standard recommendation. However, of the recommended amount per acre sible due to differences in soil type, note that sod middles increase the during bloom and the other half approxi- microorganism activity, temperature, incidence of disease and insect problems. mately 6 weeks later. Split application and other variables. Only leaf analysis Many plantings are clean cultivated to encourages efficient uptake of nutrients accurately depicts nitrogen status. avoid these problems. Characteristics and produces equivalent growth to that of various permanent cover crops are listed in Table 7.3 and seeding rates and nutrient and pH requirements are listed in Table 7.4. Experimentation at Table 7.3. Relevant characteristics of various cover crops for row middles. Penn State has shown that hard fescues a b c perform extremely well as permanent Cover Crop Water Use Establishment Vigor Durability sod covers, being slow growing, Creeping red fescue M VG L VG relatively noncompetitive, and tough Chewings fescues M G L VG enough to withstand traffic. Planting in Hard fescues M F L E the fall rather than the spring has aided White (ladino) clover H F M F in establishment. Additional tips for Tall fescue MH G H E successfully establishing sod middles are Sudangrass hybrids H VG VH P covered under “Practices for Minimizing Weeds Between the Rows” in the weed Kentucky bluegrass M G M G control section. Perennial ryegrass M G M G Annual ryegrass M G M P Fertility Rye (Secale cereale) H VG H P Urea and ammonium sulfate are the Buckwheat H VG H P recommended nitrogen fertilizers. Urea can be used when the soil pH is Oats H VG H P in the target range of 4.5 to 5.0, while a. VH = very high; H = high; MH = moderately high; M = moderate; L = low. ammonium sulfate should be used b. E = excellent; VG = very good; G = good; F = fair; P = poor. c. Tolerance to foot traffic or equipment operations. 124 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Irrigation Frost Protection Pruning Blueberry plants need at least 1 inch Damage due to freezes and frost Understanding how a blueberry of water per week. Although either increases after bud break in the spring plant grows is important in order to overhead or trickle irrigation can be used until flowering or fruit set. When blue- prune correctly. Each year, canes are on blueberries, trickle both conserves berries are in full bloom, temperatures initiated from the base of the plant. moisture and supplies the plant with slightly below freezing (28°F) can injure Each succeeding year, a cane produces adequate water while avoiding an the flowers. The exact temperature that laterals, which produce laterals the next increase in foliar disease. The trickle line damages flowers depends on the rate year and so on. Each year the lateral can be placed under the mulch so it is of temperature change, wind speed, production on any individual cane out of the way and, in some cases, semi- humidity, sugar content of nectar, flower decreases in diameter—in other words, permanent. Because the small emitter orientation, and so forth. Under certain the wood becomes progressively twiggy. holes in trickle irrigation components conditions, open blueberry flowers As the wood becomes smaller, fruit clog easily, the water source must be can tolerate temperatures as low as size decreases. This is why we detail very clean (such as municipal water or 23°F. The earliest flowering varieties prune (remove small twiggy growth) to clean spring), or water should be passed are most susceptible to frost injury, so increase fruit size. In addition, pruning through a sand filter. Overhead irrigation avoid planting these on frost-prone sites. controls crop load, thus increasing fruit has the advantage of cooling plants and See Appendix A for additional general quality. It also invigorates plants, forcing berries when temperatures are very high. information on frost protection. essential new growth from the plant’s In addition, overhead irrigation can be base. The philosophy behind pruning is used for frost protection. to constantly renew the older, decreas- ingly productive canes by cutting them out and forcing new canes. Plants are Table 7.4. Seeding rates and requirements for various seasonal and permanent cover continually replacing old canes with crops for row middles. new canes while most canes are in a Nutrient and pH Requireda productive, intermediate stage. Cover Crop Seeding Rate (lb/A) Seeding Time (mo) (N-P-K lbs/A) & pH Pruning is best done toward the end Creeping red fescues 70 Apr–May or Aug–Sept 60-80-40 & 6–7 of the dormant season, usually sometime Chewings fescues 75 Apr–May or Aug–Sept 60-80-40 & 6–7 in March. Fall pruning is not recom- Hard fescues 80 Apr–May or Aug–Sept 60-80-40 & 6-7 mended because it can force plants to White (ladino) clover 15 Apr–May 10-80-60 & 6–7 produce new shoots that will be killed Tall fescue 75 Apr–May or Aug–Sept 50-60-40 & 5–7 by winter cold. In March, flower buds Sudangrass hybrids 80 June–Aug 80-40-40 & 5–7 are easily recognizable because they are Kentucky bluegrass 75 Apr–May or Aug–Sept 60-80-40 & 6–7 plumper than vegetative buds (Figure Perennial ryegrass 85 Apr–May or Aug–Sept 60-80-40 & 6–7 7.1). For the first two growing seasons, Annual ryegrass 60 Apr–May or Aug–Sept 60-80-40 & 6–7 remove all flower buds to force vege- Rye (Secale cereale) 110 May–Sept 30-60-30 & 5–7 tative growth in the plant. Buckwheat 75 May–Aug 30-40-30 & 5–7 Keep these five basic steps in mind Oats 100 April or Aug 30-60-30 & 6–7 when approaching a bush to be pruned: 1. Assess the plant’s overall vigor. Is the a. Nutrient requirements may be satisfied by some soils without amendments. Consult a soil test before applying fertilizers and avoid balanced fertilizers high in chloride. cane production adequate? Mature plants should produce at least three to five new canes per year. If they are Table 7.5. Postplant nitrogen recommendations for blueberries. not, check your fertilizer program, the Actual pH, or for soil insects or diseases. Age of Nitrogen/A A.S./Aa A.S./plantb Urea/plantb A.S./plantb Urea/plantb Planting (lbs) (lbs) Urea/A (lbs) (grams) (grams) (oz) (oz) 2. Prune out all dead wood. 0 (planting see text see text see text see text see text see text see text 3. Keep the three best one-year-old canes year) and remove the rest. 1 20 100 45 50 20 1.5 0.75 4. Locate the oldest canes and prune out 2 30 150 65 70 30 2.5 1.0 one of every six canes, starting with 3 40 200 85 90 40 3.0 1.5 the oldest. For example, if the plant has 12 canes, remove two of the oldest. 4 50 250 110 110 50 4.0 1.8 5 60 300 130 140 60 5.0 2.2 5. Prune out all low branches that will never be picked and are a source of 6+ 65 325 140 150 65 5.5 2.5 disease. a. A.S. = ammonium sulfate. If pH is equal to or higher than 5.0, ammonium sulfate should be used. If pH is lower than 5.0, 6. Detail prune (i.e., remove as much urea can be used. b. Assumes 5 x 9 foot spacing (968 plants per acre). twiggy wood as time allows). Chapter 7 ❦ Blueberries 125

Vigorous Varieties Special Case: Neglected Plantings These varieties yield better when If plants have not been pruned for many “thinned out” rather than “detail” years, they can be rejuvenated by cutting pruned (removing twiggy, one-year back all of the canes and allowing growth). Entirely removing older canes regrowth, or by cutting back half the (six years and older) is beneficial for canes in one year and half the following Flower buds yield and growth, especially in Blueray, year. Commercial growers may prefer Collins, Coville, Earliblue, and Herbert. the latter method since it prevents a lapse in cropping. Weak or Slow-Growing Varieties These varieties usually produce many short, weak shoots that lack productivity. Harvest and Postharvest handling Detail pruning improves overall berry quality on remaining shoots. Systemati- A well-managed mature blueberry plant cally removing thin shoots (less than 1/8 can produce 6 to 10 pounds (7 to 10 pints) of fruit per year. Harvest begins Leaf buds inch in diameter) and those less than 6 inches long improves fruit quality. This in June with cultivars such as Duke, is of special importance when pruning Earliblue, and Weymouth, and may Bluetta and Weymouth. continue through mid September with Lateblue. Berries turn blue 3 to 4 days before attaining maximum sweetness Figure 7.1. Types of buds on blueberry. and flavor. Pick every 7 to 10 days. Do not pick berries with a reddish tinge because they are underripe. Blueberries, like other fruits, should Figure 7.2 shows a mature blueberry be picked in the morning after the plant before and after pruning. New dew has evaporated. If picked in the shoot production is somewhat cultivar afternoon, the berries will more likely dependent, and some cultivars may not contain field heat, which needs to be respond as well as others. Pruning with removed in cooling. Field heat is not this method will produce a plant that only expensive to remove, but the has two to three canes each of one-, two-, berry’s heated condition makes it more three-, four-, and five-year-old canes, or susceptible to postharvest breakdown. In ten to fifteen canes. As in any biological addition, berries should not be harvested system, this is an optimal range and (A) when they are wet since the incidence many plants will deviate from this ideal. of fungal problems drastically increases. Which canes are pruned will also need After harvest, store at 32°F in 90 to 95 to be adjusted depending on the growth percent relative humidity. Under these habit of the plant. conditions blueberries will keep for about 14 days. Spreading or Open Growth Habit Most pruning of plants in this category should be directed to the outer edge of the bush. Keeping the growth habit pruned to a more erect form makes cultural operations and harvesting easier. Plants with this growth habit include Berkeley, Bluetta, Coville, Patriot, and Weymouth. (B) Upright or Erect Habit Plants in this category become dense in the center. The denseness causes shading, which reduces both shoot formation and Figure 7.2. Blueberry bush before and flower bud initiation. Remove the older after pruning. central canes to produce a better growth (A) = mature bush showing typical annual pruning cuts situation. Bluecrop, Blueray, Collins, (solid bars) and wood to be removed. Darrow, Earliblue, Elliott, Herbert, Jersey, (B) = mature bush after pruning. and Lateblue fall into this category. Courtesy Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University 126 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Cost-of-production budgets are • Both green manure and cover crops Economics presented for the year of land prepa- are used to increase organic matter. The blueberry budgets given here were ration (Table 7.6), year of planting (Table • Plants are spaced at 5 feet within the prepared to provide general infor- 7.7), year after planting (Table 7.8) and row and 10 feet between rows (870 mation and do not apply to any specific for a mature planting (Table 7.9). plants per acre). operation. Use them, with appropriate Returns to risk and management is • Two-year-old (12- to 18-inch) bare- modifications, as guides for preparing the estimated profit attributable to the root plants are used for establishment. budgets for individual situations. acceptance of risk and the contribution Budgets can be used: of management expertise by the grower • Sawdust is used as a mulch. • for general farm business planning (Table 7.10). The table estimates the • Hard fescue is planted in the aisles to purposes return to the grower for a range of prices reduce the need for mowing. and yields. Because yields, grades, and • as a basis for obtaining credit • Berries are hand-harvested and sold prices are so variable, growers should retail as ready-picked berries in • to project cash flows use representative values for their one-pint clamshells. • to assess profitability operation. It is important to account for Using these sample budgets as guides cash flows over the life of the investment should help ensure that all costs and when assessing the overall profit- receipts are included in budgets you ability of the enterprise, so prorated prepare for your farm. Costs are often land preparation and planting costs are difficult to estimate in budget prepa- subtracted from the estimates. Breakeven ration because they are numerous and prices and yields are shown in the tables. variable. Therefore, you should think of Breakeven price is an estimate of the these budgets as a first approximation unit price required to cover all costs at a and then make appropriate adjustments given yield; it is also the average cost per using the “Your Farm” column to add, unit of production. Breakeven yield is an delete, and adjust items to reflect your estimate of the yield required to cover all specific growing conditions and resource costs at a given price. situation. Berry production involves large The sample cost-of-production initial investments and can be very budgets were developed using a risky; weather and animal related crop computerized budget generator. Input losses are common and crop prices can data reflect recommended production be highly variable. Use of whole-farm practices and current input costs. Major risk management tools such as AGR-Lite subheadings in the budgets are variable crop insurance can help you reduce these costs, fixed costs, and total specified risks. costs. They are defined as follows: A land charge of $200/acre has Variable costs are costs that vary been included in the budgets, but this depending on the level of production. charge can vary greatly from location These include such inputs as fertilizer, to location. If you own the land, you herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, and could include your principal, interest labor. payments, and property taxes as a fixed Fixed costs are costs that do not vary cost. If you lease the land, then the by level of production and are incurred annual rental cost could be included as a by virtue of owning assets such as variable cost. machinery and land. Depreciation and Production assumptions used in taxes are examples. generating the budgets include the Total specified costs are the sum of following: variable and fixed costs. Most land- • Fumigation is not used. preparation activities are assumed to be • Trickle irrigation is used and water is custom hired in these budgets because applied to 5 acres. the small acreages for many berry farms • Fungicides are rotated to reduce the do not justify the ownership of these likelihood of disease resistance. implements. If you use your own tillage equipment, the variable costs for custom • The numbers of pesticide and hire should be subtracted from the irrigation applications are average. In budgets and your labor variable costs any given year or location, growers and machinery fixed costs should be will need to adjust these for their substituted. particular set of circumstances. Chapter 7 ❦ Blueberries 127

Table 7.6. Summary of estimated costs per acre, 2011: year of land preparation for blueberries. Item Unit Price ($) Quantity Amount ($) Your Farm ($) Variable Cost Custom Soil test acre 10.00 1.00 10.00 Chisel plowing acre 16.90 1.00 16.90 Grain drilling acre 17.50 1.00 17.50 Moldboard plowing acre 22.00 1.00 22.00 Disking acre 17.90 3.00 53.70 Spread dry fertilizer acre 9.85 2.00 19.70 Broadcast seeding acre 11.20 1.00 35.80 Fertilizer Urea lb 0.25 150.00 37.50 Sulfur 90% ton 650.00 2.00 325.00 Seed Oat seed bu 8.20 3.00 24.60 Annual ryegrass seed lb 0.35 30.00 10.50 Labor hour 12.00 0.50 6.00 Interest on Operating Capital 6.01 Total Variable Cost 560.61 Fixed Cost Total fixed cost 0.00 Land Charge acre 200.00 1.00 200.00 Total Specified Costs 760.61

* Fixed costs are zero in this budget because it is assumed that all field operations for land preparation are done by custom operators. Ownership of tillage equipment, grain drills, and grass seeders is not economically justified for growers engaged solely in small fruit production. 128 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 7.7. Summary of estimated costs per acre, 2011: planting year for blueberries. Item Unit Price ($) Quantity Amount ($) Your Farm ($) Variable Cost Custom Spread dry fertilizer acre 9.85 2.00 19.70 Moldboard plowing acre 22.00 1.00 22.00 Disking acre 17.90 1.00 17.90 Grass seeding acre 11.20 0.60 6.72 Fertilizer Ammonium sulfate lb 0.19 100.00 19.00 Herbicides Devrinol W lb 12.35 4.00 49.40 Princep 90DF lb 5.70 2.20 12.54 Solicam 80DF lb 27.01 2.50 67.53 Insecticides Assail 30SG oz 5.76 5.30 30.53 Provado 1.6F oz 0.93 8.00 7.44 Other Blueberry plants each 5.94 870.00 5,167.80 Hard fescue seed lb 4.30 18.00 77.40 Sawdust mulch acre 250.00 1.00 250.00 Drip tape ft 0.03 4,400.00 132.00 Labor Seasonal hour 12.00 73.28 880.50 Operator hour 15.00 2.17 32.50 Diesel Fuel gal 3.50 37.25 130.36 Repairs and Maintenance Tractors acre 26.74 1.00 26.74 Implements and irrigation acre 79.52 1.00 79.52 Interest on Operating Capital 271.18 Total Variable Cost 7,300.76 Fixed Cost Tractors acre 56.10 1.00 56.10 Implements and irrigation acre 209.33 1.00 209.33 Total Fixed Cost 265.43 Land Charge acre 200.00 1.00 200.00 Total Specified Cost 7,766.19 Chapter 7 ❦ Blueberries 129

Table 7.8. Summary of estimated costs per acre, 2011: year after planting for blueberries. Item Unit Price ($) Quantity Amount ($) Your Farm ($) Variable Cost Custom Spread dry fertilizer acre 9.85 1.00 9.85 Pest scouting acre 35.00 1.00 35.00 Fertilizer Ammonium sulfate lb 0.19 100.00 19.00 Fungicides Lime sulfur gal 17.86 5.00 89.30 Herbicides Devrinol W lb 12.35 8.00 98.80 Poast oz 0.84 32.00 26.88 Princep 90DF lb 5.70 4.40 25.08 Insecticides Assail 30SG oz 5.76 5.30 30.53 Provado 1.6F oz 0.93 8.00 7.44 Other Blueberry plants each 5.94 20.00 118.80 Plant analysis kit acre 25.00 1.00 25.00 Labor Seasonal hour 12.00 26.88 322.50 Operator hour 15.00 4.00 60.00 Diesel Fuel gal 3.50 43.26 151.40 Repairs and Maintenance Tractors acre 32.58 1.00 32.58 Implements and irrigation acre 86.29 1.00 86.29 Interest on Operating Capital 35.39 Total Variable Cost 1,173.87 Fixed Cost Tractors acre 68.17 1.00 68.17 Implements and irrigation acre 220.93 1.00 220.93 Total Fixed Cost 289.10 Land Charge acre 200.00 1.00 200.00 Total Specified Cost 1,662.97 130 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 7.9. Summary of estimated costs per acre, 2011: mature planting of blueberries. Item Unit Price ($) Quantity Amount ($) Your Farm ($) Variable Cost Custom Spread dry fertilizer acre 9.85 1.00 9.85 Bee rental acre 75.00 1.00 75.00 Pest scouting acre 35.00 1.00 35.00 Fertilizer Ammonium sulfate lb 0.19 325.00 61.75 Fungicides Captan 80W lb 6.99 3.00 20.97 Indar 2F oz 1.98 6.00 11.88 Lime sulfur gal 17.86 5.00 89.30 Pristine 38WDG oz 3.11 40.00 124.40 Herbicides Devrinol W lb 12.35 8.00 98.80 Princep 90DF lb 5.70 2.20 12.54 Sinbar WDG lb 48.66 2.00 97.32 Surflan AS gal 48.10 0.50 24.05 Insecticides Assail 30SG oz 5.76 5.30 30.53 Imidan 70WSP lb 9.75 1.30 12.68 Intrepid 2F oz 1.71 16.00 27.36 Malathion 8F gal 37.50 0.63 23.44 Other Plant analysis kit acre 25.00 1.00 25.00 Clamshell, 1 pint each 0.14 6,000.00 840.00 Flats, 1 pint each 0.85 500.00 425.00 Labor Seasonal hour 12.00 44.88 538.50 Operator hour 15.00 7.27 109.02 Blueberry harvest pt 0.85 6,000.00 5,100.00 Diesel Fuel gal 3.50 51.69 180.90 Repairs and Maintenance Tractors acre 41.21 1.00 41.21 Implements and irrigation acre 92.89 1.00 92.89 Interest on Operating Capital 206.70 Total Variable Cost 8,314.09 Fixed Cost Tractors acre 86.00 1.00 86.00 Implements and irrigation acre 235.38 1.00 235.38 Total Fixed Cost 321.38 Land Charge acre 200.00 1.00 200.00 Total Specified Costs 8,835.47 Chapter 7 ❦ Blueberries 131

Table 7.10. Returns to risk and management for blueberries, 2011. leaf and stem lesions of various sizes and shapes. Yield (pt/A) Price ($/pint) 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 Breakeven yield Causal Agent: The fungus Colletotrichum acutatum. $2.00 $945 $1,884 $2,824 $3,763 $4,702 2,994 $2.50 $2,945 $4,384 $5,824 $7,263 $8,702 1,954 Epidemiology: Anthracnose overwinters primarily under bud sales. Spores are $3.00 $4,945 $6,884 $8,824 $10,763 $12,702 1,450 produced during wet periods throughout $3.50 $6,945 $9,384 $11,824 $14,263 $16,702 1,153 the growing season and are distributed $4.00 $8,945 $11,884 $14,824 $17,763 $20,702 957 by splashing rains. Fruit are susceptible Breakeven price $1.76 $1.62 $1.53 $1.46 $1.41 to infection at any time during their Prorated land preparation and planting costs included based on a productive life of 25 years. development. Infections that occur are A one-pint clamshell of blueberries weighs 17 ounces. not immediately apparent but remain dormant until the fruit begins to ripen.

3 Controls: Fungicide sprays are needed Pests enlarge up to /16 inch in diameter under conditions of high humidity. On the during bloom and also prior to periods Pest control involves many aspects of fruit, black or dark-green moldy growth of wet, warm weather from bloom until production, and pesticide application on the blossom end of the berry appears harvest. The varieties Berkeley, Bluecrop, is only one. All available practices shortly before harvest. Fruit stored at and Coville are the most susceptible, but to reduce the potential for disease room temperature may become leaky. the disease can occur on any cultivar and insect problems should be used. when conditions are favorable. Use of Causal Agent: The fungus Alternaria Consider site selection, crop rotation, overhead irrigation should be minimized. tenuissima. variety selection, soil treatment, and Heavy nitrogen fertilization and failure planting stock in relation to disease and Epidemiology: The fungus overwinters to harvest ripe fruit promptly may also insect control before you plant. on twigs and in debris on the ground. increase the incidence of anthracnose. Information on individual diseases Its growth is favored by wet or humid Botryosphaeria Stem Blight and insects is presented below, with conditions. Leaf infection is more severe cultural controls discussed. Pesticide during springs with prolonged periods Symptoms: Sudden yellowing and information including activity groups, of cool wet weather and may result reddening of leaves followed by death efficacy, labeled uses, and restrictions are in a high incidence of fruit infection. of individual canes and eventually entire presented in tables that follow. Because Development of fruit infections is poorly plants. Cutting a cross-section through avoiding buildup of resistant strains of understood, but it is presumed that the cane or cutting away the bark below fungi and insects is important, activity overripe and injured berries are particu- the area with outward symptoms reveals groups (for rotational use to avoid larly susceptible to decay. brown dead tissue, often on just one buildup of resistant strains) of fungicides Controls: Do not allow fruit to become side of the cane for as little as an inch or and their efficacy on common diseases overripe. Harvest at regular intervals (7 two, or possibly along the entire cane. are presented in Table 7.11, and activity to 10 days). No specific control programs Young plants are much more susceptible groups and efficacy of insecticides are are recommended for this disease than older, more mature plants. In new listed in Table 7.12. Fungicides, insec- although a regular fungicide program plantings, the first symptoms include ticides, and miticides that can be used using a broad-spectrum material will scattered plants with dead symptomatic to assist in management are given in help. Rapidly cooling the fruit after branches. The disease is most serious Table 7.13, arranged by various growth harvest is recommended. in young plantings where widespread stages during the year for the crop. Pests infection can kill many plants if infection are listed at the stages where they are Anthracnose Fruit Rot takes place near the crown. most likely to be problematic or when Symptoms: A slightly sunken area on the Causal Agent: The fungus Botryosphaeria treatment is most effective. Information fruit surface where orange to salmon- dothidea. in Table 7.13 should be supplemented colored ooze, which contains spores, Epidemiology: Infection takes place with the reading below. Table 7.14 develops. These are the most diagnostic through wounds, which may be made presents additional restrictions beyond signs of an anthracnose infection. During mechanically, by injury from burndown preharvest intervals and reentry wet or very humid conditions, spores are herbicides, or by another disease intervals that appear on the label. dispersed in water droplets to nearby organism. Symptoms begin showing surfaces. Fruit infections often do not Fungal and bacterial Diseases 4 to 6 weeks after infection. Inoculum become apparent until after harvest and is spread mainly by rainfall, with most Alternaria Leaf Spot and Fruit Rot may result in rejection or greatly reduced infections taking place in late spring Symptoms: quality and shelf life at the marketplace. Light-brown to gray spots and early summer, though inoculum is The disease organism may rarely cause a surrounded by a reddish margin present anytime. Young tissue and plants blossom blight as well as brown to black primarily on lower leaves of the plant are most susceptible. unless infection is severe. Spots may 132 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Controls: Plants that are fertilized in fruits become tan. In damp weather, all blueberries. If only a few hemlocks are August are likely to be more susceptible infected plant parts become covered nearby, their removal may be a viable to winter injury as a result of not hard- with this fungus’s characteristic “gray option. The current recommended ening off properly. This condition will mold.” distance from hemlocks for protection 1 lead to higher infection levels during Causal Agent: The fungus Botrytis is /3 mile. Indar, Quash, and Pristine the following growing season. Unlike cinerea. (when blueberries appear on the label; phomopsis, fungicides are generally inef- see Table 7.13 notes) are labeled for fective against botryosphaeria diseases, Epidemiology: Botrytis cinerea over- control of blueberry rust, but efficacy is making the prompt removal of infected winters on infected plants and plant unknown and timing of application for branches and, sometimes, whole plants debris and is favored by cool, humid effective control could be problematic. the best approach. Most cultivars are weather. Fungal spores are disseminated Mummy Berry susceptible; however, within the region, primarily by wind. The disease does not this disease has been observed primarily occur every year, instead occurring in Symptoms: In the spring, brown, cup- on Duke. years when conditions are favorable. shaped structures (mummy cups), ¼ Controls: Any practice that minimizes inch in diameter can be found on the Botryosphaeria Stem Canker leaf wetness such as keeping plantings soil surface. About 2 weeks later, new Symptoms: Small, red lesions on green pruned and weeded, and using trickle shoots and leaves suddenly wilt. Brown stems in the late spring that slowly instead of overhead irrigation, will help. discoloration develops along the upper grow into swollen lesions over the next Refer to Table 7.13 for fungicide recom- surface of the wilted shoots and along 6 months. After 2 to 3 years, lesions are mendations. midribs and veins of affected leaves large, swollen, and have deep cracks. (referred to as “strikes”). Flower buds Entire stems or plants may be killed. On Leaf Rust can also be affected. All affected parts less susceptible cultivars, swelling may Symptoms: Yellow spots appear on become covered with a powdery mass not occur and lesions are restricted in the upper leaf surface in early summer of fungal spores and eventually fall off size and to the epidermis of the stem. On that turn reddish brown. Yellow orange of the plant. No other symptoms are susceptible cultivars, cankers can girdle pustules develop on the leaf undersides apparent until the berries begin to ripen, and kill stems as tissue is invaded. in midsummer directly under these when infected berries lighten in color Causal Agent: At least eight races of spots. and at first become soft, then shrivel, dry, the fungus Botryosphaeria corticis, which Causal Agent: The fungus Naohidemyces and drop from the plant, usually before affect different cultivars to different vaccinii, formerly referred to as Puccini- harvest. degrees. astrum vaccinii. Causal Agent: The fungus Monilinia Epidemiology: Only current season’s Epidemiology: This disease requires vaccinii-corymbosi growth can be infected, though the presence of hemlock as an alternate Epidemiology: The fungus overwinters progression of the disease continues host in order to complete its life cycle on shriveled, infected berries called within the tissue. The initial infection in northern locations. Evergreen blue- “mummies.” In the spring, cup-shaped takes place in late spring with warm berries in the South also serve in this fruiting bodies are produced on the temperatures optimum for fungal role. Spores released from hemlocks mummies and release spores that infect growth and sporulation. Inoculum is infect blueberry leaves in late spring new growth, causing a shoot blight. released during wet weather and spread or early summer. Additional infections Spores from blighted shoots are carried by wind. of other blueberry leaves take place by insects to open flowers along with Controls: Clean planting stock, isolation within the planting during the summer. the pollen. The fungus colonizes the from infected plantings, and removal of The disease survives the winter on developing fruit by growing into and cankers during pruning are necessary. infected blueberry leaves on the ground. colonizing flower ovaries. Mummy berry Fungicides have not been effective in Spores released from these leaves infect is most serious and widespread in the control. hemlocks in early spring, which then north after moist spring weather. release the spores that infect the blue- Controls: Several practices may help Botrytis Blight berries. control mummy berry. Remove and Symptoms: Green tissue, blossoms, fruit, Controls: Controls are not typically dispose of fallen leaves and old berries. and leaves can become infected. Tips needed, as yields are not reduced unless Cover old berries with at least 2 inches of shoots die back and turn brown to defoliation is severe. Any practices that of soil by disking between rows or black, eventually bleaching to a lighter minimizes leaf wetness such as using adding 2 inches of new mulch. An tan or gray, which can be confused with trickle irrigation rather than overhead application of urea fertilizer, or a shallow winter injury. Infected blossoms appear and keeping plantings well pruned and cultivation of the ground between rows water soaked and turn brown. This weed free will help. In small plantings, and beneath infected bushes before bud blossom blight causes the most loss. removal and destruction of leaves break, kills the exposed mushroom-like Infected immature fruits shrivel and soon after they fall may help as long apothecia (mummy cups). See cultivar turn bluish purple, whereas ripe, mature if the planting is isolated from other descriptions for resistance information. Chapter 7 ❦ Blueberries 133

Susceptible varieties include Berkeley, may help, particularly during flowering. removed and burned. Aphids should Bluecrop, Blueray, Earliblue, Jersey, Fungicides active against mummy berry be controlled to prevent spread. Bluetta, and Weymouth. Wet sites are especially and botrytis may not be active against Blueray, Chanticleer, Duke, Elliott, and problematic. Fungicide applications phomopsis canker and vice versa. Weymouth are susceptible; Jersey is made at bud break and followed up at Consult Table 7.11 for efficacy ratings. tolerant; and Bluecrop is intermediate. 7- to 10-day intervals through bloom will Phytophthora Root Rot Blueberry Shock Virus control the disease effectively. Once the See discussion in Chapter 8: Brambles. flowers have been pollinated, no further Symptoms: Symptoms do not appear Causes and management are similar. infection can take place. until one to two years after plants have become infected. Symptoms consist of Phomopsis Twig Blight and Canker Viruses and Phytoplasmas There is no cure for plants infected with death of blossoms and vegetative shoots Symptoms: Usually consist of a tip viral and phytoplasma diseases. Viruses just prior to bloom, first on one or two dieback of about 2 to 6 inches on current- and phytoplasmas are quite different, but canes and then on a greater portion year wood and are very similar to those they are often grouped together in discus- of the plant. A second flush of growth of winter injury. This disease can also sions of plant pathogens. Viruses consist occurs on blighted portions of the plant. cause cankers on stems or in the crown only of protein and genetic material (DNA Plants exhibit symptoms for one to four area that girdle and kill stems with the or RNA) and cannot replicate (reproduce) years before recovering and becoming infection site appearing as an elongated on their own, instead needing to infect symptomless. Recovered plants resume flattened area, usually near the base of living cells to complete the process. Phyto- fruiting but can continue to infect others. the cane. The pith appears discolored. plasmas are essentially a type of bacteria Epidemiology: This virus is pollen trans- Small, black dots, the spore-containing without cell walls. Both become systemic mitted and thus cannot be contained bodies (pycnidia) of the phomopsis throughout the plant. Controls can only through vector management. This virus fungus, can sometimes be seen within prevent or delay the movement of viruses is endemic in production fields on the this flattened area and also on blighted and phytoplasmas into the planting and West Coast. twigs. As in other canker diseases, the will slow further spread of the disease in Controls: Locations in which shock most conspicuous symptom is “flagging” infected plantings. or wilting and death of individual exists in the Mid-Atlantic region have stems during the summer with leaves Blueberry Scorch Virus (BBScV) not yet been well characterized. Because infected bushes may be asymptomatic, turning reddish and remaining attached. Symptoms: This virus can cause severe using planting stock that has been tested Under severe disease conditions, several flower and leaf necrosis in highbush and certified free of shock is the only individual canes may be affected on a blueberry. Symptoms first appear way to be sure planting stock is clean. single bush. The disease also can cause a during bloom and consist primarily of Removal of suspicious bushes prior to fruit rot, turning infected tissue reddish a blossom blight with necrotic leaves pollination is critical to prevent the virus brown and soft. near blighted flower clusters. Blighted from spreading. Causal Agent: The fungus Phomopsis clusters fail to develop into fruit and vaccinii. remain on the bush through the summer. Blueberry Stunt Only one or a few branches are initially Epidemiology: Phomopsis vaccini over- Symptoms: Overall dwarfing of the affected. Bushes appear to recover as winters in infected plant parts. Pycnidia bush is the primary symptom. Leaves the season progresses; however, yield produce spores that are released during are small, cupped downward, and is reduced or eliminated. Symptoms rainy periods and spread primarily often chlorotic. Stem internodes become reappear in following years with more by splashing rain. The disease infects shortened and growth of normally branches affected. Plants can be killed opening buds and grows into the twigs, dormant buds causes twiggy branching. in 3 to 6 years with all plants eventually enters canes through wounds, or pene- Infected bushes appear dense and bushy. infected. Tolerant cultivars may not trates directly into the fruit. Infection can The leaves of stunted bushes turn a show symptoms but still serve as sources take place anytime from blossom bud bright red in early fall before normal of inoculum. swell through late summer. plants begin to turn color. Fruit set is Epidemiology: This disease is spread decreased. Symptoms are most noticeable Controls: Remove and burn all blighted by aphids; transmission from infected after the initial flush of vegetative growth or discolored wood during dormant to uninfected plants takes place quickly in early summer and when plants begin pruning and whenever blighted tips (in a matter of minutes or hours). Aphid to turn color in the fall. appear in the summer; cut shoots back control is the best method available to to the point that pith appears normal. Epidemiology: This disease is caused by stop the infection of the entire field. Avoid planting sites that are prone to a phytoplasma rather than a virus, but Virus spreads outward from the first spring frosts and use fertilization, irri- it is often grouped under viruses. Stunt plants infected. gation, and weed control practices that is spread by sharp-nosed leafhopper discourage late-season growth and that Controls: Only virus-free stock should nymphs or adults. Once the leafhopper promote early hardening off. Certain be utilized when setting out new acquires the phytoplasma, the insect sprays for mummy berry and botrytis plantings. Affected plants should be retains it for its entire life. 134 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Controls: Using phytoplasma-free stock, circular, brownish necrotic spots of In this section, blueberry insects and controlling leafhoppers, and removing similar size. Younger terminal leaves tend mites are discussed as members of either infected bushes are critical to control to be strap shaped and have a mottled the direct or the indirect pest group. stunt. Treat bushes to be removed with pattern. Fruit production may be reduced, Management is discussed in terms of an insecticide before removal. Otherwise, and infected plants may eventually die. plant growth stages or phenology. leafhoppers on infected bushes will only Epidemiology: The vector for tomato Direct Pests migrate to other bushes when disturbed, ringspot virus is the dagger nematode. spreading infection further. Blueberry Maggot, Rhagoletis mendax This virus can infect many different (Diptera: Tephritidae) Red Ringspot Virus species of plants, including other fruit crops such as apples, peaches, and rasp- Symptoms of Damage: The blueberry Symptoms: Reddish-brown spots with berries and weeds such as chickweed maggot is the major blueberry pest in green centers on leaves and stems. and dandelion. Infection spreads slowly. the northeast and Mid-Atlantic area, The spots, 1⁄8 to ¼ inch in diameter, are but populations may vary a great deal Controls: The best control for this virus found on the upper surface of the leaf. from farm to farm. Small upland areas is to test the soil for this nematode before Plants with this disease exhibit a loss of may not be as susceptible to injury as planting, eliminating the nematodes crop—the amount varies with variety. are those in southern New Jersey. The through chemical fumigation or biofumi- Powdery mildew fungus can cause presence of infested fruit at harvest can gation if present, and avoiding following similar symptoms that appear on both bring about the condemnation of whole fruit crops. Weeds should be controlled. sides of the leaf. fields of harvested fruit. Attacked fruit is Epidemiology: Unknown; however, Nematodes soft and mushy with a maggot inside. mealybugs may be involved in trans- Numerous species of nematodes have Identification: The female fly is about mitting this virus. been found in association with blueberry 3⁄16 inch long, just slightly smaller than a Controls: The primary form of control plantings, but yield reductions in mature housefly (Figure 7.3). It has a black body is to use virus-free stock and remove plantings have not been well docu- and one pair of clear wings marked with infected bushes. Blueray and Bluetta are mented. Highbush blueberries appear heavy black bands in the shape of an especially susceptible. to have some resistance to root-lesion upside-down W. Its abdomen is black nematodes (Pratylenchus penetrans). with white cross bands. Several other Shoestring Virus As vectors of the tomato ringspot and species of fruit flies can be confused with Symptoms: Elongated, reddish streaks tobacco ringspot viruses, dagger nema- blueberry maggots if not inspected care- about 1⁄8 by ½ to ¾ inch on current-year todes (Xiphinema spp.) merit watching. fully. The larvae (maggot) is legless, has and one-year-old stems, especially on the Two years of a grass crop with excellent no head capsule, and starts out trans- side exposed to the sun. During blos- weed control before blueberries are parent but becomes white as it grows, soming, the flowers on infected bushes planted will decrease virus inocula so reaching a length of 6 to 7 millimeters (¼ will exhibit pinkish to reddish petals. that nematodes, if present, are more inch). The puparia in which they over- Infected leaves are often straplike, hence likely to be virus free. winter are ovoid, light brown, and about 1 the name shoestring. Many leaves on a Insect and Mite Pests 3 millimeters ( ⁄8 inch) in length. bush may appear this way, although in More than 300 species of insects and Life Cycle: Overwintering as pupae some cases just a few clumps near the mites can attack blueberries, but only a buried in the top inch of the soil below crown will show this symptom. few are commercially important in the bushes, flies first emerge from the soil in Epidemiology: Shoestring is spread by Mid-Atlantic area. Pests may be divided the blueberry aphid. A latent period of into two groups: those affecting the fruit four years occurs between infection of (direct pests) and those affecting parts the plant and expression of symptoms. of the plant other than the fruit (indirect Controls: Aphid control is critical to pests). Direct pests must be kept at very prevent the spread of shoestring. The low populations because even a few can long latent period makes identifying cost the grower a great deal of return infected bushes before they serve as on the crop. Indirect pests, on the other sources of inoculum impossible, so hand, can be tolerated to some degree roguing is not feasible or effective. Clean because a healthy plant can withstand planting stock is critical. Bluecrop shows some feeding damage and the fruit is not resistance. directly damaged. Managing blueberry insects and Actual length: Tomato Ringspot Virus mites can be keyed to the various growth Symptoms: Leaves are often malformed stages of the plants because insect life 3 and have circular chlorotic spots on them, cycles respond to many of the same ( /16 inch) 1⁄16 to 1⁄8 inch in diameter. In addition, environmental cues as the plants. Figure 7.3. Blueberry maggot adult. stems, twigs, and branches may exhibit Chapter 7 ❦ Blueberries 135 early to mid-June and continue through interfere with harvest. Always check July and the first half of August. After the preharvest interval for the pesticide emerging, adult females take about 10 being used. If ripe berries are present, days to sexually mature but live for harvest before the spray is applied. about 30 days. During the time just after Sprays should be initiated within 10 emergence, they feed on nectar, dew, and days after the first adult catch. If using honeydew. Toward the end of this period, a calendar approach, continue with an 3 mating takes place and females seek large, application every 7 to 10 days until all Actual wing span: ( /8 inch) ripened berries in which to lay eggs. unharvested fruit has dropped. Alter- The female pierces the skin of fruit with natively, if you use yellow sticky boards Figure 7.4. Cherry fruitworm adult. her egg-laying apparatus and deposits a throughout the season, continue on a single egg in each berry. Each fly may lay 7- to 10-day schedule only as long as at up to 100 eggs in a 2- to 3-week period. least one fly is caught in any trap per efficacy. Natural enemies are present Upon leaving the berry, the female week. Planting early maturing cultivars but have a wide host range and thus deposits a chemical that deters other flies that may escape blueberry maggot attack currently provide insufficient control. from laying eggs in that berry. The eggs may help to minimize damage, espe- Cherry Fruitworm, Grapholita packardi hatch in 2 to 7 days, and the legless larva cially for organic producers. (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) burrows into the berry and feeds on the Brown Marmorated Stink Bug, Halyomor- Symptoms of Damage: Unlike cran- pulp for about 2 weeks. The mature larva pha halys (Stal) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) then drops to the soil where it pupates berry fruitworms (see below), cherry and overwinters. Only one generation Symptoms of Damage: Direct feeding on fruitworms seal entrance holes with silk occurs per year, but a few pupae may fruit by adults and all stages of nymphs. so that frass is not visible outside the remain in the soil for 2 or 3 years. This pest has a very wide host range. berries. An infestation is only evidenced On tree fruit, fruit becomes dimpled and by prematurely blue, shrunken berries Monitoring and Controls: The potential corky or gummy under the feeding site; that drop to the ground. Berries are not for infestations of blueberry maggots can on blueberries, there is little experience webbed together. be assessed by trapping adults before with this pest. their numbers reach damaging levels. Identification:Eggs are greenish white, Traps are yellow, sticky boards placed in Identification: Adults are mottled flat, and are laid on the undersurfaces of the field and hung in the top 6 inches of brown, about ¾ inch long, and nearly leaves or on fruit starting in late spring. the bush canopy. Traps should be hung as wide. They are similar in shape to Newly hatched larvae are white with from poles, folded, and hung in a “V” other stink bugs exhibiting a shield black heads, become pink with brown position with the yellow surface facing shape. Adults can be differentiated from heads when mature, and reach ¼ inch in down. Traps should be placed at least a common brown stink bugs by alter- length. Adult moths have a wingspan of 3 week before the first flies are expected nating brown and white bands on their ⁄8 inch and are dark gray with brown- to emerge (early June) and be placed at antennae and along the edges of their banded wings (Figure 7.4). a density of 3 traps per 5 acres, though abdomens. Nymphs are smaller and, Life Cycle: Cherry fruitworms over- this depends on the size of the farm. For like adults, they exhibit white bands on winter as mature larvae in old pruning larger plantings, 1 trap per 9 to 10 acres brown antennae. Their coloration varies stubs on the bush. The moths emerge in may be sufficient. Boards are baited with with instar, but each has some yellow late spring. After hatching, the larvae a feeding attractant, either ammonium or red coloration, and their eyes are red. enter the berries. The larvae usually acetate or protein hydrolysates (see Eggs are yellowish green, oval, and laid feed on one berry at a time and then Appendix D for sources). Since most in clusters that are attached side by side penetrate and feed on another. Larvae maggot flies will come from wild hosts on leaf undersides. require one to three berries to complete outside the field, traps should be placed Life Cycle: One generation per year is development. When feeding is complete, on field borders near wooded areas, expected in this region, but at least two the larvae leave the berry to seek hiber- with a few traps in the field interior. can occur with warmer temperatures. nation quarters. One generation occurs Continue trapping through harvest, Adults overwinter in protected locations per year. replacing traps every 3 weeks or when and emerge in spring. They lay eggs Monitoring and Controls: See cran- they become clogged with insects. Each from May through August. Nymphs berry fruitworm—monitoring and week count the flies on each trap and progress through five instars. controls are similar, except that since then remove them. Several other fly Monitoring and Controls: Direct obser- webbing is not present, ascertaining species will be trapped on the boards, vation; other monitoring techniques are presence of the pest is more difficult. along with other insects. Make sure only in development. Pyrethroids are the most Cherry fruitworm is usually less of blueberry maggot flies are counted. If effective chemical class. Nymphs should a problem since fewer berries are identifying species is difficult, consult be targeted during pesticide applica- required to complete development. an extension educator. If control is tions as they cannot fly away; a direct necessary, use a relatively nontoxic, hit of nymphs or adults is necessary for short residual insecticide that does not 136 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Cranberry Fruitworm, Acrobasis vaccinii pick and destroy infested berry clusters day, concentrate on weevil injury. If the (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) showing evidence of webbing. Repeated day is warm and sunny, look for both Symptoms of Damage: Characterized disking to eliminate weeds and trash injury and adult weevils. Bud injury or by berries tied together with webbing also helps in control. Both cranberry the presence of adults prior to bloom and masses of brown frass (excrement). and cherry fruitworms can be controlled is particularly important to catch since Larvae can be found feeding in berries with one to two insecticide sprays. Use insecticides cannot be applied during through late June or early July. pheromone traps to monitor adult emer- bloom. Treatment can be initiated gence and place the traps when berries anytime weevils reach a threshold of five Identification: Adults are ½-inch-long first come into bloom. Insecticides can adults per bush. Monitor with a 1 square moths with grayish-brown wings with be applied just after the flight peak. yard beating tray and knock the bush white, triangular patches on each wing Another spray should be made about 10 three times; examine the tray; knock the (Figure 7.5). Newly emerged moths have days later if needed. bush three times from the other side and two white spots on each forewing. Eggs examine the tray again. A more reliable are raised and white when deposited, Cranberry Weevil, also known as the threshold is to scan the number of laid singly inside the calyx cup on the Blueberry Blossom Weevil, Anthonomus musculus (Say) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) blossom clusters showing damage. Use end of the berry. The larva, ½ inch long a treatment threshold of 20 percent of when mature, has a green body with a Symptoms of Damage: Adults feed blossom clusters showing damage. reddish tinge on its back and a yellowish on developing leaf and flower buds. to light-brown head. Feeding signs include the chewing of Japanese Beetle, Popillia japonica Newman (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) Life Cycle: This pest overwinters as a expanding buds and holes chewed in the fully grown larva in a cocoon under sides of flowers. Infested flowers turn Symptoms of Damage: Adults will feed litter within the top ½ inch of soil under purplish, fail to open, and eventually fall on leaves and fruit. A well-known pest bushes. The adult moths emerge at to the ground. of fruits and ornamentals, Japanese bloom and begin laying eggs along the Identification: Adults are 1⁄16 inch long beetles feed on more than 275 host rim of the calyx cup. After hatching, the and brown with a few white markings plants. Adults can also fall into picking larva bores into the fruit at the stem end on the wing. The snout is about one- buckets and can be found as nuisance and eventually webs together several third as long as the body. Grubs are insects in the sold product. Larvae cause berries with silk, moving between and small, C-shaped, and have brown heads. damage to roots as part of the white grub complex (see “Oriental Beetle”). feeding inside as many as four berries. Life Cycle: Overwintering adults One generation occurs per year. disperse into fields from wooded areas, Identification: Adults are just under ½ Monitoring and Controls: Because this hedgerows, weedy areas, or debris early inch long and metallic green to bronze pest is widespread in native blueberry in the spring. Like plum curculio, the with some coppery red color on the populations, symptoms of damage are cranberry weevil is active on warm, wings. Larvae are C-shaped, white grubs more common on rows near woods. sunny days. Females lay eggs singly that feed on the root system. Cranberry fruitworm infestations may through the feeding holes into the Life Cycle: One generation occurs per be difficult to detect early. Look for a developing flower somewhere along year. Grubs that overwinter in the soil pin-sized entry hole near the stem of the style or anther filaments. The grubs pupate in late May with adults emerging any small, shrunken berries that have feed throughout their growth within from mid-June through mid-July. Adults turned blue and open adjacent berries to the flower bud in which they hatched. will live for 30 to 45 days and can be find the larva. The distinctive frass and Pupation occurs within infested flowers found throughout the summer. Females webbing do not appear until later in the and adults begin to emerge again in late lay approximately 50 eggs in the soil, larva’s lifetime when it begins to move May to June. The cranberry weevil has which hatch after 2 weeks. Larvae feed between berries. In small plantings, one generation per year in most of New on roots until the soil temperatures cool one method of control for this pest is to Jersey, but a partial second generation in and then remain dormant until spring. parts of southern New Jersey also occurs. Monitoring and Controls: When Monitoring and Controls: Most feeding numerous, adults can be controlled with and egg-laying activity occurs near field the use of broad-spectrum insecticides. edges that are bordered by woodlands. Eliminating row-middle sods is helpful, Therefore, monitoring should concen- especially in large plantings. Entomo- trate on fields that border wooded areas. pathogenic nematodes are effective for If weevils or weevil injury is found on larvae, but they have a limited shelf life field edges, sampling should continue and must be applied strictly according to into the interior of the field to define directions. the area of weevil activity. Monitoring

5 should start at bud swell and continue Actual wing span: ( /8 inch) through bloom, particularly on warm, sunny days. If monitoring on a cloudy Figure 7.5. Cranberry fruitworm adult. Chapter 7 ❦ Blueberries 137

Obliquebanded Leafroller, Choristoneura Identification: The adult weevil (a type areas, should be monitored starting at rosaceana (Harris) (Lepidoptera: of beetle) is dark brown, ¼ inch long, the end of bloom. Effective control is Tortricidae) and has four humps on its back and a reached through postpollination applica- Symptoms of Damage: Overwintered wrinkled surface with black and white tions of insecticides. Make sure flowers larvae feed on developing buds, leaves, flecks. It has a long snout (one-third the have dropped in treated blocks so bees and berry clusters. Summer larvae feed body length) that projects forward and are not killed. Bluetta, Duke, Earliblue, on both foliage and fruit. downward from its head. The larva is and Weymouth are among varieties heavily attacked. Identification: Larvae are easily recog- a legless white grub, ¼ inch long when mature, with a distinct brown head nized. They are up to 7⁄8 inch long and Redbanded Leafroller, Argyrotaenia veluti- capsule. robust with a green body and dark- nana Walker (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) brown to black head capsule, legs, and Life Cycle: Beetles overwinter as adults Symptoms of Damage: First-generation prothoracic shield (just behind the head under debris in woods or field margins larvae feed on leaves and the surfaces capsule). Obliquebanded leafroller and disperse into fields around petal of young berries. Like other leafrollers, adults are larger than redbanded fall. They disperse more heavily when redbanded leafroller larvae produce a leafoller adults and are tan with a darker temperatures exceed 70°F and slow shelter made of leaf pieces spun together. band of tan to brown on each front wing. significantly when the weather is damp During the early part of the season, these Life Cycle: Half-grown larvae over- and cool (below 70°F). Plum curculios are may be found on the tips of growing winter under bark scales, around the usually more prevalent on plants adjacent shoots and around developing blossoms crown, and in other protected places. to woods, fence rows, and trashy fields. or fruit clusters. The females gouge out crescent-shaped Larvae feed for several weeks before Identification: Adults have a wingspan pupating at the feeding site. Two genera- depressions with their snouts when the berries are green and oviposit one egg per of about ½ inch and have silver, gray, tions occur per year. The first adults and orange markings with a prominent usually start to emerge by mid- to late berry. Upon hatching, larvae burrow into the fruit where they feed on the pulp for cinnamon-colored band across each May but may appear by late April. Eggs wing. Larvae are green with a green are laid on the foliage and hatch after 1 about 2 weeks, often causing the fruit to drop. Fully grown larvae leave the fruit, head and prothoracic shield and are to 2 weeks, depending on the temper- 5 about ⁄8 inch long when mature. ature. Summer larvae are usually found burrow into the soil, and pupate within Life Cycle: from late June through July. Second- an earthen chamber. The adult emerges Redbanded leafroller pupae flight adults start to appear in late July to about 4 weeks later, from midsummer overwinter in leaf litter and trash. Adults mid-August, with larvae feeding briefly to fall. Most adults enter diapause after emerge during the early spring before before finding overwintering sites. several weeks of feeding, but if green flowering and deposit egg masses on berries are still present, a few will mate bark and leaf surfaces. Three genera- Monitoring and Controls: Where first- and produce a second generation in tions occur per year. The first flight can hatch larvae are numerous, an insecticide southern regions of the Mid-Atlantic area. start in early April, with a second flight application of a Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Monitoring and Controls: starting in mid-June and peaking by the product, Intrepid, or Confirm may be Adult curculios are cryptic and may be difficult end of June to early July. The third flight applied during mid-bloom since these usually peaks by early to mid-August. products do not have activity against to see, but they can be found early in the morning or late in the evening by Egg-laying periods occur at roughly the bees. No other insecticides should be same times as peak trap catches. used at this time. Treatments are justified shaking the branches of a bush over a Monitoring and Controls: only when the combined number of white cloth placed on the ground. Adults Where lepidopteran pests (worms) exceeds 1 disturbed in this manner drop onto the first-hatch larvae are numerous, an larva per 100 blossom clusters. sheet and feign death—they fold their insecticide application of a Bt product, legs tightly against the body and then Intrepid, or Confirm may be applied Plum Curculio, Conotrachelus nenuphar remain motionless. They can easily be during mid-bloom since these products (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) mistaken for debris. Because the weevil do not have activity against bees. No Symptoms of Damage: Detected by spends much of its life cycle on the other insecticides should be used at this examining berries for crescent-shaped ground under the bushes, frequent culti- time. Treatments are justified only when scars, starting when the berries are vation can aid in control. Infestations the combined number of lepidopteran green. The scar develops and remains are more common in weedy fields. Some pests (worms) exceeds 1 larva per 100 for the life of the fruit. Most infested monitoring can be accomplished by blossom clusters. fruit will drop off of the bush before using tedder traps, which are pyramid- Spotted Wing Drosophila, Drosophila they are harvested. However, because shaped, wooden traps that attract the suzukii Matsumura (Diptera: early season varieties like Bluetta and adult plum curculio beetle. The most Drosophilidae) Weymouth are ready to harvest before reliable method of monitoring, however, Symptoms of Damage: Tiny white the grubs are fully mature, these vari- is to sample newly set berries for the larvae found in otherwise marketable eties may be picked while still infested presence of egg scars. Early season vari- fruit. Tiny holes surrounded by sunken with grubs. eties, especially if planted near wooded tissue may be found where oviposition 138 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 wounds were made. Flies may lay eggs (BBScV). One aphid (Illinoia pepperi) can Blueberry Bud Mite, Acalitus vaccinni in fruit as soon as it begins to ripen. also transmit shoestring virus. (Keifer) (Acari: Eriophyidae) Identification: This pest is similar in Since aphids may serve as a disease Symptoms of Damage: Heavily infested appearance to other vinegar flies or vector, they should not be tolerated in buds become reddish and roughened fruit flies. Most adult males have one any significant numbers where BBScV with bumps on the outer scales. In severe large black spot on each wing forward is known to occur. Virus transmission cases, buds become desiccated and fail of the tip. Some other species of vinegar under field conditions can occur from to open. In less severe cases, fruit may be flies have a spot on their wings, but the early May to mid-August when aphid set, but berries are ruined by roughening spot is smaller and either at the tip or populations are common. and blistering of the skin. farther forward. The truly differentiating Identification: Aphids are slow-moving Identification: The white mites are feature from other species is two black insects, usually 1 to 2 millimeters long, extremely small (1⁄125 inch) with four bands (sex combs) on each front leg. that are usually similar in color to that of legs bunched toward the “head end.” Adult females lack wing spots but have the foliage on which they feed. They have They are carrot shaped with the head a large sawlike ovipositor. Larvae are sucking mouthparts and cornicles (tubes) end being the wider portion. They are 2–3 millimeters long, white, and have no extending backward from their posterior. confined to the buds and blossoms obvious head. Winged forms are found in the fall. and are difficult to see except with a Life Cycle: Due to this pest’s recent Life Cycle: Aphids overwinter as eggs dissecting scope. Symptoms of injury are arrival, its local life cycle is still unchar- deposited on stems, small shoots, and noticed first. acterized. It is likely that a small number bud scales. After the eggs hatch in the Life Cycle: This mite is a sporadic pest; of adults will survive the winter. The spring, females find new growth and however, it may be more likely to be a pest can also be transported into the mature into “stem mothers,” giving problem following mild winters. Mites region in fruit at any time. Each female live birth to more females. Males and spend the winter under bud scales. can lay between 200 and 600 eggs. egg-laying females are produced in the All stages of the life cycle are present Eggs hatch in 1 to 3 days depending on fall and mate. Females then lay overwin- throughout the year. temperature, after which larvae feed in tering eggs. Monitoring and Controls: Pruning the fruit for 5 to 11 days. Pupation lasts Monitoring and Controls: Scouting out old canes helps to reduce mite for 4 to 15 days. Eight to nine genera- should begin during bloom and continue populations. An insecticide and/or oil tions per growing season are likely. through the remainder of the season. application will give control. A high Monitoring and Controls: Vinegar traps Recording the percent of new growth water volume (400 gallons per acre) and can be bought or made and are used to infested with aphid colonies is one way high pressure (200 pounds per acre) are monitor for pest presence, but they are to track aphid populations. In scorch- needed during application. not a method of control. Traps containing infested areas, only one to two aphids vinegar should be hung in the crop as should define an infested leaf or terminal, Blueberry Gall Midge, also called the Cranberry Tipworm, Dasineura oxycoccana the fruit begins to color. Pyrethroids and and sampling should be heavily biased (Johnson) (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) spinosads are efficacious on the adults; toward new growth. New terminal neonicotinoids and some other broad- growth should be scouted as soon as bees Symptoms of Damage: Small holes and spectrum materials are less so. See Tables are removed. If significant populations feeding areas around the terminal bud 7.12 and 7.13 for more information on of aphids are present, control can be and developing leaves are evident when specific materials. Natural enemies are initiated with Provado at 3 to 4 ounces larvae are feeding. As the larvae mature, being found in the region, but little is per acre. Treating fields with Admire infested bud and leaf tissue will dry known about them so far. for Oriental beetle will also give several up, leaving a very small and blackened weeks of aphid control. Lannate can terminal shoot. Indirect Pests also be used for aphid control, but it is Identification: This is a small fly in the Aphids, Illinoia pepperi, Ericaphis spp., effective only at a full 1 pound per acre, gall midge (Cecidomyiidae) family. The Myzus persicae (Sulzer) and Others which is higher than the labeled rate for adult is just over 1½ millimeters long Symptoms of Damage: Aphids suck sap aphids. Other materials that can keep low with a wingspread of about 3 milli- out of tender new growth and plants are populations in check or be used as aphid meters. Larvae are tapered at both ends devitalized. Honeydew is secreted as a suppressants include Asana, Diazinon, and legless. They mature from clear to waste product, which acts as a substrate and Malathion. Controlling aphids white to yellow orange. Fully grown for sooty mold. However, it takes heavy combined with removing and destroying larvae are only 1.6 millimeters (1⁄16 inch) populations to create a honeydew film infected bushes over a 2- to 3-year period long. can reduce the spread of the virus. and resulting sooty mold. Six species Life Cycle: The insect overwinters as a of aphids are found in New Jersey pupa and emerges as an adult in early blueberries. Of primary importance is May. Eggs are laid on swelling buds the fact that three species are known to and developing leaf petioles. Larvae act as vectors for blueberry scorch virus feed deep within the terminal growth in developing terminal buds and leaf Chapter 7 ❦ Blueberries 139 tissue. Three larval instars occur, which Life Cycle: This wasp deposits eggs number provides an indication of likely can mature in as little as 9 days. A gener- in the current season’s tender growth. populations. Insecticides that target lepi- ation takes from 2 to 4 weeks to mature, Larvae develop inside the gall, exuding dopteran larvae (Bt, Confirm, etc.) are depending on temperature. Therefore, a growth hormone that causes the plant safe to predators and pollinators and are four to five or more generations may tissue to grow into a protective gall. very effective if applied to instars when occur per year in the Mid-Atlantic area. Pupation occurs within the gall, after the head capsule is still black. Diseases Monitoring and Controls: Suspected which the adult emerges. and predators may decimate larval damage and buds can be collected in Monitoring and Controls: Remove and populations naturally in some years. plastic bags and watched for emerging destroy galls when noticed or during Oriental Beetle, Exomala (Anomla) orienta- larvae. Larvae, if present, will emerge normal pruning. lis (Waterhouse) (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) in about 2 days. Most organophosphate Blueberry Tip Borer, Hendecaneura shawi- As part of the white grub complex along materials have some effect on this insect. ana (Kft.) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) with Japanese beetles, the Asiatic garden Recommendations for best timing of beetle, and several June beetles, the application are under investigation. Symptoms of Damage: Feeding results in shoot dieback and often resembles a Oriental beetle is the most important as a Blueberry Stem Borer, Oberea sp. (Coleop- primary infection of mummy berry. pest in New Jersey and the Mid-Atlantic tera: Cerambicidae) area. Identification: These tiny moths emerge Symptoms of Damage: The main in early June and deposit eggs on the Symptoms of Damage: Grubs feed on symptom of this beetle’s damage is undersides of tip leaves. The larvae roots. Large populations will retard wilting at the tip of the shoots. As the hatch and bore several inches into the growth and contribute to plant death. grub bores down into the cane, the soft tissue of terminal blueberry shoots. Damage is more severe on young whole cane may be affected, with leaves plantings. turning red, dropping off, and then the Life Cycle: The blueberry tip borer overwinters as mature larvae inside stems. Identification: Oriental beetle adults entire cane dying. are straw colored with black markings Identification:The blueberry stem borer Monitoring and Controls: The insecti- to varying extents, though completely adult is a slender, elongated, light brown cides applied against fruitworms usually black or completely straw-colored beetle. Inspection of a damaged cane may also control this pest. beetles are also found. show pinholes down its length with light- Gypsy Moth, Lymantria dispar (Lepidop- Life Cycle: Oriental beetles overwinter yellow frass extruding from the holes. A tera: Erebidae) as grubs deep enough in the soil to avoid yellowish grub will be found if the stem Symptoms of Damage: Caterpillars freezing. As soil temperatures warm is split at the end of its long tunnel. feed on tender spring foliage and can in the spring, the grubs move upward Life Cycle: This beetle deposits eggs defoliate plants. and resume feeding on roots. Pupation in current season’s growth near the Identification: Adults are moths. Females occurs in May, and adults begin shoot tip in June or July. The girdling of are light colored and do not fly. Males emerging in early June. Peak emergence the shoot is associated with egg laying are smaller with bands of various brown is near the end of June. Female adults and causes the tips to wilt. The grub shades on the wings. Eggs masses are lay an average of 25 eggs each. Eggs bores down through the shoot toward buff colored, oval, ½ to 1½ inches long, hatch into larvae (grubs) from early July the crown of the plant, then moves to and velvety in appearance. Young larvae though mid-August, which feed on the adjacent stems and continues feeding. are hairy and black. Later instars are gray roots, then move downward for winter. Larvae complete their development by and hairy and have five pairs of blue The Oriental beetle, Asiatic garden the spring of the third year. dots, six pairs of red spots, and a yellow beetle, and Japanese beetle all have Monitoring and Controls: Remove lengthwise stripe on their back. The head one-year life cycles. and destroy wilted tips as soon as they capsule is solid black on the first three Monitoring and Controls: Beetle appear. instars and mottled on later instars. populations should be monitored with Japanese beetle “can traps,” which are Blueberry Stem Gall Wasp, Hemadas nubili- Life Cycle: Egg masses are the overwin- pennis (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) tering stage and may contain between placed on the soil surface and baited 100 and 1,000 eggs depending on the with the Oriental beetle pheromone. In Symptoms of Damage: A pithy gall about infested areas, traps will fill up in only a an inch long that forms on the stem. Galls size. Larvae emerge in the spring and disperse on silken strands. They progress few days. Root systems that are exca- are greenish and spongy on young shoots vated in infested areas may yield up to a but become reddish-brown and hardened through five instars and pupate in early summer. Pupae are reddish brown and dozen or more grubs per plant. Admire later. Exit holes may be present where the is currently the only insecticide that adults emerged from the galls. about an inch long. Pupation lasts about two weeks; adults live only long enough gives adequate control. Since Admire Identification:The adult is a tiny (less to mate and for the females to lay eggs. works only on first- and second-instar than 1⁄8 inch long), black, shiny wasp. grubs, the applications must be made Larvae are grublike. Monitoring and Controls: Observation shortly after the eggs are laid and grubs of overwintering egg mass size and are close to the soil surface. This means 140 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 that applications should be made by late growing season are usually ineffective accomplished by a petal fall cover spray June to early July for mid- to late-season because the scales are protected by their for plum curculio and fruitworms. varieties and immediately after harvest secreted “shell.” However, sprays timed Blueberry maggot traps can be used to for early season varieties. Additional to coincide with crawler emergence can monitor leafhoppers and to help time controls currently being worked on be effective. Crawlers can be detected by an insecticide spray, if necessary. Traps include the use of pheromone-based wrapping black electricians’ tape covered should be hung vertically, yellow side mating disruption and entomopatho- by double-sided sticky tape around out, with the bottom about 18 inches genic nematodes. twigs. Use a hand lens to see the active above the ground. The yellow sticky crawlers on the edge of the sticky tape. traps used for leafhoppers do not have Scales Including Putnam Scale, Aspidiotus to be baited as they are for blueberry ancylus (Homoptera: Diaspididae), and Sharp-Nosed Leafhoppers (three species), Terrapin Scale, Lecanium nigrofasciatum Scaphytopius magdalensis, Scaphyto- maggot. Apply an insecticide if the (Homoptera: Coccidae) pius frontalis, and Scaphytopius acutus leafhopper population increases sharply Symptoms of Damage: Decreased vigor (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) between one week and the next. Make and yields and plant decline if in high Symptoms of Damage: All three species sure to apply at least one insecticide for numbers. The scale insects feed on sap of sharp-nosed leafhopper, while the second generation just prior to flight and secrete honeydew on which black causing little outright injury to blue- peak. This will normally occur shortly sooty mold develops. Infested berries are berry plants, are important in blueberry after the last berries have been picked, or undersized and unmarketable. culture because they can transmit the mid to late August to early September. Identification: These insects may be phytoplasma that causes blueberry stunt Thrips, Frankliniella spp. disease, for which there is no control. common in blueberry plantings if Symptoms of Damage: Thrips can pruning has been neglected for several Identification: The adults are brownish significantly damage blossoms, affect years and older canes are not removed, gray, wedge shaped, and approximately fruit set, and cause curling and malfor- especially if the scales’ parasites and 3⁄16 inch long with a distinctly sloped and mation of leaves. predators have been destroyed by insec- pointed extension of the head in both Identification: Very small, cigar-shaped ticide sprays. They spend most of their the nymphal and adult stages. Both S. insects. The adults are slender, winged, lives as legless, sedentary individuals. frontalis and S. acutus have a yellowish about 1⁄25 inch long, and orange or Putnam scales, which are the scale most white marking on the front of the head. yellow. Young thrips are smaller, commonly attacking blueberry, appear This marking is missing from S. magda- wingless, yellowish, and active. as gray, waxy dots about 1⁄16 inch in lensis. The nymphs are 1⁄16 inch long and diameter. Most are under loose bark on brownish black with a white or cream Life Cycle: Several species of thrips are older canes, but they can also be found hourglass-shaped mark on their backs. present in blueberries. The biology and on leaves and fruit. An immobile yellow Leafhoppers acquire the stunt pathogen damage potential is not well understood. insect can be seen if the scale covering is by feeding on infected plants. Only the The flower thrips has been the most removed. Terrapin scales are brown or motile adults transmit the disease to common over the last several years. reddish brown, are shaped like a half- healthy plants by subsequent feeding Monitoring and Controls: Thrips can sphere about 1⁄7 inch in diameter, and are activity. Once leafhoppers have acquired be monitored with a small beating tray marked with black bands like the shell of the virus, they have it for life. just prior to, during, and shortly after a turtle. They are present primarily on the Life Cycle: The leafhopper overwinters bloom. If treatment is justified, then canes. as an egg inside fallen leaves. Eggs Spintor (spinosad) is the material of Life Cycle: Depending on location, hatch in mid- to late spring, with first- choice. Provado will also control thrips. there may be one or two generations of generation adults appearing by late Lannate and Diazinon will control thrips Putnam scale per year with varying life May to early June. In the northeast and to a much lesser extent. Of these choices, cycles for other species. In general, eggs Mid-Atlantic area, two generations occur only Spintor may be used during bloom, are laid in the spring. Crawlers emerge per year. Large populations often emerge but it is highly toxic to bees exposed in spring to early summer, thereby in abandoned blueberry fields and in to the spray before it has dried.Do not helping the insects disperse. wooded habitats where blueberries and apply within 3 hours of bee activity, and if used during bloom, then apply the Monitoring and Controls: Good scale huckleberries are common in the ground product in the evening after bees have control is accomplished first by good cover. Adults can fly long distances and stopped foraging for the day. pruning practices. Removing and tend to disperse from the woods during destroying old wood during pruning the spring generation and back into the often does much to reduce scale popula- woods during the fall generation. The tions. The second approach is to use stunt pathogen is probably carried back (Text continued on p. 154) dormant oils to smother the overwin- and forth between commercial fields and tering scales. Oil should be applied early wild reservoirs by the annual cycle of in spring after the bud scales start to leafhopper dispersal. expand but before the first leaf stands out Monitoring and Controls: Control of from the cluster. Cover sprays during the first-generation leafhoppers is usually Chapter 7 ❦ Blueberries 141

Table 7.11. Activity groups and effectiveness of fungicides for blueberry disease control. Not all fungicides listed below are labeled for all the diseases listed. This table is intended to provide information on effectiveness for diseases that appear on the label and additional diseases that may be controlled from application. See Table 7.13 for labeled uses.

Anthracnose Alternaria Phomopsis Twig Phytophthora Fungicide Activity Groupa Fruit Rot Mummy Berry Fruit Rot Botrytis Blight Blight Root Rot Abound 11 +++b +++ ++ ++ 0 0 Aliette 33 ++c 0 0 0 0 +++ Bravo M ++ + + ++ 0 0 Captan M +++ + + ++ 0 0 Captevate 17, M +++ + + +++ 0 0 Elevate 17 0 0 0 +++ 0 0 Indar 3 0 +++ ++ ++ +++ 0 Lime sulfur M ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ 0 Omega 29 +++ 0 +++ +++ ++ 0 Orbit, Tilt 3 0 +++ 0 0 +++ 0 Phosphorous acidd 33 ++c 0 0 0 0 +++ Pristine 7, 11 +++ +++ ++ ++ 0 0 Quash 3 ++ +++ ++ --- +++ 0 Ridomil Gold 4 0 0 0 0 0 +++ Sulforix M ++ + ++ 0 ++ 0 Switch 9, 12 +++ +++ 0 +++ 0 0 Ziram M +++ 0 + ++ 0 0 a. Chemistry of fungicides by activity groups: 3 = demethylation inhibitors (includes triazoles); 4 = acylalanines; 7 = carboxamides; 9 = anilinopyrimidines; 11 = strobilurins; 12 = phenylpyrroles; 17 = hydroxyanilides; 29 = activity group not named, chemical group = 2,6-dinitroanilines; 33 = unknown (phosphonates); M = chemical groups with multisite activity. Fungicides with two activity groups listed contain active ingredients from two activity groups. b. 0 = not effective; + = slight effectiveness; ++ = moderate effectiveness; +++ = very effective; — = insufficient data. c. Aliette and the phosphorous acid fungicides are not effective for prevention of anthracnose fruit rot; however, they can be used to improve storage. d. Phosphorous acid fungicides have the same active ingredient as Aliette. These include Phostrol, Prophyte, and Rampart. 142 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 7.12. Activity groups and effectiveness of insecticides and miticides on blueberry pests. Not all insecticides listed below are labeled for all the insects listed. This table is intended to provide information on effectiveness for insects that appear on the label plus additional insects that may be controlled from application. See Table 7.13 for labeled uses. Products that are mixes of two active ingredients are not listed; activity would be expected to be similar to a tank mix.

Japanese Spotted Activitya Blueberry Bud Cranberry Fruit- Beetle Leaf- Leaf- Plum Wing White Group Aphids Maggot Mite Weevil worms Adults hoppers rollers Curculio Scales Drosophilb Thrips Grubs Actara 4A +++ b + 0 +++ 0 ++ +++ — + — — 0 — Admire 4A +++ + 0 — 0 + ++ — — — — 0 +++ Altacor 28 — — 0 0 +++ 0 0 +++ 0 0 — 0 0 Asana 3 ++ ++ 0 +++ ++ ++ ++ + ++ — — — — Assail 4A +++ +++ — — ++ ++ +++ — — — — ++ — Avaunt 22 — — — — ++ — — — ++ — — — — Aza-Direct un — + — — — + — — — — — — — Brigade 3 ++ ++ — — ++ — ++ ++ ++ ++ +++ — — Bt Products 11 0 0 — 0 — 0 0 ++ 0 0 — 0 0 Confirm 18 0 0 — 0 ++ 0 0 +++ 0 0 — 0 0 Danitol 3 — — — — +++ +++ — +++ ++ — +++ — — Delegate 5 — — — — +++ — 0 +++ — — — ++ 0 Diazinon 1B ++ ++ 0 ++ ++ 0 +++ ++ +++ +++ +++ + — Esteem 7 0 0 0 0 ++ 0 0 — 0 +++ — 0 0 Guthion (NJ only) 1B — +++ 0 +++ +++ ++ +++ +++ +++ ++ — — — Imidan 1B — +++ — +++ +++ ++ +++ +++ +++ ++ — — — Intrepid 18 0 0 0 0 +++ 0 0 +++ 0 0 — 0 0 Lannate 1A ++ ++ — ++ +++ — ++ ++ + — +++ + 0 Malathion 1B + +++ — + + + + + ++ — +++ ++ 0 M-Pede — ++ — — — — — + — — — — — — Mustang Max 3 — — — — — — — ++ — — — — — Platinum 4A +++ — 0 — 0 — ++ — — — — 0 — Provado 4A +++ +++ — — — +++ +++ — — — — +++ — Pyganic 3 + + — — — + — — — — ++ — — Rimon 15 — — — — — — — +++ — — — — — Sevin 1A — + — + + +++ ++ + + — + — — Spintor, Success, 5 — +++ 0 — +++ 0 — +++ 0 0 +++ +++ — Entrust Superior Oil — ++c 0 + 0 0 0 0 0 0 +++ — 0 0 Surround — — + — — — — — — ++ — — — — Thionex 2A + 0 +++ — + — 0 — + 0 + — — a. Chemistry of insecticides by activity groups: 1A = carbamates; 1B = organophosphates; 2A = chlorinated cyclodienes; 3= pyrethrins and synthetic pyrethroids; 4A =neonicotinoids; 5 = spinosyns; 7 = juvenile hormone mimics; 11 = Bt microbials; 15 = benzoylureas;18 = ecdysone agonists/molting disruptors; 22 = voltage-dependent sodium channel blocker; 28 = diamides b. Dormant to delayed dormant only; effective on eggs. c. — indicates insufficient data; +++ = good control; ++ = moderate control; + = some control; 0 = little or no control. Chapter 7 ❦ Blueberries 143

Table 7.13. Pesticides for blueberry disease and insect control. Note: The recommendations below are correct to the best of our knowledge. Other formulations with the same active ingredient as some of the products listed below may exist and may or may not be labeled for the same uses. Always consult the label before making pesticide applications. Read the text for information on cultural practices to minimize pest incidence. If control cannot be achieved with a particular material, it is possible that resistant populations exist. Use a material in a different activity group, which will have a different mode of action. See Table 3.2 for use status, chemical names of active ingredients, and reentry intervals. See Table 3.1 for toxicity to nontarget organisms, and Tables 7.11 and 7.12 for activity groups and efficacy ratings to help determine products that best suit your situation. See Table 7.14 for other use restrictions such as quantity allowable per season, etc. Information was current as of July 1, 2012. Pest Timing of Treatment/Comments Producta Labeled Rate/A (Days to Harvest) DORMANT TO DELAYED DORMANT Note: The severity of many diseases such as botrytis blight, phomopsis twig blight, and anthracnose and some insects such as scale and bud mite can be decreased by thoroughly pruning out old canes and/or diseased twiggy growth. Avoid excessive nitrogen fertilization, which results in succulent growth that is more subject to infection. Diseases Phytophthora root rot Before plants begin active growth, apply to soil in a 3-foot- Ridomil Gold SL, 3.6 pt (0) wide band. Make either this application, or a soil application at green tip to pink bud stage (see Budbreak through Prebloom). Ridomil is at risk for resistance development, so have an accurate diagnosis made of the need for this treatment before applying. Phomopsis twig blightb When dormant, prune out diseased canes and burn. Continue Lime sulfur, 5–6 gal in 100–150 gal of diluted spray/A (—) to remove and burn blighted wood during the season. Apply lime sulfur at sufficient volume to achieve coverage of the canes. Do not use within 14 days of an oil spray or when temperature is above 75°F. Do not mix with other insecticides or fungicides. Will also aid in control of scale insects. Mummy berry Bury old mummies by disking before mummy cup formation. Burial of mummies (infected berries) a least 1 inch deep, and 2 inches preferably, will greatly reduce germination of mummy cups. Insects Scale Apply oil only if scales are present and there is no danger Superior oil, 3.0 gal. Apply 250–300 gal water/A at of freezing temperatures for 2 days. Apply when buds have a pressure of 300–400 psi, or follow manufacturer’s swollen but no green tissue is present. Good coverage is recommendations for water volume and pressure to be used. essential. Lime sulfur applied in the dormant stage for Esteem 35WP at 5 oz/A may be added to the oil for increased phomopsis will also aid in control of scale insects. Do not use scale control. oil within 14 days of a lime sulfur application. Pruning out old canes prevents heavy infestations. BUD BREAK THROUGH PREBLOOM Diseases Phytophthora root rot Make the first soil application of Ridomil now, unless used Ridomil Gold SL, 3.6 pt (0), or when dormant in spring (see above). Ridomil is at risk for resistance development, so have an accurate diagnosis made of the need for this treatment before applying. Phosphorous acid products (Aliette, Phostrol, Prophyte, and Phosphorous acid, see individual product labels Rampart) can be used as a soil application at this time, or as a foliar application if leaves are developed.

continued 144 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 7.13. Pesticides for blueberry disease and insect control, continued. Pest Timing of Treatment/Comments Producta Labeled Rate/A (Days to Harvest) Mummy berry (primary infection) Rake, sweep, or hoe under plants to disturb mummy cups Indar 75WSP, 2.0 oz or 2F, 6 fl oz (30), or through blossom period. Limited success has been achieved Orbit, 6 fl oz (30), or by applying 200 lb of 50% urea mix as a ground application Tilt, 6 fl oz (30), or as first mummy cups are formed (burns only open cups). Pristine, 18.5–23.0 oz (0), or Apply a fungicide when leaf buds show green, repeating Quash, 2.5 oz (7), or once in 10 days. Abound, Quash, and one of the active Abound F, 6.0–15.5 oz (0)—see note in Table 7.14 about ingredients in Pristine are strobilurin (group 11) fungicides. severe toxicity of Abound to McIntosh, Gala, and related For resistance management, do not make more than two apple cultivars, or sequential applications of strobilurin (group 11) fungicides Switch 62.5 WDG, 11–14 oz (0) before rotating to a fungicide in a different chemical class. Indar, Orbit, and Tilt are in the same fungicide group (group 3) and cannot be rotated with each other for resistance management. Anthracnose Make this application immediately before bloom. Apply in Omega 500F, 1.25 pt (30) sufficient water to cover emerging flowers and bud scales, in which anthracnose inoculum overwinters. Phomopsis twig blight When flower buds are visible but flowers are still tightly Indar 75WSP, 2.0 oz or 2F, 6 fl oz (30), or closed. Omega 500F, 1.25 pt (30) Insects Cranberry weevil When leaf buds show green and blossom buds show white Asana XL, 4.8–9.6 fl oz (14) and are separating in the cluster. Do not apply within 7 days of pollination, as Asana repels bees. Leafrollers Confirm is a selective insecticide effective against most Confirm 2F, 16.0 fl oz (14), or caterpillar pests (larvae only). Confirm, Bt products, Bt products, var. kurstaki (0), or Delegate, Intrepid, and Altacor should be targeted toward Intrepid 2F, 16 oz (7), or early instars. Altacor, 3.0–4.5 (1) Spanworms These products are most effective against early instars of Confirm 2F, 16.0 fl oz (14), or larvae. Rimon also affects eggs if they are laid on Rimon Intrepid 2F, 16 oz (7) residues. Gypsy moth These products are effective against larvae only. Apply these Confirm 2F, 4.0–8.0 fl oz (14), or products to early instars. Dipel DF, 0.5–2.0 lb (0), or Intrepid 2F, 4–8 oz (7) Ants Ants building mounds around blueberry bushes may be a Esteem Ant Bait, 2–4 level Tbsp per mound (1) sign of mealybugs on the roots or scale insects or aphids on the bushes that produce honeydew. Make applications in early spring or summer and repeat according to label directions, if needed. Esteem is a slow-acting material that affects only the larvae. Plum curculio Apply pre-bloom to newly expanded foliage. Rimon 0.83EC, 20–30 fl oz (8)

continued Chapter 7 ❦ Blueberries 145

Table 7.13. Pesticides for blueberry disease and insect control, continued. Pest Timing of Treatment/Comments Producta Labeled Rate/A (Days to Harvest) BLOOM Diseases Mummy berry (secondary At 7- to 10-day intervals through petal fall. This spray is Indar 75WSP, 2 oz or 2F, 6 fl oz (30), or infection) designed to prevent flower infections and is necessary if Orbit, 6 fl oz (30), or primary mummy berry (shoot blight) infections were not Tilt, 6 fl oz (30), or controlled previously. Abound, Quash, and one of the active Abound F, 6.0–15.5 oz (0)—see note in Table 7.14 about ingredients in Pristine are strobilurin (group 11) fungicides. severe toxicity of Abound to McIntosh, Gala, and related For resistance management, do not make more than two apple cultivars, or sequential applications of strobilurin (group 11) fungicides before rotating to a fungicide in a different chemical class. Quash, 2.5 oz (7), or Likewise, Indar, Orbit, and Tilt are in the same fungicide Pristine, 18.5–23.0 oz (0), or group (group 3) and cannot be rotated with each other for Switch 62.5WG, 11.0–14.0 oz (0) resistance management. Botrytis Begin application at early bloom. Combine treatments with Pristine, 18.5–23.0 oz (0), or anthracnose controls. Spray at 7- to 10-day intervals through Elevate, 1.5 lb (0), or petal fall. As of this writing, new Pristine product labels Captevate 68WDG, 3.5–4.7 lb (0), or excluded use on blueberries. Growers may use old product Switch 62.5WG, 11.0–14.0 oz (0), or that has blueberries on the label; new product labels are Omega 500F, 1.25 pt (30), or expected to be issued that once again include blueberries. Captan 50W, 5 lb or 80WDG, 3.125 lb (0), or For resistance management, do not make more than two Captec 4L, 2.5 qt sequential applications of strobilurin (group 11) fungicides before rotating to a fungicide in a different chemical class. Note that although captan has a 0-day PHI, it has a longer REI for blueberries, and Captevate has a 48-hour REI. Anthracnose Apply at early bloom and repeat every 7 to 10 days through Abound F, 6.0–15.5 oz (0)—see note in Table 7.14 about immediate postbloom. Abound, Quash, and one of the active severe toxicity of Abound to McIntosh, Gala, and related ingredients in Pristine are strobilurin (group 11) fungicides. apple cultivars, or For resistance management, do not make more than two Quash, 2.5 oz (7), or sequential applications of strobilurin (group 11) fungicides Pristine, 18.5–23 oz (0), or before rotating to a fungicide in a different chemical class. Switch 62.5WG, 11.0–14.0 oz (0), or Captevate has a 48-hr REI. Omega 500F, 1.25 pt (30), or Ziram 76DF, 3 lb (—)—see special local needs label (24C) allowing 4 lb/acre rate and 14-day PHI in NJ

Insects Leafrollers, fruitworms Only insecticides nonharmful to bees (e.g., Bt, Confirm, Confirm 2F, 16 oz (14), or Intrepid, Altacor) can be applied during bloom. These Dipel DF, 0.5–1.0 lb (0), or products affect only larvae, except for Altacor, which also Intrepid 2F, 16 oz (7), or affects eggs. Altacor, 3.0–4.5 (1) Gypsy moths Only insecticides nonharmful to bees (e.g., Bt, Confirm, Confirm 2F, 4.0–8.0 fl oz (14), or Intrepid) can be applied during bloom. These products are Dipel DF, 0.5–2.0 lb (0), or effective against larvae only. Apply products to early instars. Intrepid 2F, 4–8 oz (7) Thrips Spintor, Success, and Entrust have the same active Spintor 2SC or Success, 4.0–6.0 fl oz (3), or ingredient; Entrust is labeled for organic production. All of Entrust, 1.25–2.0 oz (3), or the products listed to the right are in the same chemical class Delegate WG, 3–6 oz (3) and are toxic to bees exposed to the spray before it has dried. Apply in the evening after bees have stopped foraging for the day.

continued 146 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 7.13. Pesticides for blueberry disease and insect control, continued. Pest Timing of Treatment/Comments Producta Labeled Rate/A (Days to Harvest) AT PETAL FALL Diseases Anthracnose This is intended to be the follow-up spray for the one Abound F, 6.0–15.5 oz (0)—see note in Table 7.14 about applied at mid-bloom. Abound, Quash, and one of the active severe toxicity of Abound to McIntosh, Gala, and related ingredients in Pristine are strobulirin (group 11) fungicides. apple cultivars, or For resistance management, do not make more than two Quash, 2.5 oz (7), or sequential applications of strobilurin (group 11) fungicides Captevate 68WDG, 4.7 lb (0), or before rotating to a fungicide in a different chemical class. Pristine, 18.5–23.0 oz (0), or Captevate has a 48-hr REI. Switch 62.5 WG, 11.0–14.0 oz (0), or Omega 500F, 1.25 pt (30), or Ziram 76DF, 3 lb (—)—see special local needs label (24C) allowing 4 lb/acre rate and 14-day PHI in NJ Insects Cranberry or cherry fruitworm At petal fall (May 25 to June 7 in NJ) and again 10 days Intrepid 2F, 16 oz (7), or later. Sprays for insects at this time will also give control of Delegate WG, 3–6 oz (3), or spanworms and gypsy moth. Intrepid, Delegate, Confirm, Confirm 2F, 16 oz (14), or Esteem, Altacor, and Rimon are most effective against Esteem 35WP, 5 oz (7), or early instars of larvae. Do not use an adjuvant with Avaunt. Altacor, 3.0–4.5 (1), or Growers using Guthion should be aware of restrictions on use Rimon, 20–30 fl oz (8), or and long re-entry intervals for the general public. Guthion Diazinon 50W, 1 lb or AG500, 1 pt (7), or use on blueberries is prohibited after Sept. 30, 2012. A yearly Malathion 57EC, 1.6 pt or 8F, 1.25 pt (1), or maximum amount of 0.75 lb ai/a applies for 2012. Imidan 70W, 1.33 lb (3), or Asana XL, 4.8–9.6 fl oz (14), or Lannate SP, 0.5–1.0 lb or LV, 1.5–3.0 pt (3), or Assail 70WP, 1.9–2.3 oz or 30SG, 4.5–5.3 oz (1), or Avaunt, 3.5–6.0 oz (7), or Danitol 2.4EC, 10.67–16 fl oz (3), or Brigade WSB, 5.3–16.0 oz (1) Leafrollers Confirm, Dipel, Intrepid, Spintor, Delegate, and Altacor Confirm 2F, 16 oz (14), or are most effective against early instars of larvae at Dipel DF, 0.5–1.0 lb (0), or petal fall (May 25 to June 7 in NJ). Danitol is labeled for Intrepid 2F, 16 oz (7), or obliquebanded leafroller only. In NJ, leafroller resistance to Spintor 2SC, 4.0–6.0 fl oz (3), or malathion has been noted. Delegate WG, 3–6 oz (3), or Altacor, 3.0–4.5 (1), or Imidan 70W, 1.33 lb (3), or Lannate SP, 1 lb or LV, 3 pt (3), or Malathion 8F, 1.25 pt (1), or Danitol 2.4EC, 10.67–16 fl oz (3), or Mustang, 4.3 oz (1), or Mustang Max, 4.0 oz (1), or Brigade WSB, 5.3–16.0 oz (1) Plum curculio At petal fall (May 25 to June 7 in NJ). Apply if there is a Malathion 57EC, 2 pt or 8F, 1.25 pt (1), or history of this pest or oviposition scars are seen on earliest Imidan 70W, 1.33 lb (3), or forming green berries. Growers using Guthion should be Surround 95WP, 25.0–50.0 lb (0), or aware of restrictions on use and long reentry intervals for the Danitol, 10.67–16 fl oz (3), or general public. Guthion use on blueberries is prohibited after Brigade WSB, 5.3–16.0 oz (1), or Sept. 30, 2012. A yearly maximum amount of 0.75 lb ai/a Hero, 4.0–10.3 (1) applies for 2012.

continued Chapter 7 ❦ Blueberries 147

Table 7.13. Pesticides for blueberry disease and insect control, continued. Pest Timing of Treatment/Comments Producta Labeled Rate/A (Days to Harvest) Thrips Spintor, Success, and Entrust have the same active Assail 70WP, 1.9–2.3 oz or 30SG, 4.5–5.3 oz (1), or ingredient; Entrust is labeled for organic production. Spintor, Provado 1.6F, 6.0–8.0 fl oz (3), or Success, Entrust, and Delegate are in the same chemical Spintor 2SC or Success, 4.0–6.0 fl oz (3), or class. Entrust, 1.25–2.0 oz (3), or Delegate WG, 3–6 oz (3) Lecanium scale crawlers As crawlers are detected. Esteem 35WP, 5 oz (7) 1–2 WEEKS AFTER PETAL FALL Diseases Anthracnose Early to mid-June, especially when weather is warm and Abound F, 6.0–15.5 oz (0)—see note in Table 7.14 about rainy. Abound, Quash, and one of the active ingredients in severe toxicity of Abound to McIntosh, Gala, and related Pristine are strobilurin (group 11) fungicides. For resistance apple cultivars, or management, do not make more than two sequential Pristine, 18.5–23.0 oz (0), or applications of strobilurin (group 11) fungicides before Quash, 2.5 oz (7), or rotating to a fungicide in a different chemical class. Ziram has Captevate 68 WDG, 4.7 lb (0), or a 14-day PHI in NJ; however, applications should be avoided Omega 500F, 1.25 pt (30), or within 28 days prior to harvest due to the visibility of white Ziram 76DF, 3 lb (—)—see special needs label (24C) residues. Captevate has a 48-hr REI. allowing 4 lb/acre rate and 14-day PHI in NJ Insects Sharpnosed leafhopper Early to mid-June. As necessary. Sharpnosed leafhoppers Lannate SP, 0.5 lb or LV, 1.5 pt (3), or transmit stunt, which is lethal to blueberries. Rogue out Asana XL, 4.8–9.6 oz (14), or affected plants (refer to text discussion) and apply an Provado 1.6F, 3.0-4.0 fl oz (3), or insecticide when sharpnosed leafhoppers appear on yellow Malathion 57EC, 2 pt or 8F, 1.25 pt (1), or sticky traps. Actara, 3.0–4.0 oz (3), or Brigade WSB, 5.3–16 oz (1), or Assail 70WP, 1.0–2.3 oz, or 30SG 2.5–5.3 oz (1) Blueberry aphids Early to mid-June. Lannate SP, 0.5 lb or LV, 1.5 pt (3), or Diazinon 50W, 1 lb or AG500, 1 pt (7), or Provado 1.6F, 3.0–4.0 fl oz (3), or Malathion 8F, 1.25 pt (1), or M-Pede, 1–2% v/v (0), or Actara, 3.0–4.0 oz (3), or Brigade WSB, 5.3–16 oz (1), or Assail 70WP, 1.0–2.3 oz , or 30SG 2.5–5.3 oz (1), or NJ onlyd: Asana XL, 4.8–9.6 oz (14) Scale crawlers As crawlers are detected. Esteem 35WP, 5 oz (7) LATER POSTPOLLINATION SPRAYS Diseases Anthracnose Quash and Abound are strobilurin (group 11) fungicides. Abound F, 6.0–15.5 oz (0)—see note in Table 7.14 about For resistance management, do not make more than two severe toxicity of Abound to McIntosh, Gala, and related sequential applications of strobilurin (group 11) fungicides apple cultivars, or per crop year. Captevate has a 48-hr REI. Watch days-to- Quash, 2.5 oz (7), or harvest limitations for Omega. Omega 500F, 1.25 pt (30), or Switch 62.5 WDG, 11.0–14.0 oz (0), or Captevate 68WDG, 4.7 lb (0)

Phytophthora root rot Several phosphorous acid products can be used. Product Phosphorous acid, see individual product labels names include Aliette, Phostrol, Prophyte, and Rampart.

continued 148 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 7.13. Pesticides for blueberry disease and insect control, continued. Pest Timing of Treatment/Comments Producta Labeled Rate/A (Days to Harvest) Insects Cranberry and/or cherry Confirm. Esteem, Spintor, Altacor, and Rimon are most Diazinon 50W, 1 lb or AG500, 1 pt (7), or fruitworms effective against early Instars of larvae. Do not use an Malathion 57EC, 1.6 pt or 8F, 1.25 pt (1), or adjuvant with Avaunt. Growers using Guthion should be Sevin 80S, 1.87–2.5 lb or 4F, 1.5–2.0 qt (7), or aware of restrictions on use and long reentry intervals for the Imidan 70W, 1.33 lb (3), or general public. Guthion use on blueberries is prohibited after Asana XL, 4.8–9.6 oz (14), or Sept. 30, 2012. A yearly maximum amount of 0.75 lb ai/a Lannate SP, 0.5–1.0 lb or LV, 1.5–3.0 pt (3), or applies for 2012. Assail 70WP, 1.9–2.3 oz, or 30SG, 4.5–5.3 oz (1), or Avaunt, 3.5–6.0 oz (7), or Danitol, 10.67–16 fl oz (3), or Confirm 2F, 16 oz (14), or Esteem 35WP, 5 oz (7), or Spintor 2SC, 4–6 fl oz (3), or Altacor, 3.0–4.5 (1), or Rimon, 20–30 fl oz (8), or Brigade WSB, 5.3–16.0 oz (1) Leafrollers When populations are high. Danitol is labeled for Imidan 70W, 1.33 lb (3), or obliquebanded leafroller only. Confirm, Dipel, Spintor, Lannate SP, 1 lb or LV, 3 pt (3), or Altacor, and Delegate are most effective against early instars Confirm 2F, 16 oz (14), or of larvae. In NJ, leafroller resistance to malathion has been Dipel DF, 0.5–1.0 lb (0), or noted. Malathion 8F, 1.25 pt (1), or Spintor 2SC, 4–6 fl oz (3), or Sevin 80S, 2.5 lb or 4F, 2.0 qt (7), or Danitol 2.4 EC, 10.67–16 fl oz (3), or Mustang, 4.3 oz (1), or Mustang Max, 4.0 oz (1), or Altacor, 3.0–4.5 (1), or Delegate WG, 3–6 oz (3), or Brigade WSB, 5.3–16.0 oz (1) Sharpnosed leafhopper As necessary. Sharpnosed leafhoppers transmit stunt, which Lannate SP, 0.5 lb or LV, 1.5 pt (3), or is lethal to blueberries. Rogue out affected plants (refer to Provado 1.6F, 3.0–4.0 fl oz (3), or text discussion) and apply an insecticide when sharpnosed Asana XL, 4.8–9.6 oz (14), or leafhoppers appear on yellow sticky traps. Actara, 3.0–4.0 oz (3), or Malathion 57EC, 2 pt or 8F, 1.25 pt (1), or Brigade WSB, 5.3–16 oz (1), or Assail 70WP, 1.0–2.3 oz, or 30SG 2.5–5.3 oz (1) Aphids Lannate SP, 0.5 lb or LV, 1.5 pt (3), or Provado 1.6F, 3.0–4.0 fl oz (3), or Malathion 8F, 1.25 pt (1), or M-Pede, 1–2% v/v (0), or Actara, 3.0–4.0 oz (3), or Brigade WSB, 5.3–16 oz (1), or Assail 70WP, 1.0–2.3 oz, or 30SG 2.5–5.3 oz (1) Blueberry tip borers Insecticides applied for fruitworms usually also control this Malathion 8F, 1.25 pt (1) pest.

continued Chapter 7 ❦ Blueberries 149

Table 7.13. Pesticides for blueberry disease and insect control, continued. Pest Timing of Treatment/Comments Producta Labeled Rate/A (Days to Harvest) FRUIT MATURATION Diseases Anthracnose Quash and Abound are strobilurin (group 11) fungicides. Abound F, 6.0–15.5 oz (0)—see note in Table 7.14 about For resistance management, do not make more than two severe toxicity of Abound to McIntosh, Gala, and related sequential applications of strobilurin (group 11) fungicides apple cultivars, or per crop year. Captevate has a 48-hr REI. Aliette is not Quash, 2.5 oz (7), or effective for the prevention of anthracnose fruit rot; however, Switch 62.5 WDG, 11.0–14.0 oz (0), or it can be used to improve storage. Captevate 68WDG, 4.7 lb (0), or Aliette WDG, 5.0 lb (0.5) Insects Spotted wing drosophila Monitor for presence of male adults with vinegar traps. Danitol 2.4 EC, 10.67–16 fl oz (3), or Pyrethroids and spinosyns are effective in controlling spotted Delegate WG, 3–6 oz (3), or wing drosophila. Be sure to alternate materials from different Success, 4–6 fl oz (3), or pesticide classes for resistance management. 2(ee) labels Entrust, 1.25–2.0 oz (3), or have been issued for most of the products listed. Success and Pyganic EC 5.0, 4.5–18 oz (0), or Entrust have the same active ingredient. Entrust can be used Mustang Max, 4 fl oz (1), or in organic production. Pyganic has a very short period of Imidan 70WP, 1.33 lb (3) residual activity; populations with resistance to Pyganic have already been reported in California. Brown marmorated stink bug Brown marmorated stink bug has not been especially Lannate SP, 0.67–1.0 lb or LV, 2–3 pt (3), or problematic on blueberries as of this writing but bears Danitol 2.4 EC, 10.67–16 fl oz (3) watching. 2(ee) labels for Lannate and Danitol have been issued for use on brown marmorated stink bug on blueberries for all states in the Mid-Atlantic region. Target immatures. Blueberry maggots Begin treatments 10 days after the first maggot adult catch Sevin 80S 1.87–2.5 lb or 4F, 1.5–2.0 qt (7), or in monitoring traps. Repeat every 10 days through harvest. Lannate SP, 0.25–0.5 lb or LV, 0.75–1.5 pt (3), or If traps are not used and maggots are a problem, begin Imidan 70W, 1.3 lb (3), or sprays when berries first turn blue. Adding a bait to the spray Malathion 8F, 1.25 pt (1), or mixture will enhance its activity. Watch days-to-harvest Diazinon 50W, 1 lb or AG500, 1 pt (7), or limitations. Surround is for suppression and is recommended Asana XL, 9.6 oz (14), or for application only within the first three weeks after fruit set Brigade, 5.3–16.0 oz (1), or due to likelihood of visible residues. Danitol 2.4 EC, 10.67–16 fl oz (3), or Surround 95WP, 12.5–50 lb (0), or Provado 1.6F, 6.0–8.0 fl oz (3), or Assail 70WP, 1.9–2.3 oz, or 30SG, 4.5–5.3 oz (1), or Rimon, 20–30 fl oz (8) Sharpnosed leafhopper Early to mid-June as necessary. Sharpnosed leafhoppers Lannate SP, 0.5 lb or LV, 1.5 pt (3), or transmit stunt, which is lethal to blueberries. Rogue out Asana XL, 4.8–9.6 oz (14), or affected plants (refer to text discussion) and apply an Provado 1.6F, 3.0-4.0 fl oz (3), or insecticide when sharpnosed leafhoppers appear on yellow Malathion 57EC, 2 pt or 8F, 1.25 pt (1), or sticky traps. Actara, 3.0–4.0 oz (3), or Brigade WSB, 5.3–16 oz (1), or Assail 70WP, 1.0–2.3 oz, or 30SG, 2.5–5.3 oz (1)

continued 150 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 7.13. Pesticides for blueberry disease and insect control, continued. Pest Timing of Treatment/Comments Producta Labeled Rate/A (Days to Harvest) Leafrollers When populations are high. Danitol is labeled for Imidan 70W, 1.33 lb (3), or obliquebanded leafroller only. In NJ, leafroller resistance to Lannate SP, 1 lb or LV, 3 pt (3), or malathion has been noted. Malathion 8F, 1.25 pt (1), or Danitol 2.4 EC, 10.67–16 fl oz (3), or Brigade, 5.3–16.0 oz (1), or Mustang, 4.3 oz (1), or Mustang Max, 4.0 oz (1) Japanese beetle adults and other As necessary if adults are a pest. A 2(ee) label was issued for Sevin 80S, 1.25–2.5 lb or 4F, 1–2 qt (7), or scarab beetles as listed on label Japanese beetles and other pests not on the full Mustang Imidan 70W, 1.33 lb (3), or Max label for berries in the mid-Atlantic states. Provado 1.6F, 6.0–8.0 fl oz (3), or Actara, 4.0 oz (3), or Assail 70WP, 1.9–2.3 oz or 30SG, 4.5–5.3 oz (1), or Danitol 2.4 EC, 10.67–16 fl oz (3), or Mustang Max, 4 fl oz (1) Fall webworm No pesticides are currently labeled for this pest. However, broad-spectrum pesticides applied for other pests will give control. Oriental beetle larvae and other Admire works well on young larvae as they hatch from eggs Admire Pro, 7–14 oz (7) white grubs but has little effect if applied later in the summer. Apply from June to mid-July at least 7 days before harvest begins for most varieties and right after harvest for the earliest varieties. Material should be applied to moist soil and watered in with 0.5 to 1 inch of water. The active ingredient is broken down by sunlight, so evening applications are best. Once in the soil, the insecticide will remain present for several months. POSTHARVEST Diseases Anthracnose As soon as possible after harvest. Make this application Ziram 76DF, 3 lb (—), or August 1 to 20 in NJ. See Special Local Needs label for NJ. NJ only: Ziram 76DF, 4 lb (14) Phomopsis twig blight Late fall through early winter. This spray will also help with Lime sulfur, 5–6 gal in 100–150 gal of diluted spray/A (—) controlling black shadow, a recently identified disease that causes a blackened appearance to twigs and a decline of affected plants. Powdery mildew Not often a problem. Indar, Orbit, and Tilt are in the same Indar 75WSP, 2.0 oz or 2F, 6 fl oz (30), or fungicide group (group 3) and cannot be rotated with each Orbit, 6 fl oz (30), or other for resistance management. Tilt, 6 fl oz (30), or Quash, 2.5 oz (7) Insects Sharpnosed leafhopper As necessary. Sharpnosed leafhoppers transmit stunt, which Malathion 57EC, 2 pt or 8F, 1.25 pt (1), or is lethal to blueberries. Rogue out affected plants (refer to Asana XL, 4.8–9.6 oz (14), or text discussion) and apply an insecticide when sharpnosed Lannate LV, 1.5 pt or SP, 0.5 lb (3), or leafhoppers appear on yellow sticky traps.Actara and Provado 1.6F, 3.0–4.0 fl oz (3), or Platinum contain the same active ingredient. Actara is for Brigade WSB, 5.3–16 oz (1), or foliar applications, while Platinum is applied to the soil. Assail 70WP, 1.0–2.3 oz, or 30SG, 2.5–5.3 oz (1), or Actara, 3.0–4.0 oz (3)

continued Chapter 7 ❦ Blueberries 151

Table 7.13. Pesticides for blueberry disease and insect control, continued. Pest Timing of Treatment/Comments Producta Labeled Rate/A (Days to Harvest) White grub complex This includes larvae of Japanese beetle, Oriental beetle, and Admire Pro, 7–14 oz (7) Asiatic garden beetle. Blueberry bud mite Immediately after harvest and 6–8 weeks later. Use oil when Thionex 3ECe, 2 qt or 50WP, 3 lb (—), or Putnam scale is also a problem. In NJ, make applications Superior oil, 3 gal between September 15 and 30. a. Some pesticides may be phytotoxic to plants. If in doubt, test a small area of the field first. This is especially important when new formulations are being used or tank-mixed. Be sure sprayer is calibrated properly. Diazinon and captan should not be tank-mixed as the combination may be phytotoxic. Liquid formulations of captan have caused phytotoxicity to blueberries under conditions of high humidity and cloudiness, when the leaf cuticle may be thinner than usual. b. Berkeley, Coville, Jersey, and Weymouth cultivars are particularly susceptible to phomopsis twig blight. c. Guthion is labeled for blueberries in the states of AL, AR, FL, GA, IN, MI, NC, NJ, and NY only and can be used only through Sept. 30, 2012. d. Asana is labeled for use against aphids only in NJ. e. Do not apply after buds are well formed. Do not make more than two applications per year. 152 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 7.14. Additional restrictions on blueberry pesticides. The information below is correct to the best of our knowledge. Other formulations with the same active ingredient as some of the products listed below may exist and may be labeled for the same uses. Always consult the label before making pesticide applications. Information was current as of July 1, 2012.

Abound For resistance management, do not apply more than 2 sequential applications of Abound or any other strobilurin (group 11) fungicide before alternating with a fungicide with a different mode of action. See label for several additional resistance management strategies. See Table 7.11 for chemical activity groups of fungicides labeled for use on blueberries. Do not allow to drift to McIntosh, Gala or related apple cultivars (Bancroft, Bromley, Cortland, Cox, Discover, Empire, Jonamac, Kent, Spartan, and Summared). Do not use the same spray equipment for other materials that will be applied to these cultivars, even if thoroughly cleaned. Actara Do not apply more than three consecutive applications of Actara or other Group 4A insecticides before rotating to products with a different mode of action. Foliar applications of Actara should not be used on crops previously treated with long-residual or soil applied Group 4A insecticides. Do not use more than 12 oz of Actara per acre per growing season. The minimum interval between applications of Actara is 7 days. Admire Pro Do not apply more than 14 fl oz (0.5 lb ai) of Admire Pro per acre per season. Do not apply more than a total of 0.5 lb active ingredient per acre of Admire or Provado, or a combination of Admire and Provade per season. Aliette WDG Do not exceed 20 lbs of product per acre per season. Do not exceed 4 applications per year. Do not apply in less than 10 gallons per acre. Altacor Do not make more than 3 applications per season or exceed more than 9 oz of Altacor or 0.2 lbs .a.i. of chlorantraniliprole-containing proudcers per acre per season. Do not apply more often than once every 7 days. Asana Do not apply more than 38.4 oz of product of Asana per acre per season. Assail Do not make more than 5 applications per season or apply more often than once every 7 days. Do not exceed 0.5 lbs of active ingredient per acre per growing season. Avaunt Make no more than 4 applications per season, or apply more than 24 oz per acre per crop. Minimum interval between treatments is 7 days. Brigade Do not make applications less than 7 days apart or apply more than 0.5 lbs of active ingredient per acre per season. Captan Do not apply more than 35 lb of 50W, or specified amount of a different formulation, per acre per season. Captevate 68WDG Do make more than two consecutive applications of Captevate or Elevate, or any product containing the active ingredient fenhexamid, before alternating with a fungicide with a different mode of action. Do not apply more than 21.0 lb per acre per season. Confirm 2F Do not apply more than 64 fl oz of product per acre per season. Danitol 2.4EC Do not exceed 2 pts total application of Danitol per acre per season. Delegate WG To reduce the potential for resistance development in target pest species, do not make more than 2 consecutive applications of group 5 insecticides (active ingredients of spinetoram or spinosad). If additional treatments are required, rotate to another class of effective insecticides for at least one application. Do not apply more than at total of 19.5 oz of Delegate WG per acre per crop. Do not make more than 6 applications per calendar year or applications less than 6 days apart. Diazinon Do not apply more than one in-season foliar application per year. Elevate Do not make more than two consecutive applications of Captevate or Elevate. Do not apply more than 6 lb/a/season of Elevate. Esteem 35WP Do not make more than 2 Esteem 35 WP applications per growing season. Do not exceed 10 oz per acre per season. Do not apply earlier than 14 days after last Esteem 35WP treatment. Indar 75WSP or 2F Do not make more than 4 applications or apply more than 8 oz of Indar 75WSP or 24 fl oz of Indar 2F per acre per year. Guthion (NJ only) Do not allow persons not covered by the Worker Protection Standard, such as members of the general public involved in pick-your-own operations, to enter a treated area for 30, 35, or 42 days after application depending on rate used. Guthion use on blueberries is prohibited after September 30, 2012. A yearly maximum amount of 0.75 lb ai/a applies for 2012. Imidan 70W Do not apply more than 7 1/6 lb of Imidan 70W per acre per year or make more than 5 applications per year. Intrepid Do not apply more than 64 fl oz of Intrepid 2F per acre per calendar year. Do not make more than 3 applications per year or apply more often than once every 7 days. Lannate Do not apply more than 3.6 lb ai per acre per crop. Do not make more than 4 applications per crop. Lime sulfur Do not use within 14 days of an oil spray or when temperatures are above 75°F.

continued Chapter 7 ❦ Blueberries 153

Table 7.14. Additional restrictions on blueberry pesticides., continued.

Mustang Do not apply more than 0.3 lb of active ingredient (25.8 oz of product) per acre per season. Do not make applications less than 7 days apart. Mustang Max Do not apply more than 0.15 lb of active ingredient (24 oz of product) per acre per season. Do not make applications less than 7 days apart. Omega 500F Do not use more than 7.5 pints per acre per growing season. Orbit, Tilt Orbit and Tilt both contain the same active ingredient, propiconazole. Do not apply more than 30 fl oz (0.84 lb of propiconazole) in total of Orbit and Tilt per season. Apply these products in minimum spray volumes of 5 gal/A for ground application and 15 gal/A for aerial application. Platinum Only a single soil application of Platinum should be made per growing season. Foliar applications of other Group 4A insecticides should not be made following an application of Platinum. Pristine Do not apply more than two sequential applications before alternating with a fungicide with a different mode of action. See label for several additional resistance management strategies. See Table 7.11 for chemical activity groups of fungicides labeled for use on blueberries. Pristine may cause injury to foliage of Concord or related grape varieties such as Worden and Fredonia. Do not use Pristine on these varieties and use special care when applying to prevent contact with these sensitive varieties. Thoroughly rinse spray equipment, including the inside of the tank, hoses, and nozzles after use and before using the same equipment on these sensitive grape varieties. Provado Do not apply more than 40 fluid ounces of Provado 1.6F per year. Do not apply more than 5 applications of Provado per crop season. Quash Do not make more than 3 applications per season, apply more than 7.5 oz per acre per season, or make more than 2 sequential applications. Rimon Do not apply more than 90 oz per acre per season. Sevin 80S Do not apply more than 5 times, or more often than once every 7 days. Spintor, Success, Entrust Do not apply more than a total of 0.45 lb ai of spinosad per acre per crop. Do not make more than 6 applications per year. Do not make applications less than 6 days apart. Do not apply more than 3 times per crop. When applied two times in succession, rotate to another insecticide class for at least one application. Switch Do not exceed 56 oz of Switch per acre per year. Do not make more than 2 applications before using a fungicide in another resistance management group. Thionex Do not make more than 2 applications per year. Do not exceed 1.5 lb ai per acre per year. Ziram 76DF Ziram applications should be avoided within 28 days prior to harvest due to the visibility of white residues. 154 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Vertebrate Pests 6. Minimize weeds between the rows Using Sod Row Middles With blueberries, birds are frequent through the use of cultivation or Sod between the rows prevents soil vertebrate pests, as are voles. However, establishment of a weed-free sod. erosion, provides traction for equipment deer can also cause damage to young 7. Use weed-free mulching materials and people, increases soil organic matter, plantings, and miscellaneous other within the row. improves soil structure and water perme- rodents cause occasional damage. ability, and furnishes shelter for beneficial 8. If cultivation is required, do so only Chapter 5 contains a complete discussion insects. Sod also creates a more friendly shallowly since the blueberry root of vertebrate pests, including infor- environment for pick-your-own fields. system is easily damaged. mation on identification of various The sod should not include plants that species of pests, diagnosis of damage 9. In conventional systems, use recom- are an alternate host for insect pests, or when the culprit is not seen, and mended herbicides properly (see diseases and nematodes that attack the management/control measures. Table 7.18). crop. In addition, the sod should be easily Practices 5, 6, 7, and 9 are discussed maintained, tolerant to drought, low Weeds below. pH, require little or no fertilization, and In organic production, cultural compete very little with the blueberries. Blueberry root systems are shallow and practices that successfully manage Tall fescue or hard fescue perennial lack root hairs, which put them at a disad- weeds take on increased importance. grass sods are recommended for row vantage when competing with weeds for Weed management strategies include middles. Both types of fescue are tolerant water and nutrients. Weeds also compete planting permanent sod between rows of to disease, drought, low pH, and low with blueberry plants for light and space. blueberries, mulching along the length fertility. They compete effectively with They acts as hosts for insects, diseases, of the row of blueberries, and using weeds, do not spread or creep into the and nematodes; provide cover for unde- mechanical or hand cultivation. Placing row by rhizome or stolon growth, and sirable animals; reduce quality and yield; a wide and deep mulch (6 inches deep are semidormant during the hot, dry and impede harvest. Thus, good weed and 4 feet wide) or fabric weed barrier summer months. Tall fescue is more control is essential if optimum growth around blueberry plants are also weed vigorous and is more easily established and yields are to be realized. Weeds may management strategies to consider. but requires more frequent mowing. be controlled by a number of different Newly developed “turf type” tall fescue methods or combinations of methods, Weed Identification varieties are vigorous and have a lower but an integrated approach including the Knowing what the weed is and its life mowing requirement than the traditional following methods is the most effective: cycle (whether a summer annual, winter ‘Kentucky 31’ tall fescue, but they have 1. Avoid sites infested with persistent annual, biennial, or perennial) is a critical not been evaluated in blueberries. Hard perennial weeds such as quackgrass, first step in implementing effective fescue grows more slowly and close to nutsedge, and wild brambles. control measures. General information on the ground and has a minimal mowing the above terms is provided in Chapter 4 2. If such sites must be used, eradicate requirement, but it is moderately slow and in Table 4.1. Resources for weed iden- weeds in the years before planting. and difficult to establish. The addition tification are provided in Appendix E. Cover crops such as sudangrass or of clover or other legumes is not recom- rye are very effective in “outcom- Practices for Minimizing Weeds mended. peting” noxious weeds; they also help Between the Rows Prepare for sod establishment before build up soil organic matter if plowed Between the rows, use cultivation the blueberries are planted. Control under at the end of the season. For a and/or herbicides to control weeds, or perennial weeds and nematodes and more complete discussion of cover establish a perennial grass sod such as correct soil pH and nutrient deficiencies crops, see Chapter 2. Weeds can tall or hard fescue to suppress weeds. It first. Complete primary tillage opera- also be controlled the year before is essential to integrate the vegetation tions the summer before planting. If planting with glyphosate (Roundup), management program with insect and building gently sloping raised ridges Touchdown, and selective broadleaf disease control programs. for blueberry rows to improve drainage, herbicides in grass crops. For a do so before sowing grass or planting Cultivation general discussion of weed control blueberries. When cultivation is used between the practices that will aid in minimizing The success of a sod planting will rows, it should be shallow and frequent weed pressure, see Chapter 4. depend on accurate seeding and timing. during the growing season. Annual Sow tall or hard fescue in late summer 3. Control weeds in crops that precede weeds are easily controlled by culti- into a well-prepared seedbed. Use 50 to blueberries on the site. vation when they are less than one inch 75 pounds of seed per broadcast acre to 4. Control weeds in fencerows and tall. Weeds that are more than two inches establish tall fescue, or 25 to 50 pounds of adjacent fields. tall are more difficult to control and may seed per broadcast acre to establish hard 5. Correctly identify the weeds that have already competed with the fescue. Blend up to 5 pounds of perennial are in your planting so you can blueberries. ryegrass per 100 pounds of hard fescue implement measures that will be seed to provide a fast, thin cover while effective for the weeds that you have. the hard fescue gets established. The Chapter 7 ❦ Blueberries 155 perennial ryegrass will be eliminated stimulate clover growth in a mixed grass Mulching from the stand by disease and drought and legume sod. Do not apply fertilizer Mulches control annual weeds and in a few years. If perennial ryegrass is containing phosphorus or potassium provide additional horticultural benefits not used, a significantly greater amount to sod if clover control is a problem. in many fields. When using mulch for of hard fescue seed should be used. See Apply fertilizer for blueberry growth in weed control, apply the mulch 3 to 4 Tables 7.3 and 7.4 for additional infor- the vegetation free strip only. Mowing inches thick when the rows are weed mation on cover crop characteristics and height also influences the composition free. Thinner layers of mulch may not rates. of a mixed grass and clover sod. Close smother emerging weeds. Organic Use a seeder that will ensure good mowing favors the clover. Taller sod will mulches may tie up important nutrients seed placement in a firm seedbed with favor the grass. Mow no closer than 4 as they break down, so the use of good seed and soil contact. Failure to inches if clover control is a problem in mulch may require additional fertilizer. use adequate equipment for seeding the sod. Reapply mulches annually or when frequently results in poor estab- needed to maintain weed suppression. Practices for Minimizing Weeds in lishment. In an area like New Jersey, the Rows Choose mulch products such as sawdust complete seeding by September 1 in the or wood chips, or a mixture of the two In the row, a weed free zone should be northern counties of New Jersey and by for improved infiltration of water over maintained where weed competition September 20 in the southern counties. sawdust alone. Avoid mulches such as with the crop is severe. Control in-row Apply 50 pounds of nitrogen (N) per straw that provide a favorable envi- weeds with mulches and/or herbicides. acre at seeding and repeat in late fall or ronment for rodents such as field mice The use of mechanical cultivation early spring to encourage rapid estab- and voles that may damage blueberries, equipment in the row is seldom recom- lishment. materials that are not already decom- mended due to risk of damaging the Establishment of a dense sod that is posed, or those that have a high pH such shallow roots of the blueberries. competitive with weeds will require 15 as mushroom compost. The width of the weed-free zone to 20 months. Some additional effort should be about 36 to 48 inches wide, during this period will ensure success. Herbicides or about 18 to 24 inches on each side of Broadleaf weeds are undesirable in a Choose herbicides for use in the row the row. This weed free strip should be sod growing between blueberry rows. that are labeled, have adequate crop about 40 percent of the distance between Competition with the crop and mowing safety (Table 7.15), and control the the rows. The width may vary, however, requirements may be increased. Many weeds in your field (see Table 4.1). The depending on soil fertility, water-holding weeds may be alternate hosts for use of a single herbicide repeatedly will capacity and exposure to erosion. Do not diseases, insects, or nematode pests. The lead to an increase in resistant weeds. reduce the width of the weed-free zone flowers of dandelion, clover, mustard Use herbicide combinations, herbicide in young nonbearing fields. Maintain species, and other weeds may coincide rotations, and sequential or spot treat- the full width of the vegetation-free zone with bloom and are preferred by polli- ments in a well-managed weed control in new plantings to achieve maximum nating insects. The same weeds—and program to eliminate or minimize growth of the blueberries. others—may also bloom before or after problems. The recommended herbicides the crop blooms and attract bees into the In-Row Sod before Planting covered below have been evaluated for crop safety and effectiveness. Infor- field when insecticides must be sprayed. Excellent results have been obtained by mation on all varieties is incomplete. Use The seedheads of dandelion clog tractor seeding perennial grass in the row as herbicides with care on new varieties. radiators and cause overheating, which well as between the rows. Use perennial Remember that weeds also compete can interfere with crop maintenance ryegrass rather than fescue. Rapid estab- with each other besides competing operations. lishment and growth and susceptibility with your crop. Thus, controlling a Apply Gallery 75DF to the sod early to herbicides make perennial ryegrass a particular weed or group of weeds may each spring after the sod is at least better choice than fescue for seeding in allow other weed species to take over. 6 months old and while the field is the row. Kill the sod in the row before A combination of two preemergence nonbearing to control large crabgrass and the blueberries are planted and no-till herbicides gives better weed control than other summer annuals. Use 1.0 pound of the plants into the dead sod. Use recom- a single herbicide. Combining a “grass Gallery (0.75 pounds of active ingredient) mended herbicides to control weeds. The herbicide” with a “broadleaf herbicide” per acre. This is the same rate of Gallery sod’s roots increase soil organic matter results in wider-spectrum control. recommended for use in the row on and improve soil structure and water Consult the label and Table 7.18 for newly planted nonbearing blueberries. permeability, and the sod acts as a mulch compatible tank mixes. Clover is difficult to control but can to conserve water and prevent erosion be suppressed or controlled in a sod with during the establishment year. By fall, Terminology good management practices and herbi- the dead sod deteriorates and is not Herbicide terminology may not be cides. Manage fertilizer applications attractive to rodents. everyone’s cup of tea, but it is important to favor grass rather than the clover. to understand in order to effectively Nitrogen fertilizer stimulates grass use herbicides and to avoid undesirable growth, and phosphorus and potassium consequences from herbicide application. 156 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Residual herbicides remain in the above, cultivation is not a recommended may lead to weed populations that are soil and kill weeds for up to several practice for incorporating herbicides resistant to those herbicide(s). months. They are applied before weeds in blueberries. However, rainfall or Postemergence herbicides are used germinate. Weeds begin to compete overhead irrigation is needed to move after weeds have emerged from the with most crops within 2 to 4 weeks. the herbicide into the soil before the soil and kill weeds through the leaves. Some products are effective only on weeds emerge and, ideally, just into the They are used by carefully applying the germinating seeds. If weeds are present, zone of weed seed germination. Use herbicide to the weeds without allowing a postemergence herbicide can be a preemergence herbicide in combi- it to contact desirable plants that could combined with a residual herbicide. nation with a postemergence herbicide be affected, such as blueberries or sod Residual herbicides are applied incorpo- if weeds have emerged, unless the row middles. The best time to apply rated or preemergence. preemergence herbicide also controls postemergence herbicides is when weeds Incorporated herbicides are mechani- weeds postemergence. Of preemergence are growing rapidly. Do not treat weeds cally mixed with the soil. This appli- herbicides labeled for blueberries, that are dormant or under stress. Most cation method is not well suited to Devrinol, Kerb, and Surflan work by herbicides that enter the plant through blueberries. It is difficult or impossible inhibiting cell division. Solicam and the leaves need a minimum rain-free to incorporate herbicides near the crown Callisto inhibit pigment synthesis. period of at least 1 to 8 hours after of the blueberry plant, and shallow roots Casoron inhibits cellulose biosynthesis application for maximum effectiveness. may be pruned by the incorporation and Chateau disrupts cell membranes. Postemergence herbicides may be equipment. Princep and Sinbar work by inhibiting selective or nonselective. Preemergence herbicides are photosynthesis. Sinbar, besides having Selective postemergence herbicides applied to the soil surface and are used this effect on germinating weeds, kills kill only certain susceptible weeds. to prevent weeds from establishing small emerged annual weeds. Casoron, Poast, Select, and Fusilade DX are before they emerge from the soil, not Kerb, Chateau, and Callisto also control examples that kill only grasses and will to prevent weeds from germinating. emerged plants of certain weed species. not control broadleaf weeds or harm the Labels often state that preemergence Repeatedly using herbicides that act on blueberries. herbicides must be “activated by weeds with the same mode of action Nonselective postemergence herbi- cultivation or irrigation.” As mentioned cides kill or injure any treated plant. They may be contact or translocated. Contact herbicides (Gramoxone Inteon, Scythe) affect only the plant tissue Table 7.15. Crop safety of blueberry herbicides. with which they come in contact. New (Nonbearing) Established (Bearing) Thorough spray coverage is essential Preemergence, Residual for good results. Roots of established Callisto G G annual weeds and perennial weeds Casoron/Norosac ? G often survive. Translocated herbicides Chateau F G (glyphosate, Fusilade, Poast, Select) Devrinol G G move systemically in the weed (or crop Gallery G — plant if contacted) after treatment. Appli- Karmex (NJ and MD only) — F/G cation at the proper growth stage will Princep — F/G often result in good control of the roots Sandea — G as well as tops of established annuals Sinbar — F and perennial weeds. Results of translo- Snapshot ? — cated herbicides may not be evident for Solicam F/G G several days or weeks. Surflan G G Herbicides have no activity after Velpar P P/F application for one of two reasons. Some Postemergence, Selective herbicides are too tightly bound to the Fusilade DX G — soil to be available to plants after appli- Kerb (also preemergence) — G cation. Care must be exercised in soilless Poast G G growing environments, where surprising Sandea — G residual activity can be observed from Select/Select Max G — these herbicides. Other herbicides are Postemergence, Nonselective highly soluble in water and are not Paraquat products G G bound to soil particles. Residual activity Glyphosate products* G G from these herbicides can be observed in G = good; F = fair (use with care; recommended); P = poor (not recommended); ? = labeled but data insufficient; — = not the soil, but it often lasts only a few days. labeled (do not use). They are rapidly leached out of the zone *Do not allow spray to contact young or green (living) bark or leaves. of weed seed germination and degraded Chapter 7 ❦ Blueberries 157

Table 7.16. Herbicide water solubility and soil adsorption characteristics. fields are not “typical.” Most coarse- textured soils, such as loamy sands and Solubility Soil Adsorption sandy loams, are low in organic matter, Residual Herbicides often less than 2 percent. Medium- Callisto (mesotrione) Moderate Moderate/strong Casoron/Norosac (dichlobenil) Low Moderate textured soils, such as loams, may have 2 Chateau (flumioxazin) Very low Not available to 4 percent organic matter. Many tradi- Devrinol (napropamide) Moderate Strong tional “black” blueberry soils may be Gallery (isoxaben) Very low Strong classified as loamy sands but may have Karmex (diuron) Low Strong organic matter contents over 8 percent. Kerb (pronamide) Low to moderate Strong Have your soil analyzed for percent Princep (simazine) Very low Moderate organic matter. This is a separate test Sandea (halosulfuron-methyl) Low to moderate Moderate that must be requested from most soils Sinbar (terbacil) Moderate Weak laboratories. If your soil has an organic Solicam (norflurazon) Low to moderate Strong matter content higher than the choices Surflan (oryzalin) Very low Strong listed on the herbicide label for your soil Velpar (hexazinone) High Weak texture, choosing the correct rate may be Nonresidual Herbicides difficult. See Table 7.17 for recommended Fusilade DX (fluazifop-P-butyl) Very low Very strong rates of specific herbicides for various glyphosate products Very high Very strong soil types and organic matter levels. paraquat products Very high Very strong Consult your Cooperative Extension Poast (sethoxydim) Moderate to very higha Moderate service for assistance in determining the Select products (clethodim) Not available Weak correct herbicide rate to use on your soil Source: Weed Science Society of America (2002), Herbicide Handbook, 8th ed. Controlling Weeds in Nursery and Landscape if needed. Adjust by changing tractor Plantings. 2007. Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences. speed and maintaining pressure when a. pH dependent. spraying a field with soil that requires different herbicide rates. Herbicide application and equipment are discussed by soil microorganisms. Table 7.16 lists best choices for annual grass and annual in Chapter 4. the solubility and soil adsorption char- broadleaf weed management based Herbicide Use in New (Nonbearing) acteristics of herbicides labeled for use on very low water solubility of both Plantings on blueberries. A complete discussion herbicides. On fine-textured soils and Weed control in a newly planted of the effects that trickle irrigation can soils higher in organic matter, Surflan field should be planned to provide a have on increasing weed growth under (oryzalin) and Karmex (diuron; New maximum margin of crop safety. Tillage the trickle line is included in Chapter 4: Jersey and Maryland only), respectively, and/or herbicides prior to planting Weed Management. are the best choices for annual grass and should control established biennial Glyphosate products—including annual broadleaf weed control based on and perennial weeds. Apply a combi- Roundup products, Touchdown their low and very low water solubility nation of herbicides to control annual products, Glyphomax Plus and others— and strong adsorption to the soil. grasses and broadleaf weeds. Surflan and paraquat products, including Unfortunately, certain weeds, including plus Gallery 75DF has been a safe and Gramoxone Inteon, Firestorm, and yellow nutsedge, escape this herbicide effective residual herbicide combination others are too tightly bound to the soil to combination. for newly planted blueberries. Apply in have residual activity. These herbicides Rate Control early spring after 1 to 2 inches of rainfall are completely unavailable to plants Strict rate control is necessary. or irrigation has settled the soil around after application. They remain tightly Improperly applied herbicides or the roots of the new plants but before bound to the soil until broken down. herbicides applied above recommended weeds emerge or the blueberry buds Glyphosate can be degraded or digested rates may cause damage to blueberries. break. Waxed paper “milk cartons” are by soil microorganisms. Residual Using rates that are too low will result effective and recommended shields. activity from glyphosate has been in a lack of efficacy or short duration of The use of shields adds an additional observed when used in greenhouses, control. Residual herbicide rates must be margin of safety when installed prior to on plastic mulch, and near hydroponic matched with soil type and percentage herbicide application. growing systems. Paraquat is degraded of organic matter to obtain good weed An alternative to shields is the use of by sunlight and is less likely to cause control and crop safety. Determine type granular formulations when available. problems when used on plastic mulch, and percentage of organic matter for each Granular formulations fall through the in greenhouses, or near soilless growing soil on the farm with a separate soil test. blueberry canopy to the soil surface, systems. Be aware that most herbicide labels provided applications are made when On coarse-textured sandy soils low are written for “typical agricultural the foliage and shoots are dry. The use in organic matter, Surflan (oryzalin) and soils” and that many common blueberry of nonselective postemergence herbi- Princep (simazine), respectively, are the 158 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 7.17. Per-acre rates per application for preemergence (residual) herbicides for common soil types for blueberries. Rates for each active ingredient are followed by the corresponding rates of a commonly available product containing the active ingredient listed. Soil Type / % Organic Matter Sand Loamy Sand Sandy Loam Loam Silt Loam Clay Loam Herbicide 0–1 1–2 0–1 1–2 0–1 1–2 2–4 1–2 2–4 1–2 2–4 1–2 2–4 Napropamide 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 (lb ai)a Devrinol 50DF (lb)a 4–8 4–8 4–8 4–8 4–8 4–8 4–8 4–8 4–8 4–8 4–8 4–8 4–8 Mesotrione (oz ai)a 1.5–0.3 1.5–0.3 1.5–0.3 1.5–0.3 1.5–0.3 1.5–0.3 1.5–0.3 1.5–0.3 1.5–0.3 1.5–0.3 1.5–0.3 1.5–0.3 1.5–0.3 Callisto 4F (fl oz)a 3–6 3–6 3–6 3–6 3–6 3–6 3–6 3–6 3–6 3–6 3–6 3–6 3–6 Flumioxazin (oz ai)a 3–6 3–6 3–6 3–6 3–6 3–6 3–6 3–6 3–6 3–6 3–6 3–6 3–6 Chateau 51WDG 6–12 6–12 6–12 6–12 6–12 6–12 6–12 6–12 6–12 6–12 6–12 6–12 6–12 (oz)a Isoxaben (lb ai)b 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 1 0.75 1 1 1 1 1 Gallery 75DF (lb)b 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.33 1.0 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 Pronamide (lb ai)b 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Kerb 50WP (lb)b 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 Diclobenil (lb ai)a 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 Casoron CS (gal)a 1.4–2.8 1.4–2.8 1.4–2.8 1.4–2.8 1.4–2.8 1.4–2.8 1.4–2.8 1.4–2.8 1.4–2.8 1.4–2.8 1.4–2.8 1.4–2.8 1.4–2.8 Simazine (lb ai)b — — — — — 2 2 2 3 2 3 3 4 Princep 90DF (lb)b — — — — — 2.2 2.2 2.2 3.3 2.2 3.3 3.3 4.4 Halosulfuron- 0.38–0.75 0.38–0.75 0.38–0.75 0.38–0.75 0.38–0.750.38–0.75 0.38–0.75 0.38–0.75 0.38–0.75 0.38–0.75 0.38–0.75 0.38–0.75 0.38–0.75 methyl (oz ai) Sandea (oz) 0.5–1.0 0.5–1.0 0.5–1.0 0.5–1.0 0.5–1.0 0.5–1.0 0.5–1.0 0.5–1.0 0.5–1.0 0.5–1.0 0.5–1.0 0.5–1.0 0.5–1.0 Terbacil (lb ai)b — — — — — 1 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 2.4 2.4 Sinbar 80WP (lb)b — — — — — 1.25 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 Norflurazon (lb ai)b — — — 2 — 2 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 3 3 4 Solicam 80DF (lb)b — — — 2.5 — 2.5 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.75 3.75 5 Oryzalin (lb ai)a 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 Surflan 4AS (qt)a 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 Hexazinone (lb ai)b — — — — — — — — 0.5 0.5 0.75 0.75 1.0 Velpar L (pt)b — — — — — — — — 2.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 4.0 NJ and MD only: Diuron (lb ai) — — — 1.0 — 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 Karmex DF (lb) — — — 1.25 — 1.9 1.9 1.9 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 a. Use the lower recommended rate when tank-mixing with another preemergence herbicide, unless annual grass pressure is severe. b. Use one-half the recommended rate when tank-mixing with another preemergence herbicide. — = not labeled or not recommended (do not use). Chapter 7 ❦ Blueberries 159 cides such as a paraquat or glyphosate or as a split application, half in the fall with Sinbar before they exceed 1 inch in product should be avoided during the and the second half in the spring. Use height. year of planting unless shields are in the split application when grass pressure See Table 7.18 for recommended place. Avoiding contact of these products is heavy for best results. The use of these herbicides and timings at which they can with the plant is critical. herbicides in spring only has resulted be used. in inconsistent weed control when Herbicide Use in Established (Bearing) Problem Perennial Weeds dry weather followed the application. Plantings Especially in perennial crops such as Sinbar 80WP applications should be Apply herbicides to the blueberry row blueberries, certain problem weeds can applied only in the spring. The relatively in established fields in late fall and also become well established since the field high solubility of Sinbar 80WP results in late spring. Herbicides are applied in is not worked after crop establishment, in leaching when applied in the fall. late fall or when the soil temperature has and herbicides may have limited or no Increased risk of crop injury and poor dropped to between 40 and 50°F to control effectiveness at this point. Many of the weed control can result. winter annuals, certain perennials, and weeds that are likely to become prob- Consider spot treating with a labeled early season summer annuals. The spring lematic are discussed below, along with glyphosate product if perennial weeds herbicide application extends summer their life cycle and cultural and chemical are present; treatment is recommended annual weed control through harvest. means for management. in the fall. Application by use of a wick Late fall herbicide applications applicator is a safer option in order to should all include a residual broadleaf Yellow Nutsedge avoid contact of the herbicide with the herbicide. Use Princep in fields that Yellow nutsedge, a perennial, may be blueberry plants. are not irrigated or are watered with the most serious weed in agriculture Follow-up late spring applications overhead irrigation. If trickle irrigation worldwide. Yellow nutsedge is some- should include a different residual is used, apply Karmex (New Jersey times referred to a “nutgrass,” even broadleaf weed herbicide and a residual and Maryland only) in the fall. Small though it is not a grass. Although grass herbicide. Add a postemergence seedling annual broadleaf weeds will be yellow nutsedge can reproduce from herbicide only if needed. Use Karmex controlled by the residual herbicide, but seed, where it is established, annual 80DF (New Jersey and Maryland only) if well established annuals are present, reinfestation is primarily due to dormant for residual broadleaf weed control add a postemergence herbicide such nutlets in the soil. Nutlets are small, if Princep was used in the fall, or use as a paraquat product to the tank. In about the size of a pea, and are tan to Princep if Karmex was used in the fall. recent years, Princep and Karmex have reddish brown in color. They sprout in Apply Sinbar 80WP or the second half not performed as reliably as in previous the spring and establish a plant about 8 of a split herbicide treatment of Solicam years at some sites. Reasons may include to 12 inches tall with narrow leaves and 80DF, Surflan 80WP, or Devrinol 50DF weed species shifts to annual broadleaf parallel veins. At a glance the plant may for annual grass control. Include a weeds, such as groundsel, that are less appear to be a grass, but close inspection paraquat product if seedling annual susceptible to these herbicides, the devel- of the plant reveals that the leaves are weeds are observed. opment of triazine-resistant biotypes, or not divided into two parts, a blade and As mentioned above under “Late Fall the establishment of perennial broadleaf a sheath. Further inspection reveals Herbicide Applications,” Princep and weeds. If this is the case on your farm, that just below the soil, the triangular Karmex have recently not performed an alternative is to apply Casoron in stem could be detected by rolling the reliably at some sites. This has also been the late fall at rates given in Table 7.18 shoot between two fingers. Nutlets can the case with the spring application of to control these weeds. Casoron will resprout six to eight times if cultivation Princep and Karmex, as well as Sinbar. control early season annual grasses, but kills the shoot. After the plant becomes Reasons for failure at this time of the a residual annual grass herbicide should established, rhizomes, which are year may be the same as those listed be applied in the spring for full-season horizontal underground stems, begin to above, plus the possibility that biotypes grass control. grow in late spring or early summer. By may exist that germinate later in the The use of a grass herbicide in the early to midsummer, the rhizomes curve summer when these herbicides are less fall depends on the product chosen. upward and produce additional plants. effective. In these cases, add Callisto or Kerb 50WP is the only grass herbicide The vegetative spread of the weed Chateau to your spring tank mixture that must be applied in the fall. Choose continues until late summer. By August to improve control of summer annual Kerb to control cool season perennial in most locations, the weed can sense the broadleaf weeds. grasses such as quackgrass. An addi- approach of fall by the longer nights, and Spot treat with a labeled glyphosate tional residual annual grass herbicide a burst of rhizome growth follows. These product to control established perennial is needed in the spring to provide full rhizomes do not curve up and produce grasses and broadleaf weeds. Sinbar season summer annual grass control more daughter plants. They grow out 80WP is also effective for seedling following a fall application of Kerb and down. By early fall, a pronounced weed control postemergence. No other 50WP. Solicam 90DF, Surflan 80WP, and swelling can be observed at the tip of postemergence herbicide may be needed Devrinol 50DF are annual grass herbi- each rhizome, which matures into a new if no established weeds are present and cides that should be applied in late fall dormant nutlet. Later in the fall, the seedling annual weeds are sprayed still longer night signals that it is time 160 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 for the mother plant to enter dormancy, in a field. Using raised beds in areas are larger than field bindweed flowers. effectively separating the nutlets from with poor drainage can help to manage Bindweed species are often confused the mother plant and each other. yellow nutsedge. with annual morninglories, which have Yellow nutsedge can be managed and larger bright blue flowers, simple shal- Chemical Management eventually eliminated from a field by lower roots, and are easier to manage. Sandea (halosulfuron, 0.375–0.75 oz preventing new nutlet production. This The leaves of bindweed species are ai/A). Use 0.5 to 1.0 dry ounce per acre can be done by persistent management triangular or arrow-head shaped. Hedge of Sandea 75DF in mid- to late spring of nutsedge from late summer through bindweed leaves are pointed, while field to control yellow nutsedge. Always early fall (see below). The results of the bindweed leaves have a blunt tip. The add a non-ionic surfactant to be 0.25 effort will not be evident after one year. shoots grow as a vine across the ground percent of the spray solution. Direct the Too many “old” nutlets remain dormant or twining up the shoots of other plants spray toward the base of the blueberry in the soil for several years before they for support. Management can be difficult bush. Avoid contact with crop foliage sprout, but after several years, success due to the deep and extensive root or temporary chlorosis (yellowing) will will be evident. system bindweed develops. occur. Use in combination or tank-mixed Cultural Management with other residual herbicides for annual Cultural Management Avoid spreading nutsdege into clean grass control or to improve annual Bindweed is sensitive to shading. fields from infested soils with equipment broadleaf weed control. When yellow However, because roots store significant or in mulches such as straw and manure. nutsedge pressure is heavy, apply in the reserves, shading is ineffective after Nutsedge is intolerant of shade. Using spring after the yellow nutsedge has bindweed is well established. Culti- close row spacing can result in shading emerged and developed several leaves, vation is effective only if repeated and minimize yellow nutsedge growth. and repeat the application after harvest frequently. Regrown shoots begin to Mulches, including plastic, straw, and a minimum of 45 days later if additional replenish root reserves in as little as 2 cover crop residues can also provide yellow nutsedge emerges. Do not apply weeks after shoot emergence. shade as well as provide a physical more than 2 dry ounces of Sandea per Chemical Management barrier that reduces plant emergence. acre per year. Sandea will not injure Casoron/Norosac (dichlobenil, 4–6 lb Nutsedge is also a poor competitor established sod. Observe a minimum ai/A). Use 100 to 150 pounds of Casoron/ with vigorous crops. Use management preharvest interval of 14 days. Norosac 4G or 2.8 gallons of Casoron CS practices that promote crop health. Also, Glyphosate products. Apply initial per acre. Apply between November 15 include vigorous cover crops in your application at higher labeled rate when and March 15 to control labeled annual, rotation, and include corn and soybeans plants are more than 6 inches tall but biennial, and perennial weeds. Late- in the rotation to shade nutsedge and before going to seed. Repeated subse- fall treatments, after November 15 but allow the use of herbicides that are quent applications at lower rates will be before the soil freezes, have had a more effective against nutsedge. Repeated needed for control. Use lower gallonages consistent effect on susceptible perennial mowing prevents seed production and of water to allow a greater amount of weeds than late winter applications. Treat helps with depleting root reserves. glyphosate to remain on the foliage, as before weed growth begins and when While seeds are not the not the primary nutsedge foliage will not retain much daily high temperatures do not exceed method for spreading yellow nutsedge, spray solution. Broadcast: 2.25 lb ae (acid 50°F. Casoron/Norosac is volatile in they are important for spreading the equivalent)/A. Spot Treatment: See your warm temperatures and must be irri- plant greater distances. Preventing product’s label for rate. Wet the weed gated or incorporated after application seed production by mowing prior to foliage as thoroughly as possible. Use the if applied in warm weather to prevent flowering and seed set will prevent the highest labeled percent solution rate when significant loss of the herbicide. This formation of seeds. Mowing can exhaust only partial wetting of the weed foliage product is for established (bearing) fields. the energy reserves of nutlets; however, is possible. Wet a minimum of 50 percent Glyphosate products. Apply in fall it can take seven or more mowings until of the weed foliage for effectiveness. when plants are translocating photo- reserves are depleted. Tilling in fall can Ropewick Applicator: Wipe twice; travel in synthates to their roots. A follow-up directly destroy small nutlets and expose opposite directions for each wipe. larger nutlets to killing cold tempera- application in spring may be needed. tures. In the fall, chisel plowing or Bindweed Species (Hedge and Field) Applications made in late spring and using tillage tools that bring vegetative These perennial weeds have deep early summer when bindweed is actively structures to the soil surface are better vertical roots for food storage and hori- growing will have little effect. Broadcast: than tools that invert soil (moldboard zontal roots that spread the weed vegeta- 2.25 lb ae (acid equivalent)/A. Spot plow) and bury the nutsedge. Tillage tively. Shoots emerge from this extensive Treatment: See your product’s label for in the spring, however, can help spread root system in the spring. Flowers rate. Wet the weed foliage as thoroughly yellow nutsedge. This is particularly a appear in late spring and throughout as possible. Use the highest labeled problem when using more shallow types the summer. They are distinctively percent solution rate when only partial of tillage. Yellow nutsedge tends to be trumpet shaped, white, or lightly tinted wetting of the weed foliage is possible. a larger problem on low or wet areas with lavender. Hedge bindweed flowers Wet a minimum of 50 percent of the weed foliage for effectiveness. Ropewick Chapter 7 ❦ Blueberries 161

Applicator: Wipe twice; travel in opposite Applicator: Wipe twice; travel in opposite stems die in the fall. Some regrowth, directions for each wipe. directions for each wipe. as short stems or rosettes, often occurs before winter. Strong root systems over- Canada Thistle Dandelion winter and resume growth in the spring. This perennial weed has deep vertical This perennial plant grows actively The weeds spread using underground roots for food storage and horizontal during the spring and fall and forms a horizontal roots. Once established, roots that spread the weed vegetatively. robust tap root that may resprout several management of this weed is difficult Shoots emerge from this extensive root new tops when the plant top is broken off. since it is tolerant to most herbicides and system in the spring. Flowers appear Cultural Management the roots can be spread by cultivation or in late June, and seed is dispersed in Hoeing or hand removal is typically other tillage practices. July. The shoots die after the seed is ineffective since removing the entire tap dispersed. New shoots appear in late Cultural Management root is difficult, and since cultivation in summer and grow vegetatively until Best options are shallow tillage or blueberry fields must be done shallowly, frost. These fall shoots make food for the removal when first plants to invade field a significant portion of the root system roots and do not flower. are small, and mowing of any nearby is not likely to be destroyed. Mowing goldenrod infested areas to avoid spread Cultural Management before flower heads bloom can aid in of the weed into cultivated fields. Mowing in spring at bud to bloom time reducing the number of seeds produced. will assist with depleting root reserves, Chemical Management Chemical Management as plant reserves are already at a low Casoron/Norosac (dichlobenil, 4–6 Norosac/Casoron (dichlobenil, 4–6 point, and mowing (either physically, or lb ai/A). Use 100 to 150 pounds of lb ai/A). Use 100 to 150 pounds of chemically with a burndown material) Casoron/Norosac 4G or 2.8 gallons of Norosac/Casoron 4G or 2.8 gallons of will force the plant to use additional root Casoron CS per acre. See paragraph on Casoron CS per acre. Apply between reserves for regrowth. Repeated frequent use of this product under “Bindweed November 15 and March 15 to control tillage will be effective prior to planting species.” labeled annual, biennial, and perennial and between rows; however, if tillage is weeds. Late-fall treatments—after Glyphosate products. Apply in late infrequent, this plant may become the November 15 but before the soil spring after spring growth is 8 to 10 dominant weeds as other more easily freezes—have controlled susceptible inches tall, but before the shoots become controlled weeds become less numerous. perennial weeds more consistently than too tall for good coverage with the Only extremely shallow tillage can be late-winter applications. Treat before spray solution. Generally, banded or used near blueberry plants in order to weed growth begins and when daily broadcast sprays must be applied earlier avoid damaging their root systems. high temperatures do not exceed 50°F. in the spring, while spot treatments and Chemical Management Norosac/Casoron is volatile in warm ropewick applications can be applied Casoron/Norosac (dichlobenil, 4–6 temperatures and must be irrigated or later in the spring. Broadcast: 1.5 to 3 lb ai/A). Use 100 to 150 pounds of incorporated after application if applied pounds ae (acid equivalent)/A. Spot Casoron/Norosac 4G or 2.8 gallons of in warm weather to prevent significant Treatment: See your product’s label for Casoron CS per acre. See paragraph on loss of the herbicide. rate. Wet weed foliage as thoroughly as possible. Use the highest labeled use of this product under “Bindweed Glyphosate products. Apply when the percent solution rate when only partial Species.” weed is growing actively and has flower wetting of the weed foliage is possible. Glyphosate products. Apply in late buds. Spring or fall applications are Wet a minimum of 50 percent of the June when Canada thistle has flower more effective than applications made in weed foliage for maximum effectiveness. buds or flowers, or in the fall after the midsummer. (See warnings in Table 7.18.) Ropewick Applicator: Wipe twice; travel in shoots are 6 to 8 inches tall but before Broadcast: 2.25 lb ae (acid equivalent)/A. opposite direction for each wipe. frost. Roundup translocates into the Spot Treatment: See your product’s vertical roots of the plant well but in label for rate. Wet weed foliage as Horseweed less quantity into the horizontal roots. thoroughly as possible. Use the highest Horseweed is a biennial plant with Follow-up spot treatments may be labeled percent solution rate when only seed that usually germinates in late needed to control regrowth from pieces partial wetting of the weed foliage is summer or early fall. Though biennial, of horizontal roots that were not killed possible. Wet a minimum of 50 percent it usually behaves like a winter annual by the initial application. Broadcast: 2.25 of the weed foliage for effective control. in that the seedling grows as a rosette lb ae (acid equivalent)/A. Spot Treatment: Ropewick Applicator: Wipe twice; travel in during the fall and early spring. The See your product’s label for rate. Wet the opposite directions for each wipe. plant bolts during the summer, flowers, weed foliage as thoroughly as possible. sets seed, and dies during its second Goldenrod Species Use the highest labeled percent solution late summer and fall season. It may also These closely related weeds are peren- rate when only partial wetting of the behave like a typical spring-germinating nials that begin growth in April from weed foliage is possible. Wet a minimum biennial or summer annual as well. rosettes or rootstocks. Typically, yellow of 50 percent of the weed foliage for The weed produces a large number of blooms appear in late summer and the maximum effectiveness. Ropewick wind-distributed seed in late summer 162 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 and early fall. Some people refer to 3SC (or other labeled formulations). after cutting. Cut and treat stumps only horseweed as “marestail” which is a Contact killer only; has no translocation when the target is actively growing misnomer. Herbicide labels that state or residual activity. Best results occur and not under stress. Best results are “marestail control” may be referring to when horseweed seedlings are treated often obtained in late summer and early another weed. in late fall or are less than 1 inch in fall before fall color is observed in the Note: Glyphosate-resistant horseweed, diameter. Two applications two weeks foliage. Warning: Injury due to root also called marestail or stickweed locally, apart are more effective than a single grafting may occur in adjacent plants. has been identified in the Mid-Atlantic application. Regrowth may occur from Do not treat cut stumps if there is a Region, including New Jersey. Due to the the root systems of established weeds. possibility of root grafting to desirable windborne distribution of the seed, it is Use a surfactant to be 0.25 percent of the vegetation. likely that glyphosate-resistant biotypes spray solution (1 quart per 100 gallons of Quackgrass will spread to your farm despite good spray solution). Combine with recom- This perennial plant grows actively in integrated weed management by indi- mended preemergence herbicide(s) for the late spring and early fall when daily vidual growers. Therefore, all horseweed residual effectiveness. Do not allow spray high temperatures range between 65 and populations should be considered poten- or drift to contact green bark, leaves, or 80°F (18.3 and 26.7°C). High midsummer tially glyphosate resistant. Glyphosate, fruit. Crop damage may result. The use temperatures, above 85°F (29.4°C), and/ formulated as Roundup Ultra Max, of shields, such as grow tubes or paper or low soil moisture cause the weed to Touchdown, Glyphomax Plus, and other milk cartons, greatly reduces the risk of become dormant or semidormant until generic formulations, were recom- injury in young plantings. This product moisture and cooler weather return. mended for horseweed control prior to is for newly planted (nonbearing) fields The weed reproduces by seed and 2003 but have been removed from the and for established (bearing) fields. vegetatively by rhizomes, horizontal recommendations for horseweed control DANGER: Do not breathe spray mist. Read underground stems that eventually due to the resistance development. safety precautions on the label. curve upward and make new shoots. Cultural Management Poison Ivy The seedhead, which appears in June, Best options are shallow tillage or This woody perennial vine or shrub is resembles ryegrass, except each floret removal when first plants to invade field capable of climbing a trellis. Contact is rotated one quarter turn compared to are small, and mowing of any nearby with any part of the plant may result ryegrass. The rhizomes are about 1/8 inch horseweed infested areas to avoid in an itching, blistering skin rash. in diameter and may grow horizontally spread of the weed into cultivated fields. Nonselective postemergence herbicides for up to several feet in length before Chemical Management must be used to control this weed. Take curving upward and making a new measures to eradicate before the vine shoot. Ryegrass does not have rhizomes. Casoron/Norosac (dichlobenil, 4–6 grows up into the plants or trellis. lb ai/A). Use 100 to 150 pounds of Cultural Management Casoron/Norosac 4G or 2.8 gallons of Cultural Management Prior to planting, plowing followed Casoron CS per acre. See paragraph on No cultural controls recommended. by disking or repeated disking chops use of this product under “Bindweed rhizomes into small pieces that are more Chemical Management Species.” susceptible to herbicides and additional Glyphosate products. Apply in mid- to cultivation. Repeated cultivation forces Karmex (diuron, 1.0–3.2 lb ai/A), New late summer after the weed flowers in plants to use rhizome reserves. Culti- Jersey and Maryland only. Use 1.25 to 2.5 late June or early July, or in early fall vation during hot dry spells causes pounds/A Karmex 80DF, depending on before fall colors appear. Results of the rhizomes to dry out. Failure to follow soil texture and organic matter. Apply fall application may not become evident initial cultivations with control measures in late fall to weed-free soil, or tank-mix until the following spring. Best results will only result in propagation of with a paraquat product to kill existing have been obtained in late summer rhizomes. vegetation. This product is for estab- after the fruit has formed. Broadcast: 3 lished (bearing) fields. to 3.75 pounds ae (acid equivalent)/A. Chemical Management Princep (simazine, 1–4 lb ai/A). Use 1.1 Spot Treatment: See your product’s Glyphosate products. Apply in late to 4.4 pounds/A Princep 90DF (or other label for rate. Wet weed foliage as spring (May or June) or in the fall labeled formulations), depending of soil thoroughly as possible. Use the highest (October or November) when the weed texture and organic matter. Apply in late labeled percent solution rate when only has vigorous healthy foliage, a minimum fall to weed-free soil, or add a paraquat partial wetting of the weed foliage is of 4 to 6 leaves, and has begun to tiller. product to kill existing vegetation. This possible. Wet a minimum of 50 percent Do not till the field or otherwise disrupt product is for established (bearing) of the weed foliage for maximum the root and rhizome system of the fields. effectiveness. Ropewick Applicator: Not weeds in the soil for a minimum of 8 recommended. “Cut Stump” Treatment: months before treatment. Broadcast: Paraquat (Gramoxone Inteon, Firestorm, See your product’s label for rate. Apply 1.5 lb ae (acid equivalent)/A. Spot or other labeled formulations, 0.6–1.0 lb to the cambium (inner bark area) of Treatment: See your product’s label for ai/A). Use 2.4 to 4.0 pints/A Gramoxone the stump of woody plants immediately rate. Wet weed foliage as thoroughly as Inteon or 1.7 to 2.7 pints/A Firestorm Chapter 7 ❦ Blueberries 163 possible. Use the highest labeled percent may merely suppress Virginia Creeper. solution. Generally, broadcast sprays solution rate when only partial wetting Broadcast: 3 to 3.75 pounds ae (acid must be applied in May, while spot treat- of the weed foliage is possible. Wet equivalent)/A. Spot Treatment: See ments and ropewick applications can weed foliage as thoroughly as possible. your product’s label for rate. Wet weed be delayed until June. Broadcast: 1.5–3 lb Ropewick Applicator: Wipe in late May or foliage as thoroughly as possible. Use ae (acid equivalent)/A. Spot Treatment: June after the weed is at least one foot the highest labeled percent solution rate See your product’s label for rate. Wet tall. Not recommended in the fall due to when only partial wetting of the weed weed foliage as thoroughly as possible. the more prostrate growth habit of the foliage is possible. Wet a minimum Use the highest labeled percent solution weed. of 50 percent of the weed foliage for rate when only partial wetting of the Kerb (pronamide), 1–2 lb ai/A. Use 2 maximum effectiveness. Ropewick Appli- weed foliage is possible. Wet a minimum to 4 pounds/A Kerb 50WP. Apply in cator: Not recommended; the creeping of 50 percent of the weed foliage for November when soil temperatures are nature of plant is difficult to wipe. “Cut maximum effectiveness. Ropewick between 35 and 55°F (1.7 and 12.8°C). Stump” Treatment: See your product’s Applicator: Wipe twice; travel in opposite Primarily effective against perennial label for rate. Apply to the cambium direction for each wipe. grasses, including quackgrass, blue- (inner bark area) of the stump of woody grass, ryegrass sp., and fescue sp., and plants immediately after cutting. Cut and also provides early management of treat stumps only when the target is annual grasses the following spring. actively growing and not under stress. Apply Surflan, Prowl (nonbearing only), Best results are often obtained in late Solicam, or Sinbar the following May summer and early fall before fall color or June for full season annual grass is observed in the foliage. Warning: control. Tank-mix Kerb with Gramoxone Injury due to root grafting may occur in Inteon or a glyphosate product and with adjacent plants. Do not treat cut stumps Princep for postemergence and residual if there is a possibility of root grafting to broadleaf weed control. This product is desirable vegetation. for established (bearing) fields. White Heath Aster and Other Aster Fusilade (nonbearing fields only), Species Poast, and Select. Provide partial White heath aster is a perennial that control. Repeat applications needed for begins growth in April from rosettes or additional control. rootstocks. (Other asters may be annuals or biennials.) Typically, blooms are about Virginia Creeper ½ inch in diameter. The flowers have Virginia Creeper is a woody perennial white or slightly tinted purple petals vine capable of climbing a trellis and with yellow centers. They appear in late smothering a plant. summer, set seed, and the stems die in Cultural Management the fall. Some regrowth, as short stems No effective cultural controls have been or rosettes, often occurs before winter. identified. The weed spreads using underground horizontal roots. Chemical Management Nonselective postemergence herbicides Cultural Management must be used to suppress or control this Once established, management of this weed. Remove the vine from the trellis weed is difficult since it is tolerant to during winter pruning and put it on the most herbicides and the roots can be ground or plan a “cut stump” treatment spread by cultivation or other tillage during the growing season. Do not practices. “prune out” the vine during the dormant Chemical Management season. Good growth and maximum leaf Casoron/Norosac (dichlobenil, 4–6 area are needed at the time of herbicide lb ai/A). Use 100 to 150 pounds of application during the summer. Casoron/Norosac 4G or 2.8 gallons of Glyphosate products. Apply in mid- to Casoron CS per acre. See paragraph on late summer after the vine flowers in use of this product under “Bindweed early July but before fall color appears Species.” in the foliage. Applications in spring or Glyphosate products. Apply in May or early summer, before flowering, have June after spring growth is 8 to 10 inches been less effective. Repeat applica- tall, but before the shoots become too tions may be needed. One application tall for good coverage with the spray 164 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 7.18. Herbicides for blueberry weed control. Note: See text discussion for additional discussion on timing and use of various herbicides in this chapter and Chapter 4. See Table 4.1 for efficacy ratings of herbicides on various weeds. See Table 3.2 for limits on states in which these cannot be used, use status (general vs. restricted), days-to-harvest limitations, and reentry intervals. The information below is correct to the best of our knowledge. Other formulations with the same active ingredient as some of the products listed below may exist that may or may not be labeled for the same uses. Always consult the label before making pesticide applications. Information was current as of July 1, 2012. Active Ingredient Product Rate/A Weeds Timing of Treatment/Comments Rate/Aa (Days to Harvest)b NEW (NONBEARING) PLANTINGS Preemergence Primarily for annual broadleaf Add nonionic surfactant to be 0.25% of the spray volume, or 1 qt Mesotrione, 1.5–3.0 oz Callisto 4F, 3–6 fl oz weeds per acre crop oil concentrate. Apply in early spring before bud break (prebloom) as a spray directed toward the base of the bush. Broadleaf weeds controlled include horseweed and common lambsquarter. Tank-mix with an appropriate postemergence herbicide for broad-spectrum control of emerged weeds. Tank-mix with a residual grass herbicide to improved annual grass control. Do not apply more than 6 fl oz of Callisto per acre within one year. Annual broadleaf weeds; also Only if plants established less than 2 years are protected from spray Flumioxazin, 3.0–6.0 oz With protection for first controls or suppresses annual contact by nonporous wrap, grow tubes, or waxed containers. Add 2 years: Chateau 51WDG, grasses crop oil concentrate to be 1% of spray volume. Apply in late fall 6–12 oz (7) after leaf drop or in early spring before bud break. Tank-mix with an appropriate postemergence herbicide for broad-spectrum control of emerged weeds. Tank-mix with a residual grass herbicide to improve annual grass control. Do not allow spray to contact foliage or new green bark. Do not use more than 6 oz/a of product where the soil contains more than 80% sand until the plants have been in the field for more than 3 years. Follow instructions on label for tank clean-out if any part of the sprayer will be used to spray other crops; otherwise, crop injury may occur. See label for other cautions and restrictions, as even contact with treated residue can cause phytotoxicity. Primarily for annual grasses; Apply in late fall and/or early spring to weed-free soil, or add an Napropamide, 2.0–4.0 lb Devrinol 50DF, 4.0–8.0 suppresses or controls certain appropriate postemergence herbicide to kill existing vegetation. lb (—) annual broadleaf weeds Use the high rate for long-term control (4 to 8 months) and the low rate for short-term control (2 to 4 months). Tank-mix with Princep plus a postemergence herbicide in late fall or reduced rates of Princep, Karmex (New Jersey and Maryland only), or Sinbar in the spring, if planting has been established for at least one year, to control annual broadleaf weeds. Activate with one-half-inch sprinkler irrigation within 24 hours after application. If left on the soil surface, napropamide (Devrinol) is broken down by sunlight. Irrigation moves the herbicide into the soil and prevents breakdown by the sun. Primarily for annual broadleaf Apply in late fall or early spring to weed-free soil to control many Isoxaben, 0.75–1.0 lb Gallery 75DF, 1.0–1.33 weeds broadleaf weeds. If newly planted, allow the soil to settle and lb (365) fill any depressions around the plant before application. Add a postemergence herbicide to improve the control of emerged weeds. Gallery primarily controls annual broadleaf weeds. Tank-mix with Surflan to control annual grasses. Note: Gallery is not labeled for bearing blueberries.

continued Chapter 7 ❦ Blueberries 165

Table 7.18. Herbicides for blueberry weed control, continued. Active Ingredient Product Rate/A Weeds Timing of Treatment/Comments Rate/Aa (Days to Harvest)b Primarily for annual broadleaf Add nonionic surfactant to be 0.25% of the spray volume, or 1 qt Mesotrione, 1.5–3.0 oz Callisto 4F, 3–6 fl oz weeds per acre crop oil concentrate. Apply in early spring before bud break (prebloom) as a spray directed toward the base of the bush. Broadleaf weeds controlled include horseweed and common lambsquarter. Tank-mix with an appropriate postemergence herbicide for broad-spectrum control of emerged weeds. Tank-mix with a residual grass herbicide to improved annual grass control. Do not apply more than 6 fl oz of Callisto per acre within one year. Primarily for annual grass Planting must have been in the ground for at least 6 months before Norflurazon, 2.0–4.0 lb Solicam 80DF, 2.5–5.0 control; may provide partial application. Apply in late fall or spring to weed-free soil, or add an lb (60) control of many broadleaf appropriate postemergence herbicide to kill existing vegetation. weeds Tank-mix with Princep plus a postemergence herbicide in late fall, or with Karmex (New Jersey and Maryland only), or Sinbar in the spring if the planting has been established for at least one year, to improve the control of broadleaf weeds. Primarily for annual grasses Apply in late fall and/or early spring to weed-free soil, or add an Oryzalin, 2.0–4.0 lb Surflan 4AS, 2.0–4.0 qt appropriate postemergence herbicide to kill existing vegetation. Use (—) the high rate for long-term control (4 to 8 months) and the low rate for short-term control (2 to 4 months). Tank-mix with Princep plus a postemergence herbicide in late fall or with Karmex (New Jersey and Maryland only), or Sinbar in the spring if the planting has been established for at least one year, to control annual broadleaf weeds. Postemergence—Selective Emerged annual grasses and Add 2 pints crop oil concentrate or nonionic surfactant to be 0.25% Fluazifop-P-butyl, Fusilade DX 2EC, 12.0– perennial grasses, depending on of the spray solution (1 qt. per 100 gallons of spray solution). Use 0.18–0.38 lb 24.0 fl oz (365) rate (see information in column the lower rate on most annual grasses less than 6 inches tall and to to right) control johnsongrass. Use the higher rate to control other perennial grasses, crabgrass, and annual grasses more than 6 inches tall. Do not tank-mix Fusilade DX 2EC with any other pesticide. Do not apply within 1 hour of rainfall. Do not apply to grasses suffering from drought, heat, cold, or any other stress condition. Emerged annual grasses Use the lower rate to control annual grasses less than 6 inches Sethoxydim, 0.2–0.5 lb Poast 1.5EC, 1.0–2.5 pt, tall. Use the higher rate to control annual grass 6 to 12 inches tall plus 2.0 pints crop oil and to control perennial grasses. Do not tank-mix Poast with any concentrate per acre (30) other pesticide. Do not apply within 1 hour of rainfall. Do not apply to grasses suffering from drought, heat, cold, or any other stress condition. Most grass weed species, Use the lower rate to control annual grasses and the higher rate to Clethodim, 0.094–0.125 Select 2EC, 6.0–8.0 fl oz including certain hard-to- control perennial grasses. Repeat the application if regrowth occurs. lb, or 0.068–0.121 lb (365), or control grass weeds, such as Direct the spray toward the base of the crop plant and toward the Select Max, 9.0–16.0 fl small grain volunteers and weeds rather than as a broadcast spray over the planting. Add oz (14) cover crops, and perennials, nonionic surfactant to be 0.25% of the spray solution to Select 2EC such as hard fescue, tall fescue, or Select Max. Do not tank-mix with any other pesticide unless Bermudagrass, orchardgrass, labeled. Do not apply within 1 hour of rainfall. Do not apply to quackgrass, Johnsongrass, and grasses suffering from drought, heat, cold, or any other stress wirestem muhly condition. Select is currently labeled for nonbearing fields only. Do not apply within 12 months of harvest.

continued 166 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 7.18. Herbicides for blueberry weed control, continued. Active Ingredient Product Rate/A Weeds Timing of Treatment/Comments Rate/Aa (Days to Harvest)b Postemergence—Nonselective Annual weeds Contact killer only; no translocation or residual activity. Best results Paraquat, 0.5–1.0 lb Gramoxone Inteon, occur when weeds are 2 inches tall or less. Regrowth may occur 2.0–4.0 pt (—), or from the root systems of established weeds. Use a surfactant to be Firestorm 3SC, 1.3–2.7 0.25% of the spray solution (1 qt. per 100 gallons of spray solution). pt (—) Combine with recommended preemergence herbicide(s) for residual weed control. Do not allow spray or drift to contact green bark, leaves, or fruit. Crop damage may result. The use of shields, such as grow tubes or paper milk cartons greatly reduces the risk of injury in young plantings. DANGER: Do not breathe spray mist. Read safety precautions on the label. Annual and perennial weeds Glyphosate is a translocated, slow-acting herbicide with no soil or Glyphosate Roundup, or residual activity. Results will become evident 1 to 3 weeks after Broadcast: 0.56–3.0 lb ae Touchdown, or application. Apply lower rates to control seedlings and annual (acid equivalent). other labeled weeds and to suppress established perennial weeds. Use shields Spot treatment: See formulations (14) and do not allow glyphosate to contact the foliage or green shoots. label; wet foliage Optimum rate and time of application depend on weed species and thoroughly. growth stage. Weeds should be growing vigorously when treated. Ropewick applicator: Do not treat weeds that are under stress from drought, extreme See label for product/ heat, cold, or other adverse growing conditions. When using a water ratio. One gallon of ropewick applicator, fill the pipe only half full to avoid excessive product will treat 10–100 dripping. Repeated wiping may be needed to provide control equal acres depending on weed to broadcast or spot applications. A ropewick applicator offers density. significant herbicide cost savings. Warnings: (1) Do not allow glyphosate to contact the leaves, young green bark, fresh trunk wounds, or root suckers, or severe crop injury may occur. (2) Do not allow glyphosate to contact any immature part of blueberry plants. (3) Do not use galvanized containers—glyphosate may react with the container to produce explosive hydrogen gas. BEARING FIELDS Preemergence Primarily for annual grasses; Apply in late fall and/or early spring to weed-free soil, or add an Napropamide, 2.0–4.0 lb Devrinol 50DF, 4.0–8.0 suppresses or controls certain appropriate postemergence herbicide to kill existing vegetation. Use lb (—) annual broadleaf weeds the high rate for long-term control (4 to 8 months) and the low rate for short-term control (2 to 4 months). Tank-mix with Princep plus a postemergence herbicide in late fall or reduced rates of Princep, Karmex (New Jersey and Maryland only), or Sinbar in the spring, if planting has been established for at least one year, to control annual broadleaf weeds. Activate with one-half inch sprinkler irrigation within 24 hours after application. If left on the soil surface, napropamide (Devrinol) is broken down by sunlight. Irrigation moves the herbicide into the soil and prevents breakdown by the sun. Primarily controls perennial Apply in late fall when soil temperatures are between 35 and 55°F. Pronamide, 1.0–2.0 lb Kerb 50WP, 2.0–4.0 lb grasses, including quackgrass, Spring transplants should be at least six months in the field, and (—) bluegrass, ryegrass species, fall transplants should be in the field for twelve months prior to fescue species treatment. When applied in the fall, also provides early control of annual grasses the following spring. Apply Surflan, Solicam, or Sinbar the following spring for full season annual grass control. Tank-mix Kerb with Princep for residual broadleaf weed control.

continued Chapter 7 ❦ Blueberries 167

Table 7.18. Herbicides for blueberry weed control, continued. Active Ingredient Product Rate/A Weeds Timing of Treatment/Comments Rate/Aa (Days to Harvest)b Primarily for annual broadleaf Apply in late fall or spring to weed-free soil, or add an appropriate NJ and MD only: Diuron, NJ and MD only: Karmex weeds postemergence herbicide to kill existing vegetation. Tank-mix with 1.0–2.0 lb DF 1.25–2.5 lb (—) Surflan, Solicam, Devrinol, or a reduced rate of Sinbar. This rate is one-half the labeled Karmex rate for use alone for the soil type. Tank- mixing will improve crop safety and the range of weeds controlled. In recent years, Karmex has not perfomed as reliably as in the past in some locations. For fall applications, using Casoron in the fall plus a residual annual grass herbicide applied in the spring may be a suitable alternative. For spring applications, adding Callisto or Chateau to your spring tank-mix will improve control of summer annual broadleaf weeds. Labeled perennial, biennial, and Apply in late fall/early winter to control labeled perennial, biennial, Diclobenil, 4.0–6.0 lb Casoron/Norosac 4G, annual weeds and annual weeds, or in late winter/early spring before weed 100–150 lb (—), or growth begins and daily high temperatures exceed 50°F. Perennial Casoron CS, 2.8 gal (—) weed control following late winter/early spring applications has been less consistent than late fall applications. Casoron/ Norosac is volatile in warm temperatures and must be irrigated or mechanically incorporated after application. Significant herbicide loss may occur if applied in warm weather. Primarily for annual broadleaf Apply in late fall or spring to weed-free soil, or add an appropriate Simazine, 1.0–4.0 lb Princep 90DF, 1.1–4.4 lb weed control postemergence herbicide to kill existing vegetation. Tank-mix (—) at 1.0–2.0 lb ai (1.1–2.2 lb of Princep 90DF), depending on soil texture and organic matter, with Surflan, Solicam, or Devrinol. This rate is one-half the labeled Princep rate for use alone for each soil type. Tank-mixing will improve crop safety and the range of weeds controlled. In recent years, Princep has not perfomed as reliably as in the past in some locations. For fall applications, using Casoron in the fall plus a residual annual grass herbicide applied in the spring may be a suitable alternative. For spring applications, adding Callisto or Chateau to your spring tank-mix will improve control of summer annual broadleaf weeds. Primarily for annual broadleaf Add crop oil concentrate to be 1% of spray volume. Apply in late fall Flumioxazin, 3.0–6.0 oz Chateau 51WDG, 6–12 oz weeds; also controls or after leaf drop or in early spring before bud break. Tank-mix with an (7) suppresses annual grasses appropriate postemergence herbicide for broad-spectrum control of emerged weeds. Tank-mix with a residual grass herbicide to improve annual grass control. Do not allow spray to contact foliage or new green bark. Do not use more than 6 oz/a of product where soil contains more than 80% sand until plants have been in the field for more than 3 years. Follow instructions on label for tank clean-out if any part of the sprayer will be used to spray other crops; otherwise, crop injury may occur. See label for other cautions and restrictions, as even contact with treated residue can cause phytotoxicity.

continued 168 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 7.18. Herbicides for blueberry weed control, continued. Active Ingredient Product Rate/A Weeds Timing of Treatment/Comments Rate/Aa (Days to Harvest)b Annual broadleaf weeds and Apply in mid- to late spring. Always add a nonionic surfactant to Halosulfuron, 0.375–0.75 Sandea, 0.5–1.0 oz (14) yellow nutsedge be 0.25% of the spray solution. Direct spray toward the base of oz the blueberry bush. Avoid contact with crop foliage or temporary yellowing will occur. Use in combination or tank-mixed with other residual herbicides for annual grass control or to improve annual broadleaf weed control. When yellow nutsedge pressure is heavy, apply in the spring after the yellow nutsedge has emerged and grown several leaves, and reapply after harvest a minimum of 45 days later if additional yellow nutsedge emerges. Do not apply more than 2 oz of Sandea per acre per year. Sandea will not injure established sod. Controls many annual broadleaf Apply in the spring to weed-free soil, or add an appropriate Terbacil, 1.0–2.4 lb Sinbar 80WDG, 1.25–3.0 weed species but may be weak postemergence herbicide to kill existing vegetation. Tank-mix lb (—) on pigweed species using terbacil at 0.5 to 1 lb ai/A (Sinbar 80WDG at 0.63–1.5 lb/a), depending on soil texture and organic matter, with Surflan, Devrinol, or a reduced rate of Karmex (New Jersey and Maryland only). This rate is reduced from the labeled Sinbar rate for use alone for the soil type. Tank-mixing will improve crop safety and the range of weeds controlled. In recent years, Sinbar has not perfomed as reliably as in the past in some locations. Add Callisto or Chateau to your spring tank-mix to improve control of summer annual broadleaf weeds in these situations. Primarily for annual grass Apply in late fall or spring to weed-free soil, or add an appropriate Norflurazon, 2.0–4.0 lb Solicam 80DF, 2.5–5.0 control; may provide partial postemergence herbicide to kill existing vegetation. Tank-mix with lb (60) control of many broadleaf Princep plus a postemergence herbicide in late fall, or with Karmex weeds (New Jersey and Maryland only), or Sinbar in the spring if the planting has been established for at least one year to improve the control of broadleaf weeds. Primarily for annual grasses Apply in late fall and/or early spring to weed-free soil, or add an Oryzalin, 2.0–4.0 lb Surflan 4AS, 2.0–4.0 qt appropriate postemergence herbicide to kill existing vegetation. Use (—) the high rate for long-term control (4 to 8 months) and the low rate for short-term control (2 to 4 months). Tank-mix with Princep plus a postemergence herbicide in late fall or with Karmex (New Jersey and Maryland only), or Sinbar in the spring if the planting has been established for at least one year to control annual broadleaf weeds. For briars, wild cherry, Velpar is not recommended in New Jersey because of a narrow Hexazinone, 0.5–1.0 lb Velpar L, 2.0–4.0 pt (90) goldenrod, aster species, margin of safety when applied to soil with a sandy mineral meadowsweet, red (sheep) component, and caution is recommended for all states. Blueberry sorrel, sheep-laurel, and other plants must have been established for at least 3 years. Apply to perennial broadleaf weeds pruned blueberries in the early spring before leaf emergence. Velpar is also labeled for use in renovating lowbush blueberry fields with a 450-day PHI. Warning: The effect of Velpar on blueberries varies with soils, plant vigor, uniformity of application, and rainfall. Most blueberries are resistant to Velpar, but some varieties are susceptible to injury. In some cases, productivity may be affected even when visible symptoms of phytotoxicity are not apparent. Use lower rates on poorly drained soils, but do not apply to standing water. Do not use on sands, loamy sand, or sandy loam soils. Do not apply to snow or frozen ground.

continued Chapter 7 ❦ Blueberries 169

Table 7.18. Herbicides for blueberry weed control. Active Ingredient Product Rate/A Weeds Timing of Treatment/Comments Rate/Aa (Days to Harvest)b Postemergence—Selective Emerged annual grasses Use the lower rate to control annual grasses less than 6 inches tall. Sethoxydim, 0.2–0.5 lb Poast 1.5EC, 1.0–2.5 pt, Use the higher rate to control annual grass 6 to 12 inches tall and plus 2.0 pints crop oil to control perennial grasses. Do not tank-mix Poast with any other concentrate per acre (30), or pesticide. Do not apply within 1 hour of rainfall. Do not apply Select Max, 9–16 fl oz plus to grasses suffering from drought, heat, cold, or any other stress non-ionic surfactant to be condition. 0.25% of the spray solution (14) Postemergence—Nonselective Annual weeds Contact killer only; with no translocation or residual activity. Best Paraquat, 0.5–1.0 lb Gramoxone Inteon, results occur when weeds are 2 inches tall or less. Regrowth may occur 2.0–4.0 pt (—), or from the root systems of established weeds. Use a surfactant to be Firestorm 3SC, 1.3–2.7 0.25% of the spray solution (1 qt per 100 gallons of spray solution). pt (—) Combine with recommended preemergence herbicide(s) for residual weed control. Do not allow spray or drift to contact green bark, leaves, or fruit. Crop damage may result. The use of shields, such as grow tubes or paper milk cartons greatly reduces the risk of injury in young plantings. DANGER: Do not breathe spray mist. Read safety precautions on the label. Annual and perennial weeds Glyphosate is a translocated, slow-acting herbicide with no soil or Broadcast: 0.56–3.0 lb ae Roundup, or residual activity. Results will become evident 1 to 3 weeks after (acid equivalent). Touchdown, or application. Apply lower rates to control seedlings and annual Spot treatment: See label; other labeled weeds and to suppress established perennial weeds. Use shields wet foliage thoroughly. formulations (14) and do not allow glyphosate to contact the foliage or green shoots. Ropewick applicator: Optimum rate and time of application depend on weed species and See label for product/ growth stage. Weeds should be growing vigorously when treated. water ratio. One gallon of Do not treat weeds that are under stress from drought, extreme product will treat 10–100 heat, cold, or other adverse growing conditions. When using a acres depending on weed ropewick applicator, fill the pipe only half full to avoid excessive density. dripping. Repeated wiping may be needed to provide control equal to broadcast or spot applications. A ropewick applicator offers significant herbicide cost savings. Warnings: (1) Do not allow glyphosate to contact the leaves, young green bark, fresh trunk wounds, or root suckers, or severe crop injury may occur. (2) Do not allow glyphosate to contact any immature part of blueberry plants. (3) Do not use galvanized containers—glyphosate may react with the container to produce explosive hydrogen gas. a. Adding a surfactant to these herbicides may improve their effectiveness (see labels). b. No days-to-harvest limitation is specified on the label if days-to-harvest is listed as (—). Additional Notes • All the rates in this table are given on a full-acre basis. If the material is to be banded along or over the row, use the following formula to calculate the banding rate: rate/A banded = rate/A broadcast x (band width in inches ÷ row spacing in inches). • With all chemicals, follow label instructions and warnings carefully. • Use pesticides safely. Consult label for restrictions. • It is unlawful to use recommended chemicals for crops not covered on the label or to use chemicals not cleared for such use on blueberry plantings. • Formulations other than those listed, with the same active ingredient, may be labeled for the same uses. 170 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 171

Chapter 8 Introduction Red Raspberries Red raspberries may be either of two Brambles offer excellent potential for types. Floricane-bearing red raspberries Brambles profit, having both a high value and bear their fruit from late May in Virginia an ample market, especially where through July in Pennsylvania. They metropolitan markets can be accessed. have the typical biennial life cycle of Many factors still may limit production, a bramble, so overwintered canes die however, including a high initial after fruiting. Primocane-bearing types investment, high labor requirements, fruit in their first year from late July winter weather, pest susceptibility, and a through October (or the first hard frost), poor shelf life. depending on location and cultivar. A bramble is defined as any plant Contents Because both of these red raspberries belonging to the genus Rubus, of which produce new canes (suckers) from the Introduction...... 171 there are many forms. However, rasp- root system, they can be grown in a The Bramble Plant...... 171 berries and blackberries are the most hedgerow or, less commonly, in indi- Types of Plants...... 171 commonly grown brambles. Cultivated vidual “hills” or as single plants when Red Raspberries ...... 171 raspberries and blackberries are related restricted by mechanical removal of Gold or Yellow Raspberries...... 171 to the wild plants found in fencerows unwanted suckers or plastic mulches. Black Raspberries...... 171 and bordering wooded areas. Wild Red raspberries are the most winter Purple Raspberries...... 172 red raspberries, R. strigosus, are found hardy of the raspberries (surviving to Blackberries...... 172 above 2,500 feet in the Appalachian -30°F). Note that all winter-hardiness Other Types of Brambles...... 172 Mountains and in northern and western Cold-Hardiness...... 172 temperatures are estimates of the Pennsylvania. Wild black raspberries, Pollination...... 172 temperature some cultivars can tolerate R. occidentalis, are found throughout the Culture...... 173 without substantial injury when fully Mid-Atlantic region. The introduced General Considerations in Choosing a dormant. Once a plant begins to lose its wineberry, R. phoenicolasius, is also Site...... 173 dormancy after 1,200 hours of tempera- widespread. The common blackberries, Soil Fertility...... 173 tures between 35 and 50°F (usually in Plant Sources and Care...... 173 R. alleghaniensis (having sticky glands on January in Pennsylvania and February Cultivar Selection...... 173 the stem) and R. argutus are also found in Virginia), it can be injured at much Planting and Establishment...... 177 growing throughout the region, with higher temperatures. Fertilization...... 178 other species being common. Mulching...... 178 Gold or Yellow Raspberries Irrigation...... 179 The Bramble Plant Gold or yellow raspberries are usually Row Middle Management...... 179 types of red raspberries with a nonfunc- Brambles typically have perennial Pruning...... 180 tioning pigment gene; therefore, they crowns and roots that produce biennial Trellis Systems...... 182 have the same basic management shoots. Specifically, the new shoots, Protected Culture ...... 183 requirements as red raspberries. Harvest and Postharvest Handling...... 184 called “primocanes,” grow vegetatively Although some yellow raspberries are Economics...... 185 the first growing season, go through a highly flavored, in general, public accep- Pests...... 193 dormant winter season, and then are tance is low, perhaps due to the ease of Fungal and Bacterial Diseases...... 193 termed “floricanes” in their second year. detecting botrytis or other fruit maladies Viruses...... 198 Floricanes subsequently leaf out, flower, on a light-colored background. All Nematodes...... 200 fruit, and die during the second growing yellow raspberries that have acceptable Insects and Mites...... 200 season. The one exception to this growth quality at this time are primocane Weeds...... 215 habit is the primocane-fruiting bramble, bearers. Yellow raspberries may have Weed Control Between Rows...... 215 which in the spring produces primocanes their highest value when mixed in a Mulching and Cultural Methods...... 215 from the ground that grow, flower, and container of mainly red raspberries Herbicides...... 215 fruit in the same season. The base of these because the combination of colors is Problem Weeds...... 218 primocanes can survive and fruit the next eye-catching. year, while the top portion of the cane that produced fruit the previous fall dies. Black Raspberries Black raspberries initiate new canes Types of Plants solely from the crown of the plant. They The various types of brambles differ are grown in a hill system—each plant from each other not only in fruit color, is grown independently with pruning but also in growth habit (and hence the and maintenance done on a per-plant cultural practices used for each type), basis. They benefit from summer tipping, pest problems, and other characteristics. unlike red raspberries, because they branch readily. If tipping is not done, 172 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 individual canes grow to unmanageable forms of trailing, not very winter-hardy Raspberries are also an aggregate lengths, they arch over, and their tips brambles include tayberry, tummel- fruit. Flowers have 50 to 100 stamens root where they touch the ground. To tip, berry, loganberries, and boysenberries, and up to 200 pistils, each of which has cut 4 inches of growth off of the top of all of which are hybrids between red an ovary and a slender style. When the the cane, preferably during a 3- to 4-day raspberries and western blackberries. flower opens, stamens bend away from period of dry weather. Black raspberries Tayberries are red, elongated bramble the styles and release pollen so only are also the most winter-tender rasp- fruits that retain their receptacle when the innermost anthers have a chance berry (hardy only to -5°F). harvested. The fruit makes a beautiful to touch the outermost stigmas for ruby red jam but is extremely soft self-pollination. Most varieties are self- Purple Raspberries when fully ripe and only recommended fruitful, although cross-pollination with Purple raspberries (hybrids between for pick-your-own operations or for pollen from other varieties can improve blacks and reds) initiate new canes processing. Tayberries should be grown development of maternal tissues with an predominantly from the crown but may according to recommendations for accompanying increase in fruit weight sucker between plants as well. They are trailing blackberries. Wyeberries are and shape. grown essentially as black raspberries similar to tayberries but were developed Nectar and pollen of blackberry and are grown and are intermediate in cold- from eastern U.S. blackberries and are raspberry are attractive to a host of hardiness (down to -10°F). Plants may be thus more erect and slightly cold-hardier. pollinators. In areas where wild plants managed similarly to red raspberries or are plentiful, honey bee colonies store tipped, depending on the cultivar. Cold-Hardiness surplus honey, which is harvested by Blackberries beekeepers. Research has documented Whenever temperatures warm after Eastern blackberries can be either the importance of bee pollination to the cold temperature requirement has thorny or thornless. Thorny plants tend blackberry and raspberry crop yield and been met, the plant begins to lose its to be very erect, whereas thornless quality. Optimum pollination requires dormancy and, thus, its tolerance to cold plants range from semierect to trailing. multiple bee visits over the first two-day temperatures. Winter injury is frequently Thornless types are generally more cold period when individual flowers are the result of fluctuating winter susceptible (damaged at about 0°F) viable. Incomplete pollination means temperatures rather than absolute low than thorny types and cannot be grown poor distribution of pollen to receptive temperatures. This fluctuation occurs consistently in the northern portions of stigmas, resulting in small, crumbly, more toward the late winter to early Pennsylvania and New Jersey. Thornless misshapen berries and reduced yield. spring when solar radiation on clear types require trellising. However, with In the past, abundant, widespread, days can raise the internal temperatures the release of additional new cultivars, feral honey bee and native wild bee of the canes several degrees higher than these differences are somewhat blurred. populations most likely provided ambient air temperatures. After sunset Some low-sugar/high-acid exotic species adequate pollination of wild and when air temperatures drop, the over- have been used for breeding thornless domestic brambles, so pollination was heated canes can be severely stressed blackberries, resulting in some varieties not an issue of concern for bramble by the rapid change in temperature as that have a tart fruit. However, breeders growers. However, due to the intro- well as by a very low temperature. In have concentrated on improving fruit duction of parasitic mites and increased locations where this type of injury is quality in the last decade. Thorny types diseases, feral honey bee populations a problem, summer-fruiting cultivars have excellent fruit quality but are not have been decimated. In addition, should be planted on north-facing often grown commercially because while there is continuing debate among slopes, if possible, to minimize exposure the thorns are brutal and present an experts, pesticide use and destruction/ to the heating effect of direct winter obstacle in harvesting. Generally, thorny fragmentation of nesting habitat have sunlight. South and southwest-facing types tolerate temperatures to about caused concern and are blamed for slopes are less-optimal locations. -10°F. Primocane-bearing blackberries reduced native bee populations in some have recently been introduced. They areas. Growers now need to carefully are similar to primocane-bearing red Pollination assess and make decisions concerning raspberries in habit. Trials are currently Many species of cultivated and wild pollinators that could have significant underway to determine their suitability blackberries exist in North America economic impact on their operations. within the region. alone. Most commercial varieties are One to two colonies per acre of bearing self-pollinating. The blackberry flower plants is recommended to yield one bee Other Types of Brambles has 5 to 8 petals and 50 to 100 stamens per 100 flowers during favorable flight Several brambles originating from clustered around 50 to 100 pistils; it activity periods. species not native to the eastern United secretes nectar at the base of the flower. To date, nearly all of the research States have also been developed. These Each pistil, when pollinated and on insect pollination of blackberry and include the western trailing blackberries subsequently fertilized, develops into a raspberries has been done with honey from Rubus ursinus, of which Marion (a succulent drupelet; thus, blackberry is an bees, and recommendations for ensuring cultivar sometimes marketed as Marion- aggregate fruit. adequate pollination have involved only berry) is the most well known. Similar this pollinator. The contribution of native Chapter 8 ❦ Brambles 173 pollinators, especially bumble bees, commonly found along the margins of planted immediately, hold them at 32°F is seldom considered. In cases where wooded areas and fencerows. or “heel them in” in a sheltered area. they are considered, recommendations Before planting brambles, control Thoroughly soak dormant plant roots in are lacking on how growers might weeds, especially perennial bindweed, water before planting. incorporate information about native thistle, curly dock, johnsongrass, When selecting planting stock for bee populations into decisions made on wiregrass, quackgrass, and nutsedge, organic production, keep in mind that assessing pollinators and/or providing by using a competitive preplant cover since brambles are perennial crops, adequate numbers or kinds of polli- crop, by applying Banvel or Roundup planting stock does not need to be nators to maximize yield and quality. herbicide to the site, or by fumigating organically produced. However, the with higher rates of approved fumigants. planting must be managed organically Culture Treatments must be made by mid-fall on a certified organic area for one year at the latest to be effective. Raspberries before harvested berries can be marketed General Considerations in Choosing a Site frequently benefit from fumigation, as organic. which eliminates soilborne insects, Brambles require full sun and well- Cultivar Selection nematodes (which transmit viruses), drained soil—they never tolerate wet Selecting appropriate cultivars may be and most soilborne pathogens, but keep soils. Brambles will use water at the rate the most important decision a grower in mind that fumigation also eliminates of pan evaporation or higher during fruit makes and certainly a difficult one to beneficial organisms. For further infor- production (see Appendix E for addi- change once the plants are established. mation on fumigation, see Chapter 3. tional sources of information), especially Consider not only the degree to which in high temperatures or winds. Suitable Soil Fertility a cultivar is biologically adapted to soil can only hold 7 to 14 days of moisture Test soil the year before planting. The a particular site, but also available before serious deficits occur, growth soil pH should be between 6.0 and 6.5. markets, postharvest facilities, and labor. stops, and leaf desiccation or sunscalding Apply lime, phosphorus, and/or boron The listing below contains two letters, occurs. Adding organic matter and using the fall before planting. Potassium may N and S, basically indicating the area raised beds are especially helpful in be applied in fall or spring, and nitrogen in the Mid-Atlantic where the cultivars assuring consistent growth, yield, and should be applied in the spring just may be grown. Northerly areas (N) plant health. Before planting brambles, before planting. are roughly north and west of a line grow cover crops or green manure crops from New York City to Trenton, New Plant Sources and Care and incorporate them to increase the Jersey, to Williamsport, Pennsylvania, Purchase brambles from a reputable organic matter content, or add manure to Cumberland, Maryland, to Bluefield, nursery (see Appendix C). Tissue-cultured (10 tons per acre as a ballpark figure). For West Virginia. Southerly areas (S) extend plants are preferred because they are a complete discussion of soil management from this line south and eastward if also certified to be virus free (make sure they including use of cover crops and manure, below 2,500 feet in elevation. Descrip- are!) and should be free of verticillium, see Chapter 2. tions of individual cultivars follow. The planting site should be isolated root rots, nematodes, and crown gall. from other brambles. Wild or neglected When tissue-cultured plants leave the lab, Summer-Bearing Red Raspberries bramble plants are major reservoirs for they are very vigorous but are especially Early Season sensitive to herbicides the first year. Order wind-blown spores of the orange rust Boyne (N) tissue-cultured plants so they arrive close fungus and for viruses that are spread • Very winter hardy and productive. to the last frost date in your area. into the field by flying or windborne • Berries are dark red and small to A satisfactory alternative to tissue- aphids, leafhoppers, white flies, and, medium sized. cultured plants is nursery-matured very commonly, virus-infected pollen. • Plants are short. They also harbor a number of specific plants. In the case of nursery-matured bramble insect pests. Monitor a 500-foot plants, stock is usually cold hardy and Esta (S) border around your fields for any such better established than tissue-cultured • Currently available through very few “weed” brambles and, wherever possible, plants. They have been exposed to field nurseries. destroy them with an herbicide such conditions for several months, so there • Vigorous with high productivity. Trel- as 2,4-D or glyphosate (Roundup). Fall is some risk that they may have been lising system that keeps primocanes applications are particularly effective; exposed to sources of diseases, insects, and floricanes separate is recom- however, applications should be made and mites. mended due to high vigor when weather is still warm enough Dormant canes are not recommended • Canes and leaves resist diseases, (highs in the 60s or 70s) for plants to since experience has shown that they including late leaf rust and botrytis. translocate the herbicide. Also, be aware are more often disease infected. Crown • Moderately sized fruit with intense that cultivated brambles should not even gall is a particular hazard because once flavor. be slightly exposed to glyphosate in the it infects the soil it cannot be eradicated, • May winterkill but resists fluctuations fall. Repeat this survey of border areas at even with fumigation. If dormant canes in spring temperatures. least once each spring. Wild brambles are are purchased, they should be planted • Esta is resistant to raspberry bushy in March or April. If canes cannot be dwarf virus, the most common pollen 174 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

vectored virus in the Mid-Atlantic • Fruit has round shape. • Nearly thornless. and one of the primary causes of • Fairly hardy and resistant to fluctu- • Plants are vigorous, high-yielding, crumbly berries. ating winter temperatures. and winter-hardy. • Resistant to cane diseases and late Lauren (N or S) Canby (N) leaf rust. • Has very large fruit with good flavor • Moderately winter-hardy and nearly and firmness and a long fruiting thornless. Titan (N) season. • Productive, with attractive, medium • A productive cultivar with mildly • Tends to winterkill, so avoid late to large fruit. flavored, very large, cone-shaped summer fertilization to encourage • Susceptble to phytophthora root rot. berries. hardening off. May be tried in areas • Berries are soft, and some growers with mild winters or where winter Claudia (N) feel their appearance is too “rough.” temperatures are moderated, such as • Currently available through very few • Plants have excellent vigor but poor along the shore of Lake Erie. nurseries. to moderate winter-hardiness. • Canes are very vigorous and • Very productive in part due to its • Particularly susceptible to phytoph- somewhat brittle; therefore, they good cold-hardiness. thora root rot and crown gall but is should be tied as soon as possible to a • Canes start growing late in the spring resistant to raspberry aphid, a vector trellis. and are stout, resulting in very well- of certain viruses. • Susceptible to phytophthora root rot. presented fruit. • Fruit is large, soft to moderately firm, Late Season Moutere (N or S) and has good flavor. Encore (N) • Productive and firm. • Can be cold-damaged. • Harvest season bridges early and Killarney (N or S) • Large berries with good flavor. midseason cultivars. • Old standard eastern cultivar that’s • Has average vigor and nearly • Fruit is uniform in size and bright still popular. spineless canes. red, but flavor is lacking. • Fruit is light colored and sweet • Aphid-resistant. • Canes are uprights, semi-spineless, • Fruit size is small to medium. • Susceptible to phytophthora root rot. and vigorous. • Winter-hardiness in cold locations • Resistant to raspberry bushy dwarf may be its most important trait. K-81-6 (N) virus and raspberry aphids. • Support is needed to keep fruit off of • Large, firm, with good flavor. ground. • Very vigorous. Prelude (N) • Winter-hardy but susceptible to high • Will fruit on primocanes, but Latham (N or S) summer temperatures and fluctuating produces the majority of its yield as a • Old standard eastern cultivar. winter temperatures. summer bearer. In warmer areas with • Has excellent cold-hardiness and • Susceptible to fire blight. a longer growing season, more fruit relative tolerance of wet soils. • Very susceptible to phytophthora root is produced on primocanes, limiting • Fruit size is small to medium, flavor rot. summer production. is acceptable, and firmness is good. • Will remain unnamed. • Fruit is mildly flavored, dark when • Has a relatively long bearing season. fully ripe, and relatively small. • While the plant is susceptible to Taylor (N) • Canes are dense and vigorous. powdery mildew, it tolerates mosaic • Medium-sized fruit, excellent flavor, • Resistant to phytophthora root rot. viruses fairly well. and moderate winter-hardiness. • Very susceptible to raspberry mosaic • Preferred by Japanese beetles. Newburgh (N) • For trial. complex, fungal diseases, and two- • Another midseason berry of medium spotted spider mites. Reveille (N or S) size, good flavor, and cold-hardiness. Primocane-Bearing Red Raspberries • A very early berry with good cold- • Fruit may be crumbly and may ripen Primocane-bearing red raspberries hardiness and vigor. unevenly. bloom in early to midsummer and bear • Fruit is too soft for shipping but is • Particularly attractive to Japanese fruit from mid- to late summer until excellent for pick-your-own. beetles and twospotted spider mites. heavy frost or freeze. • Flavor is good, size is intermediate, Nova (N or S) and productivity is fair. • Fruit is bright red, firm with good Early Season • Very cold-hardy. flavor, and of moderate size. Autumn Bliss (N) Midseason • Fruit must be fully ripe in order to be • Vigorous and extremely high yielding in cooler regions. Amos (N or S) released from the receptacle. • Susceptible to some common viruses. • Currently available through very few • Ripens fruit gradually over a long • Canes have a large diameter and are nurseries. harvest season. relatively short. Considerably earlier • Flavorful, of moderate size and • Also produces a small fall crop on than Heritage (about 2 weeks). productivity. primocanes. Chapter 8 ❦ Brambles 175

• May be especially useful in cooler • In the southern part of the region, • Season begins in mid- to late August area like Pennsylvania’s northern tier; including DE, vigor and fruit size is in Pennsylvania and continues however, fruit is too soft for areas with lacking. through severe frost or freeze. warm temperatures during ripening. • In a Pennsylvania trial, it was fairly • Fruit tolerates light frosts well. susceptible to anthracnose. • Plants are vigorous and sucker well. Caroline (N) • Susceptible to phytophthora root rot • A widely planted red raspberry • Produces 1 to 2 weeks earlier than and verticillium wilt. cultivar, Heritage continues to be the Heritage with fruiting continuing standard among primocane-fruiting until first frost. Polka (N or S) types. • Produces many suckers and is, • Large, firm fruit with very good therefore, very high yielding. flavor. Josephine (S) • Fruit is conical with very good flavor. • From the same breeding program in • Very firm, round fruit that ships very • Caroline fruit is 4 grams at 3,000 feet Poland that produced Polana. well. Fruit is large even in warmer elevation in Maryland and 2 grams • Shape and color is similar to that of locations, but can average up to (relatively small) near sea level. Polana. 5 grams at cooler locations in the • Nitrogen applications may be • Popularity is growing very quickly in southern Mid-Atlantic (at elevations lowered if fruit needs to be stored or Europe. higher than 2,500 feet). shipped. • Attractive to Japanese beetles and • Too late for the north (zones 6a and • Plants are somewhat susceptible to potato leafhoppers. cooler) but will grow well in the rest late leaf rust. of the region. Midseason • Resistant to phytophthora root rot. • Where it can be grown, it has been Autumn Britten (N or S) productive; also produces a large crop Jaclyn (N or S) • Large, uniform fruit with excellent on floricanes. • Large, uniform, dark fruit that tends flavor. • Improved flavor over Heritage. to be a little soft in higher tempera- • Cane density is lower than average, • Resistant to leafhoppers and late leaf tures. so plant at closer spacings than usual rust. • Fruit is long and conic, which (18 to 20 inches). • Susceptible to phytophthora root rot. makes removing it in cold weather • Fruit may be soft for southern somewhat difficult. growers, but the plant is vigorous. Nantahala (N or S) • The earliest primocane bearer in • Medium-sized, firm conic fruit of several trials in the United States Dinkum (N) light color. and Europe. In unheated tunnels in • Flavorful, rounded, fleshy fruit. • Excellent intense flavor. Maryland, fruit ripens in early July on • Very good flavor. • Very late so best suited for tunnel primocanes. • Shows more damage from leaf- production in the north. • Flavor is good to excellent, and hoppers than most other cultivars. • Yields are on the low side. production is high, with yields more • For trial. Primocane-Bearing Gold Raspberries than 9,000 pounds per acre. Himbo top (N or S) Primocane-bearing gold raspberries • Susceptible to late leaf rust but is • From Switzerland. have the same traits as reds. All varieties resistant to sunscald. • Slightly later than Autumn Bliss. recommended below produce in the late • Susceptible to damage by potato • Large firm conic fruit has very good primocane-bearing season. Note: Golden leafhopper. flavor and color. Harvest has been trialed, but its fruit in Joan J (N or S) • May need closer spacing (18 inches this climate has been small and lacking • Fruit is of medium size, firm, glossy, between plants) due to reduced in flavor and color. and dark red. suckering. Anne (N) • Flavor is good, but not exceptional. • Canes are tall and thin and need a • Large late fruit with excellent, unique • Canes are spineless and of medium trellis for support. flavor. height; foliage is dense. Late Season • Cane density tends to be sparse. • Limited grower trialing indicates Crimson night (S or N in tunnels only) • Planting at closer spacing (16 to 18 good productivity with this cultivar. • For trial. inches) is recommended. • Disease susceptibilities in this region • A specialty berry with very sweet • Responds well to tipping canes at 3 to are undetermined. distinctive flavor. 3½ feet to encourage branching and Polana (N) • Produces dark red conic fruit that is fruitfulness. • Early and high yielding; additional very large. • Can produce a large additional crop nitrogen is needed for high yields. • Very late—only for tunnel production. on floricanes the following spring/ summer. • Beautiful, glossy, clear-red, conical Heritage (N) • For trial. fruit. • Medium-sized, firm fruit of excellent • Fair flavor. quality but only fair flavor. 176 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Double gold (N or S) a relatively large size making them Apache • For trial. suitable for freshmarket sales. • Early. • Fruit is peach colored and conic. • A favorite for flavor. • Tends to be soft but has excellent Bristol • Similar moderate yields to Navaho. flavor. • High yielding and early with excellent • Vigorous plants. • Plants are vigorous. flavor. • Good fruit size. • Yields can be increased by double- • Susceptible to anthracnose but • Prone to developing red drupelets. cropping for a summer and fall crop. tolerant of powdery mildew. Arapaho Fallgold (N) Jewel • The earliest erect thornless blackberry. • Fruit is soft, sometimes develops • The most widely grown black rasp- • Fruit is medium sized, short, and a reddish blush, and has excellent berry in the region. conical with small seeds. flavor. • A particularly vigorous and • May be cold-hardier than Navaho. • Ripens with Heritage in the fall and is productive plant with very good cold- moderately winter-hardy. hardiness. Chester • Fruit are larger than Bristol and more • Ripens late. Goldie (N) susceptible to botrytis development • Has smaller fruit than most. • Fruit color is gold to apricot. after harvest. • One of the most commonly grown • A sport of Heritage; therefore, bearing thornless blackberries. season and other plant characteristics Mac Black are identical. • Later than Jewel; extends season Doyle’s Thornless • Fair flavor. significantly. • Late. • Very susceptible to sunscald. • Vigorous stocky canes, large fruit. • Productive in PA trial. • For trial. • Fruit releases from receptacles easily. • Fruit on small side but firm. • Reports indicate satisfaction with this • Flavor acceptable to good. Kiwigold (N) cultivar in various locations across • Winter-hardiness similar to that of • A sport of Heritage; therefore, bearing the region. Triple Crown. season and other plant characteristics • Recommended for trial. • Plants tend to be trailing, and are identical. produce few laterals even when Purple Raspberries • For trial. tipped, so adjustments in pruning Purple raspberries bloom in late May and trellising need to be made. Black Raspberries to June and are ready for harvest in late • Somewhat susceptible to Gnomonia Black raspberries bloom in May and June to July. stem canker, which may be an indi- ripen in late June through early July. cation of winter injury. They generally fruit earlier than red Royalty raspberries, but very little difference • Yields heavily, but flavor is not Hull exists among the ripening periods of generally preferred. • Flavor is sweeter (less tart) than black raspberry cultivars. • Has cone-shaped fruit that is sweeter that of other cultivars and may be Many very old cultivars such as than Brandywine. preferred for pick-your-own. Cumberland and Munger still appear • Fruit is too soft for shipping, although • The berry does not lose color under in nursery catalogs as they are still it can be picked slightly before ripe high temperatures and is fairly cold- sold in large quantities. Munger, in for this purpose. hardy. fact, comprises the vast majority of • Suckers freely from roots, so it processing black raspberry acreage in grows more like a red raspberry in Natchez the Pacific Northwest and the world. hedgerows. • Untrialed in the Mid-Atlantic region. Even though many older cultivars • Does not branch, so it should not be • Sweet in cool regions. originated in this region—Cumberland is tipped. • Very early, similar season to Arapaho. from Pennsylvania and Munger is from • Especially susceptible to tomato • Large fruit. Ohio—they do not appear in this list as ringspot virus and crown gall. • Needs to be trellised. they generally have a smaller berry size Thornless Semi-Upright Blackberries Navaho than more recently released cultivars, Thornless blackberries can be grown • Fruits relatively late, and for a long and significant susceptibility to various in the southern area as designated for time. diseases, making plantings fairly short red raspberry cultivars. The following • Plant growth habit is fairly erect. lived. These characteristics are not as cultivars are recommended for culture • Yields are moderate. large of a drawback in regions where in southern areas of the region. Northern • Small to medium-sized fruit with plantings are mechanically harvested growers should try only a few blackberry good flavor. or can be replaced economically every plants on their site to determine likelihood of • Fruit has attractive color and sheen 3 to 4 years. Cultivars listed below have flower bud survival over the winter. but may be “rough.” Chapter 8 ❦ Brambles 177

• May be especially susceptible to • Winter-hardiness questionable when Primocane-Bearing Thorny orange rust. temperatures are commonly less than Blackberries • Somewhat susceptible to Gnomonia 0°F. Prime-Jim and Prime-Jan were break- stem canker, which may be an indi- through cultivars, being the first released cation of winter injury. Choctaw primocane-bearing blackberries. • Resistant to anthracnose, rosette, and • Very productive and early fruiting, Growers experiencing problems with root rot. producing large fruit with small winter-hardiness may wish to try this seeds. crop on a small scale but should not Ouachita • Probably the least hardy of all expect high yields. Because the crop • Fruited relatively early but only for a cultivars in this group. is produced very late in the season, short time in PA trial, resulting in low • For trial only. protection may be needed to mature yields. fruit on Prime-Jan and Prime-Jim. Even • Good fruit size and flavor. Darrow • An early, very erect plant that bears production in tunnels does not lengthen • Winter-hardiness similar to that of the season enough to mature the full Triple Crown and Navaho. medium-sized, firm fruit with good flavor. crop of Prime-Ark 45 and Black Magic. Triple Crown • Plants are vigorous and very winter- Plants should not be relied on for a • Starts fruiting in midseason, with hardy. summer crop as the canes lack winter- long gradual dropoff in yields. hardiness. These berries probably have • Large, flavorful fruit with good Illini Hardy greater potential where very high prices sweetness. • Early. could be obtained for a specialty item. • Vigorous and very winter-hardy. • Productive. Prime-Jan • Very stocky canes once established. • Compensates for winter injury by producing fruit from secondary buds, • Flavor is acceptable. • Considerable susceptibility to • Somewhat less stocky than Prime-Jim. Gnomonia stem canker, which may be resulting in consistent high yields. • Thorns are nastier than with most. • Larger fruit and more productive an indication of winter injury. than Prime-Jim in PA trial but still not • Susceptible to sunscald. • Smaller-sized berries with average flavor. acceptable. Thorny Upright Blackberries • Fruit size decreases through harvest Prime-Jim Thorny blackberries are not widely season. • Stocky plants. grown, but they offer potential for small, • Resistant to phytophthora root rot. • Flavor somewhat poorer than that of diversified farms with niche markets. • The most cold-hardy cultivar but still Prime-Jan. The thorns are a significant impediment will be injured in very cold locations. • Fruit on small side in PA trial. in culture and harvest. Though it is often stated that thorny cultivars are more Kiowa Prime-Ark 45 winter-hardy, many thorny cultivars are • Highest yields in midseason, but • Large fruit. no more winter-hardy than thornless produces for a long time. • Excellent flavor. cultivars. See notes on winter-hardiness • Large fruit and long harvest season • Sweet when ripe. for individual cultivars below. are the characteristics of note. • Production is very late, causing yields • Winter-hardiness has been a problem to be very low. Chesapeake even in southeastern PA, but it • Currently available through very few performed well in warmer areas such Black magic nurseries. as DE. • Large fruit but too soft for commercial • Vigorous, productive cultivar with • Variable yields depending on condi- production. extremely large, sweet fruit. tions in previous winter. • Excellent flavor. • Has very large thorns. • Good flavor. • Sweetest of the primocane-fruiting • Probably too cold tender for northern • For trial only. blackberries. New Jersey and most of Pennsylvania. • Very late, causing yields to be low. Shawnee Chickasaw • Early. Planting and Establishment • Early in PA trial. • Less productive than other thorny Virus-tested, tissue-cultured raspberry • Relatively brief harvest season. cultivars due to a short harvest plants should be planted in the spring. • Improved winter-hardiness and season. Tissue-cultured plants are tender and yields compared to Shawnee. • Good fruit size. are damaged by frost, so they cannot • Bears very large fruit. • Questionable winter-hardiness. be planted until the danger of frost has • Very good flavor. • Resistant to orange rust. passed. Avoid planting in poorly drained • Good productivity in a moderate soils or after any verticillium-susceptible climate (southeast PA). crop (including tomatoes, potatoes, • Plants are very vigorous and quite peppers, eggplant, or strawberries). This thorny. is particularly crucial for black rasp- 178 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 berries since there are no known sources away from the plants. Calcium nitrate is extent, are extremely sensitive to most for verticillium resistance. In-row the preferred nitrogen source. herbicides until about 4 months after spacings (distance between the plants In established plantings, fertilizer planting. Research from Cornell has within the row) are as follows: should be applied at the full per-acre shown that applying a clean straw • red and gold raspberries: 24 inches rate but concentrated in a 2- to 3-foot- mulch (4 inches deep) to newly planted, • black raspberries: 30 inches wide band over the row, not adjusted tissue-cultured raspberries provides • purple raspberries: 36 inches downward as a proportion of the area good weed control. On heavy soils, • thorny blackberries: 36 inches covered (see Table 8.2 for recommenda- mulch should be used only in the first • thornless blackberries: 4 to 6 feet tions). Nitrogen rates should be adjusted year since straw mulch over a prolonged The number of plants required per based on leaf analysis and plant vigor. period can encourage the development acre for various plant spacings is shown In established bramble plants 3 years of root rots. For further information, see in Table 8.1. or older, the general rule of thumb for “Weeds” at the end of this chapter. Between-row spacings in the region nitrogen is around 60 pounds of actual A fast start is critical to successful estab- should be no less than 8 feet, although nitrogen per acre per year. This may be lishment of bramble plantings in the row spacing depends on the size of too much or not enough, depending on Mid-Atlantic region. Vigorous bramble equipment that will be used to maintain soil type, variety, and season. Actual plantings outcompete weed seedlings the planting. Closely spaced rows reduce nitrogen required may also vary, by shading them, thus reducing the the wind movement and drying condi- depending on management intensity need for herbicides. If large patches of tions necessary to minimize fungal (e.g., drip-irrigated intensive production row exposed to sun still exist during spread. Allow at least 4 feet more between and native fertility). During the first and the second year of the planting, weed rows than the width of the widest second years, the nitrogen requirement pressure often necessitates greater use implement to be used in the planting. may be one-half to two-thirds of the of residual herbicides. These residual Fertilizer after planting should be above rule of thumb. Tissue analysis herbicides can reduce bramble growth, applied as indicated in the fertilization can help you fine-tune your bramble particularly on red raspberries in section below, assuming that the soil was fertility program, as can observations warmer climates. This further necessi- amended according to soil test results of plant vigor. Raspberry primocanes tates greater weed control. prior to planting. should grow 5 to 8 feet in a season, The use of plastic mulch may have while thornless blackberries should fill merit in establishing a new planting. Fertilization their allotted space on the trellis. Weekly Landscape fabric, aluminized plastic, If proper preplant preparation is fertigation of a portion of the annual black plastic, or a black-on-white plastic followed as outlined above (soil tested nitrogen is very efficient in well-managed (white side up) can be used. Advantages the year before planting; lime, phos- plantings. Alternatively, apply half of of plastic use are good weed and grass phorus, and boron applied, if needed, the required amount of nitrogen at bud control the first season, along with the fall before planting; potassium break and the second half in May to moisture conservation. Growth and applied in the fall or spring; and increase uptake efficiency and reduce suckering should be increased; however, nitrogen incorporated just before the potential for fertilizer runoff. Avoid canes can become winter-tender if planting), no additional fertilizer other fall applications because they can reduce growth is pushed too far into the fall. The than nitrogen should be needed the winter-hardiness. addition of trickle (drip) irrigation elimi- first year. Burning young roots and Nutrients other than nitrogen should nates moisture stress and can be used damaging the plants is extremely easy, be applied according to tissue test for fertigation. When landscape fabric is especially if tissue-cultured plants are recommendations. If corrective measures used to completely cover the ground, the used. Therefore, a water-soluble starter for low nutrient concentrations are not row spacing can be reduced to minimize fertilizer can be applied at planting made until deficiencies are observed, costs. according to package directions for yield reductions will have already taken transplants, but it should be applied place. For a more complete discussion, after plants are in the ground and kept 6 see NRAES-35, Bramble Production Guide Table 8.1. Number of bramble plants per inches away from the plants rather than (see Appendix E for information on acre at different spacings. being poured into the planting hole. On obtaining this guide). Tissue analysis Inches between Spacing between Rows heavier soils, nitrogen incorporated prior procedures and critical values are listed Plants in Row 8 Feet 10 Feet 12 Feet to planting should be sufficient to supply in Appendix B. Balance this information 18 3,630 2,904 2,420 the plant for the first growing season. with your experiences, especially obser- 24 2,722 2,178 1,815 Some additional nitrogen fertilization vations on vigor, yield, fruit flavor (K), 30 2,178 1,742 1,452 after planting may be needed on light and fruit firmness (N). 36 1,815 1,452 1,210 soils, with a maximum of 10 pounds per 42 1,556 1,245 1,037 Mulching acre of actual nitrogen applied at any 48 1,361 1,089 908 one time. Granular fertilizers should not Good weed control during the first year 54 1,210 968 807 be applied until at least 8 weeks after is essential. However, tissue-cultured 60 1,089 871 726 planting and should be kept 4 to 6 inches plants, and dormant plants to a lesser 72 908 726 605 Chapter 8 ❦ Brambles 179

Table 8.2. Postplant nitrogen recommendations for brambles (lbs N/acre). the region. The depth should be 2 inches or less to minimize a buildup of vole Irrigated Nonirrigated populations. Noncomposted sawdust or Year Sand Loam Clay Sand Loam Clay woodchips should not be used since the FALL-BEARING RASPBERRIES (WITH NO SUMMER CROP)* biological breakdown of these products 0 (Year of planting) See text under the heading “Fertilization” will use much of the available nitrogen 1 40 30 25 35 30 25 needed for healthy plant growth. While 2 70 60 50 70 65 50 labor and materials needed for mulching 3+ 100 90 80 90 80 70 can be costly, mulched plantings generally require fewer herbicide treat- SUMMER-BEARING RED RASPBERRIES AND BLACKBERRIES ments. Good mulches can and do lower 0 (Year of planting) See text under the heading “Fertilization” the incidence of water and heat stress on 1 35 30 25 30 25 25 the planting, reducing plant leaf drop 2 50 45 40 45 40 35 and fruit sunscalding. 3+ 70 60 50 60 50 40 Irrigation SUMMER-BEARING BLACK AND PURPLE RASPBERRIES Brambles benefit from irrigation, espe- 0 (Year of planting) See text under the heading “Fertilization” cially during fruit swell, which occurs 1 30 25 20 25 20 20 the week before fruit ripens. Trickle 2 45 40 35 35 30 25 irrigation is preferred for brambles 3+ 60 50 45 45 40 30 because wetting the fruit with overhead *Split the amount listed into two equal applications—one made in spring and the second made by early irrigation may encourage disease. Plants July. generally require 1 to 2 inches of water Note: Rates should be adjusted according to leaf analysis. per week during the growing season and Modified from information provided by Cornell University. 2 to 3 inches per week during harvest. Correctly timed irrigation may help in reducing sunscald (see the later section on physiological disorders). A propane torch with a self-igniter fabric or plastic mulch for the long term, can be used to burn holes in the mulch. continuous cover has caused problems Row Middle Management Burn a hole 3 inches in diameter for in enhancing winter injury, except in Establishing permanent sod middles is planting containerized plants and tissue- tunneled plantings. This effect may be recommended between bramble rows. cultured plugs. If the mulch remains in due to the soil prematurely heating in The goal is to prevent establishment of place for the following years, enlarge the winter, or to tender fall growth failing broadleaf weeds, which carry tomato hole before April 1 since most suckers to harden off sufficiently. In any system, ringspot virus and harbor insects. are formed in February and March, use of plastic mulch or landscape fabric Therefore, the sod should be dense. and heat damage can occur on these can encourage a buildup of rodent Surveys of grower farms indicate new canes, especially on the side facing populations. that tomato ringspot virus is a major south. For transplants with a larger root Raised beds or hilled rows are recom- problem in our area. Other benefits system, such as nursery-matured plants mended with or without plastic mulch of sod are decreased soil erosion, a or vigorous cultivars that sucker heavily, because they minimize root rots and hospitable environment for workers lengthwise slits can be made. other root disease problems, especially during operations such as harvest and If plastic mulch or landscape fabric phytophthora root rot. (See information pruning, and the elimination of the need is used with cultivars that produce a on phytophthora root rot later in this for tillage or herbicides in row middles. hedgerow of new canes (red raspberries, chapter.) Caution: Before raising beds Unfortunately, the drawback of sod is its gold raspberries, and most thorny or hills in a field, the natural water preferred suitability for Japanese beetle blackberries), any additional openings drainage pattern must be taken into larvae. The adult beetles that hatch from (a gap up to 8 to 12 inches wide) should account. Failure to do so can create major the sod will skeletonize bramble leaves be made near the center of the row. drainage problems if raised beds become and feed on fruit. Whether the benefits of This will allow the new growth to mini dams. Take care of your field the sod outweigh this drawback depends emerge while encouraging the canes to water drainage first by installing a grass on the size of the planting and the remain contained in narrow hedgerows. waterway, field tile, or drainage ditches. amount of turf otherwise growing in the Alternatively, the mulch can remain In subsequent years, composted area. In most cases, the small size of the in strips between the hedgerows. If sawdust or woodchips or shredded bramble plantings adds relatively few cultivars are being grown that produce hardwood bark can be used on light and additional beetles to the ones that would new canes primarily from the crown area medium soils. All are excellent mulch be present anyway, so having the sod is (black raspberries and thornless black- materials and help reduce weeds, heat preferable to having bare ground. berries), the mulch may remain in place stress, and water loss during the growing If clean cultivation is practiced in relatively intact. When using landscape season, especially in warmer areas of alleyways, another option is to plant 180 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 annual winter green manures. The green Pruning For final adjustment of cane numbers, manure crop will improve soil health Red Floricane-Fruiting/Summer- early spring is the best time to prune and eliminate the need for cultivation Bearing Raspberries because any cane dieback from cold in the fall that can stimulate bramble Floricanes of all brambles die after will be apparent. However, raspberries growth, resulting in growth late in the fruiting is completed. Prior recom- can be pruned any time canes are fully season and possibly winter injury. See mendations have stressed that spent dormant. In the dormant season, remove Chapter 2 for information on selecting a fruiting canes should be removed canes outside the 12-inch width of the green manure crop. immediately after fruiting to allow air row (Figure 8.1b), thin canes to 4 to 6 Information on establishment and circulation through the canopy and inches between canes, leaving about 4 to management of sod row middles is to remove possible sources of disease 6 canes per linear foot (Figure 8.1c), and covered in greater detail in Chapter 7. inocula from the canopy. Research has top remaining canes to 48 to 72 inches in Characteristics of various cover crops shown, however, that winter injury was height, ideally removing about one-fourth are listed in Table 7.3, and seeding rates more severe on the cold-tender cultivar of the cane (Figure 8.1d). Be sure to keep and nutrient and pH requirements are Titan when spent fruiting canes were canes that have the largest diameters. listed in Table 7.4. Hard fescues such removed in the summer as opposed to Black and Purple Raspberries as Spartan, Aurora, SR3000, SR3100, during the subsequent fall or winter. For Black and purple raspberries require and Reliant (the number of available this reason, when floricanes retain their primocane topping throughout the cultivars is rapidly increasing) and leaves (primarily in the north), we now summer in addition to floricane removal sheep fescues are low growing and recommend leaving the spent fruiting after harvest (Figure 8.2a). When adapt readily to a wide range of soil canes until dormant pruning if cane possible, topping should be done 3 pH. Once established, these plants are diseases are minimal. However, if cane days before expected rain to reduce the competitive enough to outgrow weeds. diseases are present to any significant chances for rain-splashed disease inocula They do not propagate from rhizomes extent, or if excessive summer heat or to enter through the new wound. Black like many grasses but are a bunch grass, previously unnoticed winter injury and purple raspberries should be topped so no encroachment occurs on the crop weakens canes and causes leaves to at 36 to 48 inches during the season plant. They form a dense sod with deep abscise, spent fruiting canes should when only 3 to 4 inches of new growth extensive roots that protect soil structure. be removed as soon as possible after need to be removed to reach the desired Though the seed is relative expensive, harvest. height when grown without a trellis fewer mowings are needed, which more Floricane-bearing red raspberries system. Removing more than 3 to 4 than offsets the higher price of the seed. grow naturally in a hedgerow system, inches can result in a greater incidence of While some growers have reported as indicated in Figure 8.1a. The suckers, cane blight since the wound that results difficulty in establishing the hard originating from the root system, fill in from removing larger-diameter wood fescues, this has not been our experience. the entire length of the row, spreading takes longer to heal. If this operation is Seeding rates can vary from 20 to 30 to several feet wide. This would reduce missed at the optimal time, or a trellis pounds per acre to 80 pounds per acre drying conditions in the middle of system is in place, canes can be topped depending on how quickly dense cover the row. Thus, row widths should be slightly higher, still removing only 3 to is required. When seeded at the lower reduced to no more than 1 foot wide 4 inches of growth. Topping encourages rate, plants take from 6 to 9 months to in the spring and maintained at this lateral (fruiting) branches to develop and establish a good cover, while the higher width. Removing a portion of suckers if increases cane strength (Figure 8.2b). If seeding rate will result in a full cover excessive in number further improves the topping operation is missed, whether much more rapidly. Plan on seeding air movement. Removing excess canes or not it is too late to top depends on the fall before or the fall after planting in the spring will stimulate more cane stockiness of the cane growth and date— because this will improve establishment growth to some extent, but removing topping past midsummer may produce since grasses prefer cool seasons of the canes outside the 1 foot width of the row spindly laterals. Note: Black raspberries year for growth. This will also give the encourages growth of taller, more easily tend to have a very prostrate growth grass a chance to establish during a time trellised canes for next year’s crop. The habit in the first year. of the year when dry spells are not likely optimal number of canes per foot of For dormant pruning, remove all and few operations using equipment row is site dependent. Growers should dead, damaged, and weak canes. Thin are taking place in the field. For addi- monitor yearly numbers of healthy canes remaining canes to 5 to 10 canes per tional information on sod row middle produced to determine whether the plant. Head back lateral branches to 4 management, see Chapter 7 and addi- planting’s productivity is changing due to 7 inches for black raspberries or 6 to tional resources listed in Appendix E. to an excessive or insufficient number of 10 inches for purple raspberries (Figure canes being allowed to fruit. Brambles 8.2c). More vigorous plants can support have an ability to adapt to excessive longer lateral branches. Canes should all number of canes by reducing the produc- be topped to 40 to 48 inches if they were tivity of each bud or cane. Raspberries not topped earlier if grown without a can also adjust for excessive shortening trellis sytem. of canes by winterkill or pruning. Chapter 8 ❦ Brambles 181

Figure 8.1. Pruning red raspberries.

3 feet

6 feet 3 feet (a) Red raspberries before pruning.

6 feet

(b) Pruning red raspberries—row narrowed to 1 foot wide.

3 feet

6 feet

(d) Pruning red raspberries—canes winter-tipped. 182 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

If a trellis system is in use—even Several trellises have been developed a nominal one such as the supported and successfully used. hedgerow trellis shown in Figure 8.3— A simple supported hedgerow trellis canes can be topped higher (up to 60 (Figure 8.3) consists of a wire at 3 feet inches) as long as they are supported by high, a second optional wire at 5 feet the trellis. Stockiness of the canes should high, and posts every 30 to 50 feet of be guide for the appropriate height to row. This trellis can be used with all top canes at this time (i.e., when the overwintered brambles in all situations. (a) topping operation was missed during Experiments in Pennsylvania using the the previous summer), with the goal “T” or Lincoln canopy trellis (Figure 8.4) being adequate cane strength to support resulted in black and red raspberry fruit the fruit load. that was borne on top of the canopy, allowing for excellent fruit exposure. Primocane-Bearing/Everbearing Rasp- This was particularly true for black berries (Red or Gold) or Blackberrries raspberries. Better fruit exposure also Everbearing red raspberries and black- allows harvesters to avoid the thorny berries should be mowed to a height of 1 canes. With the “V” trellis (Figure 8.5), to 2 inches. Mowing should be delayed the floricanes are tied to the wires during until late winter—this allows some of the dormant pruning and the primocanes reserves in the cane to be mobilized to (b) grow in the center of the row. Both the roots. Fall removal of the canes from “T” and “V” systems are fairly labor young plantings reduces their vigor. intensive during pruning, but fruit is Some growers may opt to fruit rasp- more easily found during harvest. berry canes again in June and July. Fruit Where vigorous growth and satis- is borne on the overwintered canes at the factory winter-hardiness are commonly leaf axils below where fruiting occurred achieved, the Gjerde system has been the previous fall. Typically, only about 10 found to be productive, easy on fruit, to 25 percent of the total Heritage yield is and labor saving. The Gjerde system borne during June and July when fruited uses wires that can be moved from this way in field production. However, if (c) the center of the row to the outside, canes are tall and less than one-quarter forming a “V.” Canes are held in the of the cane length produced flower center before flowering to force flowers buds in the fall, a substantial summer Figure 8.2. Pruning black raspberries. to grow toward the outside of the trellis. can be expected. Reasonable June and (a) Primocanes tipped in midsummer. After flowering, the top wires (and the July yields have been obtained from (b) Lateral branches grow. canes attached to them) are moved to floricanes for some of the late season, (c) Laterals are shortened during dormant pruning. the outside of the trellis so the crop is primocane-fruiting types; however, their borne on the outside, leaving room in the cold-hardiness is largely untested. Thus, middle for newly emerging primocanes. most commercial growers prefer to plant laterals to 12 to 18 inches and thin canes The rotatable cross-arm trellis system a summer-cropping cultivar for this to 10 inches apart in the hedgerow. is designed for use with blackberry purpose. Semi-upright and erect blackberries production in areas where winter Retaining canes of primocane-bearing can be grown with either a supported protection is needed. With this sytem, blackberries is not recommended as the hedgerow or a V-trellis system as canes can be rotated to ground level floricanes of currently available cultivars described under “Red Raspberries.” so they can protected with row covers are winter tender. They should be summer tipped at or snow in areas that receive reliable about 6 inches above the highest trellis Summer-Bearing Blackberries snowfall. In the spring and early wire and tied to it during the summer Erect blackberries (thorny or thornless) summer, three or four new primocanes months. Spent floricanes should be do not require trellising; but even are tied horizontally to a low trellis wire removed immediately after harvest. For they will benefit from having a trellis and pinched after reaching canes from dormant pruning, select 5 to 8 of the sytem in place. They have, as the name a neighboring plant. Because they are strongest canes per plant, remove all suggests, very strong upright canes. tied horizontally, once tipped, many laterals originating on the lower 2 to 3 They can be pruned similarly to black laterals break along the full length of feet of the canes, and tip back remaining and purple raspberries: specifically, the canes. These laterals grow upwards laterals to 12 to 18 inches. head primocanes back to 36 to 48 inches and are tied to several trellis wires that in the summer. Spent floricanes should Trellis Systems are run horizontally above the wire that be removed immediately after harvest. Trellis systems can increase yields per supports the main canes. For winter, Also, during dormant pruning, cut back acre because they expand the bramble this tellis is pivoted to ground level, canopy surface area by supporting it. remaining in this position until fruiting Chapter 8 ❦ Brambles 183 laterals break in the spring. At that point, fruiting laterals are all growing upward, and the system is then pivoted back past the original position so that the fruiting laterals are on one side facing slightly downward, allowing ease of harvest. One main drawback to this system has been its cost; however, commercialization of production using fiberglass components rather than metal, and some adoption by the industry is reducing the cost considerably. Addi- tional information on this sytem is listed in Appendix E. 3–4 ft The Stiles shift trellis was developed at Virginia Tech. Canes are attached to a movable side arm containing several 1 1 /2–2 ft wires. The arm is held at the nine-o’clock Figure 8.3. Supported hedgerow trellis. position during flowering. This sets the fruiting trusses upright since they grow toward the sun. At 2 weeks post flowering, the arm is swung around to the one-o’clock position. Immature fruit now hangs down to reduce sunscald and ease picking. Shift trellises are particularly useful for maximizing yield and providing exposure for thornless blackberry fruit. Additional Trellising Considerations for Organic Production 6 ft Trellising facilitates harvest and improves air circulation within the canopy, which can decrease the incidence of certain diseases and presence 3–4 ft of certain insect pests. According to the National Organic Standards, the 6 ft producer must not use lumber treated with arsenate or other prohibited Figure 8.4. T or Lincoln trellis. materials for new installations or 4–6 ft replacement purposes in contact with soil or livestock. This means that chro- mated copper arsenate (CCA) or other types of pressure-treated lumber are not allowable materials for trellising. Other options include nontreated lumber, metal, plastic, or composite materials or lumber that has been treated with allowable products. Protected Culture Brambles may be grown in protected 6 ft culture to increase the length of the harvest season or to produce berries 3 ft during the off-season when production otherwise might not be possible. Both high tunnel and greenhouse production involve higher costs. Production diffi- Figure 8.5. V trellis. culties can be considerably different in 184 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 type or magnitude from those encoun- from field production and is more germinate and enter the fruit through tered in field production. For these expensive and requires close attention the stigma and style during polli- reasons, growers are advised to proceed to details. See Appendix E for additional nation. with caution when embarking on a new sources of information. 2. Harvest as early in the morning as enterprise in these areas. It is expected, Greenhouse Production possible, after the dew has dried. Try however, that interest in these systems A greenhouse raspberry production to harvest all berries before noon, will grow and that the amount of system to produce berries during the and keep harvested fruit out of direct production under protected cultivation winter and early spring was developed sunlight. For long-distance shipping, will rise as time goes on, as has been the at Cornell University and is adapted fruit must be harvested when pink to case in Europe. only in the northern part of the Mid- slightly unripe. Never ship ripe fruit High Tunnel Production Atlantic. Raspberries grow best in cool long distances. Work done by university personnel and temperatures, so less supplemental heat 3. Always handle berries gently. Roll, various growers in the Mid-Atlantic is needed than for most other crops. don’t pull, berries off the plant. Be region has shown that in areas where fall In this system, summer-bearing rasp- sure to instruct harvesters and drivers frost can prematurely end primocane- berries (usually Tulameen) are grown. to pick and transport the fruit gently. bearing raspberry production, high Tissue-cultured plants are planted into 4. Harvest into appropriate containers. tunnels can easily add an additional 3 to pots in the spring, grown outdoors until For raspberries and blackberries, use 4 weeks or longer to the harvest season. December, and then brought into the either half-pints or low pints (pints In addition, high tunnels allow plants greenhouse. with the footprint of a quart). This to begin growing 3 to 4 weeks earlier in Here, supplemental lighting may ensures that fruit is never stacked the spring. Besides the advantage of the speed up fruit development but is not more than two or three berries high. longer harvest season, fruit quality has mandatory for production. Plants are Research has shown that having more been exceptional and pesticide usage can moved outdoors again after fruiting and than three layers crushes the bottom be markedly decreased or eliminated. the cycle is repeated. As is true of high layers. Plants can be grown in the ground, tunnels, spider mites are the primary 5. Remove field heat from berries as as in field production. Trickle irrigation pest. We recommend that growers soon as possible. The best approach is obviously a must in this case. Rows who wish to try greenhouse raspberry is to use convective cooling before can be slightly closer than in field production become familiar with details placing fruit in a cold room. A fan production—6 to 8 feet between rows of the required management practices inside a cooler, with tarps placed to has worked well. Using landscape first since these are very different from direct airflow through the fruit, forces fabric as a ground cover works well in the practices of field production. See air through the berries and works this situation. Plants must be planted Appendix E for Web sites with addi- quite well for smaller operations. as early in the spring as possible, at tional information. A similar tunnel least 1 month and preferably 6 weeks system in Spain utilizes dormant, bare- 6. Cover fruit after cooling to minimize prior to the last expected frost date to root, chilled long-cane plants grown in moisture loss. You may also loosely allow time to harvest a reasonable fall northern nurseries. cover berries before cooling, being crop the first year. High tunnels can sure to remove the covering (and also be used to mitigate low winter Harvest and Postharvest the water from condensation) after temperatures, making thornless black- handling cooling has occurred. berry production possible in locations Raspberries are notorious for their poor 7. Keep fruit cool during transport and where it otherwise might not be, such as shelf life, due in part to the fruit’s form make sure berries are not treated central and northern Pennsylvania. Be and structure—the berry is composed roughly. Ensuring your customers prepared for massive amounts of cane of many individual drupelets held know the limitations of small fruits growth, however, and a continual need together by hair and wax. Poor shelf life is essential for your continued for tipping. The only significant pest is also a result of the fruit’s very high existence as a wholesaler. If you are problem to date in high tunnel bramble postharvest respiration rate (the highest retailing, also provide information for production has been twospotted spider of any temperate zone fruit) as well as its consumers to help them extend the mites. Predatory mites have given good susceptibility to the botrytis fungus. shelf life of their purchases. control when released while spider mite The following are steps for achieving 8. The optimal storage temperature is populations are still low (i.e., fewer than maximum shelf life from the very short- 31 to 32°F, and the optimal relative 20 mites on a few of the most heavily lived bramble fruit. humidity is 90 to 95 percent. Fruit infested leaves). will freeze at lower temperatures. Alternatively, plants can be grown in 1. Maintain fungicide schedules in the Maintaining relative humidities containers and moved into the tunnel field, especially during flowering. this high at such low temperatures after a different spring crop has been This step is particularly important is often difficult, but the highest grown in the tunnel. However, this for brambles since a primary cause of possible relative humidity should be management scheme is entirely different postharvest deterioration is infection with gray mold. Gray mold spores maintained. By adhering to the above Chapter 8 ❦ Brambles 185

precautions, field-grown raspberries Fixed costs are costs that do not vary losses are common and crop prices can can be kept for 3 to 5 days, and high- by level of production and are incurred be highly variable. Use of whole-farm tunnel-grown raspberries for 5 to 7 by virtue of owning assets such as risk management tools such as AGR-Lite days. Controlled-atmosphere storage machinery and land. Depreciation and crop insurance can help you reduce these (15 to 20 percent carbon dioxide and 2 taxes are examples. risks. to 5 percent oxygen) extends shelf life Total specified costs are the sum of A land charge of $200/acre has even more, although it cannot be used variable and fixed costs. Most land- been included in the budgets, but this as a substitute for refrigeration. preparation activities are assumed to be charge can vary greatly from location Blackberries should be handled simi- custom hired in these budgets because to location. If you own the land, you larly, although their shelf life is several the small acreages for many berry farms could include your principal, interest days longer than that of raspberries. do not justify the ownership of these payments, and property taxes as a fixed For more information on bramble implements. If you use your own tillage cost. If you lease the land, then the production, consult NRAES-35: Bramble equipment, the variable costs for custom annual rental cost could be included as a Production Guide (see Appendix E for hire should be subtracted from the variable cost. ordering information). budgets and your labor variable costs Production assumptions used in and machinery fixed costs should be generating the budgets include the substituted. following: Economics For red raspberry and thornless • Fumigation is not used. Under certain The summer-bearing red raspberry and blackberry production, one budget is conditions, fumigation may be thornless blackberry budgets given here presented for the years of land prepa- warranted. were prepared to provide general infor- ration (Table 8.3) since costs for either • Irrigation system costs are calculated mation and do not apply to any specific crop at this time would be the same. assuming that they apply water to 5 operation. Use them, with appropriate For red raspberries, additional cost-of- acres. modifications, as guides for preparing production budgets are presented for budgets for individual situations. the planting year (Table 8.4), the year • Fungicides are rotated to reduce the Budgets can be used: after planting (Table 8.5), and mature likelihood of disease resistance. • for general farm business planning production (Table 8.6). For thornless • The numbers of pesticide and purposes blackberry production, similar cost-of- irrigation applications are average. In • as a basis for obtaining credit production budgets are presented for the any given year or location, growers • to project cash flows planting year (Table 8.7), the year after will need to adjust these for their • to assess profitability planting (Table 8.8), and for a mature particular set of circumstances. planting (Table 8.9). Using these sample budgets as guides • Hard fescue is planted in the aisles to Returns to risk and management should help ensure that all costs and reduce the need for mowing. receipts are included in budgets you is the estimated profit attributable to • A supported hedgerow trellis is used prepare for your farm. Costs are often the acceptance of risk and the contri- to support the canes. difficult to estimate in budget prepa- bution of management expertise by the ration because they are numerous and grower (Tables 8.10 and 8.11). The tables • A trickle irrigation system is used in variable. Therefore, you should think of estimate the return to the grower for calculating water application. a range of prices and yields. Because these budgets as a first approximation • Berries are harvested as ready-picked yields, grades, and prices are so variable, and then make appropriate adjustments in ½ pint plastic clamshells for red growers should use representative using the “Your Farm” column to add, raspberries and pint plastic clamshells values for their operation. It is important delete, and adjust items to reflect your for blackberries. specific growing conditions and resource to account for cash flows over the life • For raspberry budgets, the plant situation. of the investment when assessing the spacing assumed is 2 feet within The sample cost-of-production overall profitability of the enterprise, so the row and 10 feet between rows budgets were developed using a prorated land preparation and planting (approximately 2,200 plants per acre). computerized budget generator. Input costs are subtracted in the estimates. data reflect recommended production Breakeven prices and yields are shown • For thornless blackberry budgets, the practices and current input costs. Major in the tables. Breakeven price is an plant spacing assumed is 5 feet within subheadings in the budgets are variable estimate of the unit price required to the row and 12 feet between rows costs, fixed costs, and total specified cover all costs at a given yield; it is also (726 plants per acre). costs. They are defined as follows: the average cost per unit of production. Variable costs are costs that vary Breakeven yield is an estimate of the depending on the level of production. yield required to cover all costs at a These include such inputs as fertilizer, given price. herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, and Berry production involves large labor. initial investments and can be very risky; weather and animal related crop 186 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 8.3. Summary of estimated costs per acre, 2011: year of land preparation for summer-bearing red raspberries or thornless blackberries. Item Unit Price ($) Quantity Amount ($) Your Farm ($) Variable Cost Custom Soil test acre 10.00 1.00 10.00 Spread lime acre 12.20 1.00 12.20 Moldboard plowing acre 22.00 1.00 22.00 Disking acre 17.90 1.00 17.90 Grass seeding acre 11.20 1.00 11.20 Herbicides Glyphosate 4 gal 12.78 0.50 6.39 Seed Annual ryegrass seed lb 0.35 25.00 8.75 Labor Seasonal hour 12.00 0.50 6.00 Operator hour 15.00 0.46 6.84 Diesel Fuel gal 3.50 1.12 3.92 Repairs and Maintenance Tractors acre 1.40 1.00 1.40 Implements acre 1.16 1.00 1.16 Interest on Operating Capital 3.05 Total Variable Cost 139.81 Fixed Cost Tractors acre 2.68 1.00 2.68 Implements acre 2.39 1.00 2.39 Total fixed cost 5.07 Land Charge acre 150.00 1.00 200.00 Total Specified Costs 344.88

Table 8.4. Summary of estimated costs per acre, 2011: planting year for summer-bearing red raspberries. Item Unit Price ($) Quantity Amount ($) Your Farm ($) Variable Cost Custom Spread dry fertilizer acre 9.85 1.00 9.85 Moldboard plowing acre 22.00 1.00 22.00 Disking acre 17.90 1.00 17.90 Post driving acre 100.00 1.00 100.00 Grass seeding acre 11.20 0.70 7.84 Fertilizer 10-10-10 lb 0.21 300.00 63.00 Urea lb 0.25 100.00 25.00 Insecticides Assail 30SG oz 5.76 5.30 30.53 Other Drip tape ft 0.03 4,350.00 130.50 Raspberry plants each 0.81 2,200.00 1,782.00 Wheat straw ton 160.00 0.60 96.00 Hard fescue seed lb 4.30 21.00 90.30 Trellis posts each 6.00 200.00 1,200.00 Trellis wire ft 24.00 8.70 208.80 Trellis anchors/tensioners each 20.00 34.00 680.00 Labor Seasonal hour 12.00 49.38 592.50 Operator hour 15.00 0.62 9.24 Diesel Fuel gal 3.50 34.00 119.00 Repairs and Maintenance Tractors acre 23.24 1.00 23.24 Implements and irrigation acre 77.78 1.00 77.78 Interest on Operating Capital 90.47 Total Variable Cost 5,375.95 Fixed Cost Tractors acre 48.86 1.00 48.86 Implements & irrigation acre 204.31 1.00 204.31 Total Fixed Cost 253.17 Land Charge acre 200.00 1.00 200.00 Total Specified Costs 5,829.12 188 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 8.5. Summary of estimated costs per acre, 2011: year after planting for summer-bearing red raspberries. Item Unit Price ($) Quantity Amount ($) Your Farm ($) Variable Cost Custom Spread dry fertilizer acre 9.85 1.00 9.85 Pest scouting acre 35.00 1.00 35.00 Fertilizer Urea lb 0.25 60.00 15.00 Fungicides Captan 80W lb 6.99 8.00 55.92 Elevate 50WDG lb 45.55 3.00 136.65 Herbicides Devrinol W lb 12.35 8.00 98.80 Princep 90DF lb 5.70 2.20 12.54 Surflan AS gal 48.10 0.50 24.05 Insecticides Assail 30SG oz 5.76 5.30 30.53 Provado 1.6F oz 0.93 8.00 7.44 Other Plant analysis kit acre 25.00 1.00 25.00 Clamshell, ½ pint each 0.11 1,000.00 110.00 Flats, ½ pint each 0.85 84.00 71.40 Labor Seasonal hour 12.00 20.88 250.50 Operator hour 15.00 2.83 42.45 Raspberry harvest ½ pt 0.70 1,000.00 700.00 Diesel Fuel gal 3.50 40.18 140.60 Repairs and Maintenance Tractors acre 29.45 1.00 29.45 Implements and irrigation acre 82.33 1.00 82.33 Interest on Operating Capital 46.62 Total Variable Cost 1,924.12 Fixed Cost Tractors acre 61.68 1.00 61.68 Implements acre 215.39 1.00 215.39 Total Fixed Cost 277.07 Land Charge acre 200.00 1.00 200.00 Total Specified Costs 2,401.19 Chapter 8 ❦ Brambles 189

Table 8.6. Summary of estimated costs per acre, 2011: mature planting of summer-bearing red raspberries. Item Unit Price ($) Quantity Amount ($) Your Farm ($) Variable Cost Custom Spread dry fertilizer acre 9.85 1.00 9.85 Pest scouting acre 35.00 1.00 35.00 Fertilizer Urea lb 0.25 140.00 35.00 Fungicides Captan 80W lb 6.99 8.00 55.92 Elevate 50WDG lb 45.55 3.00 136.65 Lime sulfur gal 17.86 12.00 214.32 Pristine 38WG oz 3.11 20.00 62.20 Herbicides Devrinol W lb 12.35 8.00 98.80 Princep 90DF lb 5.70 4.40 25.08 Surflan AS gal 48.10 0.50 24.05 Insecticides Assail 30SG oz 5.76 5.30 30.53 Provado 1.6F oz 0.93 8.00 7.44 Other Plant analysis kit acre 25.00 1.00 25.00 Clamshell, ½ pint each 0.11 10,000.00 1,100.00 Flats, ½ pint each 0.85 834.00 708.30 Labor Seasonal hour 12.00 54.88 658.50 Operator hour 15.00 4.47 67.06 Raspberry harvest ½ pt 0.70 10,000.00 7,000.00 Diesel Fuel gal 3.50 45.59 159.55 Repairs and Maintenance Tractors acre 34.71 1.00 34.71 Implements and irrigation acre 87.80 1.00 87.80 Interest on Operating Capital 264.59 Total Variable Cost 10,840.94 Fixed Cost Tractors acre 72.52 1.00 72.52 Implements and irrigation acre 224.89 1.00 224.89 Total Fixed Cost 297.41 Land Charge acre 200.00 1.00 200.00 Total Specified Costs 11,338.35

*Calculations assume that a ½-pt clamshell of red raspberries weighs 5 oz. 190 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 8.7. Summary of estimated costs per acre, 2011: year of planting for thornless blackberries. Item Unit Price ($) Quantity Amount ($) Your Farm ($) Variable Cost Custom Spread dry fertilizer acre 9.85 1.00 9.85 Moldboard plowing acre 22.00 1.00 22.00 Disking acre 17.90 1.00 17.90 Post driver acre 100.00 1.00 100.00 Grass seeding acre 11.20 0.70 7.84 Fertilizer 10-10-10 lb 0.21 300.00 63.00 Urea lb 0.25 100.00 25.00 Insecticides Assail 30SG oz 5.76 5.30 30.53 Other Blackberry plants each 2.18 2,200.00 4,796.00 Drip tape ft 0.03 4,350.00 130.50 Trellis posts each 6.00 200.00 1,200.00 Trellis wire mft 24.00 8.70 208.80 Trellis anchors/tensioners each 20.00 34.00 680.00 Hard fescue seed lb 4.30 21.00 90.30 Wheat straw ton 160.00 0.60 96.00 Labor Seasonal hour 12.00 49.38 592.50 Operator hour 15.00 0.62 9.24 Diesel Fuel gal 3.50 34.00 119.00 Repairs and Maintenance Tractors acre 23.24 1.00 23.24 Implements and irrigation acre 77.78 1.00 77.78 Interest on Operating Capital 161.41 Total Variable Cost 8,495.89 Fixed Cost Tractors acre 48.86 1.00 48.86 Implements and irrigation acre 204.31 1.00 204.31 Total Fixed Cost 253.17 Land Charge acre 200.00 1.00 200.00 Total Specified Costs 8,949.06 Chapter 8 ❦ Brambles 191

Table 8.8. Summary of estimated costs per acre, 2011: year after planting for thornless blackberries. Item Unit Price ($) Quantity Amount ($) Your Farm ($) Variable Cost Custom Spread dry fertilizer acre 9.85 1.00 9.85 Pest scouting acre 35.00 1.00 35.00 Fertilizer Urea lb 0.25 60.00 15.00 Fungicides Captan 80W lb 6.99 8.00 55.92 Elevate 50WDG lb 45.55 3.00 136.65 Herbicides Devrinol W lb 12.35 8.00 98.80 Princep 90DF lb 5.70 2.20 12.54 Surflan AS gal 48.10 0.50 24.05 Insecticides Assail 30SG oz 5.76 5.30 30.53 Provado 1.6F oz 0.93 8.00 7.44 Other Plant analysis kit acre 25.00 1.00 25.00 Clamshell, 1 pt each 0.14 2,500.00 350.00 Flats, 1 pt each 0.85 209.00 177.65 Labor Seasonal hour 12.00 20.88 250.50 Operator hour 15.00 4.17 62.50 Berry harvest pt 0.85 2,500.00 1,875.00 Diesel Fuel gal 3.50 44.59 156.04 Repairs and Maintenance Tractors acre 33.73 1.00 33.73 Implements & irrigation acre 87.57 1.00 87.57 Interest on Operating Capital 83.64 Total Variable Cost 3,527.40 Fixed Cost Tractors acre 70.51 1.00 70.51 Implements and Irrigation acre 223.26 1.00 223.26 Total Fixed Cost 293.77 Land Charge acre 200.00 1.00 200.00 Total Specified Costs 4,021.17 192 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 8.9. Summary of estimated costs per acre, 2011: mature planting of thornless blackberries. Item Unit Price ($) Quantity Amount ($) Your Farm ($) Variable Cost Custom Spread dry fertilizer acre 9.85 1.00 9.85 Pest scouting acre 35.00 1.00 35.00 Fertilizer Urea lb 0.25 120.00 30.00 Fungicides Captan 80W lb 6.99 8.00 55.92 Elevate 50WDG lb 45.55 3.00 136.65 Lime sulfur gal 17.86 12.00 214.32 Pristine 38WDG oz 3.11 20.00 62.20 Herbicides Devrinol W lb 12.35 8.00 98.80 Princep 90DF lb 5.70 4.40 25.08 Surflan AS gal 48.10 0.50 24.05 Insecticides Assail 30SG oz 5.76 5.30 30.53 Provado 1.6F oz 0.93 8.00 7.44 Other Plant analysis kit acre 25.00 1.00 25.00 Clamshell, 1 pint each 0.14 8,000.00 6,000.00 Flats, 1 pint each 0.85 667.00 566.95 Labor Seasonal hour 12.00 60.88 730.50 Operator hour 15.00 4.84 72.58 Berry harvest pt 0.75 7,000.00 5,250.00 Diesel Fuel gal 3.50 46.80 163.80 Repairs and Maintenance Tractors acre 35.89 1.00 35.89 Implements and irrigation acre 89.25 1.00 89.25 Interest on Operating Capital 198.88 Total Variable Cost 9,732.68 Fixed Cost Tractors acre 74.95 1.00 74.95 Implements and Irrigation acre 227.06 1.00 227.06 Total fixed cost 302.01 Land Charge acre 200.00 1.00 200.00 Total Specified Costs 10,234.69 Chapter 8 ❦ Brambles 193

Table 8.10. Returns to risk and management for red raspberries, 2011. such infections, blossoms and stems will blacken and appear like fire blight Yield (half pt/A) disease on apples and pears. Botrytis can Price ($/half pint) 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000 14,000 Breakeven yield also cause a cane blight and leaf spotting. $2.00 $3,304 $5,542 $7,780 $10,019 $12,257 3,048 $2.50 $6,304 $9,542 $12,780 $16,019 $19,257 2,107 Causal Agent: The fungus Botrytis $3.00 $9,304 $13,542 $17,780 $22,019 $26,257 1,610 cinerea. $3.50 $12,304 $17,542 $22,780 $28,019 $33,257 1,302 Epidemiology: The fungus has a wide Breakeven price $1.45 $1.31 $1.22 $1.17 $1.12 host range and can survive on either Prorated land preparation and planting costs included based on a productive life of 7 years. living or dead tissue. It overwinters A half-pint clamshell of red raspberries weighs 5 ounces. in dead leaves and plant debris and on stems. Inoculum is produced from Table 8.11. Returns to risk and management for thornless blackberries, 2011. fruiting structures on canes, from dead leaves, and from mummified berries in Yield (pt/A) the spring. Flowers are infected soon Price ($/pint) 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,000 10,000 Breakeven yield after they open as the inoculum lands $1.50 -$474 $65 $604 $1,143 $1,682 6,880 on the stigma, germinates, and grows $2.00 $2,526 $3,565 $4,604 $5,643 $6,682 3,570 into floral tissues that will develop into $2.50 $5,526 $7,065 $8,604 $10,143 $11,682 2,410 the fruit. The fungus then lies dormant $3.00 $8,526 $10,565 $12,604 $14,643 $16,682 1,819 in the developing fruit until the fruit is Breakeven price $1.58 $1.49 $1.42 $1.37 $1.33 nearly ripe or harvested, at which time Prorated land preparation and planting costs included based on a productive life of 8 years. gray mold symptoms develop. Some A one-pint clamshell of blackberries weighs 14 ounces. direct fruit infection can also take place at harvest when moldy berries infect nearby fruit. or when treatment is most effective. Controls: Pests To help control the disease, Information in Table 8.15 should be choose a planting site with good air Pest control involves many aspects supplemented with the reading below. movement and prune out weak canes to of production—pesticide application Table 8.16 presents additional restrictions speed the drying of plants. Also eliminate is only one. All available practices beyond preharvest intervals and reentry weeds (again, to aid in quicker drying of to reduce the potential for disease intervals that appear on the label. For foliage and fruit) and harvest fruit before and insect problems should be used. information on bird and deer control, it is overripe. Under protected culture, Consider site selection, crop rotation, see the section on vertebrate pests in the tunnels should be opened early in the variety selection, the use of tunnels, soil blueberry chapter. morning to reduce humidity or left open. treatment, and planting stock in relation If using a type of tunnel where covering Fungal and bacterial Diseases to disease and insect control before you is temporary, plants should be covered Diseases are grouped according to plant. by bloom and remain covered until after the plant part on which they are most Information on individual diseases fruiting. Fungicides should be applied commonly noted or on which damage is and insects is presented below, with during bloom, with additional applica- most important. However, most of the cultural controls discussed. Disease tions made during harvest if necessary. following diseases can affect plant parts control strategies are given in Table 8.12. Refer to Table 8.15 for fungicide recom- in addition to those under which they Pesticide information, including activity mendations. groups, efficacy, labeled uses, and restric- are listed. This information is included tions, are presented in tables that follow. within the text for each disease. Late Leaf Rust Because avoiding buildup of resistant Fruit Diseases Symptoms: Yellow masses of spores strains of fungi and insects is important, are noticed primarily on fall fruit of activity groups (for rotational use to Gray Mold (Botrytis Fruit Rot) primocane-bearing cultivars, making the avoid buildup of resistant strains) of Symptoms: In the field, ripe berries or fruit unmarketable. Because symptoms fungicides and their efficacy on common receptacles remaining on the plant after on the fruit do not usually develop until diseases are presented in Table 8.13, and harvest are covered with a dusty gray late in the season, infections in plantings activity groups and efficacy of insecti- mold. This disease is equally important of summer-bearing cultivars may go cides are listed in Table 8.14. Fungicides, as a postharvest rot, where, due to high unnoticed. Powdery, yellow spores insecticides, and miticides that can humidity, mycelial growth is less dense also form on the undersides of leaves, be used to assist in management are and appears as a light-gray growth. If causing badly infected leaves to drop given in Table 8.15, arranged by various extended wet weather occurs during prematurely. growth stages during the year for the bloom, blossoms may be blighted and Causal Agent: Several species of late crop. Pests are listed at the stages where the infection invades their supporting leaf rust fungi are present worldwide. In they are most likely to be problematic stems. If the weather becomes dry after 194 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 our region, Pucciniastrum americanum is appears on the leaf undersides from orange and powdery, hence the disease believed to be the causal agent. which white or gray sporulation takes name “orange rust.” Canes produced Epidemiology: Late leaf rust infects red place. Symptoms may also appear as by diseased plants in June and later and purple raspberries but not black purple blotches near the midvein or a may appear relatively healthy, but raspberries or blackberries. Late leaf mosaic pattern of red and yellow lesions. they are infected nonetheless and will rust, unlike orange rust, is not systemic. Suckers may be stunted, and canes may produce the diagnostic orange pustules White spruce and Engelmann spruce have irregular reddish blotches. the following spring. Infected plants serve as alternate hosts, and their Causal Agent: The fungus Peronospora generally take on a bushy appearance closeness to a planting may increase sparsa, which may be synonymous with because many short upright shoots arise the likelihood of occurrence. Spores are Peronospora rubi Rabenh. from one bud. produced on infected spruce needles in Epidemiology: This disease is most Causal Agent: The fungi Arthuriomyces early summer and can infect raspberries. prevalent under humid conditions, peckianus and Gymnoconia nitens. High humidity is necessary for infection moderate temperatures, and when rainy. Epidemiology: Orange rust is a fungal to take place. If the infection spreads, the The fungus may be found in any plant disease that occurs only on black raspberries will show symptoms shortly part that overwinters. Sporulation takes raspberries, blackberries, dewberries, afterward. However, spruce are not place from leaves of new primocanes at and possibly purple raspberries. The thought to be necessary for the rust to first, especially where foliage is dense. two fungi that cause the disease are survive in a planting once infected since Spores are windborne and may infect very similar. The disease is not known this disease has occurred in successive leaves or berries. to affect red raspberries. The fungus is years in plantings with no spruce in Controls: Wild roses and blackberries systemic and overwinters in diseased the vicinity. Spores are disseminated by roots and canes. When the orange spore wind but may also be physically moved can serve as inoculum sources and should be removed from the vicinity. pustules mature and break open in from infected to uninfected plantings by late spring and early summer, spores people or machinery. Keeping rows narrow and controlling weeds will minimize sporulation by spread to other plants by wind and Controls: Clean nursery stock is decreasing humidity levels in the rows. possibly rain. Leaves that produce the important since planting stock can be Old canes should be removed after pustules dry up and die. The fungus the initial source of inoculum. Control is harvest if this disease is present. Strobi- enters plants through the leaves and aided by cultural practices that increase lurin fungicides and products containing remains localized for a few weeks. Then air circulation within the planting, such potassium phosphite (Phostrol) have a second type of spore forms on these as thinning canes, keeping rows narrow, been effective and should be alternated newly infected leaves that infects buds and practicing good weed control. to delay resistance development. and growth at the base of new shoots in Removing floricanes and infected August and September and travels into primocanes in winter will reduce the Postharvest Minor Fruit Rots the roots. The fruiting bodies for these amount of inoculum. This disease has An assortment of fungi cause fruit rots spores are not visible. Newly infected been especially problematic on summer- that appear during postharvest storage, plants don’t show symptoms until the bearing Festival and fall-bearing Heritage usually affecting a low percentage of following spring when the shoots arising and Jaclyn. Josephine fall-bearing and fruit. These include Alternaria spp., which from these newly infected roots show Nova and Esta June-to-July-bearing red forms a dark gray mold on the fruit characteristic symptoms. Orange rust is raspberries tend to be resistant. Plants surface; Cladosporium spp., which produce favored by cool, wet conditions. Disease grown yearlong in a tunnel have a very an olive-green, velvety mold; Penicillium development is greatly reduced when low amount of rust occurrence compared spp., which cause a blue-green mold and the temperature is above 80°F. fruit leak; and a Colletotrichum sp., which to outdoor grown plants. Because this Controls: Start with disease-free nursery is primarily problematic when rainstorms fungus is not systemic, eliminating the stock. Inspect all plants in the spring have occurred during harvest, causing a disease from plants is possible. See Table for symptoms of infection. As soon as sunken, water-soaked area that can have 8.15 for recommended fungicides. symptoms are visible, remove the entire a slimy center. Downy Mildew plant. Ideally, plants should be removed Cane and Leaf Diseases at the time when spindly growth is seen, Symptoms: Blackberries and red rather than waiting until orange pustules raspberries may be affected. Berries Orange Rust are seen, because infection of nearby dry up and split. Fruit infected while Symptoms: Diagnostic symptoms plants has already begun to take place green may redden prematurely before occur early in spring when new by the time the pustules are noticeable. If drying up. On most cultivars, leaves shoots begin growth. New leaves are orange pustules are noted, infected plants develop a yellow angular lesion on stunted, deformed, and pale green or should be removed and the planting the upper surface that then turns to a yellowish, and shoots are numerous should be monitored for areas with dark red or purple color. The margin and spindly. Waxy blisters cover the spindly, light-green growth the following of the lesion may remain bright yellow. undersides of leaves, which generally spring with additional plants removed A corresponding light tan or pink area aren’t noticed until they turn bright at that point. Any practice that speeds Chapter 8 ❦ Brambles 195 the drying of foliage, such as keeping reduction in fruit size and quality, and Gnomonia Stem Canker death of canes, either directly from the plantings weeded and rows narrowed Symptoms: Lesions start out a chocolate disease or from winter injury. back, will assist in control since spores brown color on the stem of blackberry need a relatively long period of leaf Causal Agent: The fungus Elsinoe veneta. cultivars, often surrounded by a scarlet wetness in order to be able to germinate Epidemiology: Black and purple red area. Lesions do not appear until the and penetrate the leaves in the spring. spring, at first near a bud, and they then Avoid tipping canes in the fall since trans- raspberries are more susceptible than red raspberries. The fungus overwinters rapidly enlarge, commonly reaching 6 to porting inoculum on hands is easy during 8 inches long by full bloom, sometimes this operation. Remove and destroy all on canes infected the previous season. Inoculum is produced in the spring from larger. The lesions may girdle and kill the wild blackberries and raspberries in the entire cane, killing it and causing a light area that may serve as a source of disease. fungal hyphae in both gray bark lesions and pit lesions and is washed by rain gray surface to develop on the oldest Some blackberries, but not ones currently portions of the lesion. grown in the Mid-Atlantic region, are to the plant’s crown. Here, new shoots reported to exhibit resistance. Recom- are infected as they emerge among old, Causal Agent: The fungus Gnomonia mended fungicides should be applied diseased canes. Infection of new canes rubi. and leaves can continue through the from the time that orange pustules are Epidemiology: Very little is known summer. During rainy periods in late first seen until the leaves on which they about the epidemiology of this disease, spring, spores are also produced that are were produced die and dry up, and then but there seems to be a strong rela- shot from the fruiting bodies into the air again during late summer or fall when tionship between winter injury and and carried by wind to other bramble temperatures cool. See Table 8.15 for disease development. In roses, which are plants where new infections become fungicides. All effective fungicides are affected by the same species of fungus, established. Fruiting bodies develop on at risk for resistance development, so canes weakened by severe winters are the new lesions as the season progresses, unnecessary use should be avoided and also more susceptible. but spores do not mature until the fungicides of different classes should be Controls: Because little is known about rotated. following spring. Young and succulent growth is most subject to infection. the life cycle of this fungus, it is difficult Anthracnose to pinpoint an optimum time when Controls: Infections that take place early various practices should be employed. Symptoms: The symptoms of infection in the growing season cause the most However, any practices that maximize can be found on all plant parts, including damage, so controls should be insti- airflow should help. Floricanes should canes, leaves, petioles, flowers, and fruit. tuted early in the season. Anthracnose be removed soon after harvest. There In late spring the primocanes will have can be managed by sanitation and appear to be variations in cultivar small, purplish, slightly raised spots. As spraying. A dormant to delayed-dormant susceptibility, but whether this is due to the disease progresses, the spots enlarge. application of lime sulfur is the most disease susceptibility or winter injury The center of the lesion (referred to as effective method of reducing the inci- susceptibility is unknown. Operations a “pit lesion”) becomes sunken and dence of this disease. Sanitation is a that employ a regular fungicide schedule cracked. Infections that occur later in the labor-intensive but effective tactic for a seem to have a lower incidence of season cause “gray bark” lesions, which long-term management strategy. Planting problems than low-spray or no-spray are grayish white and more superficial. clean, disease-free nursery stock is also operations. Gray bark is apparent on the current important. Cut off cane handles and any season’s shoots by fall or winter. On infections observed on new plants after Cane and Leaf Rust red raspberry canes, pit lesions tend to planting. Since the spores that infect Symptoms: Blackberries are primarily be less numerous and smaller than on new shoots come from lesions on the affected. Yellow bark-splitting pustules black raspberries. With many individual previous year’s canes, diseased canes form on floricanes in the spring. During lesions, the disease can be severe enough must be cut out as close to the ground as the summer, small, circular, yellow to girdle and kill canes. Lesions like possible immediately after harvest when pustules appear on the undersides of those formed on the canes may also anthracnose is present. Weeds and weak leaves. Buff-colored telia can be found form on petioles. Leaf lesions start out spindly canes should be eliminated to along with yellow pustules in the fall. In as small, purple spots, which may turn improve air movement since moisture severe cases, defoliation may occur. Fruit white in the center, and eventually provides favorable conditions for spore is unaffected, though spores may land become “shot holed.” Flower parts can germination and infection. All nonculti- on fruit and thus be present. This rust be infected, but the lesions are not easily vated brambles in the vicinity should be should not be confused with orange rust, seen. Fruit infection is not common, removed to eliminate outside sources of which is bright orange and found only on except with high levels of inoculum infection. Refer to Table 8.15 for fungicide leaves in late spring and early summer, (spores). Infected fruits wither while still recommendations. Fungicides used for or late leaf rust, which affects only red green, or individual drupelets shrink anthracnose control should be concen- raspberries. and turn brown. In severe infections, trated on protecting new, emerging canes. fruit is typically dry and seedy. Most Causal Agent: The fungus Kuehneola economic loss results from defoliation, uredinis. 196 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Epidemiology: This disease is not abrasion or spines. Spores are spread by without reduction in yield. Producing systemic. Though this disease is splashing rain, wind, and insects. only the fall crop on primocane bearers primarily problematic on blackberries, Controls: Any practice that improves has greatly reduced the incidence of the red and black raspberries can be infected foliage drying, such as keeping rows disease. Several fungicides can be used as well. Spores produced from lesions narrow and weeded. Prune out and during the season. on floricanes infect leaves during the dispose of old canes promptly after Raspberry Leaf Spot and Septoria Leaf Spot summer, and spores produced from harvest (see the section on pruning). of Blackberry these infected leaves then infect primo- Time pruning and tipping so that Symptoms: Circular to angular spots on canes in the fall. The disease is worst in cuts have 3 days to dry before a rain. years with warm, wet springs. leaves. The center will usually develop Fungicide coverage should be thorough, a whitish center and may drop out, Controls: Any practices that maximize especially toward the base of canes. creating a shot-hole effect. airflow should help. There are variations Dormant and delayed- dormant lime in cultivar susceptibility; most grown in sulfur sprays are important. Refer to Causal Agent: The fungi Sphaerulini rubi the east are not especially susceptible. Table 8.15 for fungicide recommenda- (raspberry leaf spot) and Septoria rubi Floricanes should be removed soon after tions. (septoria leaf spot). harvest. Lime sulfur sprays in late winter Epidemiology: These two fungi, though Spur Blight will minimize inoculum. Applications of specific to raspberries and blackberries fungicides in activity groups 3 (triazoles) Symptoms: In late spring or early respectively, behave similarly. Both over- and 11 (strobilurins) should be applied summer, chocolate-brown, dark-blue, or winter in dead leaves and infect new when pustules are first seen on the canes purplish spots or bands appear on new growth primarily in the spring, though then and on a 10- to 14-day schedule canes and petioles, usually on the lower infection can continue to take place until symptoms disappear. Be sure to half of the plant. These lesions enlarge during rainy spells when susceptible rotate chemistries. until the cane is girdled. By late summer, tissue is present. canes may crack and split lengthwise, Controls: Any management prac- Cane Blight revealing reproductive, pimplelike, tices that improve canopy drying are Symptoms: Failure of buds to beak in the black fruiting structures of the fungus. beneficial. Few fungicides are labeled spring, wilting of lateral shoots, or death Cane symptoms become less obvious in for either disease. However, fungicides of fruiting canes, usually when fruit the fall. Symptoms on leaves occur as specifically applied for leaf spots are not begins to ripen. Canes are usually brittle chocolate-brown, V-shaped areas with normally necessary since most materials at the point of infection and may break if yellow margins with the wide area at the applied for other diseases, especially bent. On raspberry primocanes, a brown leaf edge. Damage from winter injury botrytis, usually give sufficient control. stripe can be found under the epidermis may be increased. Yield may be reduced near a wound, but the epidermis needs as a result of the withering and eventual Powdery Mildew to be scraped off for this to be visible. death of infected laterals. Symptoms: The characteristic sign of On blackberry primocanes, lesions are Causal Agent: The fungus Didymella this disease is a white, powdery growth, dark-red to purple areas around wounds, applanata. primarily on the undersides of leaves. with the lesion center becoming grayish. Infected leaves are dwarfed and twisted Symptoms also appear late in the season Epidemiology: Red and purple raspberries are more severely affected than and appear yellow on their upper on new shoots where plants are tipped. surfaces. Infected areas are at first brownish purple other brambles. Blackberries appear to and develop from the cut ends. Laterals be immune. The fungus overwinters in Causal Agent: The fungus Sphaerotheca originating in the infected areas wilt and infected canes. The following spring, macularis. die. Weakened canes are more susceptible spores are discharged into the air or Epidemiology: The fungus overwinters to winter injury. By spring, the epidermis may ooze to the surface of the stem in infected cane tips and dormant develops a silver color. during wet periods from May to August. buds. When temperatures reach 50 to Infection can continue to take place 60°F, spores are discharged and spread Causal Agent: The fungus Leptosphaeria through the growing season. coniothyrium. by wind. Powdery mildew is favored Controls: Suggested controls are the by warm weather without rainfall, so Epidemiology: Black raspberries are same as for cane blight, botrytis blight, tunnel culture is conducive to powdery more susceptible to cane blight than and anthracnose. Thorough pruning mildew. It is most serious in years and in other brambles. The fungus overwinters that includes the removal of pruned plantings where there is poor air circu- on dead canes, and it is here that canes from the planting is helpful. lation. Blackberries are seldom severely inoculum is produced in the spring. Old Lime sulfur and sanitation are useful, infected by powdery mildew. However, stubs can continue to produce inoculum and keeping row width narrow to powdery mildew is occasionally a for several years. Infection continues to increase air movement is particularly serious problem for red and black rasp- occur in late spring or summer through effective. Studies in areas outside of the berries, especially in tunnel culture. wounds made by pruning or insects Mid-Atlantic suggest that a moderate or through sites of injury from cane amount of spur blight is tolerable Chapter 8 ❦ Brambles 197

Controls: Unlike with most fungi, free Crown and Root Diseases field or in a tunnel. If well-drained soil water will reduce the incidence of this Phytophthora Root Rot is not available, planting on raised beds disease. Whether this effect, higher will minimize exposure to saturated humidity, or an effect of tunnels on Symptoms: Symptoms show up soil conditions. Highly susceptible reducing cuticle thickness (by reducing primarily in wet sections of the field. cultivars include Ruby and Titan. Canby, water stress) contributes to additional Death may be sudden or gradual, with Cumberland, Festival, K81-6, Munger, mildew incidence in tunnels is not cane stunting, weak lateral shoot growth, Reveille, and Taylor also appear to be known. Apply fungicide sprays (see and leaf yellowing or scorching along very susceptible and should be avoided Table 8.15) when symptoms first appear, the margins and between the veins. when planting on ground known to usually from midsummer through fall. Severely infected fruiting canes wilt contain this pathogen. Tolerant/resistant In black raspberries, if powdery mildew and die as the weather grows warmer red or gold raspberry cultivars such was severe last season, begin fungicide before harvest. Few canes are produced, as Anne, Boyne, Caroline, Killarney, sprays in mid-June and continue applica- in contrast to when the cause originates Latham, Newburgh, and Prelude and tions at 14-day intervals. Three to four above ground (winter injury, cankers, are the least susceptible and the safest applications may be required. cane borers), where normal numbers of choices if berries are to be planted on primocanes are produced. To tentatively marginal sites. Black raspberries Bristol Botryosphaeria Cane Canker diagnose phytophthora root rot, dig up and Jewel are relatively resistant, but Symptoms: Reddish or reddish-brown plants that are wilting but have not yet not completely. The purple raspberry cankers develop near and below buds died and scrape away the outer surface cultivars Brandywine and Royalty are and then extend above them, eventually (epidermis) of the main roots and crown. susceptible under greenhouse testing but encircling and killing the cane. Leaves Tissue just beneath the epidermis of display some degree of field tolerance. on affected canes wilt and die, and healthy plants should be white, while Ridomil fungicide can be used as a soil fruit may dry up. Cankers often have that of infected plants will be a charac- drench for raspberries (see Table 8.15) light and dark concentric rings as they teristic red brown. A distinct line can in fall and/or early spring, although develop. Old cankers lighten and have often be seen where infected and healthy Ridomil use cannot make up for poor a silver color, and large ones may split tissues meet, especially on the crown. site selection. Repeated use is also likely open. Thornless blackberries, especially Causal Agent: Several related species of to result in the development of resistant cultivars that retain leaf petioles for soilborne fungi belonging to the genus strains of the fungus. Aliette is absorbed much of the winter, are more frequently Phytophthora. through the leaves and is labeled for affected than other types of brambles. phytophthora control as are Phostrol Epidemiology: Depending on the species Other pathogens can cause similar and similar materials. Phostrol is a salt of Phytophthora causing the infection, symptoms. Damage is sporadic but can of phosphorous acid, may stimulate inoculum may already have existed in the be devastating when it occurs. the plant’s defense system, and has a planting site, or may have been brought zero-day preharvest interval. Causal Agent: The fungus Botryosphaeria in on infected plants. Once present, dothidea. this pathogen will persist in the soil for Crown Gall and Cane Gall many years. Saturated soil is necessary Epidemiology: This fungus can also Symptoms: Spongy, rough, tumorlike for spread of the disease, as Phytophthora infect other woody plants, including swellings that resemble callus growth zoospores move by swimming through apples and blueberries, which may be at first, but then become brown and free water, or are carried by flowing or a source of inoculum in addition to the woody with age. The growths range in splashing water to other plants. A certain blackberry planting and wild blackberry size from that of a pinhead to that of period of flooding may be necessary in plants. The fungus overwinters in and on a golf ball. Crown galls develop in the order for infection to take place. Multiple leaf buds, petiole scars, retained petioles, spring on the underground plant parts, sporulation events may occur throughout dead canes, and in cankers on current the roots, and the crown. Cane galls the growing season under favorable canes. Invasion takes place through leaf develop as whitish eruptions on the conditions, resulting in rapid spread of buds, wounds, or tissue that was injured fruiting canes in mid-June. More intense disease throughout the planting. by freezing. gall formation seems to occur in years Controls: Start with clean plants and Controls: An integrated approach with higher incidence of winter injury. utilize any practices that decrease involving avoidance, cultivar resistance, These eruptions later turn brown and foliage wetness and improve sanitation. and chemical control is necessary. Only then black and begin to disintegrate. Locating plantings away from apple and clean planting stock originating from The diseases cause dry, seedy berries to blueberry plantings may help. Chester, certified nursery stock should be used. be produced and can stunt or prevent Arapaho, and Triple Crown appear to Other keys to controlling phytoph- cane formation. Weakened canes are be resistant. Chickasaw is susceptible. thora root rot are good soil drainage, easily broken by wind and become more No information is currently available on the use of raised beds, and proper susceptible to winter injury. The plants effectiveness of fungicides. cultivar selection. All brambles should may show water stress and nutrient be planted in well-drained soil—at no deficiency symptoms as the movement time should water be standing in the of water and nutrients throughout 198 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 the plant is disrupted. With cane gall, are most severely affected, though red virus reservoirs such as wild brambles black and purple raspberries are more raspberries also can be affected. This and broadleaf weeds, and by controlling often infected than red raspberries and common soilborne fungus has a wide the vectors. If a planting shows virus blackberries. host range and attacks more than 300 symptoms during the same season it was Causal Agent: Soilborne bacteria Agro- woody and herbaceous plants. It can planted, the planting stock was probably bacterium tumifaciens (crown gall) and exist in the soil prior to planting, may infected at the time of planting. After its Agrobacterium rubi (cane gall). be brought in on planting stock, or may first winter or after its first flowering, move in on windblown soil. The fungus however, entire plantings can be infected Epidemiology: Plants are infected survives either in plant debris or free in by infected pollen from wild plants or only through wounds. The bacteria the soil. The fungus enters the roots and from neighboring infected cultivars. overwinter in the soil and galls and are moves into the vascular system, causing Only ELISA testing, PCR-based spread by splashing rain, running water, a systemic infection. After the plant or testing, or mechanical or graft inocu- cultivation, and pruning. The bacteria plant portions die, the fungus continues lation of indicator plants can indicate can survive in galls for years, so soil to survive in the soil. whether a virus is present in a plant. containing galls can remain infested for Even with testing, obtaining false many years. Controls: Chloropicrin-based fumigants can be used prior to planting (refer negatives (i.e., test results indicating no Controls: The best control measure is to Chapter 3); however, no effective virus is present when plants are in fact prevention. Plant only certified, disease- fungicides exist for management once infected) is possible since viral content is free nursery stock and take care not the plants are in the ground. The use not evenly distributed within the plant to wound plants, especially the root of competitive fungi as a plant dip or and is much lower in hotter weather. system, at planting. Titan seems to be soil drench is being investigated, but Consequently, sampling the correct especially susceptible, as do some of no conclusive results are yet available. plant part (usually shoot tips or young its relatives. Plant only in sites with no Choose a planting site with no known leaves) in the spring or fall may increase history of the diseases, or wait at least 3 history of this problem. Avoid land the chances of detecting the virus. to 5 years before replanting in the site. If recently planted with tomatoes, potatoes, Symptoms are not proof of virus content a diseased plant is detected, remove and eggplant, peppers, strawberries, rasp- nor are they reliable for identification of burn the roots and tops of the plant and berries, or stone fruits and land infested a virus. Herbicides, winter injury, zinc dispose of the soil surrounding the roots. with horsenettle, ground cherry, red-root or boron deficiencies, genetic maladies, No chemical control is known. Fumi- pigweed, nightshade, and lambs- fungi (mildew), and poor care or gation is not effective. quarters. The number of years required management can mimic viral symptoms. Verticillium Wilt to eliminate verticillium from the soil is Raspberry Bushy Dwarf Virus unknown. In spite of this, planting with Symptoms: Symptoms become obvious (“Crumbly Berry”) verticillium-free black raspberry stock by June or early July. Shoots are stunted Symptoms: Raspberry plants affected by on uninfested soil usually ensures many and leaves, starting at the base of the raspberry bushy dwarf virus can appear years of avoidance of this disease. infected plant, turn yellow, wilt, and normal, yet they produce small fruits drop. Soon the entire shoot withers and Viruses that fall apart when picked. This results dies. Black raspberry canes may show a Virus infections lower productivity from the failure of some of the drupelets blue or purple streak from the soil line and fruit quality and reduce the to develop because this virus primarily extending upward. This purple streak is productive life of a raspberry planting. acts on the vitality of pollen (and perhaps not detectable on red raspberry canes. Virus diseases are widespread in our eggs). Poor pollen performance results in Fruiting canes infected the previous year plantings and are easily spread. No unfertilized seed and undeveloped seed, either die in the spring or the new leaves cure for viruses exists—once a plant is which result in undeveloped drupelets. at the base of the cane may be yellow infected, the entire plant is diseased for This is seen easily in picked fruit, where and stunted. If canes die before reaching the remainder of its life. Therefore, it is unset drupelets are present as whitish, maturity, fruit becomes mummified. important to start a raspberry planting 1- to 4-millimeter-long sections of tissue Verticillium is favored by cool weather with healthy plant stock from a repu- inside the fruit cavity. Healthy fruit and is most severe in poorly drained table nursery and take steps to reduce should have only an occasional unset soils following a cool, wet spring. Most the spread of any viruses in the field. drupelet. This virus can reduce plant blackberry plants and red raspberry If virus-indexed negative, i.e., clean, vigor, particularly on some varieties. plants are less severely affected than plants are established in a field, viruses Epidemiology: Plants are infected when black raspberries. can move to raspberry bushes only by pollen is transferred by pollinators Causal Agent: Two species of fungi are means of a vector. The vectors respon- or wind from infected plants, such as implicated: Verticillium albo-atrum and sible for spreading viruses are pollen, those found in the wild, to flowering Verticillium dahliae. aphids, nematodes, and possibly leaf- plantings. New plantings located near hoppers and whitefly. Thus, the control Epidemiology: Black raspberries and infected plants frequently become of virus diseases is based on preventing susceptible cultivars of blackberries infected within two or three flowering the infection of clean stock by removing seasons. Chapter 8 ❦ Brambles 199

Controls: Because this virus is pollen dandelion and chickweed and other from wild or older populations of vectored, management is especially fruit crops including strawberries, brambles and using planting stock difficult. Wild brambles in the vicinity blueberries, apples, and peaches. Seeds propagated from virus-free plants are should be eliminated, but because of chickweed and dandelion can be useful. Controlling aphids may assist pollinators can travel long distances, infected, and plants developing from in slowing the spread of viruses within eliminating enough plants to eliminate these seeds can serve as sources of the planting; however, because the the virus may not always be possible. infection if spread throughout or into the viruses are transmitted very quickly, Esta and Heritage seem to be resistant to field. it is unlikely that transmission can be this virus. Controls: Prior to planting, fields should thwarted. Of purple and black raspberries Bristol is tolerant; Cumberland Tobacco Streak Virus (Raspberry be tested for the presence of dagger is very susceptible. Canby, Reveille, Streak, Black Raspberry Latent Virus) nematodes. If test results indicate that a high enough population to warrant and Titan red raspberries are reportedly Symptoms: Characteristics diagnostic management exists, the field should be resistant because aphid vectors avoid of the virus include uneven ripening fumigated, the protocol for management them; most other red raspberry varieties of drupelets and small, blotchy, seedy of dagger nematodes with green manure are susceptible. Aphid vectors also avoid fruit that lacks the glossy appearance. crops should be followed (see Chapter Royalty. Plants infected with tobacco streak virus 2 and Appendix A), or the field should can form inconspicuous purple streaks Leaf Curl Virus be kept free of possible hosts plants for a less than 1 inch long on the lower part Symptoms: Symptoms of infection period of 18 months. Planting stock that of their canes during warm periods. by the leaf curl virus gave rise to the is free of tomato ringspot virus should Infected plants are usually vigorous, disease’s name. The leaves of infected be used, along with roguing of infected sometimes showing no symptoms of canes are stiffly arched or curled plants and their neighbors, which may be virus infection. downward. Leaves of red raspberries symptomless. Weeds should be controlled. become yellow, while those of black Epidemiology: Though pollen and seed Yield and fruit quality in the cultivar raspberries take on a dark-green, greasy transmitted, it is not certain that this Canby appear to be relatively unaffected cast. Clusters of stunted lateral fruiting is the primary means of transmission even when the plants are infected. since some studies show that thrips may shoots arise from single nodes on the be involved as a possible vector of this Raspberry Mosaic Complex canes. The canes are stiff and brittle and virus with other plant species. This virus Symptoms: Symptoms of raspberry the fruit is small and crumbly. Symptoms is very unevenly distributed in plants, mosaic vary with variety, type of virus on red raspberries are very mild or which makes detection difficult. infection, and time of year. In general, may not appear until the season after infection. Controls: Use planting stock from virus- symptoms may include delayed leafing free indexed mother plants and isolate out, dieback of shoot tips, and stunted Epidemiology: Two different strains new plantings from potential sources of canes or clusters of shoots from the of this virus exist, with one strain this virus. same node. Plants usually die in a few infecting red raspberries and the other years. A mottling or yellowish spotting infecting black raspberries. Both infect Tomato Ringspot Virus and cupping or blistering of the leaves blackberries, although most cultivars are Symptoms: Symptoms of the disease is common. These symptoms are most symptomless. This virus is spread by at vary with raspberry variety. They easily seen in early spring when the new least one species of aphid. Spread of the include yellow ringspots, especially in leaves are expanding. Leaf symptoms virus is slow. Royalty, which often cease appearing in often disappear during hot weather later Controls: Besides the standard practices midsummer on the expanding leaves of in the season. Red raspberries are not of starting with clean stock and keeping new shoots. Other symptoms on spring as severely affected as black or purple plantings away from wild raspberries foliage may be streaks or chlorosis. Some raspberries, but they still suffer reduced or infected plants, roguing of plants cultivars produce crumbly fruit, whereas plant vigor and yield. Blackberries may showing symptoms has been effective. others may eventually die out. Canes are also be infected, but they are tolerant Using insecticides to control aphids also more commonly stunted, and this virus of the virus and show no symptoms. slows the spread of this virus. will eventually render a planting unpro- Several viruses that affect only Rubus are ductive. Fruit is commonly crumbly and involved and, when present in combi- Managing Viral Diseases small, as with other viruses that affect nation, result in more severe symptoms. Control measures aim mainly at removing sources of the virus that pollen viability. Epidemiology: The mosaic virus are within and around the raspberry Epidemiology: Tomato ringspot virus complex overwinters in infected plants planting. Destroy wild and neglected is very common in the Mid-Atlantic and is spread by aphids. Feeding brambles within 600 to 1,000 feet of the region. It is vectored by dagger nema- time needed to transmit viruses in the planting. todes (Xiphinema spp.) and possibly complex is only a few minutes. Follow a good weed control program pollen. This virus has a wide host Controls: The standard practices of to eliminate host plants for the viruses. range, including many weeds such as establishing plants as far as possible Establishing a thick sod as row middles, 200 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 using plastic mulch, or using landscape infection free for at least 2 years after lesion nematodes have a very wide host fabric are effective cultural methods planting, if well isolated and well range, so rotations are of limited use in to eliminate broadleaf weed carriers managed, and produces larger crops controlling them. of tomato ringspot virus. Test the soil on healthy, vigorous plants. However, Preplant fumigation is the chemical for dagger nematodes, which vector the local spread of viruses after option for controlling either type of viruses. Fumigate, if indicated by the planting must be maintained at low nematode. See Chapter 3 for more infor- dagger nematode count, before starting levels. This means roguing infected mation on fumigation. a new planting. Alternatively, plant plants and controlling aphid vectors. Insects and Mites the soil to Dwarf Essex rapeseed (see 3. Control aphids with insecticides and Raspberries and blackberries are suscep- Chapter 2), solarize the field (in warmer by conserving natural enemies. tible to a variety of insect and mite areas), or leave the field fallow to starve 4. Use aphid-resistant varieties. For pests. Bramble plantings are typically nematodes in the summer. Tomato instance, the varieties Canby, Royalty, small, so a high proportion of plants ringspot virus will last in the gullet of and Titan are immune or resistant to are exposed to the edge of the planting. dagger nematodes until their next molt. two aphid species. Many insects that affect raspberries are The period before the last adult molt in generalist feeders and often enter the dagger nematodes is 18 months. 5. Check virus susceptibility infor- field from the outside. In addition, rasp- Examine plants throughout the mation of raspberry types and berries are rarely the only crop grown season for virus infection symptoms. cultivars in the above virus descrip- on a particular farm and many of the Those plants showing symptoms should tions. Use varieties that are virus insect pests found in bramble plantings be tested for viruses, preferably before resistant. originate in other nearby crops. mid-May (see Appendix B for laboratory 6. Maintain 500 to 1,000 feet between The key to any successful pest information). If any viruses are detected, new plantings and potentially management program is regular, careful remove the plant or, if viral symptoms virus-infected wild and cultivated monitoring of the crop. Monitoring are extensive, remove the entire planting. raspberries. information coupled with the knowledge Strict aphid, whitefly, and leafhopper of a pest’s appearance, life cycle, and control should be maintained to prevent Nematodes habits will allow the bramble grower infection; plant aphid-resistant cultivars Two types of nematodes cause concern to manage pest problems in the most if possible. The migration and dispersal in Mid-Atlantic region bramble efficient manner. Raspberries should be of aphid populations—occurring from plantings: dagger nematodes (Xiphinema monitored weekly from the time leaf June through mid-August—must spp.) and root-lesion nematodes (Prat- buds break until the fall. The planting be understood to appreciate aphids’ ylenchus penetrans). should also be inspected at least once potential for transmitting diseases. The Dagger nematodes are efficient during the winter when the leaves are local dispersal of aphids within rows vectors of tomato ringspot virus (see off. Evidence of cane and crown damage is accomplished mainly by wingless above). Because they are virus vectors, may be more easily seen at this time. females early in the season. Winged a low tolerance exists for this type of Many insects will be seen in the females are responsible for long-distance nematode. plantings, but not all are pests. Instead, dispersal. The maximum distance that Root-lesion nematodes cause many insects, such as bees, some wasps, aphids travel is unknown, but if an symptoms that contribute to a lack of beetles, and flies, may be beneficial. aphid flies into a stiff breeze, it can be winter-hardiness. The symptoms of their Another aspect of field monitoring is carried for miles. Of course, the prob- damage can be confused with those of recognizing plant damage. More often ability of aphids establishing new root rots. In early stages, small, elongate than not, a damaging insect itself is colonies declines rapidly with distance. lesions appear on new roots. Eventually, not seen but rather only evidence of Aphids can also be carried to new plants fine feeder roots are killed, leaving only its presence, such as holes in leaves, by animals, equipment, and even people. large-diameter roots. Above ground, wilted cane tips, weakened canes, and Aphid control is important in the number of canes is reduced, vigor deformed fruit. Any insect or plant reducing the secondary spread of the is lessened, and winter injury appears damage that is unrecognizable and virus. To reduce the virus problem: to increase. Symptoms may occur in patches. significant in numbers or extent should 1. Eliminate virus-infected wild and Sampling should be done from both be collected and brought to the county cultivated raspberries. One aspect poor and good areas to determine if extension office for identification. to remember is that not all viruses nematodes are at high enough levels to show symptoms, and healthy-looking Fruit Feeders cause a problem, as nematodes are likely plants may still harbor viruses—a to exist in many fields (see Chapter 1 for Spotted Wing Drosophila, Drosophila reason to remove wild brambles. suzukii Matsumura (Diptera: more information). Nematode popula- Drosophilidae) 2. Plant raspberries certified to be virus tions may take a number of years to free and use proper fertilization, increase to the point where symptoms Symptoms of Damage: Tiny white pruning, and irrigation practices. are apparent and another 2 to 3 years larvae are found in otherwise marketable Certified virus-free stock remains before canes begin to die out. Root- fruit. Tiny holes surrounded by sunken Chapter 8 ❦ Brambles 201 tissue may be found where oviposition Identification: Adults are mottled Monitoring and Controls: Deformed wounds were made. Flies are capable of brown, about ¾ inch long, and nearly berries can have a variety of causes, laying eggs in fruit as soon as it begins as wide. They are similar in shape to and being able to diagnose the causes to ripen. Primocane-fruiting raspberries other stink bugs exhibiting a shield of the various deformities is important. and late season blackberries are most shape. Adults can be differentiated from Raspberry fruits are clusters of drupelets likely to be infested as populations of common brown stink bugs by alter- attached to a central receptacle. Each this pest are highest in the fall. nating brown and white bands on their drupelet is made up of a hard seed Identification: This pest is similar in antennae and along the edges of their and a sugary, soft, fleshy portion. If the appearance to other vinegar flies or fruit abdomens. Nymphs are smaller and, like fruit appears abnormally small, then flies. Most adult males have one large adults, exhibit white bands on brown problems of fertility, plant vigor, or soil black spot on each wing, forward of the antennae. Their coloration varies with moisture should be suspected. If the tip. Other species of vinegar flies have instar, but each has some yellow or red fruit is of normal size but has abnor- a spot on their wings, but the spot is coloration, and their eyes are red. Eggs mally few drupelets with no deformed smaller and either at the tip or farther are yellowish green, oval, and laid in drupelets, then poor pollination should forward. The definitive feature that clusters that are attached side to side on be suspected, which can have several differentiates this vinegar fly from other leaf undersides. causes. However, if abnormally few fully species is two black bands (sex combs) Life Cycle: One generation per year is developed drupelets are present and the on each front leg on the males. Adult expected in this region, but at least two remaining drupelets are shriveled and females lack wing spots and black bands can occur with warmer temperatures. seedlike, then plant bug feeding should on the legs but have a large sawlike Adults overwinter in protected locations be suspected. Mowing nearby forage ovipositor. Larvae are 2–3 millimeters and emerge in spring. They lay eggs crops or alfalfa during the bramble long, white, and have no obvious head. from May through August. Nymphs flowering and fruit-setting stages progress through five instars. encourages the movement of tarnished Life Cycle: Due to this pest’s recent plant bugs into blackberry and raspberry arrival, its local life cycle is still unchar- Monitoring and Controls: Direct obser- plantings. Weeds, especially red sorrel, acterized. It is likely that a small number vation; other monitoring techniques are also harbor plant bugs. If an insecticide of adults will survive the winter. The in development. Pyrethroids are the most treatment is necessary, apply when more pest can also be transported into the effective chemical class. Nymphs should than 20 to 25 plant bug nymphs per 50 region in fruit at any time. Each female be targeted during pesticide applica- flower clusters are found. Pay particular can lay between 200 and 600 eggs. tions as they cannot fly away; a direct attention to field borders. Eggs hatch in 1 to 3 days depending on hit of nymphs or adults is necessary for temperature, after which larvae feed in efficacy. Natural enemies are present Picnic Beetles, Glischrochilus spp. the fruit for 5 to 11 days. Pupation lasts 4 but have a wide host range and thus (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae) to 15 days. Eight to nine generations per currently provide insufficient control. Symptoms of Damage: Holes bored growing season are likely. into fruit, from which adults beetles Tarnished Plant Bugs, Lygus lineolaris Monitoring and Controls: Vinegar traps (Heteroptera: Miridae) frequently emerge. The beetles are also implicated in transmitting rot organisms. can be bought or made and are used to Symptoms of Damage: Feeding on buds monitor for pest presence, but they are Damage to raspberry fruit by larvae and immature berries causes deformed usually is inconsequential because it not a method of control. Traps containing berries. vinegar should be hung in the crop as does not take place until the fruit begins the fruit begins to color. Pyrethroids and Identification: Adult tarnished plant decomposing and is unmarketable. spinosads are efficacious on the adults; bugs are about ¼ inch long and coppery Identification: The picnic beetle, a neonicotinoids and some other broad- brown with a yellow-tipped, triangular member of the sap beetle family, is spectrum materials are less so. See Tables area on the back (see Figure 6.4). The the most frequent sap beetle pest of 8.14 and 8.15 for more information on nymphs are smaller and bright green. raspberries, though other species of sap specific materials. Natural enemies are Several generations of this insect develop beetles are also occasionally found in being found in the region, but little is yet each year using various host plants. raspberries. The adult is about ¼ inch known about them. Life Cycle: Plant bugs, especially long, black, and has four orange spots tarnished plant bugs but also including on its back (see Figure 6.6). Larvae Brown Marmorated Stink Bug, Halyomor- pha halys (Stal) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) stink bugs and others, are generalist are small, white, and maggotlike in plant pests, feeding on a variety of crop appearance, and can be found in decom- Symptoms of Damage: Direct feeding and noncrop species. Tarnished plant posing fruit that has fallen to the ground. on fruit by adults and all stages of bugs appear when fruit buds form and Life Cycle: Ripening fruit attracts adult nymphs. Blackberries are the preferred plants begin to bloom. Plant bugs are bramble crop, though this pest has a beetles. They are especially drawn to more serious in small fields bordered by overripe or decaying fruit. Moreover, very wide host range and may feed on woods and fencerows, where weeds are any bramble crop. anything that damages fruit during plentiful. harvest can stimulate picnic and other sap beetle attacks. The adult beetles bore 202 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 into the fruit, devour a portion, and lay cause the berries to dry up or decay and grubs, and they can reach ¼, ¾, or 2 eggs. If disturbed, the adults fall to the fall off, or worms may be present in the inches long as they progress through 3 ground and seek cover. berries at picking time, reducing the instars. Grubs come up to the ground Monitoring and Controls: Adults are value of the crop. surface at night and have a unique easily found if present, though often Identification: Raspberry fruitworm manner of locomotion in that they wriggle along upside-down by flexing not until after the fruit has been picked adults are small (1⁄8 inch), hairy, light- into a container. Field control is best brown beetles. Larvae are light brown, their backs. accomplished by prevention. Remove wormlike, and ¼ inch long when fully Life Cycle: Green June beetles have one damaged, overripe, or diseased fruit grown. Larvae are usually found inside generation per year. Adults are present from plantings at regular intervals. the berry cup during harvest. from June through September. Shortly Other decomposing fruit should also be Life Cycle: Overwintering adult beetles after emerging, June beetles mate and removed from the area. emerge from the soil during mid-spring. the females burrow into the soil and lay eggs. The eggs hatch in June and August. Thrips, Various Species (Thysanoptera: The female deposits eggs on or near Thripidae) blossom clusters or on the green berries. Third instar larvae burrow deep into the Eggs hatch in a few days, and the larvae soil for the winter, then resume feeding Symptoms of Damage: Thrips have once soil temperatures warm. They been noted among ripe drupelets of feed inside the flower bud at first, working their way into the center of the pupate in late May and early June, and berries during harvest. Their actual adults emerge 3 weeks later. presence, when noticed by consumers, developing receptacle and eventually is usually of more consequence than out toward the drupelets onto the recep- Monitoring and Controls: Presence of their feeding damage to the fruit. When tacle surface. After feeding is completed, the beetles will be quite obvious. Only thrips feed on flowers, they may cause the larvae fall from the plant and enter one pesticide is labeled specifically for a brownish discoloration on the calyx, the soil to pupate. green June beetles, but materials that flower stems, and bases of petals, pistils, Monitoring and Controls: The adult work on Japanese beetle appear to be and anther filaments. beetles are active mainly during early fairly effective for green June beetles. evening hours. They are more of a These beetles appear to be more prob- Identification: Thrips are tiny insect pests lematic than in the past. of various horticultural and ornamental problem on early red raspberry vari- crops. Adult thrips are very small—less eties, but they may also attack other Crown and Cane Feeders than 2 millimeters in length—and usually bramble types. This pest is reportedly more of a problem in weedy fields. Raspberry Crown Borer, Pennisetia yellow tan to dark brown with four feath- marginata (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae) erlike wings. Young thrips are smaller, Cultivating plant rows during the late Symptoms of Damage: Infested canes wingless, yellowish, and active. season will reduce larval and pupal population in the soil. If long holes on become spindly, lack vigor, and often Life Cycle: Thrips breed on grasses, leaves are visible, giving them a tattered break off at ground level. If damaged weeds, and various flowering species appearance, fruit should be checked canes are tugged on, the cane often and then move to brambles at blooming for larvae. If this pest is a significant breaks and damage (holes in canes time. They insert their eggs in plant problem, insecticides should be applied and/or galleries in the crown) is found. tissue at the base of flowers and in before eggs are deposited—when Because the larvae are rather large, they tender, new foliage. blossom buds separate and again just consume a substantial portion of the Monitoring and Controls: Under before blossoms open. crown. Raspberries are most commonly normal conditions, thrips predators affected, though other brambles can Green June Beetles, Cotinus nitida be hosts. This is the only crown and such as lady beetles, mites, and spiders (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) should provide adequate control. Under root feeder in the Northeast to cause very heavy pressure, an insecticide Symptoms of Damage: Adult beetles significant damage. In other parts of the application may be necessary, but feed on fruit resulting in its destruction. country, root weevils and other insects sprays must be timed to avoid injury to Larvae cause damage to turf by are also significant. burrowing through the sod feeding pollinators. Identification: The day-flying, wasplike, on dead organic matter, and roots to adult moths are black with yellow Raspberry Fruitworms, Byturus unicolor a lesser extent. The larva’s large size bands on the body, resembling those of (Coleoptera: Byturidae) and physical damage to the turf from a yellow jacket wasp (Figure 8.6). Larvae Symptoms of Damage: Adults feed on burrowing is of more consequence than are whitish with a light-brown head. the buds, which they may kill; on the larval feeding damage. They are ½ to ¾ inch long by the end leaves, which they skeletonize; and on Identification: Unlike other June beetles, of their first full summer and about 1¼ the blossoms, feeding mainly on the adult green June beetles are active inches long when mature. They have pistil and stamens. When adults feed during the day. They are a metallic three pairs of true legs and four pairs of on developing leaves, symmetrical, medium shade of green and are very hooked prolegs. Pupae are about ¾ inch lengthwise holes may be seen as the large, ¾ to 1 inch long by ½ inch wide. long and reddish brown. leaves unfold. Injury from larvae may The larvae appear similar to other white Chapter 8 ❦ Brambles 203

dark-colored, forcepslike prongs on the abdomen. They decrease in size during Actual length: the pupal stage. On sunny days, adults can be seen feeding on the new canes and leaves. Life Cycle: Adult beetles are present from late May until early August. Eggs are deposited on the bark of new growth, Actual usually within 10 inches of the base of length: the cane. The young larvae bore into the (1 inch) sapwood of the current year’s growth (primocane), make winding tunnels Figure 8.6. Raspberry crown borer adult. around the stem that splits the bark and causes the gall, and finally work into the (½ inch) pith. They may tunnel either downward Life Cycle: Raspberry crown borers Figure 8.8. Raspberry cane borer adult. have a two-year life cycle. The adult as much as 5 inches from the point of moths emerge in late summer and live the gall, but more commonly tunnel Life Cycle: for about 10 days. During August each upward, as far as 30 inches from the Adult beetles appear in female lays about 100 reddish-brown point of entry. In midspring, the larvae raspberry plantings in June, and females eggs singly on the undersides of leaf pupate inside the cane and then emerge singly deposit their eggs about 6 inches edges. When the eggs hatch (September from the cane as adults in late spring and below the cane tip in the pith of tender to November) the young borers crawl early summer by chewing a D-shaped new growth. The beetle makes two down the canes and enter the soil near hole through the cane. characteristic rows of punctures that the crown to overwinter. In late April of Monitoring and Controls: This insect encircle the cane about ¾ to 1 inch apart; the following spring, the larvae enter the is usually controlled by cutting out and an egg is inserted between these, nearer canes near the base and remain in the removing infested canes with swellings the lower row. The girdling of the cane crown area, feeding until midsummer of from late fall to early spring. A prebloom causes the tip to wilt. After hatching, their second year. They then pupate and spray and/or postharvest sprays may be the larvae tunnel toward the base of emerge as adults in late summer. considered when populations are heavy. the cane. By one account (MacNab and Tetrault), the larvae reach the base of the Monitoring and Controls: Plantings Raspberry Cane Borer, Oberea bimaculata cane by fall. By another account (Mills near wild bramble populations have (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) and Dewey), the larvae spend the first been extensively damaged since crown Symptoms of Damage: Wilted tips of winter within an inch or two of the lower borer populations frequently build in canes, with two rows of punctures ¾ to 1 row of punctures, then complete their wild raspberry and blackberry patches. inch apart found within 6 to 8 inches of journey to the base of the cane the next Therefore, the first step in management the tip. Infested canes usually die before growing season and spend their second is removing nearby wild sources of this the fruit matures. winter in the crown near or below pest, as well as removing infested plants Identification: Adults are ½-inch-long ground level. The following spring, they within the planting. An insecticidal pupate and then emerge as adults. soil drench may be used if necessary. beetles with long antennae (Figure 8.8). Controlling this pest may take more than The beetles are black except for a section Monitoring and Controls: Remove wilted 2 years because of its long life cycle. behind the head that is bright orange tips several inches below punctures by with two or three black spots. midsummer. Check for hollowed-out Rednecked Cane Borer, Agrilus ruficollis centers and make cuts farther down the (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) cane, if needed. Remove and destroy Symptoms of Damage: Character- older canes whenever observed. Destroy istic injury caused by these borers is any wild brambles nearby. Insecticide a swelling of the cane, which may be applications made just before blossoms from ¼ inch to 3 inches long and may begin to open will have some efficacy occur anywhere on the cane. The cane against raspberry cane borers. is weakened and may break off at the Tree Crickets, Oecanthus species swelling or die. Actual (Orthoptera: Gryllidae) Identification: The adult rednecked cane length: Symptoms of Damage: Tree crickets borer is black and ¼ inch long with a deposit eggs in punctures in long reddish section (prothorax) behind the rows in the canes of raspberries. Each head (Figure 8.7). Mature larvae are ½ (¼ inch) puncture is distinct and more or less to ¾ inch long and creamy white with circular in outline so that the row of eggs a flattened head and have a pair of Figure 8.7. Rednecked cane borer adult. appears as a series of dots, from a few to 204 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 more than 50. The eggs are laid through Life Cycle: Aphids have a complex often mistaken for aphids but have no the outer layer of wood and placed life cycle. Overwintering eggs hatch in cornicles on the abdomen. diagonally across the pith. Occasionally, spring into wingless females (though a Life Cycle: Females move from conifer - egg laying injuries may girdle and kill few winged females may be produced trees, the overwintering host, into the the cane above the injury. at this time), which give birth parthe- field slightly before, during, or after Identification: Nymphs and adults look nogenetically (i.e., without mating) to bloom. Females lay up to 100 eggs on like field crickets but are a pale whitish- young that mature as wingless females. petioles or undersides of new leaves green to green color. Their size ranges Populations increase quickly during over a period of a month. Eggs hatch in from ¼ inch long when nymphs to 1 inch times of rapid plant growth. Later in the 10 days, and nymphs feed throughout long when adults. summer, winged females are produced the summer and fall on the underside of and may fly to other plants (many times curled leaves. Adults emerge in October, Life Cycle: Eggs hatch into tiny nymphs other plant species). The last winged in the early spring toward the end of and migrate to conifers to overwinter female generation of the season flies shortly thereafter. May and undergo five molts, reaching back to the primary host species. In adulthood in late summer. Eggs, which the fall, wingless males and egg-laying Monitoring and Controls: Monitor are laid in August, are the overwintering females are produced and mated; eggs plants at the field edge weekly, especially stage. The nymphs and adults feed on a are laid on the primary host. All stages edges near woods and fence rows. Insec- variety of plants. except the egg in the aphid life cycle can ticides should be applied when adults Monitoring and Controls: If egg-laying transmit virus. The minimum feeding first appear. Inspect curled leaf clusters damage is visible, clip the canes off below time necessary for aphids to pick up a for nymphs. If nymphs are not found, the egg-laying scars and destroy them. virus from infected plants is about 15 to inspect additional leaf clusters since Under heavy pressure, an insecticide may 30 minutes. Aphids can retain the virus symptoms remain even when the nymph be applied before adults lay eggs. for several hours and are very efficient has moved to a new location. Curled in transmitting it from plant to plant—a leaf clusters should be removed and Foliage Feeders single feeding probe by a single aphid destroyed immediately. Avoid planting Most leaf-feeding insects of raspberries lasting a few minutes is enough to within 250 yards of conifers. can be tolerated to some degree. Moni- transmit a virus. Japanese Beetles, Popillia japonica toring for these insects is straightforward (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) and, if done diligently, problems can be Monitoring and Controls: Monitor treated well before they become serious. plantings starting when aphid eggs Symptoms of Damage: Leaves are Many years, one or more leaf-feeding hatch (approximately May), and begin a skeletonized, with those on the upper insects may occur in low numbers or not spray program when aphids are spotted. parts of the canes more severely affected. appear at all. In these years insecticide Look for aphids on new growth and Raspberry varieties differ in their suscep- costs can be trimmed. on the undersides of leaves. To reduce tibility to beetle attack. Red raspberries within-field spread of viruses, apply an are generally more favored by the beetles Aphids, Various Genera and Species insecticide if more than two aphids per than black varieties. (Homoptera: Aphididae) cane tip are detected. Other insects such Identification: Adult Japanese beetles Symptoms of Damage: Aphids cause as ladybird beetles can devour great have copper wing covers and metallic- two types of damage to raspberries. numbers of aphids. These beneficial green heads and are ½ inch long. The First, they are piercing-sucking insects insects should be conserved by using larva is a C-shaped white grub about that remove nutrients from phloem insecticides only when necessary and by ¾ to 1 inch long when fully grown. tissue. Second, their feeding can spread using recommended rates. See additional The grub of Japanese beetles can be disease, notably viruses. Viruses can information on aphids in the discussion distinguished from other white grubs in turn stunt plant growth, distort and of virus transmittal. by checking for two rows of six or seven discolor leaves, and reduce flower and Blackberry Psyllid, Trioza tripunctata spines in the shape of a V on the ventral fruit production. (Homoptera: Psyllidae) side (underside) of its posterior. Identification: Aphids are pear- Symptoms of Damage: Feeding causes Life Cycle: One generation occurs per shaped, tiny (1⁄16 to 3⁄8 inch), soft-bodied, tightly curled leaf clusters, twisted canes, year. Grubs overwinter in the soil and sucking insects with small heads and shortened internodes, which are pupate in late May. Adults appear in and a pair of cornicles. Their color sometimes mistaken as a viral disease or large numbers starting in late June ranges from yellowish green to bluish herbicide damage. Blackberry psylla are during harvest of summer-bearers and green depending on the species, often mainly blackberry pests and have been feed on the leaves. Adults will live for matching well with the plant growth particularly troublesome on thornless 30 to 45 days. Infestations peak in July on which they are found. At least three blackberries. but may continue through September. genera and eight species of aphids occur Females lay approximately 50 eggs in the on raspberries in North America. Four Identification: Adults resemble a very 1 soil, which hatch after 2 weeks. Larvae species are found in the Northeast. small fly, about ⁄5 inch long, with clear wings with stripes. Nymphs are feed primarily on grass roots until the Chapter 8 ❦ Brambles 205 soil temperatures cool in the fall and Monitoring and Controls: Starting in the Potato Leafhoppers, Empoasca fabae then remain dormant until spring. spring, examine the undersides of leaves (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) Monitoring and Controls: Beetle feeding weekly for mites using a 10x hand lens. Symptoms of Damage: The potato can be controlled with insecticide Early in the season, lower leaves are leafhopper feeds near the edge of the applications, if necessary. Watch days-to- usually infested first, but the mites move leaf, leaving a triangular chlorotic harvest limitations, and take precautions up the cane as the season progresses. area extending from the feeding site to protect pollinators if open blossoms Overwintered twospotted spider to the leaf edge. If several feeding are present. Beetles can fly substantial mites will be reddish orange in color. sites are present on a leaf, the leaf will distances from untreated overwintering Red raspberry varieties are the most have a wrinkled appearance and cup sites like pastures and reinfest plantings. commonly affected. Predatory mites, downward. Most feeding is at succulent Therefore, inspecting plantings weekly lady beetles, or lacewings can naturally growing tips. If several leaves on a shoot is recommended from harvest onward. control mite populations in the field, but are affected, shoot growth will be greatly Japanese beetle larvae feed on sod broad-spectrum insecticides applied for slowed. Amount of damage varies from planted in row middles. This should other pests can accelerate mite problems. year to year, with greatest damage be considered in developing a soil and Chemicals that kill beneficial predators occurring in midsummer. of mites often do not kill twospotted weed management plan. However, this Identification: Nymphs and adults are mites themselves. Miticides that target source of adults is minor compared with pale green and move very quickly, often eggs and nymphs are effective only neighboring fields if pasture is adjacent in a side-to-side fashion on the leaves, if used when the twospotted mite to the planting. Entomopathogenic where they are most often found on the population is low. Likewise, predatory nematodes are effective for larvae but underside. The adults (see Figure 6.7) fly mite releases should be made when have a limited shelf life and must be quickly when disturbed. applied strictly according to directions. twospotted spider mite populations are low to minimize the number of predators Life Cycle: Potato leafhoppers are a pest Twospotted Spider Mites, Tetranychus that must be released and to maximize of many crops. Potato leafhoppers over- urticae (Acari: Tetranychidae) chances that the predatory mite popula- winter as adults in southern states and Symptoms of Damage: Leaves infested tions will be able to gain the upper hand. move northward mainly by the action by twospotted spider mites first appear Sometimes a mixture of two species— of storm fronts. The pest’s movement to have areas of white stippling. Later one that provides a quick knockdown of and severity depend on many weather- the leaves may bronze, dry, and even- twospotted spider mite populations, and related phenomena and the availability tually fall off. This is the result of mites one that can subsist when twospotted and proximity of alternate food sources. piercing plant cells to remove nutrients spider mite populations are low—will Therefore, the seriousness of this pest is and chlorophyll. In heavy infestations the provide better long-term control. Your sporadic in northern parts of the region undersides of leaves will also have silken supplier can make recommendations (Pennsylvania and West Virginia) and is threads spun across the surface. Mites are as to the best predator species. Since common in more southern states. more prevalent during hot, dry periods, little is available at present for chemical Monitoring and Controls: Brambles and injury is exacerbated if soil moisture control of mites on brambles, preserving planted near other hosts of the potato is low. Heavy mite populations may also natural enemies is especially important. leafhopper, such as alfalfa, are much predispose plants to winter injury. Learning to identify predatory species more readily invaded by this pest. Thus, Identification: The eight-legged adult, to determine whether they are present is brambles at the edge of a planting near worthwhile (see Appendix E for sources about 1⁄50 inch in length, varies in color the alternate host will show damage from pale greenish yellow to green and of information). When applying miti- first. Increased pressure from leaf- is usually marked with two dark spots. cides, thorough coverage is a must, so hoppers on brambles may be observed With the aid of a magnifying lens, nearly use plenty of water (at least 100 gallons after the surrounding vegetation has clear spherical mite eggs can also be seen. per acre) and high enough pressure been harvested or mowed. Apply an to treat the undersides of the leaves. insecticide if leafhoppers become a Life Cycle: These mites overwinter as Treat with a miticide if a sharp popu- problem. Josephine red raspberry tends mature fertile females or young nymphs lation increase is noted or leaf stippling to be resistant to leafhopper damage. on fallen leaves and in cracks of posts. appears. Resistance to miticides can The length of the life cycle varies with develop quickly, so they should not be Raspberry Sawflies, Monophadnoides geniculatus (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae) seasonal and weather conditions but used unnecessarily. When miticides are may be completed in about 2 weeks. used, be sure to follow label directions to Symptoms of Damage: Leaf feeding Reproduction may be continuous from make the best use of available materials. causes holes in leaves, usually on red early spring until late fall. The female Populations isolated within a field may raspberries, but also on other species. lays two to six eggs per day—up to be spot treated. The insecticidal soap Identification: Larvae are small (¾ inch), about 70 eggs per mite. Eggs hatch in M-Pede will only suppress mite popula- light green, and spiny. The ¼-inch adult about 4 days, so 10 to 15 generations can tions. Multiple applications of M-Pede female is a black fly with a yellowish occur per year. Hot, dry weather favors may be necessary to reduce the mite band across the abdomen. rapid population increases. population. 206 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Life Cycle: The adults appear in May be mistaken for those that might be temperature damage. Watering during and the eggs are deposited between the caused by a disease or insect. the day of the heat episode or later that upper and lower surfaces of leaves. As evening has little effect in reducing this Sunscald the eggs hatch, the young larvae feed type of damage. Using a lightweight Red and yellow raspberries have a on the outer edge of the leaves. As they shade cloth may also aid in minimizing tendency to develop white drupelets grow older, they feed anywhere on the damage. Heritage and yellow sports of on the fruits as a result of exposure to leaf surface. The larvae feed for about Heritage seem especially susceptible. high heat and natural UV radiation. 2 weeks before entering the soil, where This disorder has also been observed on In the southern Mid-Atlantic region, they remain until the following year. Triple Crown blackberry. most of this damage can be traced back Monitoring and Controls: Preventive to clear or partly cloudy summer days Red Drupelets on Blackberry sprays are usually not needed for this pest when temperatures reach the high Blackberry fruit pigments, anthocyanins, since significant damage is not common. If 90s or even exceed 100°F. Information can break down in storage, resulting in larvae cause substantial feeding damage, developed in California suggests that red drupelets. At this point, contributing an insecticide may be applied. thorough watering the night before each factors such as UV light, heat damage, Physiological Disorders anticipated high-heat day aids natural pathogens, insects, or chill injury in transpirational cooling of the fruit storage may all play a role in this Though physiological disorders are not and fruiting canopy. This practice will breakdown. caused by any pest, they are discussed in reduce most radiation and/or high- this section since their symptoms could

Table 8.12. Bramble disease control strategies. All possible control strategies must be used if bramble diseases are to be controlled. Key: ++ = most important controls; + = helpful controls; — = no effect Disease Control Considerations Virusesa Verticillium Wilt Orange Rust Cane Blightsb Powdery Mildew Fruit Rots Good air-water drainage — — — ++ + ++ 500+ feet from other brambles ++ — — — — — Rotation +c ++d — + — — Fumigate for fungi — + — — — — Fumigate for nematodes +c — — — — — Tolerance/resistance ++e ++f ++g — + — Avoid adjacent plantings ++j — — — + — Eliminate wild brambles ++ — ++ — + — Disease-free stock ++ ++ ++ ++ + — Aphid control (vectors) ++ — — — — — Rogue infected plants ++ — ++ — — — Speed drying (weeds, pruning) — — + ++ — ++ Prune 3 days before rain — — — ++ — — Dispose of pruned canes — + + ++ — — Maintain plant vigor — — — ++ — — Fungicide sprays — — — ++h ++i + Harvest before overripe — — — — — ++ Fruit storage conditions — — — — — ++ a. Viruses: See text for descriptions. b. Cane blights for purposes of this table include anthracnose, cane blight, spur blight, and botrytis blight. c. Rotation is effective for ringspot virus only: two years of a grass crop (e.g., corn) with excellent weed control before planting red raspberry should eliminate need to fumigate for Xiphinema nematode vector. d. Rotation for verticillium wilt: Avoid fields planted to susceptible crops (tomatoes, potatoes, eggplant, peppers, strawberries, raspberries, and stone fruit) within the past five years. Avoid fields with a history of verticillium wilt unless soil is fumigated. e. Virus resistance, tolerance, and immunity: Mosaic—blackberries are not affected; black and purple raspberries are more severely affected than red raspberries. Of purple and black raspberries, Black Hawk, Bristol, and New Logan are tolerant; Cumberland is susceptible. Of red raspberries, Canby, Titan, and Reveille are “resistant” because aphid vectors avoid them. Aphid vectors also avoid Royalty. Leaf curl—blackberries are symptomless; all raspberries are affected. Tomato ringspot—red raspberries are affected. Streak—black and purple raspberries are primarily affected. Raspberry bushy dwarf—Esta appears immune. f. Verticillium tolerance: Some blackberries are resistant; red raspberries are more tolerant than black raspberries. g. Orange rust resistance: Red raspberries are immune. Other brambles are affected. h. Fungicide program for cane blights: The lime-sulfur spray is most important for anthracnose (delayed dormant) and cane blight (late fall dormant); apply other effective fungicide sprays when blossoms are in bud and again two weeks later to help control anthracnose, botrytis blight, and spur blight on raspberries. Refer to Table 8.15. i. Fungicide program for powdery mildew: Refer to Table 8.15. j. Keep black and purple raspberries away from old plantings of red raspberries because mosaic virus can spread from red raspberries and is more severe on black and purple raspberries; keep all red raspberries away from old plantings of blackberries because blackberries can be a symptomless carrier of curl virus. Chapter 8 ❦ Brambles 207

Table 8.13. Activity groups and effectiveness of fungicides for bramble disease control. Not all fungicides listed below are labeled for all the diseases listed. This table is intended to provide information on effectiveness for diseases that appear on the label, plus additional diseases that may be controlled during application. See Table 8.15 for labeled uses. Phytophthora Fungicide Activity Groupa Root Rot Orange Rust Anthracnose Spur Blight Gray Mold Abound 11 0 ++ — — + Aliette 33 +++ 0 — — 0 Cabrio 11 0 ++ — — ++ Captan M 0 0 + + ++ Captevate 17+M 0 0 — — +++ Elevate 17 0 0 — — +++ Lime sulfur M 0 0 ++ ++ 0 Orbit, Tilt 3 0 ++ — — 0 Phostrol 33 +++ 0 — — 0 Pristine 7+11 0 ++ — — +++ Rally 3 0 ++ — — 0 Ridomil Gold 4 +++ 0 — — 0 Rovral 2 0 0 — — +++ Switch 9+12 0 0 — — ++ Tanos 11 0 0 + ++ — 0 = not effective; + = slight effectiveness; ++ = moderate effectiveness; +++ = very effective; —= insufficient data a. Chemistry of fungicides by activity groups: 2 = dicarboximides; 3 = demethylation inhibitors (includes triazoles); 4 = acylalanines; 7 = carboxamides; 9 = anilinopyrimidines; 11 = strobilurins; 12 = phenylpyrroles; 17 = hydroxyanilides; 33 = unknown (phosphonates); M = chemical groups with multisite activity. Fungicides with two activity groups listed contain active ingredients from two activity groups.

Table 8.14. Activity groups and effectiveness of insecticides and miticides on bramble pests. Not all insecticides listed below are labeled for all the insects listed. This table is intended to provide information on effectiveness against insects that appear on the label, plus additional insects that may be controlled during application. See Table 8.15 for labeled uses. Brown Japanese Activity Marmorated Leaf- Spider Beetle Tarnished Spotted Wing Pesticide Groupa Aphids Stink Bug hoppers Mites Adults Plant Bugs Sap Beetles Drosophila Thrips Acramite 25 — 0 0 +++ 0 — 0 0 — Actara 4A +++ +++ +++ —c ++ ++b — + 0 Admire Pro 4A +++ ++ +++ —c ++ — — — 0 Altacor 28 — 0 0 — 0 — — — 0 Asana 3 ++ + ++ — ++ — — — — Assail 4A +++ ++ +++ —c ++ ++ + + ++ Aza-Direct un — 0 + — + — — — — Brigade 3 ++ +++ ++ + — +++ +++ +++ — Bt Products 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Confirm 18 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Danitol 3 ++ +++ ++ + +++ +++ ++ +++ — Delegate 5 — 0 0 — — — — +++ ++ Intrepid 18 0 0 0 — 0 — — — 0 Malathion 1B ++ + ++ — + ++ + +++ ++ M-Pede — ++ 0 — + — — — — — Mustang Max 3 — + ++ — ++ — — +++ — Provado 4A +++ ++ +++ —c +++ — — + +++ Pyganic 3 + 0 — — + — — ++ — Savey 10 — 0 — +++d 0 — — 0 — Sevin 1A +++ 0 ++ — +++ ++ ++ + — Spintor, Entrust, Success 5 — 0 — — 0 — — +++ +++ Zeal Miticide1 10 — — — +++ d — — — — — 0 = not effective; + = slight effectiveness; ++ = moderate effectiveness; +++ = very effective, — indicates that insufficient data exists to rank effectiveness of this insecticide or miticide on these pests a. Chemistry of insecticides by activity groups: 1A = carbamates; 1B = organophosphates; 3 = pyrethrins and synthetic pyrethroids; 4A = neonicotinoids; 5 = spinosyns; 10 = mite growth inhibitors with unknown or nonspecific sites of action; 11 = Bt microbials; 18 = ecdysone agonists/molting disruptors; 25 = neuronal inhibitors; 28 = diamides. b. Moderate effect on nymphs, but little or no effect on adults. c. In some studies, spider mite reproduction has increased with the use of low concentrations of insecticides in this product’s chemical class (3A, neonicotinoids). d. Effective on eggs and immatures, but little or no effect on adults. 208 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 8.15. Pesticides for bramble disease and insect control. The recommendations below are correct to the best of our knowledge. Other formulations with the same active ingredient as some of the products listed below may exist and may or may not be labeled for the same uses. Always consult the label before making pesticide applications. Read the text for information on cultural practices to minimize pest incidence. If control cannot be achieved with a particular material, it is possible that resistant populations exist. Use a material in a different activity group, which will have a different mode of action. See Table 3.2 for use status, chemical names of active ingredients in products, and reentry intervals. See Table 3.1 for toxicity to non-target organisms, and Tables 8.13 and 8.14 for activity groups and efficacy ratings to help determine products that best suit your situation. See Table 8.16 for other use restrictions, such as quantity allowable per season. Information was current as of July 1, 2012.

Pest Timing of Treatment/Comments Product Labeled Rate/Aa (Days to Harvest) DELAYED DORMANT Diseases Anthracnose, spur blight, When buds begin to break. This is the most important treatment for these Lime sulfur (—), 10–12 gal per 100 gal of spray cane blight diseases. Prune and remove dead and diseased canes prior to primocane solution, applied at 100–160 gal/A emergence. Specified rates vary by manufacturer. Anthracnose See cautions on Aliette label concerning its use if applied subsequent to a Kocide 3000, 0.75 lb (0) copper compound application. Insects Scales Not a common problem in this region. Lime sulfur (0), 8 gal/100 gal of spray solution, applied at 100–160 gal/A

CANE EMERGENCE Diseases Anthracnose, spur blight When young canes are 8–10 inches tall and again 2 weeks later. Needed only if Captan 80WDG, 2.5 lb (3), or diseases are present. For resistance management, do not make more than two Pristine, 18.5–23 oz (0), or sequential applications of strobilurin (group 11) fungicides before rotating to a Cabrio EG, 14 oz (0), or fungicide in another chemical class. Abound, 6.0–15.5 fl oz (0), or Tanos, 6–10 oz (0) plus captan, or Captevate 68 WDG, 3.5 lb (3), raspberries only Orange rust Inspect plantings when plants are 12–18 inches high for symptoms (see text Fungicides for orange rust will serve no purpose for description). Remove infected plants before orange spores are produced. until orange spores are present. However, plantings should be monitored for presence of orange spores starting in midspring. Once found, fungicides listed under “Prebloom” for orange rust may be used. Insects Raspberry crown borer In early spring. As a drench in at least 200 gal of water/A. Directed to lower Brigade WSB, 16 oz or 2EC, 6.4 fl oz (3), or larvae canes and soil; see labels for specific restrictions. This drench will only affect Hero, 10.3 fl oz (3), or new larvae. Because this insect requires more than one year to complete its life cycle and larvae feeding in the crown are not affected, applications will be needed for more than one year. In early spring. Direct to base of canes in 50–100 gallons of water per acre. Altacor, 3.0–4.5 oz (3) Apply when at least ½ inch of rainfall is expected or irrigation will be applied. This will move the insecticide into the root zone. Other insects Monitor for adults of insects listed under “Prebloom.” See text for details. No other sprays are expected to be needed at this time. If adults of insects listed under “Prebloom” are found, insecticides listed under “Prebloom” may be used.

continued Chapter 8 ❦ Brambles 209

Table 8.15. Pesticides for bramble disease and insect control, continued. Pest Timing of Treatment/Comments Product Labeled Rate/Aa (Days to Harvest) PREBLOOM (WHEN BLOSSOMS IN CLUSTERS SEPARATE) Diseases Anthracnose, spur blight Sprays for anthracnose and spur blight at this time will also control cane Captan 80WDG, 2.5 lb (3), or blight. For resistance management, do not make more than two sequential Pristine, 18.5–23 oz (0), or applications of strobilurin (group 11) fungicides before rotating to a fungicide Cabrio EG, 14 oz (0), or in another chemical class. Abound, 6.0–15.5 fl oz (0), or Tanos, 6–10 oz (0) plus captan, or Captevate 68 WDG, 3.5 lb (3), raspberries only Orange rust For orange rust, while orange pustules are visible, on a 10- to 14-day schedule Rally 40W , 1.25–2.5 oz (0), or until temperatures are above 75°F. For resistance management, do not make Cabrio EG, 14 oz (0), or more than two sequential applications of strobilurin (group 11) fungicides Pristine, 18.5–23 oz (0) before rotating to a fungicide in another chemical class. Powdery mildew Sprays for powdery mildew are not usually required but may help on highly Rally 40W, 1.25–2.5 oz (0), or susceptible cultivars such as Latham. For resistance management, do not make Cabrio EG, 14 oz (0), or more than two sequential applications of strobilurin (group 11) fungicides Pristine, 18.5–23 oz (0), or before rotating to a fungicide in another chemical class. Abound, 6.0–15.5 fl oz (0), or Orbit, 6 fl oz (30), or Tilt, 6 fl oz (30) Insects Raspberry crown borer If not applied earlier, as a drench in at least 200 gal of water/A. Direct to lower Brigade WSB, 16 oz or 2EC, 6.4 fl oz (3) larvae portion of canes and soil. See text for life cycle information on this pest. Do not make both foliar and drench applications pre-bloom. Aphids Inspect tender cane growth and undersides of leaves. Aphids may be easily Malathion 57ECb, 3 pt or 8F, 2 pt (1), or overlooked. Sprays for aphids will also suppress blackberry psyllid. Do not apply Asana XL, 4.8–9.6 fl oz (7), or Asana within 7 days of pollination, as it repels bees. Actara is highly toxic to M-Pede, 2% solution (0), or bees exposed to direct contact. Actara, 2.0–3.0 oz (3), or Assail 70WP, 1.0–2.3 oz or 30SG, 2.5–5.3 oz (1) Rednecked caneborer This is the time when caneborer and fruitworm adults appear to lay their eggs. One spray just before bloom and another one at the end of bloom should help. Direct sprays toward the base of canes where adults are more likely to be present. Materials with a broad label such as Pyganic, Pyrenone, or Evergreen may help. Raspberry caneborer Just before blossoms open to target adults. No materials are specifically labeled for this pest at this time. However, materials with a broad label such as Pyganic, Pyrenone, or Evergreen may help. Raspberry sawflies When first adults are noted. Sevin 80S, 2.5 lb or XLR Plus, 2 qt (7), or Spintor 2SC, 4–6 fl oz (1) Raspberry fruitworms Apply when blossom buds separate and again just before blossoms open. Spintor 2SC, 4–6 fl oz (1) Tarnished plant bug See text for thresholds and cultural controls. Sevin 80S, 1.87–2.5 lb or XLR Plus, 1.5–2 qt (7), or Assail 70WP, 1.9–2.3 oz or 30SG, 4.5–5.3 oz (1) Thrips Apply just before blossoms open. Assail 70WP, 1.9–2.3 oz or 30SG, 4.5–5.3 oz (1), or Malathion 8Fb, 2 pt or 57ECb, 1.5 pt (1), or Aza-Direct, 16–56 fl oz (0) Blackberry psyllid adults When adults appear on plants. See text for their description. See note above under “Aphids.” Materials with a broad label such as Pyganic, Pyrenone, or Evergreen may help, and Surround may provide suppression.

continued 210 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 8.15. Pesticides for bramble disease and insect control, continued. Pest Timing of Treatment/Comments Product Labeled Rate/Aa (Days to Harvest) Leafrollers Not generally a problem. Needed only if past experience has shown leafrollers Asana XL, 4.8–9.6 fl oz (7), or to be a problem. Confirm and Dipel are also labeled for gypsy moth control. Do Brigade WSB, 8–16 oz or 2EC, 3.2–6.4 fl oz (3), or not make both foliar and drench applications of Brigade pre-bloom. Confirm 2F, 16 oz (14), or Danitol 2.4EC, 10.67–16 fl oz (3), or Dipel DF, 0.5–1.0 lb (0), or Spintor 2SC, 4–6 fl oz (1), or M-Pede, 2% solution (0), or Mustang, 4.3 oz (1), or Mustang Max, 4.0 oz (1), or Delegate WG, 3–6 oz (1) BLOOM Diseases Botrytis fruit rot At 5–10 percent bloom, full bloom, and up to three more times at intervals Rovral 4F, 1–2 pt (0), or specified on the label. Bloom sprays also help control anthracnose and spur Captan 80WDG, 2.5 lb (3), or blight. Do not make more than two sequential applications of Group 11 Switch 62.5WG, 11–14 oz (0), or fungicides before rotating to a fungicide in a different chemical class. Elevate 50WDG, 1.5 lb (0), or Pristine, 18.5–23 oz (0), or Captevate 68WDG, 3.5 lb (3), raspberries only Orange rust For orange rust, while orange pustules are visible, on a 10- to 14-day schedule Rally 40W, 1.25–2.5 oz (0), or until temperatures are above 75°F. For resistance management, do not make Pristine, 18.5–23 oz (0), or more than two sequential applications of strobilurin (group 11) fungicides Cabrio EG, 14 oz (0) before rotating to a fungicide in another chemical class. Powdery mildew Specific sprays for powdery mildew are not usually required but may help Rally 40W, 1.25–2.5 oz (0), or on highly susceptible cultivars such as Latham raspberries. For resistance Cabrio EG, 14 oz (0), or management, do not make more than two sequential applications of Pristine, 18.5–23 oz (0), or strobilurin (group 11) fungicides before rotating to a fungicide in another Abound, 6.0–15.5 fl oz (0), or chemical class. Orbit, 6 fl oz (30), or Tilt, 6 fl oz (30) Insects None at this time PETAL FALL THROUGH HARVEST Diseases Botrytis fruit rot Three to five days before harvest; repeat at 7- to 10-day intervals through Rovral 4F, 1–2 pt (0), or harvest if pressure is high (wet weather, rotting berries on the canes). Captan 80WDG, 2.5 lb (3), or Resistance development is a concern especially with Rovral and Elevate. Rotate Elevate 50WDG, 1.5 lb. (0), or fungicides in different classes. Pristine, 18.5–23 oz (0), or Switch 62.5WG,11–14 oz (0), or Captevate 68WDG, 3.5 lb (3), raspberries only Late leaf rust Primarily a problem on fall-bearing raspberries. For resistance management, Pristine, 18.5–23 oz (0), or do not make more than two sequential applications of strobilurin (group 11) Cabrio EG, 14 oz (0) fungicides before rotating to a fungicide in another chemical class. Insects and Mites Spotted wing drosophila Monitor for presence of male adults with vinegar traps. Pyrethroids and Danitol 2.4 EC, 10.67–16 fl oz (3), or spinosyns are effective in controlling spotted wing drosophila. Be sure Delegate WG, 3–6 oz (1), or to alternative materials from different pesticide classes for resistance Success, 4–6 fl oz (1), or management. Entrust, 1.25–2.0 oz (1,) or 2(ee) labels have been issued for the products listed or the label is broadly Pyganic EC 5.0, 4.5–18 oz (0), or written. Success and Entrust have the same active ingredient. Entrust can be Mustang Max, 4.0 fl oz (1) used in organic production. Pyganic has a very short period of residual activity; populations with resistance to Pyganic have already been reported in California.

continued Chapter 8 ❦ Brambles 211

Table 8.15. Pesticides for bramble disease and insect control, continued. Pest Timing of Treatment/Comments Product Labeled Rate/Aa (Days to Harvest) Brown marmorated stink Pyrethroids such as Brigade and Danitol are also effective against brown Actara, 3 oz (3) bug marmorated stink bug. Nymphs should be targeted. Aphids If aphids are present. Watch days-to-harvest limitations. Foliar applications. Malathion 8Fb, 2–4 pt or 57ECb, 3 pt (1), or Asana XL, 4.8–9.6 oz (7), or M-Pede, 1–2% solution (0), or Provado 1.6F, 8.0 fl oz (3), or Actara, 2.0–3.0 oz (3), or Assail 70WP, 1.0–2.3 oz or 30SG 4.5–5.3 oz (1), or Soil application. Admire Pro, 7.0–14.0 fl oz (7)

Sap beetles Only if needed. Avoiding a buildup of overripe fruit is the best deterrent. Assail 70WP, 1.9–2.3 oz or 30SG, 4.5–5.3 oz (1) Tarnished plant bugs See text for thresholds and cultural controls. Assail 70WP, 1.9–2.3 oz or 30SG, 4.5–5.3 oz (1), or Sevin 80S, 1.87–2.5 lb or XLR Plus, 1.5–2 qt (7), or Actara, 3.0 oz (3) Rednecked caneborer When adults are observed. Admire Pro is systemic within the plant. It appears Admire Pro, 10.5–14.0 fl oz/a (7) in recommendations at this timing, but not prebloom, to avoid possible residual effects on pollinators. Note days-to-harvest limitation. Leafhoppers As needed. Note long days-to-harvest limitations on some products. Sevin 80S, 1.25–2.5 lb or XLR Plus, 1.0–2.0 qt (7), or Malathion 8Fb, 2.0 pt or 57 ECb, 1.5 pt (1), or Provado 1.6F, 8.0 fl oz (3), or Actara, 2.0–3.0 oz (3), or Assail 70WP, 1.0–2.3 oz or 30SG, 2.5–5.3 oz (1), or Admire is applied to the soil. Admire Pro, 7.0–14.0 fl oz (7) Japanese beetles As needed. Note long days-to-harvest limitations on some products. Sevin 80S, 1.25–2.5 lb or XLR Plus, 1.0–2.0 qt (7), or Malathion 8Fb, 2.0 pt or 57 ECb, 1.5 pt (1), or Actara, 3.0 oz (3), or Danitol 2.4EC, 10.67–16 fl oz (3), or Assail 70WP, 1.9–2.3 oz or 30SG, 4.5–5.3 oz (1) Green June beetles Materials effective against Japanese beetles are typically effective for green Sevin 80S, 2.5 lb or XLR Plus, 2.0 qt (7) June beetles. Sevin is the only material currently labeled for June beetles, but the long days-to-harvest limitation is problematic since green June beetles are mainly a problem on ripe fruit. Use of Sevin can also encourage spider mite outbreaks. Thrips If presence is problematic. Assail 70WP, 1.9–2.3 oz or 30SG, 4.5–5.3 oz (1), or Provado 1.6F, 8.0 fl oz (3), or Malathion 8Fb, 2 pt or 57ECb, 1.5 pt (1), or Aza-Direct, 16–56 fl oz (0) Spider mites Savey and Zeal are effective only against eggs and immatures. Zeal and Savey Acramite 50 WS, 0.75–1.0 lb (1), two applications are in the same chemical class but different subgroups, so whether or not per year allowed, or cross-resistance will develop is not yet known. Acramite, Savey, and Zeal are all Savey 50WP, 4–6 oz (3), one application per year fairly safe to beneficial predatory mites. Application must be made while mite allowed, or populations are low. Brigade is effective only at high rates and may increase the Zeal Miticide, 2–3 oz (0), one application per year likelihood of spider mite population explosions by destroying predatory mites. allowed, or Insecticidal soaps such as M-Pede may offer some benefit in mite control. Stylet Brigade WSB, 16 oz or 2 EC, 6.4 fl oz (3) see oil is effective against mite eggs. comments, or Stylet oil, 3–6 qt/100 gal (0)

continued 212 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 8.15. Pesticides for bramble disease and insect control, continued. Pest Timing of Treatment/Comments Product Labeled Rate/Aa (Days to Harvest) LATE SUMMER/FALL Diseases Orange rust Late summer through frost. A second infection period occurs at this time. See Rally 40W, 1.25–2.5 oz (0), or text for discussion. For resistance management, do not make more than two Pristine, 18.5–23 oz (0), or sequential applications of strobilurin (group 11) fungicides before rotating to a Cabrio EG, 14 oz (0) fungicide in another chemical class. Anthracnose In the fall after old canes are removed. For resistance management, do Captan 80WDG, 2.5 lb (3), or not make more than two sequential applications of strobilurin (group 11) Pristine, 18.5–23 oz (0), or fungicides before rotating to a fungicide in another chemical class. Abound, 6.0–15.5 fl oz (0), or Cabrio EG, 14 oz (0), or Tanos, 6–10 oz (0) plus captan, or Captevate 68WDG, 3.5 lb (3), raspberries only Insects and Mites Japanese beetles Whenever beetles are causing significant damage. Sevin 80S, 1.25–2.5 lb or XLR Plus, 1–2 qt (7), or Assail 70WP, 1.9–2.3 oz or 30SG, 4.5–5.3 oz (1), or Malathion 8Fb, 1–4 pt or 57ECb, 1.5 pt (1), or Danitol 2.4EC, 10.67–16 fl oz (3), or Actara, 3.0 oz (3) Spider mites Insecticidal soaps such as M-Pede may offer some benefit in mite control. Acramite 50 WS, 0.75–1.0 lb (1). Two applications See additional comments under “Petal Fall through Harvest.” per year allowed, or Savey 50WP, 4–6 oz (3). One application per year allowed, or Zeal Miticide, 2–3 oz (0). One application per year allowed, or Brigade WSB, 16 oz or 2EC, 6.4 fl oz (3) see comments, or Stylet oil, 3–6 qt/100 gal (0) Raspberry crown borer In early fall. As a drench in at least 200 gal of water/A. Directed to lower canes Brigade WSB, 16 oz or 2EC, 6.4 fl oz (3), or larvae and soil; see labels for specific restrictions. This drench will only affect new Hero, 10.3 fl oz (3), or larvae. Because this insect requires more than one year to complete its life cycle and larvae feeding in the crown are not affected, applications will be needed for more than one year. Altacor, 3.0–4.5 oz (3) In early fall. Direct to base of canes in 50 to 100 gallons of water per acre. Apply when at least ½ inch of rainfall is expected or irrigation will be applied to move insecticide into the root zone. Raspberry crown borer Watch for appearance of adult clear-winged moths after harvest. No materials adults are specifically labeled for this pest at this time. However, materials with a broad label such as Pyganic, Pyrenone, or Evergreen may help. SPECIAL SPRAYS Diseases Phytophthora root rot Ridomil Gold SL and Ridomil Gold GR are soil-applied systemic fungicides. Ridomil Gold GR, 5 lb/1,000 ft of row (45), or Apply to soil surface in a 3-foot band over the row. Make one application in Ridomil Gold SL, 3.6 pt (45), or the spring and another in the fall after harvest. Planting on raised beds also significantly reduces phytophthora incidence. Apply the first foliar spray in the spring when new growth is 1–3 inches long. Aliette 80WDG, 5 lb (60), or Reapply on a 45- to 60-day schedule. Phytotoxicity may be an issue with use Phostrol, 4.5 pt (—) of phosphorous acid compounds such as Phostrol, especially when applied under high temperatures, when tank-mixed with other materials, and/or when applied on a frequent schedule as with bloom sprays or sprays during harvest.

continued Chapter 8 ❦ Brambles 213

Table 8.15. Pesticides for bramble disease and insect control, continued. Pest Timing of Treatment/Comments Product Labeled Rate/Aa (Days to Harvest) Insects Spider mites (new Savey is effective only against immatures. Application must be made while Acramite 50WS, 0.75–1.0 lb (1). Two applications plantings) mite populations are low. Both Acramite and Savey are fairly safe to beneficial per year allowed, or predatory mites. Insecticidal soaps such as M-Pede may offer some benefit Savey 50WP, 3–6 oz (3). One application per year in mite control. Brigade and Capture must be used at high rates in order to allowed, or obtain control of spider mites and may increase the likelihood of spider mite Zeal Miticide, 2–3 oz (0). One application per year population explosions. allowed, or Brigade WSB, 16 oz or 2 EC, 6.4 fl oz (3) see comments, or Stylet oil, 3–6 qt/100 gal (0) Tree crickets Before or when characteristic egg-laying trails first appear. Sevin 80S, 1.25–2.5 lb or XLR Plus, 1–2 qt (7) a. Some pesticides may be phytotoxic to plants. If in doubt, test a small area of the field first. Be sure the sprayer is calibrated properly. b. Many trade names of malathion are currently available, including Cythion, Malaspray, Malathone, etc. Follow the label for use on bramble crops. Please test a small area before trying a new formulation. Some formulations, especially the emulsifiable concentrates (EC), have caused phytotoxicity on raspberries, particularly in hot weather

Table 8.16. Additional restrictions on bramble pesticides. The information below is correct to the best of our knowledge. Other formulations with the same active ingredient as some of the products listed below may exist and may be labeled for the same uses. Always consult the label before making pesticide applications.

Abound For resistance management, do not apply more than two sequential applications of Abound or another strobilurin (group 11) fungicide before alternating with a fungicide that has a different mode of action. See label for several additional resistance management strategies. See Table 8.13 for chemical activity groups of fungicides labeled for use on brambles. Do not allow to drift to McIntosh, Gala, or related apple cultivars (Bancroft, Bromley, Cortland, Cox, Discover, Empire, Jonamac, Kent, Spartan, and Summared). Do not use the same spray equipment for other materials that will be applied to these cultivars, even if thoroughly cleaned. Acramite 50WS Do not make more than two applications per year. Actara Do not apply more than 6.0 oz of product per acre per season. The minimum interval between application is 7 days. Admire Pro Do not apply more than 8.4 fl oz of Admire Pro per acre per season or as specified on the label. Do not apply during bloom or when bees are actively foraging. Altacor Do not make more than three applications or apply more than 9.0 ounces of Altacor per acre per season. Asana XL Do not apply more than 0.15 lb ai per acre per season. Assail Do not make more than 5 applications per season, apply more often than once every 7 days, or exceed a total of 0.5 lb ai per acre per growing season. Brigade Do not apply more than 0.2 lb ai per acre per season. One application may be made prebloom and one application made postbloom. Do not make both prebloom foliar and prebloom drench applications. Cabrio EG Do not apply more than two sequential applications of Cabrio before alternating with a fungicide with a different mode of action. See label for several additional resistance management strategies. See Table 8.14 for activity groups of insecticides labeled for use on brambles. Captan 80WDG Do not apply more than 12.5 lb of 80WDG, or as specified for different formulations, per acre per season. Captevate 68WDG Do make more than two consecutive applications of Captevate, or any product containing the active ingredient fenhexamid, before alternating with a fungicide with a different mode of action. Do not apply more than 17.5 lb per acre per season. Confirm 2F Do not apply more than 64 fl oz of product per acre per season. Danitol Do not make more than two Danitol applications or exceed 32 fl oz per acre per season.

continued 214 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 8.16. Additional restrictions on bramble pesticides, continued.

Delegate To reduce the potential for resistance development in target pest species, do not make more than 2 consecutive applications of group 5 insecticides (active ingredients of spinetoram or spinosad). If additional treatments are required, rotate to another class of effective insecticides for at least one application. Do not apply more than at total of 19.5 oz of Delegate WG per acre per crop. Do not make more than 6 applications per calendar year or applications less than 4 days apart. Elevate Do not make more than two consecutive applications of Elevate. Do not apply more than 6 lb per acre per season. Hero Do not make both prebloom foliar and prebloom drench applications. One application may be made prebloom and one application made postbloom. Do not apply more than 27.4 fl oz per acre per season. Mustang Do not apply more than 0.3 lb ai (25.8 fl oz of product) per acre per season. Do not make applications less than 7 days apart. Mustang Max Do not apply more than 0.15 lb ai (24 oz of product) per acre per season. Do not make applications more than 7 days apart. Orbit, Tilt Orbit and Tilt both contain the same active ingredient, propiconazole. Do not apply more than 30 fl oz (0.84 lb of propiconazole) in total of Orbit and Tilt per season. Apply these products in minimum spray volumes of 5 gal/A for ground application and 15 gal/A for aerial application. Phostrol Do not make more than four sprays during the growing season. Pristine Do not apply more than two sequential applications before alternating with a fungicide with a different mode of action. See label for several additional resistance management strategies. See Table 8.13 for chemical activity groups of fungicides labeled for use on brambles. Pristine may cause injury to foliage of Concord or related grape varieties such as Worden and Fredonia. Do not use Pristine on these varieties and use special care when applying to prevent contact with these sensitive varieties. Thoroughly rinse-spray equipment, including the inside of the tank, hoses, and nozzles after use and before using the same equipment on these sensitive grape varieties. Provado Do not apply more than 24 fluid ounces of Provado 1.6F per year. The minimum interval between applications is 7 days. Do not apply prebloom or when bees are actively foraging. Rally 40W Apply no more than 10 oz of Rally per acre per year. Rovral Do not make more than four applications per season. Savey 50WP Limited to one application of Savey per year. Sevin Do not apply more than five times, or more often than once every 7 days. Spintor, Entrust, Success Do not apply more than a total of 0.45 lb ai of spinosad per acre per crop. Do not make more than 6 applications per year. Do not make applications less than 5 days apart. Whenever Spintor (or Success or Entrust) is applied two times in succession, this should be followed by rotation to another insecticide class for at least one application. Switch 62.5WG Do not exceed 56 oz of Switch per acre per year. Do not make more than two applications before using a fungicide in another resistance management group. Tanos Do not make more than one application before alternating with a fungicide with a different mode of action. Apply in a minimum of 20 gallons of spray per acre. Do not apply more than 72 oz of product per acre per cropping season. The minimum interval between applications is 5 days. Zeal Miticide Do not make more than one application per growing season or use with an adjuvant. Chapter 8 ❦ Brambles 215

Weeds In-Row Sod before Planting straw mulching past the first year on wet Excellent results have been obtained by sites since this practice can exacerbate Because blueberry and brambles are seeding perennial grass in the row as root rot injury and cause slug infestation. both perennial crops, weed management well as between the rows. Use perennial Where nontissue-cultured plants are practices and problem weeds are very ryegrass rather than fescue. Rapid estab- used (nursery-matured or dormant similar with a few exceptions. See lishment and growth and susceptibility canes), consider applying one of the Chapter 4: Weed Control for a discussion to herbicides make perennial ryegrass a preemergence herbicides listed in Table of the importance of weed identification better choice than fescue for seeding in 8.20 after the soil has settled (after irri- and various categories of weed types, the row. Kill the sod in the row before gation or rainfall), according to labeled cultural practices that minimize weed planting and no-till the plants into the rates. These herbicides require ½ to 1 pressure, a discussion on types of herbi- dead sod. Use recommended herbicides inch of irrigation following application cides, how they work, correct application to control weeds. The sod’s roots increase to activate them. techniques, and factors that influence soil organic matter and improve soil Plastic mulch—and preferably herbicide effectiveness. See the weed structure and water permeability, and the landscape fabric—can be used for management section of Chapter 7: Blue- sod acts as a mulch to conserve water and controlling weeds in bramble plantings. berries for information on controlling prevent erosion during the establishment See “Planting and Establishment— weeds between rows, including the year. By fall, the dead sod deteriorates Mulching” in this chapter for details. establishment and management of sod and is not attractive to rodents. row middles, and discussions on cultural Herbicides and chemical methods of managing Mulching and Cultural Methods Choose herbicides for use in the row specific problem weeds that are likely to In bramble plantings, tissue-cultured that are labeled, have adequate crop become problematic in blueberry fields. plants are frequently preferred when safety (Table 8.17), and control the As mentioned above, because brambles available. However, many labeled herbi- weeds in your field (see Table 4.1). The are perennial, problematic weeds are cides will injure tissue-cultured rasp- use of a single herbicide repeatedly will similar in both situations, though berry plantlets; therefore, we recommend lead to an increase in resistant weeds. controls may vary between crops. applying a 4-inch straw mulch or plastic Use herbicide combinations, herbicide mulch around tissue culture–propagated rotations, and sequential or spot treat- Weed Control Between Rows plants after planting for controlling ments in a well-managed weed control A permanent sod such as hard weeds the first year. Weeds should be program to eliminate or minimize fescue between the rows is effective removed by hand as often as required to problems. The recommended herbicides in controlling weeds in established prevent weeds from becoming estab- covered below have been evaluated for plantings. Cultivation or herbicide use lished. Cultivation should be shallow crop safety and effectiveness. Infor- will be required if a sod row middle is and done carefully to avoid damaging mation on all varieties is incomplete. Use not used. These topics are discussed in established plants. Do not continue herbicides with care on new varieties. detail in Chapter 7. Practices for Minimizing Weed in Rows In the row, a weed free zone should be Table 8.17. Crop safety of bramble herbicides. maintained where weed competition with the crop is paramount. Control New (Nonbearing) Established (Bearing) in-row weeds with mulches and/or Preemergence, Residual herbicides. The use of mechanical culti- Casoron/Norosac ? G vation equipment in the row is seldom Devrinol G G recommended due to risk of damaging Gallery G — the roots. Princep — F/G The width of the weed-free zone Sinbar — F should be about 36 to 48 inches wide, Snapshot ? — or about 18 to 24 inches on each side of Solicam F/G G the row. This weed-free strip should be Surflan G G about 40 percent of the distance between Postemergence, Selective the rows. The width may vary, however, Fusilade DX G — depending on soil fertility, water-holding Poast G G capacity, and exposure to erosion. Do not Select/Select Max G — Postemergence, Nonselective reduce the width of the weed-free zone in Paraquat products G G young nonbearing fields. Maintain the full Glyphosate products* G G width of the vegetation-free zone in new plantings to achieve maximum growth. G = good; F = fair (recommended; use with care); P = poor (not recommended); ? = labeled (insufficient data); — = not labeled (do not use) *Do not allow spray to contact young or green (living) canes or leaves. 216 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Remember that weeds also compete Casoron inhibits cellulose biosynthesis kill or injure any treated plant. They with one another besides competing and also controls emerged plants of may be contact or translocated. Contact with your crop. Thus, controlling a certain weed species. Princep and Sinbar herbicides (Gramoxone Inteon, Scythe) particular weed or group of weeds may work by inhibiting photosynthesis. affect only the plant tissue with which allow other weed species to take over. Solicam inhibits carotenoid synthesis, they come in contact. Thorough spray A combination of two preemergence which exposes chlorophyll to damage coverage is essential for good results. herbicides gives better weed control than by sunlight. Sinbar, besides inhibiting Roots of established annual weeds and a single herbicide. Combining a “grass photosynthesis of geminating weeds, perennial weeds often survive. Translo- herbicide” with a “broadleaf herbicide” also kills recently germinated weeds cated herbicides (glyphosate products, results in wider-spectrum control. (those just at the cotyledon stage). Fusilade, Poast, Select) move systemically Consult the label and Table 8.20 for Repeatedly using herbicides that act on in the weed (or crop plant if contacted) compatible tank mixes. weeds with the same mode of action after treatment. Application at the proper may lead to weed populations that are growth stage will often result in good Herbicide Terminology resistant to those herbicide(s). control of the roots as well as tops of Understanding herbicide terminology Postemergence herbicides are used established annuals and perennial weeds. is important in order to effectively use after weeds have emerged from the soil. Results of translocated herbicides may not herbicides and avoid undesirable conse- They are used by carefully applying the be evident for several days or weeks. quences from herbicide application. herbicide to the weeds without allowing Herbicides have no activity after Residual herbicides remain in the it to contact desirable plants that could application for one of two reasons. Some soil and kill weeds for up to several be affected, such as caneberries or sod herbicides are too tightly bound to the months. They are applied before weeds row middles. The best time to apply soil to be available to plants after appli- germinate. Weeds begin to compete postemergence herbicides is when weeds cation. Care must be exercised in soilless with most crops within 2 to 4 weeks. are growing rapidly. Do not treat weeds growing environments, where surprising Some products are effective only on that are dormant or under stress. Most residual activity can be observed from germinating seeds. If weeds are present, herbicides that enter the plant through the these herbicides. Other herbicides are a postemergence herbicide can be leaves need a minimum rain-free period highly soluble in water and are not combined with a residual herbicide. of at least 1 to 8 hours after application for bound to soil particles. Residual activity Residual herbicides are applied incorpo- maximum effectiveness. Postemergence from these herbicides can be observed rated or preemergence. herbicides may be selective or nonselective. in the soil, but it often lasts only a few Incorporated herbicides are mechani- Selective postemergence herbicides kill days. They are rapidly leached out of cally mixed with the soil. This application only certain susceptible weeds. Poast, the zone of weed seed germination method is not well suited to brambles. It Select, and Fusilade DX are examples and degraded by soil microorganisms. is difficult or impossible to incorporate that kill only grasses, and will not control See Table 8.18 for solubility and soil herbicides near the crown of the bramble broadleaf weeds or harm the brambles. absorption characteristics of bramble plant, and shallow roots may be pruned Nonselective postemergence herbicides herbicides. A complete discussion of the by the incorporation equipment. Preemergence herbicides are applied to the soil surface, and are used to prevent weeds from establishing before they emerge from the soil, not to prevent Table 8.18. Bramble herbicide water solubility and soil adsorption characteristics. weeds from germinating. Labels often Solubility Soil Adsorption state that preemergence herbicides Residual Herbicides must be “activated by cultivation Casoron/Norosac (dichlobenil) Low Moderate or irrigation.” As mentioned above, Devrinol (napropamide) Moderate Strong cultivation is not a recommended Gallery (isoxaben) Very low Strong practice for incorporating herbicides Princep (simazine) Very low Moderate in brambles. However, rainfall or Sinbar (terbacil) Moderate Weak overhead irrigation is needed to move Solicam (norflurazon) Low to moderate Strong the herbicide into the soil before the Surflan (oryzalin) Very low Strong weeds emerge, and ideally, just into the Nonresidual Herbicides zone of weed seed germination. Use a Fusilade DX (fluazifop-P-butyl) Very low Very strong preemergence herbicide in combination glyphosate products Very high Very strong with a postemergence herbicide if weeds paraquat products Very high Very strong have emerged, unless the preemergence Poast (sethoxydim) Moderate to very higha Moderate herbicide also controls weeds poste- Select products (clethodim) Not available Weak mergence. Of preemergence herbicides Source: Weed Science Society of America (2002), Herbicide Handbook, 8th ed. Controlling Weeds in Nursery and Landscape labeled for brambles, Devrinol and Plantings (2007), Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences. Surflan work by inhibiting cell division. a. pH dependent. Chapter 8 ❦ Brambles 217 effects that trickle irrigation can have on rates may cause damage to brambles. determining the correct herbicide rate increasing weed growth under the trickle Using rates that are too low will result to use on your soil if needed. Adjust by line, as related to this subject, is included in a lack of efficacy, or short duration of changing tractor speed and maintaining in Chapter 4: Weed Management. control. Residual herbicide rates must be pressure when spraying a field with soil Glyphosate products, including matched with soil type and percentage that requires different herbicide rates. Roundup products, Touchdown of organic matter to obtain good weed Herbicide application and equipment is products, Glyphomax Plus, and others, control and crop safety (see Table 8.19). discussed in Chapter 4. and paraquat products, including Determine type and percentage of Herbicide Use in New Plantings Gramoxone Inteon, Firestorm, and organic matter for each soil on the farm Weed control in a newly planted others, are too tightly bound to the soil to with a separate soil test. field should be planned to provide a have residual activity. These herbicides Most coarse textured soils, such as maximum margin of crop safety. Tillage are completely unavailable to plants loamy sands and sandy loams, are low in and/or herbicides prior to planting after application in field production. organic matter, often less than 2 percent. should control established biennial and They remain tightly bound to the soil Medium textured soils, such as loams, perennial weeds. Apply a combination of until broken down. Glyphosate can be may have 2 to 4 percent organic matter. herbicides to control annual grasses and degraded or digested by soil microor- Fine textured soils such as silt loams and broadleaf weeds. Devrinol plus Gallery ganisms. However, residual activity from clay loam soils may have 4 to 8 percent 75DF or Surflan plus Gallery 75DF have glyphosate has been observed when organic matter. Have your soil analyzed been safe and effective residual herbicide used in greenhouses, on plastic mulch, for percent organic matter. This is a combinations for newly planted and near hydroponic growing systems. separate test that must be requested from brambles. Apply in early spring after Paraquat is degraded by sunlight, and is most soils laboratories. If your soil has the soil has settled the soil around the less likely to cause problems when used an organic matter content higher than roots of the new plants, but before weeds on plastic mulch, in greenhouses, or near the choices listed on the herbicide label emerge or the brambles break bud. soilless growing systems. for your soil texture, choosing the correct Waxed paper “milk cartons” are effective rate may be difficult. See Table 8.19 for Herbicide Rate Control and recommended shields. The use of recommended rates of specific herbi- Strict rate control is necessary. shields adds an additional margin of cides for various soil types and organic Improperly applied herbicides or safety when installed prior to herbicide matter levels. Consult your Cooperative herbicides applied above recommended application. Extension service office for assistance in

Table 8.19. Per-acre rates per application for preemergence (residual) herbicides for common soil types for raspberries and blackberries. Rates for each active ingredient are followed by the corresponding rates of a commonly available product containing the active ingredient listed.

Soil Type / % Organic Matter Sand Loamy Sand Sandy Loam Loam Silt Loam Clay Loam Herbicide 0–1 1–2 0–1 1–2 0–1 1–2 2–4 1–2 2–4 1–2 2–4 1–2 2–4 Napropamide (lb ai)a 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 Devrinol 50DF (lb)a 4–8 4–8 4–8 4–8 4–8 4–8 4–8 4–8 4–8 4–8 4–8 4–8 4–8 Isoxaben (lb ai)b 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 1 0.75 1 1 1 1 1 Gallery 75DF (lb)b 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.33 1.0 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 Diclobenil (lb ai)a 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 Casoron CS (gal)a 1.4–2.8 1.4–2.8 1.4–2.8 1.4–2.8 1.4–2.8 1.4–2.8 1.4–2.8 1.4–2.8 1.4–2.8 1.4–2.8 1.4–2.8 1.4–2.8 1.4–2.8 Simazine (lb ai)b — — — — — 2 2 2 3 2 3 3 4 Princep 90DF (lb)b — — — — — 2.2 2.2 2.2 3.3 2.2 3.3 3.3 4.4 Terbacil (lb ai)b — — — — — 1 1.2 1.2 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 Sinbar 80WDG (lb)b — — — — — 1.25 1.5 1.5 2 2 2 2 2 Norflurazon (lb ai)b — — — 2 — 2 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 3 3 4 Solicam 80DF (lb)b — — — 2.5 — 2.5 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.75 3.75 5 Oryzalin (lb ai)a 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 Surflan 4AS (qt)a 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4 a. Use the lower recommended rate when tank-mixing with another preemergence herbicide, unless annual grass pressure is severe. b. Use one-half the recommended rate when tank-mixing with another preemergence herbicide. — = not labeled or not recommended (do not use). 218 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

An alternative to shields is the use of rinol 50DF are annual grass herbicides For this reason, recommendations vary granular formulations when available. that should be applied in late fall or as between crops. See Table 8.20 for labeled Granular formulations fall through a split application—half in the fall and herbicide use patterns on brambles. the bramble canopy to the soil surface, the second half in the spring. Use the provided applications are made when split application when grass pressure is the foliage and shoots are dry. The use heavy for best results. The use of these of nonselective postemergence herbi- herbicides in spring only has resulted cides such as a paraquat or glyphosate in inconsistent weed control when dry product should be avoided during the weather followed the application. year of planting unless shields are in Sinbar 80WDG applications for place. Avoidance of contact of these annual weed control should be applied products with the plant is critical. only in the spring. The relatively high solubility of Sinbar 80WDG results Herbicide Use in Established Plantings in leaching when applied in the fall. Apply herbicides to the bramble row in Increased risk of crop injury and poor established fields in late fall and also in weed control can result. late spring. Herbicides are applied in In follow-up late spring applications, late fall or when the soil temperature has apply Sinbar 80WDG or the second dropped to between 40 and 50 degrees to half of a split herbicide treatment of control winter annuals, certain peren- Solicam 80DF, Surflan 80WP, or Devrinol nials, and early season summer annuals. 50DF for annual grass control. Include The spring herbicide application extends a paraquat product if seedling annual summer annual weed control through weeds are observed. Spot treat with a harvest. labeled glyphosate product to control Late fall herbicide applications established perennial grasses and should all include a residual broadleaf broadleaf weeds. Sinbar 80WDG is herbicide. Use Princep to control winter also effective for seedling weed control annual broadleaf weeds. Consider postemergence. No other postemergence using Princep in combination with a herbicide may be needed if no estab- residual annual grass herbicide. Small lished weeds are present and seedling seedling annual broadleaf weeds will be annual weeds are sprayed with Sinbar controlled by the residual herbicide, but before they exceed 1 inch in height. if well-established annuals are present, See Table 8.20 for a complete listing of add a postemergence herbicide such as a recommended herbicides and timings at paraquat product to the tank. Spot treat which they can be used. with a labeled glyphosate product if perennial weeds are present, preferably Problem Weeds in the fall. Especially in perennial crops, certain When perennial broadleaf weeds are problem weeds can become well-estab- present in addition to annual weeds, lished since the field is not worked after use Casoron instead of Princep. Apply crop establishment, and herbicides may when the soil is not frozen in late fall/ have limited or no effectiveness at this early winter to control labeled perennial, point. Many of the weeds that are likely biennial, and annual weeds or in late to become problematic are discussed in winter/early spring before weed growth Chapter 7, along with their life cycle, begins and daily high temperatures and cultural and chemical means for exceed 50°F. Perennial weed control management. Many of the herbicides following late winter/early spring as discussed in the blueberry chapter applications has been less consistent under “Problem Weeds” are labeled at than late fall/early winter applications. the identical rates for use in brambles. Casoron/Norosac is volatile in warm However, there are some notable excep- temperatures and must be irrigated or tions, especially with postemergent mechanically incorporated after appli- nonselective translocated herbicides, cation. Significant herbicide loss may such as glyphosate products. Because occur if applied in warm weather. suckers and canes are often connected The use of a grass herbicide in the to each other through their root system, fall depends on the product chosen. damage can be more widespread than Solicam 90DF, Surflan 80WP, and Dev- expected when canes are contacted. Chapter 8 ❦ Brambles 219

Table 8.20. Herbicides for bramble weed control. Note: See text discussion for additional discussion on timing and use of various herbicides in this chapter and Chapter 4. See Table 4.1 for efficacy ratings of herbicides on various weeds. See Table 3.2 for limits on states in which these cannot be used, use status (general vs. restricted), days-to-harvest limitations, and reentry intervals. The information below is correct to the best of our knowledge. Other formulations with the same active ingredient as some of the products listed below may exist that may or may not be labeled for the same uses. Always consult the label before making pesticide applications. Information was current as of July 1, 2012. Product Rate/A Weeds Timing of Treatment/Comments Active Ingredient Rate/Aa (Days to Harvest)b NEW PLANTINGS Preemergence Primarily for annual grasses; Apply in late fall and/or early spring to weed-free soil, Napropamide, 2.0–4.0 lb Devrinol 50DF, 4.0–8.0 lb suppresses or controls certain annual or add an appropriate postemergence herbicide to kill (—) broadleaf weeds existing vegetation. Use the high rate for long-term control (4 to 8 months) and the low rate for short-term control (2 to 4 months). Tank-mix with Princep plus a postemergence herbicide in late fall or reduced rates of Princep or Sinbar in the spring, if the planting has been established for at least one year to control annual broadleaf weeds. Activate with one-half inch sprinkler irrigation within 24 hours after application. If left on the soil surface, napropamide (Devrinol) is broken down by sunlight. Irrigation moves the herbicide into the soil and prevents breakdown by the sun. Primarily for annual broadleaf weeds Apply in late fall or early spring to weed-free soil to Isoxaben, 0.75–1.0 lb Gallery 75DF, 1.0–1.33 lb control many broadleaf weeds. If newly planted, allow (365) the soil to settle and fill any depressions around the plant before application. Add a postemergence herbicide to improve the control of emerged weeds. Gallery primarily controls annual broadleaf weeds. Tank-mix with Surflan to control annual grasses. Note: Gallery is not labeled for bearing brambles. Primarily for annual broadleaf weeds Add nonionic surfactant to be 0.25% of the spray volume, Mesotrione, 1.5–3.0 oz Callisto 4F, 3–6 fl oz or 1 qt per acre crop oil concentrate. Apply in early spring (prebloom) before bud break as a spray directed toward the base of the bush. Broadleaf weeds controlled include horseweed and common lambsquarter. Tank-mix with an appropriate postemergence herbicide for broad-spectrum control of emerged weeds. Tank-mix with a residual grass herbicide to improved annual grass control. Do not apply more than 6 fl oz of Callisto per acre within one year. Primarily for annual grasses Apply in late fall and/or early spring to weed-free soil, Oryzalin, 2.0–4.0 lb Surflan 4AS, 2.0–4.0 qt (—) or add an appropriate postemergence herbicide to kill existing vegetation. Use the high rate for long-term control (4 to 8 months) and the low rate for short-term control (2 to 4 months). Tank-mix with Princep plus a postemergence herbicide in late fall, or Sinbar in the spring, if the planting has been established for at least one year, to control annual broadleaf weeds.

continued 220 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 8.20. Herbicides for bramble weed control, continued. Product Rate/A Weeds Timing of Treatment/Comments Active Ingredient Rate/Aa (Days to Harvest)b Postemergence—Selective Primarily for annual grass control; Note: Planting must have been in the ground for Norflurazon, 2.0–4.0 lb Solicam 80DF, 2.5–5.0 lb may provide partial control of many at least 12 months before application in order (60) broadleaf weeds for this material to be used. Apply in late fall or spring to weed-free soil, or add an appropriate postemergence herbicide to kill existing vegetation. Tank-mix with Princep plus a postemergence herbicide in late fall, or Sinbar in the spring, if the planting has been established for at least one year, to improve the control of broadleaf weeds. Emerged annual grasses and perennial Add 2 pints crop oil concentrate or nonionic Fluazifop-P-butyl, Fusilade DX 2EC, 12.0–24.0 grasses, depending on rate (see surfactant to be 0.25 percent of the spray solution 0.18–0.38 lb fl oz (365) information in column to right) (1 qt per 100 gallons of spray solution). Use the lower rate on most annual grasses less than 6 inches tall and to control johnsongrass. Use the higher rate to control other perennial grasses, crabgrass, and annual grasses more than 6 inches tall. Do not tank-mix Fusilade DX 2EC with any other pesticide. Do not apply within 1 hour of rainfall. Do not apply to grasses suffering from drought, heat, cold, or any other stress condition. Emerged annual grasses Use the lower rate to control annual grasses less Sethoxydim, 0.2–0.5 lb Poast 1.5EC, 1–2.5 pt, plus 2 than 6 inches tall. Use the higher rate to control pints crop oil concentrate per annual grass 6 to 12 inches tall and to control acre (45) perennial grasses. Do not tank-mix Poast with any other pesticide. Do not apply within 1 hour of rainfall. Do not apply to grasses suffering from drought, heat, cold, or any other stress condition. Most grass weed species, including Use the lower rate to control annual grasses and Clethodim, 0.072–0.125 lb Select 2EC, 6.0–8.0 fl oz certain hard to control grass weeds, the perennial grasses listed to the left. Repeat (365), or such as small grain volunteers and the application if regrowth occurs. Always add oil Select Max 0.97EC, 9.0–16.0 cover crops, and perennials such as concentrate to be 1 percent of the spray solution, fl oz (7) hard fescue, tall fescue, bermudagrass, or a minimum of 1 pint per acre, to Select 2EC. orchardgrass, quackgrass, Always add oil concentrate to be 1 percent of the johnsongrass, and wirestem muhly spray solution, or a minimum of 1 pint per acre, or nonionic surfactant to be 0.25 percent of the spray solution to Select Max. Do not tank-mix with any other pesticide unless labeled. Do not apply within 1 hour of rainfall. Do not apply to grasses suffering from drought, heat, cold, or any other stress condition. Select 2EC is currently labeled for nonbearing fields only. Do not apply within 12 months of harvest.

continued Chapter 8 ❦ Brambles 221

Table 8.20. Herbicides for bramble weed control, continued. Product Rate/A Weeds Timing of Treatment/Comments Active Ingredient Rate/Aa (Days to Harvest)b Postemergence—Nonselective Annual weeds Contact killer only; with no translocation or residual Paraquat, 0.5–1.0 lb Gramoxone Inteon, 2.0–4.0 activity. Best results occur when weeds are 2 inches tall pt (—), or or less. Regrowth may occur from the root systems of Firestorm 3SC, 1.3–2.7 pt established weeds. Use a surfactant to be 0.25 percent (—) of the spray solution (1 qt per 100 gallons of spray solution). Combine with recommended preemergence herbicide(s) for residual weed control. Do not allow spray or drift to contact green canes, leaves, or fruit. Crop damage may result. The use of shields, such as grow tubes or paper milk cartons greatly reduces the risk of injury in young plantings. Danger: Do not breathe spray mist. Read safety precautions on the label. Annual and perennial weeds Glyphosate is a translocated, slow-acting herbicide Glyphosate—no per-acre Roundup, Touchdown, or with no soil or residual activity. Results will become broadcast rate recommended other labeled formulations evident 1 to 3 weeks after application. Apply lower (14). Broadcast applications rates to control seedlings and annual weeds and to not recommended suppress established perennial weeds. Use shields and in brambles. For spot do not allow glyphosate to contact the foliage or green applications, see label and shoots. Optimum rate and time of application depend wet foliage thoroughly. on weed species and growth stage. Weeds should be Ropewick Applicator: See growing vigorously when treated. Do not treat weeds label for product/water that are under stress from drought, extreme heat, cold, ratio. One gallon of product or other adverse growing conditions. When using a will treat 10–100 acres ropewick applicator, fill the pipe only half full to avoid depending on weed density excessive dripping. Repeated wiping may be needed to and formulation. provide control equal to broadcast or spot applications. A ropewick applicator offers significant herbicide cost savings. Warnings: (1) Do not allow glyphosate to contact the leaves, young green tissue, fresh cane wounds, or root suckers, or severe crop injury may occur. (2) Do not allow glyphosate to contact any immature part of bramble plants. (3) Do not use galvanized containers; glyphosate may react with the container to produce explosive hydrogen gas. ESTABLISHED PLANTINGS Preemergence Primarily for annual grasses, Apply in late fall and/or early spring to weed-free soil, Napropamide, 2.0–4.0 lb Devrinol 50DF, 4.0–8.0 lb suppresses or controls certain or add an appropriate postemergence herbicide to kill (—) annual broadleaf weeds existing vegetation. Use the high rate for long-term control (4 to 8 months) and the low rate for short- term control (2 to 4 months). Tank-mix with Princep plus a postemergence herbicide in late fall or reduced rates of Princep in the spring, or Sinbar in the spring if the planting has been established for at least one year to control annual broadleaf weeds. Activate with one-half inch sprinkler irrigation within 24 hours after application. If left on the soil surface, napropamide (Devrinol) is broken down by sunlight. Irrigation moves the herbicide into the soil and prevents breakdown by the sun.

continued 222 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 8.20. Herbicides for bramble weed control, continued. Product Rate/A Weeds Timing of Treatment/Comments Active Ingredient Rate/Aa (Days to Harvest)b Labeled perennial, biennial, and Apply in late fall/early winter to control labeled Diclobenil, 2.0–4.0 lb Casoron/Norosac 4G, 50–100 annual weeds perennial, biennial and annual weeds or in late lb (—), or winter/early spring before weed growth begins and Casoron CS, 1.4–2.8 gal (—) daily high temperatures exceed 50°F to control labeled annual weeds. Perennial weed control following late winter/early spring applications has been less consistent than late fall applications. Casoron/Norosac is volatile in warm temperatures and must be irrigated or mechanically incorporated after application. Significant herbicide loss may occur if applied in warm weather. Primarily for annual broadleaf weed Apply in late fall or spring to weed-free soil, or add an Simazine, 1.0–4.0 lb Princep 90DF, 1.1–4.4 lb control appropriate postemergence herbicide to kill existing (—) vegetation. Tank-mix at 1.0–2.0 lb ai (1.1–2.2 lb of Princep 90DF) depending of soil texture and organic matter with Surflan, Solicam, or Devrinol. This rate is one-half the labeled Princep rate for use alone for each soil type. Tank-mixing will improve crop safety and the range of weeds controlled. Primarily for annual broadleaf Add nonionic surfactant to be 0.25% of the spray Mesotrione, 1.5–3.0 oz Callisto 4F, 3–6 fl oz weeds volume, or 1 qt per acre crop oil concentrate. (prebloom) Apply in early spring before bud break as a spray directed toward the base of the bush. Broadleaf weeds controlled include horseweed and common lambsquarter. Tank-mix with an appropriate postemergence herbicide for broad-spectrum control of emerged weeds. Tank-mix with a residual grass herbicide to improved annual grass control. Do not apply more than 6 fl oz of Callisto per acre within one year. Controls many annual broadleaf Apply in the spring to weed-free soil, or add an Terbacil, 0.8–1.6 lb Sinbar 80WDG, 1.0–2.0 lb weed species, but may be weak on appropriate postemergence herbicide to kill existing (—) pigweed species vegetation. Tank-mix using terbacil at 0.4 to 0.8 lb ai/A (Sinbar 80WP at 0.5–1.0 lb/a), depending on soil texture and organic matter, with Surflan, or Devrinol. Tank-mixing will improve crop safety and the range of weeds controlled. Primarily for annual grass control; Apply in late fall or spring to weed-free soil, or add Norflurazon, 2.0–4.0 lb Solicam 80DF, 2.5–5.0 lb may provide partial control of many an appropriate postemergence herbicide to kill (60) broadleaf weeds existing vegetation. Tank-mix with Princep plus a postemergence herbicide in late fall, or Sinbar in the spring, if the planting has been established for at least one year, to improve the control of broadleaf weeds.

continued Chapter 8 ❦ Brambles 223

Table 8.20. Herbicides for bramble weed control, continued. Product Rate/A Weeds Timing of Treatment/Comments Active Ingredient Rate/Aa (Days to Harvest)b Primarily for annual grasses Apply in late fall and/or early spring to weed-free soil, Oryzalin, 2.0–4.0 lb Surflan 4AS, 2.0–4.0 qt (—) or add an appropriate postemergence herbicide to kill existing vegetation. Use the high rate for long-term control (4 to 8 months) and the low rate for short- term control (2 to 4 months). Tank-mix with Princep plus a postemergence herbicide in late fall or Sinbar in the spring, if the planting has been established for at least one year, to control annual broadleaf weeds. Postemergence—Selective Emerged annual grasses Use the lower rate to control annual grasses less than 6 Sethoxydim, 0.2–0.5 lb Poast 1.5EC, 1–2.5 pt, plus 2 inches tall. Use the higher rate to control annual grass pints crop oil concentrate per 6 to 12 inches tall and to control perennial grasses. Do acre (45) not tank-mix Poast with any other pesticide. Do not apply within 1 hour of rainfall. Do not apply to grasses suffering from drought, heat, cold, or any other stress condition. Most grass weed species, including Use the lower rate to control annual grasses and Clethodim, 0.072–0.125 lb Select Max 0.97EC, 9.0–16.0 certain hard-to-control grass the perennial grasses listed to the left. Repeat fl oz (7) weeds, such as small grain the application if regrowth occurs. Always add oil volunteers and cover crops, and concentrate to be 1 percent of the spray solution, or a perennials, such as hard fescue, minimum of 1 pint per acre, or nonionic surfactant to tall fescue, bermudagrass, be 0.25 percent of the spray solution to Select Max. Do orchardgrass, quackgrass, not tank-mix with any other pesticide unless labeled. johnsongrass, and wirestem muhly Do not apply within 1 hour of rainfall. Do not apply to grasses suffering from drought, heat, cold, or any other stress condition. Postemergence—Nonselective Annual weeds Contact killer only; with no translocation or residual Paraquat, 0.5–1.0 lb Gramoxone Inteon, 2.0–4.0 activity. Best results occur when weeds are 2 inches pt (—), or tall or less. Regrowth may occur from the root systems Firestorm 3SC, 1.3–2.7 pt of established weeds. Use a surfactant to be 0.25 (—) percent of the spray solution (1 qt per 100 gallons of spray solution). Combine with recommended preemergence herbicide(s) for residual weed control. Do not allow spray or drift to contact green canes, leaves, or fruit. Crop damage may result. The use of shields, such as grow tubes or paper milk cartons greatly reduces the risk of injury in young plantings. DANGER: Do not breathe spray mist. Read safety precautions on the label.

continued 224 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Table 8.20. Herbicides for bramble weed control, continued. Product Rate/A Weeds Timing of Treatment/Comments Active Ingredient Rate/Aa (Days to Harvest)b Annual and perennial weeds Glyphosate is a translocated, slow-acting herbicide Glyphosate—no per acre Roundup, Touchdown, or with no soil or residual activity. Results will become broadcast rate recommended other labeled formulations evident 1 to 3 weeks after application. Apply lower (14). Broadcast applications rates to control seedlings and annual weeds and to not recommended suppress established perennial weeds. Use shields in brambles. For spot and do not allow glyphosate to contact the foliage or applications, see label and green shoots. Optimum rate and time of application wet foliage thoroughly. depend on weed species and growth stage. Weeds Ropewick Applicator: See should be growing vigorously when treated. Do label for product/water not treat weeds that are under stress from drought, ratio. One gallon of product extreme heat, cold, or other adverse growing will treat 10–100 acres conditions. When using a ropewick applicator, fill depending on weed density the pipe only half full to avoid excessive dripping. and formulation. Repeated wiping may be needed to provide control equal to broadcast or spot applications. A ropewick applicator offers significant herbicide cost savings. Warnings: (1) Do not allow glyphosate to contact the leaves, young green bark, fresh trunk wounds, or root suckers, or severe crop injury may occur. (2) Do not allow glyphosate to contact any immature part of bramble plants. (3) Do not use galvanized containers; glyphosate may react with the container to produce explosive hydrogen gas. a. Adding a surfactant to these herbicides may improve their effectiveness (see labels). Rates are given in units of commercial product per acre. b. No days-to-harvest limitation is specified on the label if days-to-harvest is listed as (—). Additional Notes • All the rates in this table are given on a full-acre basis. If the material is to be banded along or over the row, use the following formula to calculate the banding rate: rate/A banded = rate/A broadcast x (band width in inches ÷ row spacing in inches). • With all chemicals, follow label instructions and warnings carefully. • Use pesticides safely. Consult label for restriction. • It is unlawful to use recommended chemicals for crops not covered on the label or to use chemicals not cleared for such use on blueberry plantings. • Formulations, other than those listed, with the same active ingredient may be labeled for the same uses. 225

species different types of plants belong. Chapter 9 Introduction Species are Ribes rubrum (most red Decisions to commercially produce currants and some whites), R. petraeum specialty small fruit crops such as (white), R. vulgare (pink, white, and red), Gooseberries gooseberries and currants should be and R. nigrum and R. ussurienses (black). driven by availability of market outlets Native currants, sometimes considered and Currants for the fruit. A market should be secured more closely related to gooseberries, before plants are set in the ground. belong to the species R. odoratum, the Fresh fruit sales are options for direct Buffalo Currant, with some selections marketers, though most consumers are known as Clove Currant (for example, unfamiliar with the fruit and their uses. the cultivar Crandall) because of the Consequently, processing the crop into fragrance of their blossoms. Because jams, jellies, fresh juice products, and of their tart flavor, currants are seldom wine may be the best way to utilize these eaten out of hand but are used for Contents crops. In Europe, significant fresh and processing into juices, jams, and jellies. Introduction...... 225 processing markets exist, which may be Black currants are noted for their strong Types of Plants...... 225 an indication of the undeveloped market (to some, offensive) odor and astringent Currants...... 225 potential in this country. Growers near flavor, yet they are highly prized in Gooseberries...... 225 populations of people who are already Europe for juice products and their high Jostaberries...... 226 familiar with the crop may have a ready nutrient content. Vitamin C concentra- Legality of Culture...... 226 market. tions can be as high as 250 milligrams Culture...... 226 Successfully producing these unique per 100 grams of juice, even after 6 General...... 226 fruit involves knowledge of cultivars, months of storage. Site Selection...... 226 their horticultural characteristics and Soils ...... 227 requirements, and successful pest Gooseberries Cultivars...... 227 management. Cultivated forms of gooseberries are Site Preparation...... 229 divided into two major types, European Spacing and Planting Systems ...... 230 Types of Plants (Ribes grossularia var. uva-crispa) and Obtaining Plants...... 230 American (R. hirtellum). European Planting...... 230 Currants and gooseberries are two types are native to North Africa and the Establishment...... 230 closely related species within the genus Caucasus Mountains of eastern Europe Cultivation and Mulching ...... 230 Ribes. This genus is diverse with more and western Asia, while the American Fertility...... 230 than 150 known species and hundreds of types are native to the northern United Notes on Sod Row Middles ...... 231 cultivated varieties (cultivars). Currants States and Canada. Within the European Irrigation ...... 231 and gooseberries can be easily distin- types, fruit size varies widely, from pea Pollination Considerations ...... 231 guished by the presence or absence of sized to small egg sized. Color varies Pruning and Training ...... 231 thorns; gooseberries usually have thorns, widely as well, with fruit colors in Harvest ...... 232 while currants do not. shades of green, pink, red, purple, white, Propagation...... 232 Ribes plants are long-lived perennial and yellow. This diversity is due to the Pest Management...... 232 shrubs that are cold-hardy, some to historical popularity of the European Diseases...... 232 USDA Zone 2. Species and cultivars vary Insects...... 234 gooseberry. Over the past two centuries, in plant size and form but are usually Weeds...... 235 hundreds of cultivars have been upright to spreading in habit (3 to 6 feet). developed with a focus on prize-winning Disease and insect resistance is variable. fruit size and color. The fruit is versatile and nutritious and Native American gooseberry varies in presentation, flavor, shape, size, species have smaller fruit size and less texture, and color. flavor, but they are more resistant to Currants diseases when compared to European cultivars, which are noted for powdery Most cultivated currants are of European mildew and leaf spot susceptibility. origin, though many native North This problem has limited the culture American species also exist. Currant of most of the European types in this color types include red, white, pink, country. However, disease resistance is and black. Plants are thornless and fruit improving through additional breeding is small (pea sized) and produced and with American types, and several new harvested in a grapelike cluster called promising European cultivars have a “strig.” Cultivars may be classified recently been introduced in the United under several species; however, keep in States and Canada. In comparison, most mind that some debate exists as to which 226 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 known American cultivars in the trade begun, with Civilian Conservation Corp Currant and gooseberry plants can be today have had some historical infusion (CCC) crews doing much of the work. very productive at maturity, with yields of European genetics to improve size The federal law was rescinded in of 4 to 6 quarts per plant considered and flavor, which can be traced to a 1966, but today laws regarding Ribes good (by weight, gooseberries produce 8 handful of crosses made in the 1800s. culture remain on the books in many to 10 pounds per plant and currant, 5 to All gooseberry cultivars have varying states. While some states allow all 8 pounds per plant). Black currant yields degrees of thorniness. Fruit is produced species to be cultivated, others continue are usually 50 percent less. Red currants in small groups or singularly on stems full or partial bans geographically or by and gooseberries reach economic bearing and are picked individually. selected species, namely black currant. capacity in 3 to 4 years, and black Laws banning Ribes species range from currants in 4 to 5 years. With care, the Jostaberries being well to poorly enforced, or in life of currant plantings is about 8 to 15 Lastly, the jostaberry is an interspecies some instances agencies responsible for years, and that of gooseberry plantings cross between gooseberries and black enforcement no longer exist as originally is 15 to 20 years. The fruit ripen over a currant. Its fruit is larger than currants, designated. Restrictions often vary by several-week period and, depending similar to gooseberries, and black in township within a state. For information on variety, can remain on the plant for color. The stems are thornless. Fruit on state laws, contact your state’s extended periods of time in cool weather, quality has not gained wide appeal Department of Agriculture. allowing harvest schedule flexibility. for either fresh or processed use, but it The early Ribes industry was dealt has inspired renewed breeding efforts, Site Selection a great setback because of these bans with new and improved crosses being Unlike other fruit crops, currants and and has yet to recover. Variable and developed. It has a vigorous growth gooseberries can tolerate partial shade. often confusing legal issues are still habit and is resistant to white pine blister Northern to northeastern exposure is an effective roadblock to development rust. Disease (mildew) resistance is often ideal because the air and soil will of a viable industry. Nevertheless, the similar to that of black currants. be cooler and moister and plants will threat of white pine blister rust remains be protected from direct sunlight. Full a reality today, and site selection in new sun exposure in cooler or mountainous Legality of Culture plantings should take into account the climates, however, is desirable and leads The history of Ribes production in presence of nearby susceptible pine to increased yields. America is of significant interest. species, identifiable by the characteristic Air circulation and movement is an Cultivated currants and gooseberries of five needles per needle cluster. Most important consideration in site selection, were first introduced in America in the commonly this means consideration of as foliar disease can be a problem in Massachusetts Bay colony in 1629. By native or planted stands of white pine many cultivars. Consider summer the mid-1800s commercial acreage of in the area, but several other susceptible prevailing winds and align rows to take currants and newly developed European species may be cultivated in nearby advantage of air movement. and American gooseberry crosses such as nursery operations or your neighbor’s Currants and gooseberries require Downing and Houghton were common yard as ornamentals. approximately 1,000 to 1,200 chilling in the eastern United States. In 1899, hours to break dormancy, so plants reported production in the United States Culture bloom early in the spring. Avoid low reached nearly 7,000 acres. In the early Overall, cultural requirements are areas where late spring frosts can injure 1900s, Ribes species were implicated similar for all Ribes species, and they the blossoms. Though tolerant to cold, in the spread of white pine blister rust can be grown successfully in most of the temperatures below 28°F can cause (Cronartium ribicola), a devastating disease Mid-Atlantic. damage to flowers and reduce yields. An for white pine trees brought into this additional advantage of cooler, northern country on imported nursery tree stock. General slopes is slow spring warmup and Ribes, especially black currants, are Ribes are adapted to cooler climates; delayed plant growth, which can further a secondary host to this disease, which therefore, excessive summer heat can be reduce frost risk. requires both pine and Ribes to complete a limiting factor to culture. Temperatures Plants have shallow, fibrous roots its life cycle. Red and white currants and above 85°F can cause currant leaves to and should be situated where irrigation gooseberries exhibit varying degrees of begin to flag and extended exposure to can be provided. They should be grown susceptibility. In 1912, federal and state direct sunlight can cause leaf sunburn. beyond the canopy of shade trees, away governments introduced restrictions on Temperatures of 95°F sustained for three from competition for moisture. importing, planting, and cultivating Ribes or more days may cause most of the fruit Though currants and gooseberries are species to protect the lucrative timber to drop from the plant, especially if the not excessively damaged by white pine industry. Soon after, a sweeping federal fruit is nearly ripe. Partial shade, a soil blister rust, their proximity to susceptible law was passed banning only black mulch, and adequate water are essential pine species (those with five needles per currants, while some northern states in drier, hotter areas. American goose- needle cluster) should be considered. passed outright bans on all Ribes species. berries are more tolerant of direct light Locate plantings at least 1,500 feet away A program of eradication of both native and warm temperatures than European from valuable ornamental plantings, stands and domestic plantings was types. Chapter 9 ❦ Gooseberries and Currants 227 commercial nurseries, commercial pine Red Currants Tatran crops or native stands. Cascade • Late season. • A sister selection of Detvan, with Soils • Early. • Fruit is large, medium dark red, and many similar characteristics. Currants and gooseberries are fairly produced on short strigs. • Plants are robust and upright. tolerant of a wide range of soil condi- • Plants are erect to slightly sprawling • Fruit is very large and produced on tions and less than perfect sites. They and of medium productivity and long strigs of 25 to 30 berries. perform best in well-drained silt to vigor. • Very high yielding and resistant to sandy loam soils with an organic matter • Berries are susceptible to sunscald runoff. content greater than 1 percent and good and should be picked promptly. • Should be planted at least 5 feet apart water-holding capacity. Planting in light both within the row and between sandy or heavy clay soils should be Detvan rows. avoided, as well as areas in which water • Midseason. • Canes become very heavy with fruit stands for any length of time. If your • A selection from Slovakia. and may need some support. area is poorly drained, improve the site • Plants are very large, robust, and by tiling or building raised beds. Both upright. Wilder heavy and light soils can be improved • Fruit is large and produced on very • Mid- to late season. by additions of organic matter. The ideal long strigs, often with as many as 25 • Fruit is large, dark red, subacid, and soil pH is slightly acidic, from 5.5 to 6.5. to 30 berries per strig. produced on large compact clusters. Micronutrient deficiencies may occur at • Should be planted on at least 5-foot • Plants are productive, large, and a pH greater than 7.0. Saline or salty soils row centers. upright to spreading. near coastal areas should be avoided. • Very high yielding. • Resistant to leaf spots. Cultivars • Good resistance to gray mold (also White and Pink Currants Several factors should be considered called runoff). White and pink currants are more difficult to find. They grow like red when choosing a cultivar. Adapt- Jonkeers van Tets currants but have a less acidic, sweeter, ability, availability of nursery stock, • Popular early to midseason selection unique flavor. The fruit is small, white productivity, ripening time, fruit size, from Holland. to yellowish to pinkish, and opaque to appearance, flavor, ease of harvest, • Fruit is dark red and soft, has very translucent. and disease resistance are just a few good flavor, and is on medium-sized important considerations. strigs. Blanka Selection for cold-hardiness is usually • Plants bloom early and are heavy • Mid- to late season. not an issue, though bloom time and producers. • Known for heavy yields and depend- bloom hardiness should be considered in • Growth habit is not uniform. ability. areas where late spring frosts commonly • Plants are mildew and aphid • Produces long strigs of large, opaque, occur. More importantly for the Mid- resistant, but gray mold can be a off-white fruit. Atlantic, relative tolerance to summer problem for fruit production in wet • Plants are vigorous and spreading heat, foliar disease, and insect pressure years. and easy to grow. should be considered. Documentation of the performance of cultivars in our Red Lake Pink Champagne region is limited, and test plantings of • Mid- to late season. • Midseason. cultivars are strongly recommended • Fruit is large, firm, light red, subacid, • Quality and flavor are good. before larger plantings are committed. and is on easy-to-pick long strigs with • Fruit is a translucent pink color. high juice content. Currants • Yields are generally low. • Easily found in nurseries. Most currants are self-fruitful; therefore, • Plants are vigorous, upright, and • Plants are productive, upright, dense only one cultivar is needed for fruit resistant to leaf diseases. and hardy. production, unless otherwise noted in • Has a low tolerance to frost. Primus cultivar descriptions. However, currants • Susceptible to mildew. • Late season. will produce better and larger fruit • Has white to yellowish fruit on crops when more than one cultivar is Rovada upright, vigorous plants. planted. A few cultivars may be locally • Late season. • Similar to Blanka in fruit quality, but available through nurseries and garden • Fruit is large and produced on long, yields may be slightly lower. centers, but specialty mail order nursery compact strigs. suppliers are the primary source of • Dependable bearer and productive. White Imperial stock. See Appendix C for a listing of • Blooms late, so frost can be less of a • Midseason. nurseries that carry Ribes. problem than with other cultivars. • One of most commonly available • Resistant to mildew and other leaf white varieties. diseases. • Lowest acidity of currant cultivars. 228 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

• Produces small fruit on long strigs. Blackdown blister rust. Many of these selections are • Yields are moderate. • Untested in the region. large fruited and, in general, much more • Plants have a spreading growth habit. • Fruit is said to be large and flavorful. palatable for fresh use than black currant • No resistance to white pine blister rust. cultivars currently available. Black Currants Black currants are prized for their Black September Gooseberries strong aroma, flavor and high vitamin • Late season variety. American gooseberry cultivars are more C content. Some varieties, particularly • Fruit is large and firm with a mild foliar-disease resistant, more productive, those that are purely Ribes nigrum, are flavor. healthier, and more adaptable to varied highly susceptible to white pine blister • Yields are poor. climatic conditions than European rust. Resistance has been developed in • No resistance to white pine blister rust. cultivars, which have the advantages cultivars through crossing of R. nigrum of large fruit size, good color, and and R. ussurienses. Cultivars resistant to Consort sweet flavor. Lack of disease resistance white pine blister rust are available and • Early to midseason. and marginal hardiness has limited should be selected. • Fruit is medium to small with European cultivar use in North America Juice and processing quality of medium firmness. and a stringent disease management initial crosses to incorporate white pine • Juice quality is fair. program is required to grow them. blister rust resistance (Consort, Coronet, • Does not machine harvest well. Despite the huge number of European Crusader) are considered substandard • Plants are self-fertile with dependable cultivars in existence, few are commonly as compared to standard nonresistant set but are rated fair in productivity. available in the United States. Newer cultivars. However, recent backcrosses • Susceptible to leaf spot and mildew. cultivars with American genetic disease (crosses back to a parent), such as the • Resistant to white pine blister rust. resistance are being developed and cultivar Titania, have retained near introduced; however, at this time, few Coronet and Crusader immunity to white pine blister rust. new commercial American cultivars • Similar to Consort but both require These backcrosses also have improved are on the market. Most currently pollinators. commercial traits such as tolerance of available have been around for many • Yields and quality are poor. adverse weather at flowering, and suit- years. While the true genetic lines are • Resistant to white pine blister rust. ability for machine harvest. In addition, somewhat blurred between American they have a long hang time, even Tisel and European gooseberries, a distinct fruit-ripening within clusters, high yield, • Midseason. separation of the two types still remains. improved resistance to mildew and leaf • New cultivar that is a progeny of The following cultivars are of diseases, and better juice quality. Black Titania. American origin: currants nonresistant to white pine • Productive. Captivator blister rust, though sometimes listed, are • Fruit ripens evenly and has very high • Late season. not recommended and usually are in the vitamin C levels. • American-European hybrid. target group still prohibited by law. • Has reported immunity to white pine • Fruit is large, pink to red, teardrop blister rust and also is resistant to Ben Lomond shaped, and sweet. mildew. • Known for even ripening and high • Yields are moderate. • Not yet available in the United States. yields of large, firm fruit that have a • Plants are mildew resistant with few long hang time and high vitamin C Titania thorns. content, despite high pectin levels. • Midseason. Jahns Prairie • Plants are compact yet spreading and • Fruit is large and of high quality. • A selection from a native population have good frost tolerance at flowering. • Yields are high. in Alberta, Canada. • Plants have variable resistance to • Plants are vigorous, growing up to 6 mildew and slight resistance to white feet tall, come into full production by • Belongs to the species R. oxyacan- pine blister rust. the third year, and are well-suited for thoides L. machine harvest. • Fruit is red pink and of very good Ben Sarek • Nearly immune to white pine blister eating quality. • Early to midseason. rust, but is susceptible to a cane blight • Resistant to botrytis, powdery • Known for strong set of very large disease, possibly from the genus mildew, and white pine blister rust. fruit, ease of hand harvest, and Botryosphaeria. tolerance to frost and cold injury. Oregon Champion • Growth habit is very compact. Current Breeding Efforts • Midseason. • Recommended for small-scale A few Russian seedling selections are • Fruit is small to medium in size, growers with limited land area. being increased in number for distri- round to oval, and pale white to • Has slight to moderate resistance to bution and will become available in greenish yellow at maturity. white pine blister rust. the near future. These selections vary • The fruit has a thin skin and is juicy in resistance to mildew and white pine and tart. Chapter 9 ❦ Gooseberries and Currants 229

• Plants are large, vigorous, upright to • Thought to be a natural American- fall; however, potassium and nitrogen spreading, and productive. European cross. (25 to 35 pounds per acre) should be • Plants are somewhat susceptible to • Plants are very susceptible to mildew. incorporated in the spring to avoid the mildew. loss of nutrients to leaching. Currants Hinnonmaki Red and Hinnonmaki Yellow and gooseberries are sensitive to the Pixwell • Developed in Finland. chloride contained in muriate of potash • From North Dakota. • Fruit is red and green yellow, respec- (0-0-60), so another form of potassium, • Fruit is of medium size, pink, in tively. such as sulfate of potash, should be clusters, and of fair quality. • Hinnonmaki Red fruit is medium used. If plants are to be planted in the • Plants are vigorous, productive, size, while Hinnonmaki Yellow fruit fall, nitrogen should not be applied until hardy, and have few thorns. is smaller. the following spring. • Recommended for home garden use. • With both, the skin is tart, but the Currants and gooseberries respond • Best if used slightly underripe. flesh is sweet, aromatic, and has very well to organic amendments, which • Mildew resistant. good flavor. improve aeration and drainage and also • Both are thorny. Poorman increase water-holding capacity in all • Hinnonmaki Red is also known as soil types. Organic matter can be applied • Early to midseason. Leppa Red (erroneously). • Fruit is red, of medium size, and oval in the fall or spring before planting. • Plants are short, moderate in vigor, Well-aged manure at 4 to 5 bushels per shaped. and upright to slightly spreading. • Fruit ripens over a long period and is 100 square feet (1,750 to 2,200 bushels • H. Red is more mildew resistant than per acre) is a good option; other suitable of high quality. H. Yellow. • Flavor is sprightly sweet. sources are finished compost, leaves, • Sometimes characterized as an rotted hay or straw, shredded peat, or • Plants are vigorous, the largest of American type. American cultivars, productive, sawdust. Any additions should be free of upright, dense with few short thorns, Industry weed seeds and insects. and mildew resistant. • An older, large, red-fruiting cultivar For larger plantings, a cover crop with slightly hairy fruit. (green manure) can also be grown and Tixia • Finding a source of this cultivar may turned in to increase organic matter. • Midseason. be difficult. See Chapter 2 for more information on • Red fruit is large and relatively mild • Plants are very susceptible to mildew. green manure crops. Two or possibly in flavor. three green manure crops can be grown • Plants are vigorous, have few thorns, Invicta during the course of one growing and are resistant to mildew. • Midseason. season if the first crop is planted early. • Fruit is large and pale green with a At blossom, till or disk down the cover Welcome bland flavor. crop and replant immediately. A winter • Released by the University of • Used for processing, where it cover (e.g., cereal rye, vetch) should Minnesota. provides an even color and flavor. be sown after fall site preparation. At • Fruit is a dull red and of medium to • Plants are large and productive and least 3 weeks prior to spring planting, large size. have numerous spines. overwintered cover crops should be • Plants are hardy and have few spines. • Resistance to mildew is good, but burned down with herbicides and/or The following cultivars are of resistance to other leaf spots is not. mowed or chopped and incorporated. Be European origin: sure to disk or rototill organic materials Site Preparation deeply into the soil to ensure adequate Site preparation should begin by eradi- Careless breakdown and soil loosening. If large cating perennial weeds in the planting • Midseason. amounts of non-decomposed materials area to the fullest extent possible. This • Fruit is large, oval, and pale green to are added, ammonium nitrate can be can be achieved by applying translocated milky white when ripe with a smooth applied at 1 pound per 100 square feet herbicides in mid- to late summer or by transparent skin. (450 pounds of ammonium nitrate per diligent cultivation. A soil test should be • Plants are moderately vigorous, acre) to aid in decomposition. A different taken to determine the soil pH, phos- upright to spreading, and very nitrogen source can be used, applied at phorus, and potassium levels and needs. susceptible to mildew. an equivalent rate (150 pounds of actual These nutrients should be amended to nitrogen per acre). Clark moderate levels, with available phos- In areas of questionable drainage, • Mid- to late season. phorus brought to a range of 50 to 75 permanent raised beds 3 to 4 feet wide • Fruit is very large, red, and of high pounds per acre and potassium to 150 and 4 to 6 inches tall should be formed. quality. to 200 pounds per acre. Lime should be A second option to improve drainage • Plants are thorny, dense, short added to bring the soil pH to 6.1 if pH is to install drain tiles at least 25 inches with branches close to the ground, levels are below 5.5. Along with lime, deep near the row. moderate in vigor, and productive. phosphorus can be incorporated in the 230 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Spacing and Planting Systems weeks, plants can be heeled in with roots additional annual applications made to Plant spacing is dependent on cultivar covered with soil in a temporary outdoor maintain this depth as decomposition vigor and growth habit, site fertility, trench. occurs. Fresh or undecomposed materials planting system, and equipment size. In such as woodchips or sawdust can tie up Planting general, red or white currants and goose- available nitrogen as they break down, Because Ribes plants break dormancy berries should be planted 3 to 4 feet and additional nitrogen above recom- early, very early spring planting is recom- apart in rows a minimum of 6 to 8 feet mended rates may be needed. Signs of mended. A plant that has just leafed out apart. Black currants are more vigorous nitrogen deficiency include yellowing can easily tolerate 20°F, so do not be afraid and should be spaced 4 to 5 feet apart older leaves and poor growth. Rodents to plant as soon as the soil can be worked. in rows 8 to 12 feet apart. Avoid over- may infest mulched areas and should be If dormant nursery stock is available, fall crowding plantings because adequate controlled before winter sets in. planting should be used; however, avoid air circulation and movement are critical nitrogen fertilizer application, which may Fertility in reducing foliar disease incidence. decrease winter hardiness. In addition, Currants and gooseberries are heavy Equipment access is also an important plants should be mulched to reduce feeders and respond to a regular preplant consideration, and adequate winter frost heaving effects. fertilizer program. Established plants room must remain between rows when Avoid excessive root drying and should be fertilized each spring as plants mature. exposure as plants are set out. The roots growth begins. Depending on site Plants can be established as free- of bare-root plants should be soaked fertility and plant vigor, fertilizer standing bushes at the above spacing in a bucket of clean water 2 to 3 hours applications can be made only once in or planted at closer densities to form prior to planting. Plants should be set early spring or split to encourage better a hedgerow—a common practice for about an inch deeper than they were growth. Because the plants have shallow black currant production. A third, less growing in the nursery. Covering one roots and fertilizer may quickly leach common method is to keep plants to three buds on the lower part of canes below the root zone, splitting applica- pruned as a tree form or as a standard will encourage a larger root system and tions, especially in light textured soils, is with a trunk kept at a chosen height and increase renewal cane production. Avoid recommended. supported by a trellis. This is sometimes excessive planting depths. Damaged and Both currants and gooseberries are practiced with gooseberries, which straggling root parts should be trimmed; sensitive to chloride. Therefore, when increases air circulation and reduces the roots should be spread out, covered applying a balanced fertilizer such as disease. In this system, spacing is the with soil, and pressed firmly to remove 10-10-10, use a fertilizer made with same as that of freestanding bushes. air pockets. Water the plants to settle the potassium sulfate rather than potassium While trellising the plants is not a soil, but avoid “water logging.” chloride. You may need to blend your requirement, it improves fruit exposure own. Keep in mind that some fertilizers and makes harvesting easier, especially Establishment and certain mixtures absorb moisture with gooseberries. A simple series of Newly set plants should be pruned very quickly, so the blend should be horizontal wires placed about 6 inches back to 6 to 10 inches above the ground, applied immediately after it is mixed. apart to which canes can be tied will depending on root system vigor. This Other potassium-containing fertil- suffice. will encourage development of new izers that can be used are potassium canes. With fall planting, this pruning Obtaining Plants magnesium sulfate (Sul-Po-Mag), should be delayed until spring. When Plants should be one or two years old, if magnesium is also needed, and practical, blossoms or any set fruit should vigorous, and well rooted. Reliable potassium nitrate. For second-year be removed the year of planting. This disease-free stock can be purchased from plantings, apply approximately 4 to 5 helps plants to become well established a nursery, or nonpatented stock can be ounces of 10-10-10 fertilizer per plant (or and make better vegetative growth. easily propagated by means of layering an equivalent rate of a similar fertilizer). and by cuttings (see section on propa- Cultivation and Mulching A broadcast application should be gation). Only disease- and insect-free Mechanically cultivate or hand hoe from made, spread under the branches and stock should be propagated and planted. early spring until harvest to control just beyond the drip line. In third-year Nursery-grown plants will usually come weeds between rows. Practice level, plantings, rates should be increased as bare-root stock. Request that the shallow cultivation to avoid harming slightly. Fourth-year and mature plants be shipped as close to the planting roots. After planting and throughout the plantings should receive a maximum date as possible. life of the plants, maintain an organic of 6 to 8 ounces of 10-10-10 fertilizer After receiving the plants, check the mulch of straw, decomposed hardwood per plant (0.6 to 0.8 ounces of actual roots for moistness, moisten if necessary, sawdust or bark, pine needles, compost, nitrogen per plant or 25 to 50 pounds of and store plants in a plastic bag in cold or other suitable material around the base actual nitrogen per acre). Depending on storage (separate from apples or other of each plant or as a band over the row. growth, up to double these rates may sources of ethylene, as this is lethal to Mulching helps to conserve soil moisture, be needed where fresh sawdust or bark plants) until the site is ready to plant. If cools the soil, and suppresses weeds. The chip mulch is used (using fresh mulch storage is necessary for longer than two mulch should be 2 to 4 inches deep, with materials is not recommended). Chapter 9 ❦ Gooseberries and Currants 231

When available, manure or other injury during bloom. As temperatures • After the first season: During late composted materials with a high fall just below freezing, low volumes of winter or early spring, remove all nitrogen content are the best nutrient water are applied using special low- but six to eight of the most vigorous sources for Ribes, which respond well delivery nozzles. A protective film of shoots, making pruning cuts close to to the slow-release nature of organic ice forms over the plant and blossoms the ground. nitrogen sources. These materials can be and, as water is converted to ice, heat • After two seasons: Leave four or five substituted for all or part of the fertilizer is released, which protects blooms and new one-year-old shoots and keep requirement. They should be applied in newly set fruit. Trickle systems are not three or four of the two-year old- early spring to allow time for nutrient useful for frost protection. See Appendix canes. movement into the root zone. In general, A for additional information on frost • After three seasons: Leave three to inorganic nitrogen additions can be protection. four canes from new one-year-old reduced by one-half or more with the Pollination Considerations growth, and keep three or four each use of manure. Applying either manure Since currants and gooseberries (except of the two- and three-year-old canes. or chemical fertilizers in summer or for a few black currants) are self-fruitful, early fall can make plants more suscep- • Mature plantings: After the fourth cross-pollination by a second cultivar is tible to winter injury. and following years, remove the not needed. However, cross-pollination oldest canes and keep three to four Notes on Sod Row Middles can result in bigger fruit and a larger new one-year-old canes to replace the A permanent sod such as creeping red harvest. Larger plantings may benefit older canes you removed. fescue or orchardgrass may be grown from inclusion of multiple cultivars When pruning, also remove branches between rows. This area should be and nearby placement of beehives to that lie too close to the ground. Heading lightly cultivated and fertilized prior to facilitate pollination. Bumble bees and back is not necessary; however, removal sowing or drilling seed for best results. solitary bees are more efficient in most of diseased tips and weak or otherwise Sod eliminates the need for cultivation cases due to the early bloom when damaged branches is advised. Exces- between rows and provides a clean weather is colder and honey bees are not sively crowded and vigorous canes walking area for hand-picking. Sod as active. As always, only insecticides should be thinned to create an open should not be allowed to grow closer not harmful to bees should be used center to increase light exposure for than one foot from the drip line and during bloom. fruit bud formation and to increase air should be kept closely mowed and Pruning and Training circulation. Do not make the common irrigated. Avoid legumes in a sod seed Currants and gooseberries should be mistake of leaving the bushes too thick. mix because they may provide untimely pruned in the dormant season—during Plants may also be thinned in summer nitrogen. Plantings under sod culture late winter and early spring. Red currants by removing many of the side branches tend to be more prone to frost injury as and gooseberries are similar in their on the canes so that the canes are better compared to cultivated soil since bare fruiting characteristics; black currants able to support a heavy fruit load and to soil warms more quickly in the spring are different and should be pruned facilitate harvest. and releases more heat on cold nights. accordingly. Pruning red currants to a tree or Irrigation standard form is also possible. This Red, White, and Pink Currants and For quality fruit, currants and goose- requires judicious removal of suckers Gooseberries berries require about one inch of water and stem growth and/or the use of Plants of these types produce most of per week from bloom to the end of grafted plants. Trellising or some means their fruit from short spurs located on harvest. This ensures good plant growth, of support is usually required. The one- , two- , or three-year-old canes. high yields, and large berry size. In most advantages of this system are increased Spurs decline in productivity by the areas, rainfall is usually adequate, espe- yields and air circulation. Disadvantages fourth year. Hence, older canes should cially if mulch is being used. However, are increased hand labor in pruning be removed at ground level. In pruning if rainfall is insufficient, supplemental and training, cost of wire support, and for bush production, a goal for a mature irrigation is advised. Drip or trickle decreased plant longevity. This method plant is to have nine to twelve main stems irrigation is preferable to overhead is recommended for those who have had (three to four each of one-, two- , and irrigation, which can increase foliar experience with dwarf tree fruit systems three-year-old canes). All stems older disease problems. During prolonged dry or are interested in specialized or unique than three years should be removed. periods after harvest, plants should be methods of production or ornamental This is called renewal pruning and will watered periodically until late August aspects. Trellising of large red currant keep the bushes productive. A seasonal or early September. Add enough water plants reduces wind damage in early pruning schedule should follow this to moisten the soil to 6 to 8 inches deep, spring. pattern: allowing it to dry out somewhat before Black Currants watering again. Roots can be injured by • At planting: After planting, head Black currants produce best on one- and overirrigation. back plants to 6 to 10 inches tall two-year-old wood. They do not fruit As with strawberries, sprinkler to encourage root and basal shoot on spurs as do red currants and goose- irrigation can help to prevent frost growth. 232 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 berries. Strong one-year-old shoots and pruning to promote one-year-old shoot stuck cuttings should be mulched with two- and three-year-old stems that have production on older wood. straw or stuck through black plastic. an abundance of strong one-year-old They should be cut and placed as soon shoots are the most productive. Harvest as the plants are dormant, which will Because of their bearing habit, allow several weeks for rooting to start Black currants, jostaberries, and goose- black currants can be pruned by two before the ground freezes. berries are harvested as individual different methods. These two methods Gooseberries—in particular the berries; red, white, and pink currants are can be used in both free-standing and European types—can also be propagated picked in whole strigs. Red currants are hedgerow systems. by layering. This can be done using a smaller and more tightly bunched than “stooling bed” (mound layering) or by Method 1 black currants. Gooseberry fruit is borne individual branch layering (ground In a method similar to pruning red singularly or in small clusters on spurs. layering). Stool beds require the use of currants and gooseberries, plants should Fruit is harvested in midsummer. a stock plant that should be cut back have two- and three-year-old canes, along Currants ripen over a two-week or before growth starts in the spring. with one-year-old shoots, with a total longer period, while gooseberries take By early summer a large number of 10 to 15 canes per mature bush. Black from 4 to 6 weeks to ripen, depending of vigorous shoots will have been currants are somewhat more vigorous on weather. Once a berry fully ripens, produced. Soil is mounded around than red currants; hence the number of it can be left on the bush for a week or these shoots about halfway to the tips, canes kept is higher. The proportion of more without becoming overmature; with care taken to work the soil down one-year-old canes kept to older canes but in some varieties, fruit acidity can among the shoots. The covered parts is also different, with approximately drop. This allows fruit that matures more of the shoots usually become rooted by one-half of all canes kept being one-year- slowly to ripen and condenses harvest to fall. Cut the newly rooted plant from old canes. Remove all shoots more than two to three pickings. Red currants turn the parent in the spring and plant in a three years old at ground level. red long before they are fully ripe. They permanent site or in nursery rows. should be allowed to remain on the plant Method 2 Branch layering is similar to mound as long as possible to develop additional An easier method of pruning black layering and is accomplished by bending flavor and sweeten with time. currants takes advantage of its fruiting down branches while they are still Gooseberry harvest generally requires habit. This system uses only one- attached to the plant and partly covering the use of gloves, especially with year-old canes and an alternate-year them with soil. Pegs may be necessary to thornier varieties. If desired, a canvas production system. hold down the stems. This can be done may be spread out under the bush and fall or spring. Plants are kept covered for • Year 1: Plants are pruned to the fruit knocked off onto it. Berries can be one growing season. Roots and shoots ground immediately following the harvested when they are full size but not form along the branch; several plants harvest, then lightly fertilized and yet ripe. This is preferred for pies and can often be obtained from one branch. watered. Small immature canes may jam. For fresh and juice use, fruit should These can be dug and separated after the be allowed to grow. This will usually be allowed to reach full ripeness and growing season. provide 12 to 18 inches of growth by color expression. dormancy. These canes do not set Both currants and gooseberries can be flower buds. frozen and kept for later use. Pest Management • Year 2: The previous year’s canes Both currants and gooseberries can be remain vegetative and additional Propagation affected by several insect and disease canes are produced. problems. Powdery mildew and leaf To increase your plantings, currants and spot (anthracnose) are two common • Year 3: A large crop is produced. gooseberries are easily propagated by disease problems. Careful site selection, Plants are again pruned to the ground means of cuttings or layering, as long the choosing resistant cultivars, and proper after fruiting. varieties you intend to propagate are not pruning often give adequate control; The cycle repeats with vegetative growth patented. chemical use is an additional means of only the next year. As plants are out of Cuttings should be taken during the management (see Table 9.1). production for a season, the planting dormant season from new one-year-old should be divided into differently wood. Make cuttings 6 to 8 inches long, Diseases pruned blocks to ensure a crop each year. with the bottom and top cuts made near Botrytis (Runoff), Dieback, and Fruit This method greatly simplifies pruning nodes. Stick in rooting media in the late Rot of black currants and reduces insect fall or take later and keep in moist sand, Symptoms: The gray fuzz characteristic and disease carryover. The hedgerow sawdust, or peat moss in a cool place of botrytis on other crops covers the planting system is ideal for this time- (refrigerator) until they are set in early leaves and fruit. Tips of branches turn saving pruning method. spring. Cuttings should be set about 6 dark and die. Fruit drops from the plant Black currants can also be trained inches apart in a well-drained nursery before ripening. as a standard. This requires diligent bed. They should be inserted so that one to two buds extend out of the soil. Fall Chapter 9 ❦ Gooseberries and Currants 233

Causal Agent: The fungus Botrytis Epidemiology: The fungus overwinters White Pine Blister Rust and Currant cinerea. in old leaves on the ground. Blister Rust Epidemiology: The fungus has a wide Controls: Good sanitation and practices Symptoms: In the spring, small, yellow host range and can survive on either that improve foliage drying. Fungicides spots appear on the leaves. Yellow- living or dead tissue. It overwinters in may be applied. orange fruiting bodies (“rust”) are dead leaves and plant debris and on visible on the leaf undersides. Damage Powdery Mildew, Gooseberry Mildew, stems. Inoculum is produced from fruiting to Ribes plants is of little concern; the American Gooseberry Mildew, and structures on canes, from dead leaves, and American Powdery Mildew main concern is the damage and death of from mummified berries in the spring. susceptible five-needled pine species (in Symptoms: Powdery, “frosty” patches Controls: To help control the disease, the east, primarily white pine). on shoots, branch tips, and young leaves, choose a planting site with good air Causal Agent: Cronartium ribicola. eventually causing dead tissue in the movement and prune out weak canes to affected area or deformation of leaves Epidemiology: Initial infection occurs speed the drying of plants. Also elim- and shoots. On the fruit, white patches in the spring when fungal spores from inate weeds to aid in quicker drying of may occur, but eventually the mildew diseased white pines land on the leaves foliage and fruit and harvest fruit before turns a dark brown, making the fruit of the Ribes bush and germinate. After it is overripe. Fungicides should be rough and unmarketable. Infected fruit 1 to 3 weeks, fruiting bodies on the applied during bloom, with additional might also split open. In severe cases, undersides of the leaves produce spores applications made during harvest, if infection decreases fruit production the that infect more Ribes tissue. A second necessary. Refer to Table 9.1 for fungicide following year. type of spore is produced in late summer recommendations. and fall that can be wind-carried great Causal Agent: Sphaerotheca mors-uvae distances. These spores then infect white Anthracnose Leaf Spot is referred to as American gooseberry pines. After 1 to 2 years, spores are Symptoms: Dark-brown or black spots mildew since it originated in the United produced from the pine tree, starting the that appear on the leaves at any time States. S. mors-uvae causes more severe cycle over. Black currants are the most during the growing season. The spots symptoms on Ribes than other types of susceptible Ribes species. grow larger over time to a size of about powdery mildew. Sphaerotheca macu- 1/8 inch, remain dark, and may develop a laris is another species of powdery Controls: Resistant black currant vari- purplish margin. Eventually leaves turn mildew that occasionally affects Ribes eties are listed in the section on cultivars. yellow and drop from the plant. The spots in the United States and causes similar Avoid planting near white pines. symptoms. Control for both species is look like fly specks on berries. Berries Currant Cane Blight may split open and drop from the plant. the same. Symptoms: Shoots wilt and die. The Epidemiology: S. mors-uvae affects Causal Agent: Drepanopeziza ribis. whole plant may be affected. Pith is gooseberries and black currants. The Epidemiology: The fungus overwinters discolored, ranging from light tan in fungus overwinters in buds and infects in old leaves on the ground. Spores are young infected shoots to black in mature the shoots produced from those buds produced on the dead leaves and are canes that are nearly dead. Canes may in the spring. Spores are produced on released, infecting new leaves. A different become hollow and snap off. infected foliage and spread by wind. The type of spore is later produced that is fungus grows most prolifically under Causal Agent: Botryosphaeria ribis. spread by splashing rain. Wet spring conditions of high humidity. weather aids in disease development. Epidemiology: Disease cycle is thought Controls: Because mildew is most to be similar to that of Botrysphaeria Controls: Rake away and destroy problematic under conditions of high dothidea, which causes Botryosphaeria affected leaves. Mulch can be applied humidity, any cultural control that cane blight on blueberries. Inoculum in the fall after the leaves drop to bury decreases humidity in the vicinity of survives the winter and is probably them. Any practice that aids in plant the leaves will be helpful. Avoid damp produced in dead, infected canes and drying will be helpful. Fungicides may planting sites; growing Ribes in shady shoot tips in the spring and early winter. be applied. locations to decrease heat stress may Controls: Remove infected branches and Septoria Leaf Spot make the occurrence of powdery mildew dead shoot tips in the spring, wilting Symptoms: Spots on leaves develop in more likely. Do not use closer plant canes in the summer, and entire plants early summer. Septoria leaf spots are spacings than those recommended if dead or severely infected. Stobilurin similar in appearance to anthracnose above. Keep plantings well pruned and fungicides can help protect uninfected leaf spots, except that septoria leaf well weeded. Captivator, Glendale, plants but will not cure infected plants. spots develop a light center as the spots Hinnomaki Yellow, Hinnomaki Red, and According to research at Cornell, the enlarge. Leaves drop from the plant. Poorman are resistant. most effective practices for management Causal Agent: Mycosphaerella ribis have been application of dormant (anamorph Septoria ribis) sprays of copper hydroxide and sulfur combined with diligent pruning. 234 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Insects Life Cycle: One generation per year is Identification: The ½-inch-long adult Aphids, Various Species, especially expected in this region, but at least two resembles a wasp, though this pest is Currant Aphid, Cryptomyzus ribis can occur with warmer temperatures. actually a moth with clear wings and a (Homoptera: Aphididae) Adults overwinter in protected locations wingspan of about ¾ inch. The larva is and emerge in spring. They lay eggs white with a light-brown head. Symptoms of Damage: Foliage is from May through August. Nymphs distorted, crinkled, curled, and some- Life Cycle: Adult moths emerge from progress through five instars. times reddened, brought about by aphid the canes in the spring and lay their feeding on the leaf undersides. Monitoring and Controls: Direct obser- eggs on the canes in early summer. In a vation; other monitoring techniques are little more than a week, the larvae hatch Identification: Small (less than 1/10 inch), in development. Pyrethroids are the most and enter the cane where they feed slow-moving, pear-shaped, yellow-green effective chemical class. Nymphs should while tunneling through the pith. They insects with cornicles (tubes) extending be targeted during pesticide applica- overwinter as larvae, cause little damage backwards from their posterior. tions as they cannot fly away; a direct while feeding briefly during the spring, Life Cycle: Aphids overwinter as tiny, hit of nymphs or adults is necessary for pupate, and emerge as adults. glossy, black eggs on the stems. Green efficacy. Natural enemies are present, but Monitoring and Control: These female aphids hatch from these eggs they have a wide host range and thus branches should be pruned below the about the time the leaves appear and currently provide insufficient control. damage and destroyed. Adults fly well give birth to live aphids. Winged forms and can be seen hovering around the are produced when overcrowding Currant Fruit Fly (Gooseberry Maggot, canes. Insecticides should be applied to occurs, allowing the aphids to distribute Currant Maggot), Euphranta (formerly Epochra) canadensis (Diptera: target adults and young larvae before themselves more easily. Male and female Tephritidae) they enter the canes. Insecticides applied forms are produced in the fall and mate, after the larvae are protected inside the after which the females deposit eggs for Symptoms of Damage: A dark spot on the cane will have no effect. overwintering. berry possibly surrounded by a reddened area. White larvae may be found in Monitoring and Control: Especially Imported Currant Worm, Nematis affected fruit. Infested berries usually troublesome on red currants. Predatory ribesii (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae) drop prematurely, but when they don’t, insects are helpful in control, and aphid Symptoms of Damage: Damage is from harvested fruit can be contaminated. populations may decrease later in the the larvae, which have voracious appe- season once populations of predators Identification: Adults are a fly about1 /3 tites and can completely defoliate a plant build. Insecticides as listed in Table 9.1 inch long. Their bodies are yellow with in a few days. shading and their wings are banded. may be applied. Identification: Adults are sawflies the Brown Marmorated Stink Bug, Haly- Life Cycle: Adults emerge from soil in size of a housefly. The head and thorax omorpha halys (Stal) (Hemiptera: the spring and lay eggs under the skin are dark, and the abdomen is a yellow- Pentatomidae) of fruit. Eggs hatch in 5 to 8 days, and red. The caterpillar larvae are green with larvae then feed in the fruit for 11 to 16 black spots in early instars but become a Symptoms of Damage: Direct feeding days. Larvae may continue to feed once solid light green in their last instar. on fruit by adults and all stages of berries have fallen to the ground. Larvae nymphs. This pest is listed for this crop Life Cycle: Adults emerge from the soil enter the soil and pupate over the winter. as a precaution; extensive damage has soon after bud break. Translucent white not been reported on Ribes. Monitoring and Control: Early varieties eggs are laid along the leaf veins, from may escape damage. Collecting and which the larvae hatch in 7 to 10 days. Identification: Adults are mottled destroying fallen fruit regularly before They feed on the leaves for 2 to 3 weeks brown, about ¾ inch long, and nearly larvae hatch may have some effect on and then pupate in litter on the ground. as wide. They are similar in shape to populations. Monitor for adults—usually A second generation of adults appears other stink bugs exhibiting a shield found in shady areas of the plant— in midsummer, but it tends to be much shape. Adults can be differentiated from starting at petal fall. Treat if adults are lower in numbers, possibly because of common brown stink bugs by alter- seen. predation by natural predators. This nating brown and white bands on their second generation overwinters as pupae. antennae and along the edges of their Currant Borer, Synanthedon tipulifor- abdomens. Nymphs are smaller and, like mis (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae), also Known Monitoring and Control: Watch for adults, exhibit white bands on brown as Currant Stem Borer, Clearwing larvae starting just after bloom as the antennae. Their coloration varies with Borer, and Clearwinged Moth fruits start to enlarge. Cultural control instar, but each has some yellow or red Symptoms of Damage: Withering or involves being observant of growing coloration, and their eyes are red. Eggs yellowing of leaves. Affected canes may conditions and keeping plants vigorous. are yellowish green, oval, and laid in die. Watch for a dark hollow stem pith Insecticides may be applied, if necessary. clusters that are attached side to side on when pruning, as this is evidence of leaf undersides. damage. Borers are particularly troublesome on red currants. Chapter 9 ❦ Gooseberries and Currants 235

Gooseberry Fruitworm, Zophodia Spotted Wing Drosophila, Drosophila Weeds convolutella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) suzukii Matsumura (Diptera: Drosophilidae) Good weed control begins years Symptoms of Damage: Hollowed-out before planting. Begin by identifying berries that change color prematurely Symptoms of Damage: Tiny white perennial weed problems in the field. and dry up or fall to the ground. Clusters larvae found in otherwise marketable Eliminate these weeds before planting of berries and part of the stem may be fruit. Tiny holes surrounded by sunken by rotating to crops in which the target wrapped in a silken webbing. tissue may be found where oviposition perennial weed can be controlled and wounds were made. Spotted wing Identification: The adult is a grayish by using herbicides registered for the drosophila is a new pest; it will feed on moth with a wingspan of about an inch. crop that control the target weeds. After Ribes, but it is not known whether Ribes Larvae are about ¾ inch long with a harvest of these preceding crop(s), fruit are preferred. brownish head and green body with spend extra effort to continue control dark stripes along the sides when fully Identification: This pest is similar in strategies. Early to mid-fall applications grown. appearance to other vinegar flies or of glyphosate products or Banvel can fruit flies. Most adult males have one Life Cycle: Shortly after fruit set, adults be very effective. Use caution when large black spot on each wing, forward emerge from cocoons under dead leaves applying residual herbicides including of the tip. The definitive feature that on the ground, where they overwintered. Banvel and Stinger, as carryover can differentiates this vinegar fly from other The female lays eggs on the fruit. The affect crops the following year. Use species is two black bands (sex combs) larva enters the berry and feeds on the cover crops to aid in suppressing weed on each front leg on the males. Adult pulp. The larva may eat several berries growth. females lack wing spots and black bands and web them together. After the larva A permanent sod such as hard on the legs, but they have a large sawlike is fully grown, it moves down to the fescue between the rows is effective ovipositor. Larvae are 2–3 millimeters ground and pupates. in controlling weeds in established long, white, and have no obvious head. plantings. Within-row weeds can then be Monitoring and Control: Hand-picking Life Cycle: Due to this pest’s recent controlled with appropriate herbicides or infested berries provides some control. arrival, its local life cycle is still unchar- landscape fabric. An insecticide may be needed starting acterized. It is likely that a small number Herbicides labeled for use in bearing at early fruit development and again 10 of adults will survive the winters. The and nonbearing currants and goose- days later. pest can also be transported into the berries are Casoron, certain glyphosate San Jose Scale, Quadraspidiotus perni- region in fruit at any time. Each female products (Roundup, Touchdown, and cious (Homoptera: Diaspididae) can lay between 200 and 600 eggs. others), Gramoxone Max 3SC and Gramoxone Inteon 2.76SC, Scythe, Rely, Symptoms of Damage: In cases of Eggs hatch in 1 to 3 days depending on and Surflan AS. Devrinol 50DF is labeled light infestations, plant vigor may be temperature, after which larvae feed in for use on bearing and nonbearing decreased from the scale removing plant the fruit for 5 to 11 days. Pupation lasts currants. Fusilade DX, Select 2EC, juices. In severe infestations, canes or for 4 to 15 days. Eight to nine genera- Gallery 75DF, and Snapshot 2.5TG are plants may be killed. tions per growing season are likely. labeled for use only on nonbearing Monitoring and Controls: Vinegar traps Identification: Small, gray, circular currants and gooseberries (plants that 1 can be bought or made and are used to specks about /10 inch across, usually on won’t be harvested for at least one monitor for pest presence, but they are the canes. year). Other formulations with the same not a method of control. Traps containing Life Cycle: The scale insect overwinters inactive ingredients may exist that are vinegar should be hung in the crop as under its shell on the plant’s branches. labeled for the same uses. the fruit begins to color. Pyrethroids and In the spring, the males emerge as tiny Glyphosate products and Gramoxone, spinosads are efficacious on the adults; yellow-winged insects and mate with Scythe and Rely are nonselective neonicotinoids and some other broad- females. The females give birth to live postemergence materials. Glyphosate spectrum materials are less so. young (crawlers), which move to a products are translocated within and new location, begin feeding, and form therefore kill the entire plant, even their own shells. The scale insects reach though only a portion of the plant maturity in 25 to 30 days. Two genera- may have come in contact with the tions occur per year. herbicide. Fusilade, Select, and Select Max are selective postemergence Monitoring and Control: Superior oil at materials that are also translocated bud break will help, as will an insec- in the plant, but are effective only on ticide targeting the crawlers. grasses. Gramoxone and Scythe are See Chapter 3 for general guidance on nontranslocated contact herbicides, and using pesticides safely. kill only the portion of the plant with which they come in contact. Because of this feature, the roots of treated weeds 236 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 survive, and control of perennial weeds against both annual grasses and annual is only temporary. Good coverage is a broadleaf weeds. Casoron also controls necessity, as untreated portions of the some perennials. Before use, always leaves and stems will continue to live. consult the herbicide labels for precau- Rely is partially translocated. Casoron, tions, reentry intervals, and preharvest Gallery, Surflan, Devrinol, and Snapshot intervals. are preemergence materials, so they Remember that weeds compete with must be applied before weeds have each other, not just with crop plants. germinated. Gallery is effective against Therefore, controlling a particular weed annual broadleaves, while Surflan and or group of weeds may allow another Devrinol are effective against annual weed species to take over, requiring grasses and certain annual broadleaves. adjustments to your control strategies. Casoron and Snapshot are effective

Table 9.1. Pesticides for Ribes disease and insect control. The information below is correct to the best of our knowledge. Other formulations with the same active ingredient as some of the products listed below may exist and may or may not be labeled for the same uses. Always consult the label before making pesticide applications. Read the text for information on cultural practices to minimize pest incidence. If control cannot be achieved with a particular material, resistant populations could exist. Use a material in a different activity group, denoted by different designations in the “Group” column. Materials from different activity groups have different modes of action, See Table 3.2 for limits on states in which these cannot be used, use status (general versus restricted), chemical names of active ingredients, and reentry intervals. See Table 3.1 for toxicity to nontarget organisms. Information was current as of July 1, 2012. Pest Timing of Treatment/Comments Groupa Product Labeled Rate/Ab (Days to Harvest) DISEASES Botrytis During bloom, with additional applications made during 17 Elevate 50 WDG, 1.5 lb (0), or harvest, if necessary. Omega can be used only during bloom 7, 11 Pristine, 18.5–23 oz (0), or due to its long days-to-harvest limitation. 2 Rovral 4F, 1–2 pt (0), or 9, 12 Switch 62.5WG, 11–14 fl oz (0), or 29 Omega 500DF, 1.25 pt (30), or 3 Quash, 2.5 oz (7) Anthracnose leaf spot At bud break. M Lime sulfur (0), 2.5 gal per 100 gal of spray solution, applied at 100–160 gal/A

When disease symptoms appear, then as needed. Rally is 3 Rally 40W, 5.0 oz (0) labeled for anthracnose on gooseberries only. Septoria leaf spot When disease symptoms appear. Watch days-to-harvest 11 Abound, 6.0–15.5 fl oz (0), or limitations on Orbit and Tilt. 11 Cabrio EG, 14 oz (0), or 7, 11 Pristine, 18.5–23 oz (0), or 3 Orbit, 6 fl oz (30), or 3 Tilt, 6 fl oz (30) Powdery mildew Prebloom or postbloom. NC Stylet oil, 3–6 qts/100 gal (0), or M Lime sulfur, 1.5 qt per 100 gal of water (0) As needed. 3 Rally 40W, 5.0 oz (0), or 7, 11 Pristine, 18.5–23 oz (0), or 11 Abound, 6.0–15.5 fl oz (0), or 11 Cabrio EG, 14 oz (0) White pine blister rust When pustules are visible on leaf undersides. NC Stylet oil, 3–6 qts/100 gal (0), or 3 Rally 40W, 5.0 oz (0)

continued Chapter 9 ❦ Gooseberries and Currants 237

Table 9.1. Pesticides for Ribes disease and insect control, continued. Pest Timing of Treatment/Comments Groupa Product Labeled Rate/Ab (Days to Harvest) INSECTS San Jose scale At bud break. — Superior oil, see label for rate (—) When crawlers are present. 3 Mustang Max, 4 fl oz (1) Aphids Foliar application. Whenever aphids are found. Do not apply 1B Malathion 57EC, 2 pt (3), or Provado prebloom or during bloom. Admire may be applied — M-Pede, 1–2% v/v (0), or to the foliage at a low rate. 4A Provado, 3.0–4.0 fl oz (3), or 4A Actara, 3.0–4.0 oz (3), or 4A Assail 70WP, 1.0–2.3 oz or 30SG, 2.5–5.3 oz (1), or 3 Brigade WSB, 5.3–16.0 oz (1), or 3 Pyganic EC 5.0, 4.5–18 oz (0), or 4A Admire Pro, 1.0–1.4 fl oz (3) Soil application. Do not apply until bloom is over or when 4A Admire Pro, 7.0–14.0 fl oz (7) bees are actively foraging. Imported currant worm Target adults starting soon after bud break, then larvae as 1B Malathion 57EC, 3.2 pt (3), or fruits start to enlarge. 3 Pyganic EC 5.0, 4.5–18 oz (0) Currant fruit fly As adults are noted, starting at petal fall. Delegate is for 5 Success, 4–6 fl oz (3), or suppression. 5 Spintor 2SC, 4–6 fl oz (3), or 5 Entrust, 1.25–2.0 oz (3), or 5 Delegate WG, 3–6 oz (3), or 3 Pyganic EC 5.0, 4.5–18 oz (0) Currant borer Late spring to early summer. Pyganic should target adults and 3 Pyganic EC 5.0, 4.5–18 oz (0), or Bt products should target larvae before they enter the cane. 11 Bt products, various rates (0), or Insecticides will have no effect once larvae are protected 3 Danitol, 10.67–16 fl oz (21)c inside the cane. Gooseberry fruitworm Target adults at early fruit development and again 10 days 3 Brigade WSB, 5.3–16 oz (1), or later. 3 Pyganic EC 5.0, 4.5–18 oz (0) Brown marmorated stink If feeding on fruit is causing crop losses. 3 Danitol, 10.67–16 fl oz (3, 21)d bug Spotted wing drosophila When adult males are found in vinegar traps. 3 Danitol, 10.67–16 fl oz (3, 21)d, or 5 Delegate WG, 3–6 oz (3), or 5 Success, 4–6 fl oz (3), or 5 Entrust, 1.25–2.0 oz (3), or 3 Mustang Max, 4 fl oz (1), or 3 Pyganic EC 5.0, 4.5–18 oz (0)

a. Fungicide groups are listed in normal type; insecticide groups are italicized. Chemistry of fungicides by activity groups: 2 = dicarboximides; 3 = imidazoles or triazoles; 7 = carboxamides; 9 = anilinopyrimidines; 11 = strobilurins; 12 = phenylpyrroles; 17 = hydroxyanilides; 29 = activity group not named, chemical group = 2,6-dinitroanilines; M = chemical groups with multisite activity; NC = not classified. Fungicides with two activity groups listed contain active ingredients from two activity groups. Chemistry of insecticides by activity groups: 1B = organophosphates; 3 = pyrethrins and synthetic pyrethroids; 4A = neonicotinoids; 5 = spinosyns; 11 = Bt microbials. b. Some pesticides may be phytotoxic to plants. If in doubt; test a small area of the field first. Be sure sprayer is calibrated properly. c. Currant borer is listed only for currants on the Danitol label. d. The PHI for Danitol is 3 days for gooseberries and 21 days for currants. 238 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 239

Appendix A Frost and Freeze Protection that a plant’s tissues are exposed to low temperatures has little effect on damage; With most small fruit plants, damage the critical factor is the low temperature Expanded from freezes and frost is a concern reached, even if it was reached only from bud break in the spring through briefly. flowering and fruit set. The blossoms Special Topics are of most concern since they are Types of Frosts and Freezes/Condi- tender and are the plant part most tions Causing Their Occurrence commonly damaged by low tempera- Two different situations occur that can tures. Depending on the small fruit cause temperatures to drop to damaging crop and the site on which it is grown, levels: damage from frosts and freezes may Radiant frosts and freezes occur on be of concern nearly every year or only calm, clear nights with no cloud cover. occasionally. The likelihood that frost After sunset, the soil and plants lose Contents protection will be needed varies because heat, which radiates back to the sky. This usually occurs a day or two after the Frost and Freeze Protection...... 239 bloom time and critical temperatures are passage of a cold front. Since cloudiness Critical Temperatures for Frost Damage...239 different for each crop. Frost protection Types of Frosts and Freezes/Conditions will be needed during nearly every year accompanies fronts, heat frequently Causing Their Occurrence...... 239 for plasticulture strawberries; in most has little opportunity to build up Environmental Parameters Affecting Frost years for matted-row strawberries; in during the hours prior to clearing, thus Occurrence and Protection...... 240 only some years for blueberries, goose- compounding the problem. Effects of Environment on Frosts/Freeze berries, and currants; and was rarely Advective freezes are caused when Occurrence...... 240 needed for brambles until recently. a cold air mass moves into the region, Methods for Protecting Plants from Frosts represented by the classic Alberta clipper, and Freezes...... 240 Critical Temperatures for Frost a cold front with a lot of cold air and Taking Temperature Measurements...... 242 Damage wind. Therefore, advective freezes are Calibrating Temperature Instruments...... 242 There is no one temperature at which sometimes called windborne freezes. Placement of Temperature Instruments...242 frost damage occurs uniformly. The main This type of freeze is the most difficult Accuracy versus Resolution...... 242 cause of frost damage to plants in nature against which to protect. The large Types of Thermometers...... 242 is extracellular ice crystal formation that air mass that moves in with this type Other Gadgets...... 243 causes secondary water stress to the of freeze is dry; therefore, frequently How to Conduct a Bioassay to Test for surrounding cells. The temperature at the dew point is considerably below Herbicide Carryover...... 243 which damage occurs varies with the freezing. Since frost or dew does not Green Manures...... 244 crop and growth stage. Usually there form until the temperature drops to the is minimal difference among cultivars. dew point, the white crystals typically Table A.1 lists commonly accepted seen in a frost or freeze may not form. critical temperatures for strawberry and If no frost crystals are visible, this type blueberry blossoms at different stages of of event is sometimes referred to as a bud development. Note that these values “black frost.” This color also can describe are not absolute and erring on the side the appearance of the plants that were of safety is better when protecting crops not sufficiently protected in this type of from frost damage. The length of time event.

Table A.1. Critical temperatures for cold damage of flower buds based on stage of development. Note that with blueberries there is considerable variability in temperatures at which damage was reported for these growth stages. Strawberries Critical Temperature (°F) Blueberries Critical Temperature (°F) Bud Emergence 10 Bud Swell 15–20 Tight Bud 22 Tight Cluster 18–23 “Popcorn” 26 Separate Flowers Visible 22–25 Open Blossom 30 Late Closed Blossom 25–26 Green Fruit 28 Open Blossom 27 Petal Fall 28 Adapted from K. Perry, B. C. Poling, and Richard Funt, Strawberries, North Carolina State University; and E. Hanson, and M. Longstroth, “Protecting Blueberries from Frost,” Blueberries: Fruit Crop Advisory Team Alert 18: 3, Michigan State University. 240 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Environmental Parameters Relative humidity is the amount of also form a frost pocket, even though Affecting Frost Occurrence and moisture contained in the air relative the site is elevated or has a slight slope Protection to the maximum amount that could be because the “high walls” of the tree line Air temperature is the measurement held. It changes with temperature and prevent the free flow of cold air off of the used for initiating or stopping frost can change quickly with the air mass. site. At some point, though, elevation control practices; it can be taken with becomes problematic, especially in the Effects of Environment on Frosts/ either a dry-bulb or wet-bulb ther- more mountainous areas of western Freeze Occurrence mometer. Dry-bulb temperatures are the Maryland and Pennsylvania, where cold Site selection is the first and most type commonly referenced in literature air is routinely encountered due to high important step for protecting a small and in weather forecasts. Wet-bulb elevation. In these regions, because bud fruit crop from frost or freeze. The best temperatures are obtained from a break occurs later in the season when site for frost protection and environ- thermometer that is covered with a wet nights are shorter, frosts are often less mental modification is a site downwind wick. Air is moved over the bulb either severe. or closely surrounded by a large body by a fan or by whirling the thermometer Southern slopes are generally warmer of water, such as being within a few through the air. The wet-bulb temper- than those facing north, but plants on miles of the eastern shore of Lake Erie ature is useful to know because it is southern slopes will also come out of or the Chesapeake Bay, or on necks of essentially what the plant temperature dormancy earlier, possibly negating this land that jut out into the water. In the will be once the irrigation is started and benefit in many instances. fall and early winter, the water stays evaporative cooling has taken place. Soil moisture is an important warmer than the surrounding land, Wind speeds of more than a few component of frost protection since making the early winter low tempera- miles per hour can make frost protection a moist soil will retain the heat of the tures less severe, thus giving plants a difficult, especially in an advective day better than a dry soil. Moist soil chance to acclimate. In the late winter freeze. Light breezes, however, tend to will radiate captured heat back to the and early spring, the water remains cold, mix the air and can increase tempera- environment over a longer period of which keeps nearby air temperatures tures at ground level in the case of time. If the soil is dry, plantings should low, delaying early bud development radiational frosts. Temperatures tend to be irrigated a day or two ahead of an on sensitive crops so that the incidence be more uniform even across a distance expected cold snap in order to allow of damaging frosts is reduced. In these of miles when windy conditions exist. time for heat to be captured. areas, less temperature variation also Dew point is the temperature at Soil texture and compaction are also occurs between the daily minimum and which the relative humidity reaches factors since heavier soils with more clay maximum temperatures than elsewhere. 100 percent as the air cools. At this retain heat better than sandy soils. Sandy Topography also affects frost occur- point, water vapor contained in the soils are also often lighter in color and rence. Cold air is heavier than warm air condenses into fog or dew, which hence tend to reflect more sunlight, rather air and, therefore, flows downhill. gives off heat, slowing the temperature than absorbing it in the form of heat. Temperatures are often higher at the drop. Consequently, on nights when Ground cover affects the amount of tops of slopes, while cold air collects in the dew point is in the upper forties or heat absorbed and released from the the lower areas (frost pockets). Often the higher, it is unlikely that temperatures soil surface. A bare, undisturbed moist temperature will be 4 to 5 degrees lower will drop to damaging levels. The risk soil with no ground cover can release in these frosty areas compared to higher of frost becomes greater as the dew sufficient heat to raise temperatures 2 to surrounding areas. Areas surrounded point becomes lower. When dew points 3°F in the plant canopy as compared to a by a continuous timberline of trees can are in the mid-30s, frost is very likely. sod-, grass-, or straw mulch-covered soil. Condensed moisture droplets that freeze or water vapor that sublimes (directly Methods for Protecting Plants Table A.2. Approximate dew points from Frosts and Freezes freezes into the solid form without calculated from air temperature and Floating row covers are especially condensing as a liquid first) release relative humidity values. useful for small acreages of low-growing heat in doing so. Therefore, if the dew crops and/or when water for overhead point is below freezing—so that this Relative Humidity (%) irrigation (see below) is not available. heat release does not take place until Dry-Bulb 25 50 75 100 The amount of frost protection obtained below freezing—temperatures can drop Temperature (°F) Dew Point (°F) from using row covers varies with the to damaging levels extremely rapidly. 20 -8 6 14 20 weight and fiber arrangement of the row Table A.2 can be used for determining 25 -4 10 19 25 cover. The amount of protection usually the approximate dew point temperatures 30 2 15 24 30 increases with the weight, though as calculated from air temperature and 35 5 20 28 35 differences in the texture of row covers relative humidity, the parameters most 40 9 24 33 40 from different manufacturers make commonly available. 45 13 28 38 45 50 17 32 42 50 this correlation less than perfect. Row Adapted from Myers, G.E.S. Handbook No. 1, University of covers weighing 0.6 ounces per square Georgia Cooperative Extension Service. yard typically can give 2 or 3 degrees of Appendix A ❦ Expanded Special Topics 241 protection during a radiational frost. At wind and low dew point) develop and must be started sooner—at a higher the Wye Research and Education Center evaporative cooling occurs at crop level. temperature. Table A.3 shows tempera- in Maryland, as much as 11 degrees However, used properly, irrigation can tures suggested for starting irrigation of protection has been obtained with save a crop. Because sprinkler irrigation systems for cold protection for various 1/8-inch thick nursery foam covers, but use can result in the application of large critical plant temperatures and dew these covers are not readily available nor volumes of water to the crop, use should points. are they especially economical. A double be delayed until greater than 10 percent Damage may occur when the air layer of lighter-weight row covers of the blossoms are in danger of being temperature is several degrees above the provides a similar effect. Weather condi- damaged. freezing point because of evaporative tions prior to the frost also affect the Sprinkler irrigation for frost cooling. When conditions of wind plus amount of protection obtained from row protection works because when water low humidity exist, the droplets could covers. Less heat will be able to accu- changes from a liquid to a solid (i.e., be below 32°F by the time they reach the mulate under the covers on cloudy or freezes) it gives off heat (called the heat plant, so some injury could occur when windy days, so the amount of protection of fusion) at the rate of 144 BTUs per the system is first started. Because of obtained may be only 1 or 2 degrees, pound. Enough water must be applied this, the wet bulb temperature appears especially in the unfortunate situation uniformly over the entire crop area so to be a better indication of when the when the sky remains cloudy until after the heat of fusion offsets evaporative irrigation system should be used rather sunset. When row covers are used for cooling as well as radiational and than dry bulb (standard thermometer) frost protection, they should be pulled convective heat losses to maintain the temperature. Irrigation should be fully onto the crop during mid-afternoon temperature near 32°F. As long as a operating when the wet bulb temper- to allow heat to build up under the film of water is over the ice that encases ature equals the critical temperature. cover. Row covers can also be used in the stem and flowers, the plant will be Most overhead sprinkler systems are conjunction with sprinkler irrigation (see protected against frost damage. Because designed to deliver 0.1 to 0.2 acre-inches below) set up on top of the row cover to of the effect of evaporative cooling, once of water per hour and are useful for minimize the amount of water needed. irrigation is started for frost protection, radiant freeze or frost protection when Row covers used in this way have do not stop it until the sun is up on the wind speeds are light and temperatures cut the amount of overhead irrigation crop, temperatures are safely rising are not below the mid-twenties. Micro- needed for frost protection by about 50 above critical temperatures, and ice is sprinklers provide more uniform distri- percent on average. sloughing off, or damage can occur. bution than those having larger droplets Heating or burning may require Frost protection using irrigation and/or those covering a larger area. burning permits issued by local fire works only if the system is already set departments. It is the oldest method for up and fully functional prior to the frost frost protection, but it is not practical for event, so it should be tested to ensure Table A.3. Recommended temperatures low-growing small fruit crops like straw- that it works. An adequate supply of for starting irrigation at various critical berries and is infrequently used in this water is also needed. An acre-inch of temperatures and dew points. region. However, if fires or heaters are water equals 27,154 gallons. To protect a Suggested used, several small ones are better than 10-acre planting with solid set sprinklers Critical Starting Air one large one. Twice as much heat will applying 0.2 inches per hour, 54,308 Temperature Temperature need to be produced to protect border gallons of water are needed for each (°F) Dew Point (°F) (°F) rows as compared to interior rows. hour of operation, or 271,540 gallons 30 30 32 Wind machines work if a temper- over a 5-hour protection period. At some 30 29 33 ature inversion occurs (warm air present growth stages, the critical temperature 30 27 34 above a cold layer) and if there is no is very low, and startup of irrigation 30 25 35 wind as with radiant-type freezes. They perhaps could be delayed until tempera- 30 24 37 mix the air by pulling down the warm tures drop quite far. Even when this is 30 22 38 air from above to replace the colder air the case, irrigation should still be started 30 20 39 trapped near the soil surface. They only before ice freezing in the pump or lines 30 17 40 provide a few degrees of protection can be a problem. Do not shut off the 32 32 34 and, therefore, are sufficient protection system if there is any chance water 32 31 35 primarily for crops that bloom relatively will freeze in the pump. Knowing the 32 29 36 late when frosts are usually less severe. temperature at the pump or water source 32 28 37 Sprinkler irrigation works well on is helpful. 32 26 38 all small fruit crops, but needs to be A common recommendation is to 32 24 40 approached carefully. When used start the system when the temperature 32 22 41 improperly the crop injury level can be at plant level falls to 4 degrees above the 32 20 42 greater than if it were not used at all, critical temperature (for example, 34°F 32 18 43 especially when conditions such as those for open strawberry blossoms). If the Source: Irrigation (formerly Sprinkler Irrigation) (1983), associated with advective freezes (high dew point is below freezing, irrigation 5th edition, Arlington, Va.: The Irrigation Association. 242 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

The rate at which water freezes, Taking Temperature Measure- placed at the standard height of 5 feet, be however, depends on several envi- ments: Accurately Depicting Crop sure to account for the possible temper- ronmental factors, including air Conditions ature difference between this height and temperature, humidity, and wind speed. Without an accurate determination of the ground. Electronic sensors (thermo- Generally, the lower the air and dew conditions in the crop canopy, costly couples, thermistors) can be placed just point temperatures, and/or the higher errors can easily be made during frost at the plant canopy level. Thermocouple the wind speed, the greater the rate of protection. Obtaining accurate measure- tips are sometimes inserted into flower freezing. A higher rate of water appli- ments entails making sure that instru- blossoms for a measurement of blossom cation is then required for adequate ments are reading correctly, taking temperature. In blueberry plantings, protection. Table A.4 provides a guide measurements where they reflect the several measurements should be taken at for determining the application rates for conditions the plant is experiencing, different places in the field at the various frost protection at various temperatures, and understanding the limitations of heights of the plant canopy. wind speeds, and relative humidity monitoring equipment used. Accuracy versus Resolution levels. Note that the relative humidity Calibrating Temperature Recognizing the difference between reso- makes a large difference in needed Instruments lution and accuracy is important when application rates. When breezy condi- Temperature sensors must be calibrated taking measurements. Digital readouts tions (5 mph) are forecast overnight, to ensure that you are reading an give the impression that because the water supply lines should be moved accurate temperature. Calibrate them by reading can be noted to the closest tenth closer together (from 60- to 40- or 30-foot immersing the sensor in a 32°F, gently or hundredth of a degree, the device centers) and the volume of sprinkler stirred water and crushed ice slurry. It measuring the temperature must be heads may still need to be increased by is best to have more ice than water. Be accurate. This is not necessarily the case. 0.15 to more than 0.25 inches per hour. sure to allow enough time for the device The reading may be very exact, but it At 5 to 10 mph, protection will be spotty to equilibrate fully, even if you need to may also be very wrong. Resolution is and damage is a possibility despite your keep adding ice to the mixture to keep how fine the divisions are to which the efforts. When wind speeds exceed 10 the temperature at 32°F. Make sure thermometer can be read. Accuracy is mph, the risks for crop damage from that the sensor or thermometer bulb is how correct the device is. For example, evaporative cooling due to inadequate submerged in the water. Note that with a certain digital thermometer may be water supply or uneven distribution of liquid-in-glass min-max thermometers, advertised as having a resolution of 0.1 the water may outweigh the potential the bulb is probably located at the top of degrees but an accuracy of plus or minus benefits. the thermometer. 2 degrees. Accuracy is the important As mentioned above under the While the thermometer is still in the figure. Sometimes you’ll see a notation discussion of row covers, overhead slurry, note the temperature for use in that a thermometer is accurate to a irrigation pipes and sprinklers can be set correcting future readings. If the reading certain percentage within its range. For up on row covers and irrigation started is above 32°F, subtract the difference example, if the device is listed as being after the temperature under the row between 32 and the current reading accurate to within 0.5 percent in its range, covers drops near the critical temper- from future readings. If the reading is and its range is -60 to 140°F, it would ature. This is the safest way to protect below 32, add the difference to future be accurate to within 0.5 percent of this crops in the case of advective freezes readings. For example, if the ice bath 200‑degree range, or to within plus or and greatly reduces the amount of water temperature reads 30°F, 2 degrees must minus 1 degree of any temperature read used regardless of the type of frost event. be added to future outdoor or canopy between -60 and 140°F. This does not Water can either remain running or temperatures measurements when using mean that it is accurate to within 0.5 be turned off, as long as temperatures that particular thermometer. It helps to percent of any given temperature. under the row cover are monitored write the correction factor on a water- with water turned on again if necessary. proof tag affixed to each thermometer Types of Thermometers Because of the necessity of and time using waterproof ink (for example “add • Liquid-in-glass thermometers, usually required for removing and reapplying 2 degrees”) in order to avoid confusion relatively inexpensive in price, can the row covers (they can just be gathered at critical times. vary in their readings. However, they into the row middles in which the usually vary less than dial thermom- irrigation pipes are located), this method Placement of Temperature Instru- eters and are a good value. Just be is best suited for small-acreage plantings. ments sure to calibrate them as described Be sure to uncover the plants as early in With low-growing plants such as above. The thermometer can be the day as possible so that drying of the strawberries, the coldest temperature in laid horizontally in the ice slurry. foliage and pollination can take place. a field is often near the surface where the Wet-bulb thermometers tell to what strawberry plants grow. The difference temperature the plant will drop when between air temperature measured at a irrigation is first started. Irrigation standard height of 5 feet and plant level should be started when the wet-bulb can be as much as 5°F. If sensors are temperature is 1 to 2 degrees above Appendix A ❦ Expanded Special Topics 243

Table A.4. Irrigation application rates (inches/hour) for adequate protection of A useful addition to the equipment strawberries at various air temperatures, wind speeds, and relative humidity levels. that can be used is a device that flashes Air Temperature, Wind Speed (mph) a light color-coded to the temperature Canopy Level (°F) 0–1 2–4 5–8 10–14 18–22 and visible from more than a mile away. At 50% relative humidity This means that it is possible to track the temperature in your field from 27 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.45 some distance away or monitor fields in 24 0.10 0.30 0.35 0.45 0.60 several locations at one time. 20 0.15 0.35 0.45 0.60 0.75 18 0.20 0.40 0.50 0.65 0.85 At 75% relative humidity How To Conduct a BioASSAy to test for Herbicide carryoveR 27 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.20 0.25 24 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.35 0.40 Sometimes herbicides that berry crops 20 0.10 0.25 0.40 0.45 0.60 don’t tolerate are used on rotational 18 0.15 0.30 0.45 0.55 0.70 crops. For example, corn is a desirable crop to include in small fruit rota- Adapted from Perry, (1986), FROSTPRO Application Rate Model, North Carolina State University. tions because it has almost no pests or diseases in common with berry crops. In addition, growing corn affords an oppor- the critical temperature, depending if row covers are being used and the tunity for weeds to be controlled because on how long it takes to get your probe is positioned under the row cover corn is tolerant of atrazine, an herbicide irrigation system fully operational. with connecting wires outside of it, the that controls a broad range of weeds. The irrigation should be fully running temperature under the row cover can However, atrazine residue may still be by the time the wet-bulb temperature be measured without needing to pull present at damaging levels in the soil drops to the critical temperature. the row cover off or crawl under the when it is time to plant the berry crop. Other residual herbicides may cause • Thermocouple thermometers are row cover to check the temperature. phytoxicity as well. Rotational restric- generally capable of measuring a Also, once irrigation is turned on, the tions are listed on the herbicide label wide range of temperatures and have temperature in the field can be moni- and are an indication of when herbicide very good accuracy, such as being tored. This may provide peace of mind carryover problems might be expected. within plus or minus 0.05 percent on windy nights when growers question The most reliable way to tell whether of the temperatures in their ranges. whether their irrigation rate is sufficient, the next crop to be planted might be However, because some types may though little can be done at this point if damaged, regardless of whether the be capable of reading temperature it is not. One last important note about next crop will be berries or another ranges of hundreds of degrees, the electronic devices is that the number susceptible crop, is to conduct a bioassay. accuracy in terms of degrees may display on many digital units is not A bioassay simply means that you are not be much different than that of a meant to withstand temperatures below using something living—in this case, liquid-in-glass thermometer, though freezing, so the display could “black sensitive plants—to indicate whether it generally their accuracy is extremely out” when you need it the most! So, you is safe to plant. In this example, growth good. So, calibration in an ice-water should not plan on leaving the electronic of the sensitive plants in atrazine-treated bath is still recommended before use. part of the device outside. Instead, use it soil will be compared to growth of plants The thermocouple probes themselves in the field only when actually obtaining in a nontreated (control) soil. are quite cheap, but the device to the reading. First, collect a representative soil which they connect that produces the Frost alarms and alerts are especially sample from the field treated with readable output can be pricey. valuable if your field is farther than walking distance away from where atrazine. The soil should be taken from • Thermistor themometers are probably you live. Once the temperature drops the top few inches of soil. Make sure you the best option for accuracy, as they to a certain point, the alarm sounds a include any areas that might have higher are designed to read a relatively buzzer, calls you on the phone, or flashes concentrations of atrazine, such as areas narrow temperature range, and have a light, depending on the model. If you where you turned the tractor around or good accuracy. There are models get a model that calls you, it will likely higher ground that might be rockier. The that will be accurate to within plus need to be located where there is access sample should be made up of soil from or minus 0.5° with prices in the to a phone line. If there is no access to at least eight locations in the field and moderate range. Calibration is still needed utilities near your field, the frost weigh about 5 pounds. recommended. alarm can be installed elsewhere, with Second, collect soil of a similar type the “alert temperature” set high enough from an area that was not treated with Other Gadgets to allow for differences between its atrazine or other residual herbicides. Electronic devices and plug-in probes location and the field. If you do not have a suitable area, you offer some useful advantages over can use potting soil or other soil, but standard thermometers. For example, 244 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 be aware that the time it will take for Green Manures: A Sample Two- indicator seedlings to germinate may Year Preplant Soil Conditioning be different from that in the field soil. Program Another option is to divide the soil One protocol for managing dagger sample from the atrazine-treated field in nematodes with green manures was half and mix in activated charcoal at a discussed in Chapter 2. A somewhat rate of 1 teaspoon of activated charcoal more involved program that both builds per 5 pounds of soil. The activated organic matter and manages nematodes charcoal will bind with the atrazine and is discussed below for growers who are make it inactive. Activated charcoal can willing to commit the time and planning be found in drugstores or aquarium to this type of program. supply stores. Best results for using green manures Place the soil in gallon-size pots for soil conditioning are obtained when and label the pots. If the soil is too wet, they are grown for more than one year it may be spread out to dry for a few prior to planting the small fruit crop. hours, but in any event seeds should Table A.5 outlines a sample two-year be planted within a day or two. Oats, preplant soil-conditioning program for soybeans, or green beans can be used sites where small fruit crops are to be for the test. Sow ten seeds ¼ inch deep grown. If the plot is to be left fallow or less in each container, water the for several years, two perennial native containers, cover them loosely with bunch grasses—eastern gamagrass and plastic wrap to keep them moist, and switchgrass—are very deep rooted, will place them in a warm location where improve soil quality, and will decrease they will get sunlight. Sunlight is needed the weed seed pressure. The preplant for development of herbicide injury site conditioning program outlined here symptoms. After germination, beans is based on research results obtained should be thinned to three per pot by from various sources throughout the snipping off extra plants so excess plant Mid-Atlantic region. growth doesn’t “dilute” the herbicide While planting small fruit crops after effect. The target plant population is other fruit crops is not recommended, three snap bean or soybean plants per this is sometimes necessary where space 5 pounds of soil or ten oat plants per 5 is limited. This is also the situation in pounds of soil. which a rotation such as this one is most Compare plant growth between the needed. Therefore, this scenario assumes herbicide-treated and non-herbicide- that a site is used where a previous treated pots over the next 2 to 3 weeks fruit crop had been grown and dagger and watch for symptoms to develop nematode populations may have had on plants in the herbicide-treated soil. time to build. Symptoms develop faster with higher Note: If this is an old bramble, blue- herbicide concentrations. If the temper- berry, or grape planting, apply Roundup, ature is below 70°F, plant growth and a translocating contact herbicide, to the symptom development will be slowed. old crop in September or early October Symptoms will consist of marginal prior to starting this program. yellowing or browning in the case of Crops may then be planted as discussed atrazine. Symptoms of damage from in crop-specific chapters of this guide. other herbicides may include misshapen or crinkled leaves, stunted growth, or tissue bleaching, depending on the herbicide used. The above information was condensed from “A Quick Test for Herbicide Carry-Over in the Soil,” Publication G1891, by R. N. Klein, M. L. Bernards, and P. J. Shea, University of Nebraska-Lincoln. Appendix A ❦ Expanded Special Topics 245

Table A.5. Sample two-year preplant soil conditioning program. Timing Site Treatments and Cover Crops Soil pH and Fertility Adjustments Two years before planting (year before planting for fall-planted plasticulture strawberries) March to early May Remove old trees, bushes, or vines and their roots. Plow the site Apply lime to adjust soil pH to 6.0–6.5 (pH 4.5–4.8 if site is thoroughly to expose additional woody roots and large rocks for for blueberries). Incorporate these materials by deep plowing. removal. Collect and submit soil samples drawn from the top 12–16 If more than two tons of lime is required, apply half before inches of soil for pH and basic fertility determinations. plowing and incorporate the remaining half after plowing by disking. Mid-May Plant sudex (sorghum x sudan grass hybrid variety of Sorghum Before planting sudex, broadcast 50 pounds of actual bicolor) at 20–25 pounds of seed per acre. Note: Sudex is the crop nitrogen per acre and the required amounts of potassium and of choice because it produces a large amount of biomass in a short phosphorus needed for forage crops based on soil test results. time and its roots will penetrate at least 4 feet deep or more. Mid-July through late Mow this crop down in mid to late July before seed heads mature. An additional 30 pounds of actual nitrogen using ammonium August In late August, an additional mowing may be necessary with a flail sulfate should be applied after the first mowing to support the mower to reduce regrowth before plowing it down thoroughly with bulk of the plant residue of the sudex cover crop while providing a moldboard plow. some sulfur to subsequent rapeseed crop. Late August Plant Dwarf Essex rapeseed at 8 to 10 pounds of seed per acre. Retest soil pH throughout the top 12–16 inches and add lime In addition to adding more organic matter to the soil, rapeseed to adjust pH to 6.5 if needed. Add 15–20 pounds of additional produces chemicals that are toxic to plant-parasitic nematodes. Two nitrogen per acre as ammonium sulfate to support rapid, early successive rapeseed crops plowed under as green manure reduce growth of rapeseed crop. Note: The sulfur in the ammonium nematode populations equivalent to that achieved with a chemical sulfate may acidify the soil slightly at this level, but the added soil fumigant. availability of sulfur should increase the amount of toxicants produced within the plant. One year before planting (year of planting for fall-planted plasticulture strawberries) Mid-April Mow rapeseed using a flail mower and plow down this plant residue Retest soil for basic fertility adjustments and then broadcast 50 immediately. Note: Mowing injures the plants and initiates pounds of actual nitrogen per acre (as ammonium sulfate) and a process that releases nematicidal chemicals into the soil. Never sufficient phosphorus and potassium to support rapeseed based mow more area than can be plowed within 1–2 hours. Two weeks on test results. after plowing, plant a second crop of Dwarf Essex rapeseed at the same rate noted above. Mid-August Mow the second rapeseed crop using a flail mower and plow down After plowing down the second rapeseed crop, use a pH test this plant residue immediately as done previously. to determine how much additional lime will be required to adjust the overall soil pH to 6.5. The soil pH on sites intended for blueberries should be 4.5–4.8 at this stage. Early September For brambles and blueberries: Approximately 2 weeks after plowing Broadcast lime along with 15–20 pounds of actual nitrogen down the second rapeseed crop, plant 20 pounds of certified (use calcium nitrate, not ammonium sulfate as nitrogen source). Kentucky-31 seed and 10 pounds of winter oats per acre. For Disk the site deeply to incorporate these materials before matted-row strawberries: Plant rye or barley as a winter cover crop planting the fescue cover crop. Note: Some Kentucky-31 seed unless soil fumigation is used to reduce weed problems. If soil is to is marketed as “endophyte enhanced.” The presence of these be fumigated, plant winter cover crop after labeled treatment safe endophytes (fungi that live within the grass plant) improves replant date. For plasticulture strawberries: Plant as discussed in growth and may improve nematode control. However, some the strawberry plasticulture section. endophytes are capable of producing toxins that are hazardous to livestock, so this seed and sod should be used only for this purpose, and not as a feed for livestock. Year of planting (except for plasticulture strawberries) April For brambles: Two weeks before planting, apply glyphosate Leave the killed sod in place and set plants using a (Roundup) herbicide as a directed spray to kill the K-31sod cover in mechanical planter or suitable auger. Note: Killed sod does not 4-foot-wide strips marking the planting rows. For matted-row compete with new plants, traps more rain than bare ground, strawberries: Proceed with planting as discussed in the strawberry reduces soil loss through erosion, and provides 1–4 weeks of weed chapter. For blueberries: Use a two-bottom moldboard plow to open suppression. a 4-foot-wide planting strip. See details on final soil preparation in the blueberry chapter. 246 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 247

Appendix B Introduction waste time and money and result in either inconclusive or erroneous deter- Various services exist to assist you in minations. making management decisions. These Diagnostic include soil and tissue analysis; disease, Soil Samples for nutrient analysis insect, or weed identification; and nema- Soil samples obtained should be repre- Services tode assays. Your extension educator sentative of the area to be tested. There can assist you in determining which can be a considerable variability among service(s) you need. Both university and individual small cores of soil within a private laboratories are listed below, field, so at least 12 to 15 cores should be along with information on how to obtain taken from the area to be tested. Samples sample submission materials. should be air-dried at room temperature When university-operated labs before they are sent in. They should not provide a free service, samples are be heated in order to dry them, as this contents usually only accepted from clients can affect various soil characteristics. Introduction...... 247 within the state. When the service is Plant Samples for Nutrient Collecting Meaningful Samples and provided at a reduced cost, labs may Analysis Shipping...... 247 accept samples from both in-state and Nutrient levels in the plant vary greatly Soil Samples for Nutrient Analysis...... 247 out-of-state clients but with a different during the season; they also vary greatly Plant Samples for Nutrient Analysis...... 247 fee structure. In other cases, labs can among leaves of different ages and posi- Plant Samples for Disease Diagnosis...... 248 accept samples from any state for the tions on the same plant. Times to sample Insect Identification...... 248 same charge. Contact your extension as listed below are those when nutrient Soil Samples for Nematode Testing...... 248 office or visit each laboratory’s Web site levels are relatively stable and should Other Types of Samples...... 248 for current pricing. In any event, when always be used for routine monitoring University Laboratories...... 248 using a university lab, use the one within of samples. If sampling must be done at Penn State...... 248 your home state to the extent possible. other times of the year, collect separate Rutgers University...... 249 Recommendations are likely to be based samples of similar leaves (same age University of Delaware...... 249 on research conducted within the state, University of Maryland...... 249 and position on the plant) from plants specific to local conditions and problems. Virginia Tech...... 249 showing the most and least severe symp- For problem diagnosis, it is strongly West Virginia University...... 250 toms. Submit these samples for separate recommended that growers work with Private Laboratories in the Mid-Atlantic analyses so the results can be compared. their county extension offices, as your Region...... 250 local extension educator may be able What to Sample and When Virus Testing...... 250 Tissue Analysis Results...... 250 to help with identifying the problem Matted-row strawberries: Sample the Specific Element Recommendations for and provide suggestions for avoiding most recently fully expanded leaves as Strawberries at Renovation...... 251 the problem in the future, as well as soon as the plants have regrown after Specific Element Recommendations for correcting existing issues. Your county renovation. extension office should have sample Brambles...... 252 Plasticulture strawberries: Sample the Specific Element Recommendations for submission materials available, or be most recently fully expanded leaves in Blueberries...... 253 able to provide you with information spring during early to mid-bloom for University Nematode Assay Forms/ on how to obtain them for university- first harvest-year plantings, or after reno- Instructions...... 254 operated labs within your state. Most vation (as for matted-row strawberries) Rutgers University...... 255 labs also have this information on their for plantings that will be carried over. University of Delaware...... 257 Web sites. Private labs should be contacted Brambles: For summer bearers, sample directly for requirements for sending the most recently fully expanded leaves in samples. Omission of laboratories on nonfruiting canes between mid- and within the region from the listings below late summer. For primocane bearers implies only a lack of information about (fall- or everbearers), sample the most the omitted lab, not a lack of suitability recently fully expanded leaves as late in or accuracy. the summer as possible prior to bloom. Blueberries: Sample the most recently Collecting Meaningful Samples fully expanded leaves immediately after and Shipping harvest. Samples must be collected, packaged, How Many Leaves to Sample and shipped correctly. Sampling from A minimum of 30 leaves of raspberries, the wrong places, from the wrong parts blackberries, and strawberries, or 60 of the plants, or at the wrong times can 248 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 leaves of blueberries should be selected addressed mailer. Usually soft-bodied screening for Neotyphodium endophytes, for each sample. All leaves comprising insects should be sent in 70 percent and fungicide resistance screening each sample should preferably be from alcohol, and hard-bodied insects should services are occasionally available. See the same cultivar, although they should be sent in dry. Check with your lab, listings below to get further details. be taken from different plants. however, as preferences may differ. Be sure to send your insect in quickly. Handling Samples University Laboratories Detach leaves and remove the petioles. soil samples for nematode testing Penn State Place leaves in a dry paper bag and send Procedures for obtaining and sending Soil Testing and Plant Analysis immediately. in samples for a nematode assay are (Nutrient Levels) Note: In the unusual situation that covered briefly here, in detail in Chapter Agricultural Analytical Services you suspect very variable soil conditions 1, and in instructions from individual Laboratory are causing localized nutrient deficien- state’s labs. Samples should be taken The Pennsylvania State University cies, sample the plants from the problem when the soil temperature is above 40°F Tower Road area(s) independently and use another and the soil is moist. Separate samples University Park, PA 16802 kit to sample leaves from healthier should be taken from areas that have plants. been under different management prac- Phone: 814-863-0841 tices, that are of different soil types, or Fax: 814-863-4540 Plant Samples for Disease that will be planted to different types of Diagnosis E-mail: [email protected] crops. Use a soil sampling tube or similar Web site: www.aasl.psu.edu Plant disease labs isolate and identify object taking at least 20 cores to an 8- to disease organisms, if present, from plant Sample submission forms are avail- 10-inch depth. Sample near feeder roots tissue. Provide information requested able from county extension offices in of plants. If a problem is suspected, on submission forms as accurately Pennsylvania, from the lab, or can be sample near plants in early decline since as possible, and carefully follow the downloaded from the Web. Testing of this is where the greatest numbers of instructions on packaging and sending compost, greenhouse media, manure, nematodes will be found. Do not sample your sample. A good packaging job drinking water, irrigation water, and near dead plants since nematodes will will prevent soil from covering the leaf biosolids are also offered. have already migrated to other nearby and stem surfaces in transit, which can healthy (or slightly affected) plants. Plant Disease Identification obscure diagnostic symptoms. If your Nematodes must remain alive until the plant sample dries out too much before Plant Disease Clinic sample is processed by the laboratory, arrival at the lab, disease organisms Department of Plant Pathology so do not allow the samples to overheat may not survive, preventing them from The Pennsylvania State University and send them to the lab quickly. Include “growing out” in culture—a neces- 220 Buckhout Laboratory some roots in the sample so that the sary step in identification. Conversely, University Park, PA 16802-4507 nematodes will have a food source until samples that are too moist may begin the sample is processed. Phone: 814-865-2204 to decompose in transit. In both cases, Make certain that all information Web site: plantpath.psu.edu/facilities isolating the causal organisms may requested is included on the nema- /plant-disease-clinic become impossible, and you will not get tode assay form that you receive. This the accurate diagnosis you need. When Kits consisting of an information sheet, information is needed to identify the sending in an entire strawberry plant, instructions, and mailing envelope sample and to aid in interpreting assay place the root system in small plastic are available at Pennsylvania county data. If you collect more than one bag, then tie a rubber band around extension offices. Information sheets and sample, you must assign a field number the crown to keep the soil and plant instructions may also be downloaded to each area sampled and place that from drying out and the foliage from from the clinic’s Web site as listed above. number in the appropriate area of the becoming covered with soil. Complete If samples are forwarded to a commer- form. Each plastic bag of soil should be instructions for sending various types cial lab for certain viruses or other tightly sealed. Keep samples out of direct of samples are detailed on disease specialized testing after consultation sunlight to avoid overheating. Samples clinic websites or can be obtained from with the client, the cost of that testing is may also be damaged by heat if they are laboratory personnel. Send samples in a passed on to the client. stored in the trunk of a car or another manner that will avoid their being held hot location. Use a Styrofoam cooler to Insect Identification over the weekend in transit. keep samples cool. Heat kills nematodes, Insect Identification Lab Insect Identification and dead nematodes are unsuitable for Department of Entomology Various departments and/or clinics at identification. The Pennsylvania State University universities in the region provide insect 501 Agricultural Sciences and Other Types of Samples identification services. Kits provided Industries Bldg. Additional services such as compost usually consist of an information form, a University Park, PA 16802 and manure analysis, greenhouse media container for your insect, and a pre- analysis, plant and weed identification, Phone: 814-865-1896 Appendix B ❦ Diagnostic Services 249

Kits are available at Pennsylvania county Street Address (for delivery services other Check with the lab before sending in a extension offices. than U.S. Mail): sample to obtain the current pricing. Plant Diagnostic Laboratory Nematode Assays Rutgers NJAES University of Maryland The nematode diagnostic service at the Ralph Geiger Turfgrass Education Diagnosis of Plant Diseases and Plant Fruit Research and Extension Center in Center and Insect Identification Biglerville has been discontinued. Infor- 20 Indyk-Engel Way Plant Diagnostic Laboratory mation on nematode testing programs North Brunswick, NJ 08902 Department of Entomology at Virginia Tech, Rutgers, and the Phone: 732-932-9140 Room 3171 Plant Sciences Building University of Delaware are listed below. Fax: 732-932-1270 University of Maryland Contact listed lab personnel before E-mail: [email protected] College Park, MD 20742-4454 sending samples to find out whether Web site: njaes.rutgers.edu they are accepting out-of-state samples Phone: 301-405-1611 /plantdiagnosticlab and what the fees are. Other laboratories Fax: 301-314-9290 providing this service can be found on University of Delaware E-mail: [email protected] Web site: www.plantclinic.umd.edu Google by searching “Nematode Testing Soil Testing Services” or “Nematode Diagnostic In-state samples should be submitted University of Delaware Soil Testing Service.” through county extension offices, though Program they may also be mailed in directly. Rutgers University 152 Townsend Hall Specimen submission forms may be Rutgers has a soil and tissue testing labo- 531 S. College Avenue downloaded from the lab’s Web site. ratory, and a plant diagnostic laboratory. Newark, DE 19716-2170 Soil and Tissue (Nutrient Levels) Phone: 302-831-1392 Virginia Tech Testing Fax: 302-831-0605 Soil Testing E-mail: [email protected] Samples must be submitted through Rutgers Soil Testing Laboratory Web site: ag.udel.edu/dstp county extension offices, from which Rutgers, the State University of New submission forms are available. Fee Jersey Kits may be obtained from extension structure varies between commercial and 57 US Highway 1 offices in New Castle, Kent, and Sussex noncommercial samples. Samples are New Brunswick, NJ 08901-8554 counties, at the soil testing lab, or by mail from the soil testing lab. accepted from out-of-state clients for a Phone: 732-932-9295 higher fee. E-mail: [email protected] Plant Diseases and Nematode Assays Virginia Tech Soil Testing Lab Web site: njaes.rutgers.edu/soiltestinglab University of Delaware Plant 145 Smyth Hall (0465) Diagnostic Clinic Plant Diagnoses Blacksburg, VA 24061 151 Townsend Hall At Rutgers’ Plant Diagnostic Labora- University of Delaware Phone: 540-231-6893 tory and Nematode Detection Service, Newark, DE 19716-2170 Fax: 540-231-9263 services available are disease and insect E-mail: [email protected] Phone: 302-831-1390 pest diagnosis and identification, plant Web site: www.soiltest.vt.edu and weed identification, fungus and Fax: 302-831-0605 mold identification, nematode assays, E-mail: [email protected] Plant Disease Identification fungicide resistance screening, and more. Web site: ag.udel.edu/Extension/pdc/ Samples must be submitted through Fee schedules and information forms index.htm county extension offices, from which are available from the lab’s Web site, Samples are accepted from in-state submission forms are available. Informa- through Rutgers Cooperative Exten- clients. Plant submission forms, used tion on selecting and packaging plant sion offices, or the lab will fax them to primarily for disease diagnosis, are avail- specimens is available from the clinic’s you in response to your phone or fax able in PDF format at ag.udel.edu Web site. request. The nematode sampling form /Extension/pdc/pdf/UD_Plant Plant Disease Clinic and instructions are included at the end _Diagnostic_Form.pdf. 106 Price Hall of this appendix as well. Check with the For nematode assays, forms and Virginia Tech lab before sending in nematode samples sample bags are available for purchase Blacksburg, VA 24061-0331 in case prices have changed since this from extension offices in New Castle, Phone: 540-231-6758 printing. Kent, and Sussex counties. Sampling Fax: 540-231-7477 instructions and an information sheet in Mailing Address E-mail: [email protected] PDF format are available at ag.udel Plant Diagnostic Laboratory Web site: www.ppws.vt.edu/~clinic Rutgers NJAES .edu/Extension/pdc/pdf/Nematode PO Box 550 _Assay_taking_samples.pdf and are Milltown, NJ 08850-0550 also included at the end of this appendix. 250 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Insect Identification Web site: www.caf.wvu.edu/plsc/side Agri Analysis, Inc. menu/wvu soil lab/soiltest.html 280 Newport Road Insect Identification Laboratory Leola, PA 17540 Eric R. Day, Manager Disease and Insect Identification Department of Entomology Samples may be sent to the Plant Diag- Phone: 717-656-9326 or 1-800-464-6019 Virginia Tech nostic Clinic at West Virginia University Fax: 717-656-0910 Blacksburg, VA 24061 or to the West Virginia Department of E-mail: www.agrianalysis.com/ contact-us.php Web site: www.idlab.ento.vt.edu Agriculture. Web site: www.agrianalysis.com Samples may be submitted only through West Virginia University Plant Agri Analysis tests soil, plant tissue, Virginia Cooperative Extension local Diagnostic Clinic water, fertilizers and lime, manure, offices. G-151 South Agricultural Sciences Building compost and organic material, nutrient Nematode Identification PO Box 6108 solutions, and soilless media. This lab Nematode Assay Laboratory Morgantown, WV 26506-6108 also offers a sample pick-up service in Pennsylvania and parts of Maryland for 115 Price Hall Phone: 304-293-8838 a fee. Virginia Tech Fax: 304-293-6954 Blacksburg, VA 24061-0331 Web site: anr.ext.wvu.edu/pests/ J. R. Peters Laboratory (primarily for identification Phone: 540-231-4650 greenhouse and nursery industry) Fax: 540-231-7477 Plant Industries Division 6656 Grant Way E-mail: [email protected] Pest Identification Laboratory Allentown, PA 18106 Web site: www.ppws.vt.edu/~clinic West Virginia Department of Phone: 866-522-5752 /nematode.php Agriculture 1900 Kanawha Blvd. East E-mail: [email protected] Use the Nematode Predictive Assay Charleston, WV 25305-0191 Web site: www.jrpeterslab.com Report (Pub. 450-098) or Nematode J. R. Peters analyzes plant tissue, nutrient Diagnostic Assay Report (Pub.450-901) for Phone: 304-558-2212 solutions, and soilless media and offers a submitting samples. Forms are available Weed Identification media physical analysis. through Virginia county extension offices. Instructions on how to sample Rakesh S. Chandran are available from the lab’s Web site. 1076 Agricultural Sciences Building Virus Testing PO Box 6108 Weed Identification Testing for viral pathogens is relatively West Virginia University expensive, and requires following strict Weed ID Clinic Morgantown, WV 26506-6108 protocols. The lab should be called in Department of Plant Pathology, Phone: 304-293-6131 ext. 4225 order to discuss protocols to be followed Physiology, and Weed Science Web form: anr.ext.wvu.edu/r before sampling or shipping. Virginia Tech /download/46342 Agdia, Inc. Blacksburg, VA 24061-0331 30380 County Road 6 Web site: www.ppws.vt.edu/~clinic Private Laboratories in the Mid- Elkhart, IN 46514 USA /weedid.php Atlantic Region Phone: 574-264-2615 or 800-62-AGDIA The form to include with weed samples The labs below primarily offer testing of (800-622-4342) (Pub. 450-138) is available through materials for the concentration of various Fax: 574-264-2153 county extension offices. elements, whether nutrients or contami- E-mail: [email protected] nants. They typically test a wide range West Virginia University Web site: www.agdia.com of materials from water to fertilizers. General information is available at Contact individual labs for details. anr.ext.wvu.edu/pests/identification Tissue Analysis Results: Critical on submitting insect, weed and disease A & L Eastern Laboratories, Inc. Values and Recommendations specimens. 7621 Whitepine Road While many labs offer a tissue testing, Richmond, Virginia 23237 Soil Testing not all provide interpretations. The Phone: 804-743-9401 values in the following tables are a WVU Soil Testing Laboratory Fax: 804-271-6446 composite of the best nutrition informa- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences E-mail: [email protected] tion currently available for small fruit PO Box 6108 Web site: al-labs-eastern.com and are the ones currently used at Penn Morgantown, WV 26506-6108 State’s Agricultural Analytical Lab. A & L offers analysis of soil, plant tissue, These values assume that the plant root Phone: 304-293-6023, ext. 4312 feed and mineral supplements, fertilizers system is healthy and that the soil pH Fax: 304-293-2960 and lime, water, and manure. E-mail: [email protected] is within optimal ranges for each crop Appendix B ❦ Diagnostic Services 251

(strawberries and brambles: 5.5 to 6.5, Critical Nutrient Values for Strawberries at Renovation blueberries: 4.5 to 5.0). If either of these Element Deficient Below Normal Normal Above Normal Excessive assumptions is not true, do not attempt N (%) 1.50 1.80 2.00 2.80 >3.25 to use this information. Information for P (%) 0.20 0.25 0.35 0.40 >0.50 plasticulture strawberries is presented K (%) 1.20 1.50 2.00 2.50 >3.00 in the tables below; however, specific Ca (%) 0.60 0.70 1.50 1.70 >2.00 recommendations to accompany these Mg (%) 0.25 0.30 0.45 0.50 >0.65 values are still under development. Mn (ppm) 40 50 150 200 >250 If your individual state’s lab gives a Fe (ppm) 50 60 150 250 >325 different interpretation, use your state’s Cu (ppm) 5 7 10 20 >25 information instead, as it may be better B (ppm) 20 30 60 70 >85 suited to your conditions and climate. Zn (ppm) 15 20 35 50 >65 Specific Element Recommendations for Strawberries at Renovation (Courtesy of Cornell University) • K is within range, but N to K ratio is Critical Nutrient Values for Early Season Nitrogen (N) greater than 1.5 and K to Mg ratio is Plasticulture Strawberries less than 3.0: To improve the balance • Low N (if N is below 1.8 percent): Element Deficient Adequate High between N and K, increase K to a total Increase rate of N application by 10 N (%) <2.8 2.8–3.0 >3.0 of 80 pounds actual K. percent for each 0.1 percent that the P (%) 0.2 0.2–0.4 >0.4 • K is within range, but N to K ratio is sample is below 2.0 percent. Apply K (%) 1.1 1.1–2.5 >2.5 less than 1.0 and K to Mg ratio is greater N at renovation and again in mid- Ca (%) <0.4 0.4–1.5 >1.5 than 4.0: To improve the balance September. Mg (%) <0.2 0.2–0.4 >0.4 between K and Mg, omit K from your • N is within desired range, but nitrogen Mn (ppm) <25 25–100 >100 fertilization program. to potassium (K) ratio is greater than Fe (ppm) <50 50–100 >100 1.5: To improve the balance between Calcium (Ca) Cu (ppm) <5 5–10 >10 N and K in your plants, reduce your • Low (if Ca is below 0.7 percent): Apply B (ppm) <20 20–40 >40 N application by 10 percent. Apply lime if pH is less than 6.0. See soil test Zn (ppm) <20 20–40 >40 N at renovation and again in mid- recommendation for adjusting soil Source: “Hill System Plastic Mulched Strawberry Production September. pH. If pH is greater than 6.0, apply Guide for Colder Areas,” Virginia Tech, VCE Pub. 438-018. • High N (if N is above 2.8 percent): calcium sulfate at 1,000 pounds per Reduce rate of N application by 10 acre. percent for each 0.1 percent that the • High (if Ca is above 1.7 percent): May Mg application to a total of 80 pounds sample exceeds 2.8 percent. Apply indicate improper soil pH. See soil per acre actual Mg. N at renovation and again in mid- test recommendation for • High Mg (if Mg is above 0.5 percent): September. adjustments. Omit addition of Mg. Phosphorus (P) Magnesium (Mg) Manganese (Mn) • Low P (if P is below 0.25 percent): Apply • Low (if Mg is below 0.3 percent)—four • Low Mn (if Mn is below 50 ppm): Apply superphosphate at 200 pounds per alternatives: a foliar spray of manganese sulfate (2 acre (45 percent P O ) at any time to 2 5 1. Apply magnesium sulfate (Epsom pounds per 100 gallons per acre) or the soil surface. salts) to the soil surface in late fall or manganese chelate (6 pounds per 100 • High P (if P is above 0.4 percent): Omit spring at 200 pounds per acre. gallons per acre) before September 15. phosphate from fertilizer program. 2. Sulfate of potash-magnesia Check for high soil pH. • High Mn (if Mn is above 200 ppm): May Potassium (K) (Sul-Po-Mag) can be used if indicate a low soil pH or contamina- • Low K (if K is below 1.5 percent): Apply potassium is also low. Use at same tion by fungicide or irrigation water. actual potassium at 45, 50, 70, 90, or rate as magnesium sulfate. Consult soil test recommendation to 100 pounds per acre for soil manage- 3. Apply dolomitic limestone according determine need for lime. Contamina- ment groups I (clay), II, III, IV, and to soil test recommendations if pH is tion from sprays may give artificially V (sand), respectively. If magnesium below 5.5. high readings. (Mg) is also low, sulfate of potash- 4. Three foliar sprays of magnesium magnesia (Sul-Po-Mag) can be used sulfate at two-week intervals Iron (Fe) as a source of K at five times the beginning after renovation will • Low Fe (if Fe is below 60 ppm): Apply above rates. temporarily correct deficiency (15 ferrous sulfate at 4 pounds per 100 • High K (if K is above 2.5 percent): pounds per 100 gallons per acre). gallons per acre or iron chelate at 8 Discontinue use of K fertilizer for one • Mg is in range, but K to Mg ratio pounds per 100 gallons per acre as a year. is greater than 5.0: To improve the foliar spray before September 15. If balance between K and Mg, increase condition persists for several consecu- 252 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

tive years and soil pH is within Specific Element Recommendations • High Ca (if Ca is above 2.5 percent): May desired range, apply 25 pounds per for Brambles indicate improper soil pH. See soil acre iron chelate or 15 pounds per Nitrogen (N) test recommendation for adjustments. acre ferrous sulfate to soil in early • Low N (if N is below 2.0 percent): Magnesium (Mg) spring. Increase rate of nitrogen application • Low Mg (if Mg is below 0.30 ppm): If • High Fe: May be toxic if levels exceed by 10 percent for each 0.1 percent that pH is below 6.0, apply dolomitic lime- 500 ppm. Contamination from sprays the sample is below desired level. stone according to soil test recom- may give artificially high readings. Ammonium nitrate is the best source mendation. If not, apply 200 pounds Copper (Cu) of nitrogen. Fall fruiting types should per acre magnesium sulfate (epsom • Low Cu (if Cu is below 7 ppm): Apply be near the high end of the range (3.0 salts) or sulfate of potash-magnesia copper chelate (4 pounds per 100 percent). Apply nitrogen before April (Sul-Po-Mag) to soil surface in late fall gallons per acre) in a foliar spray 20. or early spring. Three foliar sprays of before May 15. If condition persists • High N (if N is above 3.0 percent): magnesium sulfate at 15 pounds per for several consecutive years and soil Reduce rate of nitrogen application 100 gallons per acre at leaf expansion, pH is within desired range, apply by 10 percent for each 0.1 percent that after harvest, and in late summer will copper sulfate at 20 pounds per acre sample exceeds desired level. temporarily correct the deficiency. to soil in late fall. Phosphorus (P) • High Mg (if Mg is above 0.90 ppm): • High Cu (if Cu is above 20 ppm): May • Low P (if P is below 0.25 percent): Apply Omit use of magnesium. indicate low soil pH or contamination 200 pounds per acre superphosphate Manganese (Mn) from sprays. Consult soil test recom- (45 percent P O ) at any time to soil 2 5 • Low Mn (if Mn is below 50 ppm): mendation to determine the need for surface. Apply a spray of manganese sulfate lime. • High P (if P is above 0.40 percent): Omit (2 pounds per 100 gallons per acre) Boron (B) phosphate from fertilizer program. or manganese chelate (6 pounds per • Low B (if B is below 30 ppm): Apply Potassium (K) 100 gallons per acre) after harvest but solubor to the soil at the rate of 4 • Low K (if K is below 1.5 percent): Apply before September 15. Check soil pH. pounds per acre in early spring or late potassium sulfate at 90, 100, 140, For fall fruiting types, apply in June. fall, or apply a foliar spray of Solubor 180, or 200 pounds per acre for soil • High Mn (if Mn is above 200 ppm): May (20 percent actual boron) at the rate of management groups I, II, III, IV, and indicate a low soil pH or contamina- 1.5 pound of product per 100 gallons V, respectively (I = clay, V = sand). tion by fungicide or irrigation water. per acre in early spring and again If Mg is also low, sulfate of potash- Consult soil test recommendations to after renovation. magnesia (Sul-Po-Mag) may be used determine need for lime. • High B (if B is above 70 ppm): Discon- at 2.5 times the above rates. Do not Iron (Fe) tinue use of boron. May be toxic if use muriate of potash. • Low Fe (if Fe is below 50 ppm): Apply levels exceed 100 ppm. • High K (if K is above 2.5 percent): Stop ferrous sulfate at 4 pounds per 100 Zinc (Zn) using potassium fertilizer. gallons per acre or iron chelate at 8 • Low Zn (if Zn is below 20 ppm): Apply Calcium (Ca) pounds per 100 gallons per acre as zinc chelate (2 pounds per 100 • Low Ca (if Ca is below 0.6 percent): a foliar spray between harvest and gallons per acre) once after renova- Apply lime as needed if pH is less September 15. For fall fruiting types, tion and again in early May of the than 6.0. See soil test recommendation apply in June. If condition persists following year. If condition persists for adjusting soil pH. If pH is greater for several consecutive years and soil for several consecutive years and soil than 6.0, apply 1,000 pounds per acre pH is within desired range, apply 25 pH is within desired range, apply 10 calcium sulfate. pounds per acre iron chelate or 15 pounds per acre zinc sulfate to soil in fall. • Zn is in desired range, but P to Zn ratio Critical Nutrient Values for Brambles is greater than 140: To improve the Element Deficient Below Normal Normal Above Normal Excessive balance between phosphorus and N (%) 1.80 2.00 2.50 3.00 >3.50 zinc, apply 2 pounds of zinc chelate P (%) 0.23 0.25 0.35 0.40 >0.50 per 100 gallons per acre four times K (%) 1.45 1.50 2.00 2.50 >3.00 during the growing season. Follow Ca (%) 0.57 0.60 1.70 2.50 >3.00 label instructions. Mg (%) 0.27 0.30 0.70 0.90 >1.15 • High Zn (if Zn is above 50 ppm): May Mn (ppm) 45 50 150 200 >250 indicate fungicide contamination. Fe (ppm) 48 50 150 200 >250 Toxicity can occur if levels exceed 300 Cu (ppm) 6 7 30 50 >60 ppm. B (ppm) 28 30 40 50 >60 Zn (ppm) 18 20 35 50 >65 Appendix B ❦ Diagnostic Services 253

pounds per acre ferrous sulfate to soil sulfate; if below 5.0, use urea. Do not Magnesium (Mg) in early spring. use ammonium nitrate or chloride • Low Mg (below 0.2 percent): Refer to • High Fe (if Fe is above 200 ppm): May fertilizers. Apply half of the nitrogen soil test and apply dolomitic lime- be toxic if levels exceed 250 ppm. fertilizer at bud break and the stone if pH is below 4.0. If pH is Contamination from sprays may give remaining half four weeks later. above 4.0, apply 250 pounds per acre artificially high readings. • High N (if N is above 2.1 percent): magnesium sulfate or use Sul-Po-Mag Reduce rate of nitrogen application (400 pounds per acre) if K is also low. Copper (Cu) by 10 percent for each 0.1 percent Apply in fall or early spring. • Low Cu (if Cu is below 7 ppm): Apply that sample exceeds desired level. If • Mg is in range and K-to-Mg ratio copper chelate (4 pounds per 100 soil pH is above 5.0, use ammonium is greater than 5.0: To improve the gallons per acre) in a foliar spray sulfate; if below 5.0, use urea. Do not balance between K and Mg, increase during leaf expansion in May. If use ammonium nitrate or chloride Mg application to a total of 80 pounds condition persists for several consecu- fertilizers. per acre actual Mg. tive years and soil pH is within • High Mg (above 0.3 percent): May indi- desired range, apply 20 pounds per Phosphorus (P) cate high soil pH. Refer to soil test. acre copper sulfate to soil in late fall. • Low P (below 0.06 percent): Apply 180 • High Cu (if Cu is above 50 ppm): May pounds per acre superphosphate (45 Manganese (Mn)

indicate low soil pH or contamination percent P2O5) at any time. • Low Mn (below 50 ppm): Apply a foliar from sprays. Consult soil test recom- • High P (above 0.18 percent): Omit spray of manganese chelate at 6 mendation to determine the need for phosphate from fertilizer program. pounds per 100 gallons per acre twice lime. during the growing season. If product Potassium (K) label offers a different recommenda- Boron (B) • Low K (below 0.40 percent): Apply 400 tion, follow label recommendation. • Low B (if B is below 30 ppm): Apply pounds per acre potassium magne- • High Mn (above 500 ppm): Refer to soil Solubor to soil in early spring at 4 sium sulfate or 160 pounds per acre test for possible pH adjustment. pounds per acre, or apply a foliar potassium sulfate in fall or early spray of solubor (20 percent actual spring. Iron (Fe) boron) at the rate of 1.5 pounds • K is in range and K to Mg ratio is • Low Fe (below 70 ppm): Apply a foliar product per 100 gallons per acre in greater than 4.0: To improve the spray of iron chelate at 6 pounds per early spring. For summer bearers, balance between K and Mg in your 100 gallons per acre in late summer apply again after harvest. plants, omit K from your fertilization and again after bloom the following • High B (if B is above 50 ppm): Discon- program. year, but check product label and tinue use of boron. May be toxic if • High K (above 0.65 percent): Omit K follow its recommendation. If condi- levels exceed 100 ppm. from fertilizer program. tions persist for several consecutive years and soil pH is within desired Zinc (Zn) Calcium (Ca) range (4.5 to 5.0), apply 25 pounds • Low Zn (if Zn is below 20 ppm): Apply • Low Ca (below 0.4 percent): Refer to soil per acre iron chelate or 15 pounds zinc chelate at the rate of 3 pounds test and apply lime as needed if soil per acre ferrous sulfate to soil in per 100 gallons per acre in a foliar pH is below 4.0. Apply 1,000 pounds early spring. If product label offers spray at leaf expansion and after per acre calcium sulfate in fall or early a different recommendation, follow harvest. For fall fruit types, apply spring if pH is above 4.0. label recommendation. in May and early July. If condition • High Ca (above 0.8 percent): Refer to • High Fe (above 300 ppm): No applica- persists for several consecutive years soil test for pH adjustment. tion necessary. and soil pH is within desired range, apply 10 pounds per acre zinc sulfate to the soil in fall. • High Zn (if Zn is above 50 ppm): May Critical Nutrient Values for Blueberries indicate fungicide contamination. Toxicity may occur if levels exceed Element Deficient Below Normal Normal Above Normal Excessive 300 ppm. N (%) 1.65 1.70 1.90 2.10 >2.50 P (%) 0.05 0.06 0.10 0.18 >0.22 Specific Element Recommendations K (%) 0.35 0.40 0.55 0.65 >0.80 for Blueberries Ca (%) 0.35 0.40 0.60 0.80 >1.00 Nitrogen (N) Mg (%) 0.18 0.20 0.25 0.30 >0.40 • Low N (if N is below 1.7 percent): Mn (ppm) 45 50 250 500 >650 Increase rate of N application by Fe (ppm) 65 70 200 300 >400 10 percent for each 0.1 percent that Cu (ppm) 4 5 11 15 >20 sample is below desired level. If soil B (ppm) 29 30 40 50 >65 pH is above 5.0, use ammonium Zn (ppm) 14 15 25 30 >40 254 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Copper (Cu) • Low Cu (below 5 ppm): Apply a postbloom and postharvest spray of copper chelate at 2 pounds per 100 gallons per acre. If product label gives a different recommendation, follow label recommendation. • High Cu (above 30 ppm): No application necessary. Boron (B) • Low B (below 30 ppm): Apply solubor at 1.5 pounds per 100 gallons per acre as a foliar spray in late summer and again during early bloom. If product label gives a different recommendation, follow label recommendation. If condition persists for several consecutive years and soil pH is within desired range (4.5 to 5.0), apply Solubor at 5 pounds per acre to soil surface in early spring. • High B (above 50 ppm): Consult your county extension fruit educator if B is higher than 100 ppm. Zinc (Zn) • Low Zn (below 15 ppm): Apply zinc chelate at 2 pounds per 100 gallons per acre postbloom, postharvest, and late summer. If product label gives a different recommendation, follow label recommendation. If condition persists for several consecutive years and soil pH is within desired range (4.5 to 5.0), apply 10 pounds per acre zinc sulfate to soil surface in early spring. • High Zn (above 30 ppm): No application necessary.

University Nematode Assay Forms and Instructions Provided below are nematode assay forms and instructions for Rutgers University and the University of Delaware. For instructions and forms from other universities, contact the appropriate county extension office in your state. Rutgers University (See pages 255–56.) University of DelAware (See page 257.) Appendix B ❦ Diagnostic Services 255 256 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 Appendix B ❦ Diagnostic Services 257 258 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 259

Appendix C Aarons Creek Farms, Inc. Cottle Strawberry Nursery, Inc. 380 Greenhouse Dr. 2488 West NC Hwy 403 Buffalo Junction, VA 24529 Faison, NC 28341 Phone: 434-374-2174 Phone: 910-267-4531 or 910-267-1836 Nursery Fax: 434-374-2055 Fax: 910-267-0156 E-mail: Contact form is at acfplugs.com/ E-mail: See www.cottlestrawberry.com Sources of contact-us.htm /contact.php Web site: acfplugs.com Web site: www.cottlefarms.com/plants .php Berry Plants A. G. Ammon Nursery, Inc. 1610 Rte. 532 Daisy Farms Chatsworth, NJ 08019-9707 28355 M-152 Phone: 609-726-1370 Dowagiac, MI 49047 Fax: 609-726-1270 Phone: 269-782-6321 Fax: 269-782-7131 Awald Farms E-mail: [email protected] As a service to our readers, we have cross- 2195 Shirley Road Web site: www.daisyfarms.net North Collins, NY 14111 referenced various small fruit crops with the Phone: 716-337-3162 DeGrandchamp Farms nurseries where they may be purchased (see E-mail: [email protected] 76241 14th Avenue table below). No endorsement of the nurser- Web site: awaldfarms.com/index.html South Haven, MI 49090 ies is intended. Nurseries not listed that can Phone: 269-637-3915 or 1-888-483-7431 supply quality plants in commercial quantities Barwacz Farm Fax: 269-637-2531 are requested to contact the coordinator of this 05146 59th St. E-mail: Contact form is at degrand- publication if they wish to be included in this Grand Junction, MI 49056 champs.ipower.com/contact listing. Phone: 269-253-4419 Web site: www.degrandchamps.com Fax: 269-253-4495 E-mail: [email protected] DiMeo Fruit Farms Web site: www.barwaczfarm.com 3101 Nesco Road Hammonton, NJ 08037 Blueberry Croft Farm and Nursery Phone: 609-561-5905 710 Jericho Church Road E-mail: Contact form is at www.dimeo- Cub run, KY 42729 farms.com/contact.html Phone: 270-908-0703 Web site: www.dimeofarms.com E-mail: Contact form is at www.blueberrycroft.com/cms/contact-us Fall Creek Farm and Nursery, Inc. Web site: www.blueberrycroft.com 39318 Jasper-Lowell Rd. /cms/index.php Lowell, OR 97452 Phone: 541-937-2973 Boston Mountain Nurseries Fax: 541-937-3373 20189 N. Hwy. 71 E-mail: Contact form is at www.fall- Mountainburg, AR 72946 creeknursery.com/about/contact/about Phone and Fax: 479-369-2007 contact E-mail: [email protected] Web site: www.fallcreeknursery.com Web site: www.alcasoft.com /bostonmountain Finch Blueberry Nursery 5526 Finch Nursery Lane Briggs Plant Propagators, LLC Bailey, NC 27807 715 South Bank Rd. Phone: 800-245-4662 or 252-235-4664 PO Box 658 Fax: 252-235-2411 Elma, WA 98541 E-mail: [email protected] Phone: 800-444-1515 Web site: www.danfinch.com/berrys.htm Fax: 360-482-6187 E-mail: [email protected] G. W. Allen Nursery, Ltd.a Web site: www.briggsnursery.com 7295 Hwy 221, RR #2 Centreville, NS, Canada B0P 1J0 Cedar Valley Nursery, Inc. Phone: 902-678-7519 3833 McElfresh Rd. SW Fax: 902-678-5924 Centralia, WA 98531 E-mail: [email protected] Phone: 360-736-7490 Web site: www.gwallennursery.com Fax: 360-736-6600 (Custom propagating of Rubus cultivars in addition to standard production) 260 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Hartmann’s Plant Co. Lassen Canyon Nursery, Inc. Stokes Berry Farm PO Box 100 1300 Salmon Creek Rd. 2822 Center Road Lacota, MI 49063-0100 Redding, CA 96003 Wilmington, OH 45177 Phone: 269-253-4281 Phone: 530-223-1075 Phone: 937-382-4004 Fax: 269-253-4457 Fax: 530-223-6754 Fax: 937-383-0317 E-mail: info@hartmannsplantcompany E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] .com Web site: www.lassencanyonnursery Web site: www.stokesberryfarm.com Web site: www.hartmannsplantcompany .com a .com Strawberry Tyme Farms, Inc. Lewis Nursery and Farms, Inc. 1250 St. John’s Road West, RR #2 Indiana Berry and Plant Co. 3500 NC Hwy. 133 Simcoe, Ontario, Canada N3Y 4K1 2811 US 31 Rocky Point, NC 28457 Phone: 519-426-3099 Plymouth, IN 46563 Phone: 910-675-2394 Fax: 519-426-2573 Phone: 800-295-2226 Fax: 910-602-3106 E-mail: [email protected] Fax: 574-784-2468 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: www.strawberrytyme.com E-mail: [email protected] Web site: indianaberry.com Norcal Nursery, Inc. Tower View Nursery (Also carries an interesting assortment 11810 Highway 99E 70912 CR-388 of berry-related items such as promo- PO Box 1012 South Haven, MI 49090 tion supplies, picking containers, and Red Bluff, CA 96080 Phone: 269-637-1279 bird-repellent devices; carries some Phone: 530-527-6200 Fax: 269-637-6257 Fax: 530-527-2921 equipment) a,b Web site: norcalnursery.com V. Kraus Nurseries, Ltd. Jersey Asparagus Farms, Inc. (see PO Box 180, 1380 Centre Rd. Walker Bros.) Northwoods Wholesale Nursery Carlisle, Ontario, Canada L0R 1H0 28696 S. Cramer Rd. Phone: 905-689-4022 J. W. Jung Seed Company Mollala, OR 97038 Fax: 905-689-8080 335 S. High St. Phone: 800-651-3738 or 503-651-3737 E-mail: [email protected] Randolph, WI 53956-0001 Fax: 503-651-3882 Web site: www.krausnurseries.com Phone: 920-326-5672 or 800-297-3123 Fax: 800-247-5864 Nourse Farms, Inc. Walker Bros. E-mail: Contact form is at www.jung- 41 River Rd. 105 Porchtown Road seed.com/ContactUs.asp S. Deerfield, MA 01373 Pittsgrove township, NJ 08318 Web site: www.jungseed.com Phone: 413-665-2658 Phone: 856-358-2548 Fax: 413-665-7888 Fax: 856-358-6127 Koppes Plants, LLC E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: Contact form is at www.walker- PO Box 441 Web site: www.noursefarms.com plants.com/info/contact.php Watsonville, CA 95077-441 Web site: www.walkerplants.com Phone: 831-724-6009 Schlabach’s Nursery Fax: 831-724-5123 2784 Murdock Rd Walter K. Morss & Son E-mail: [email protected] Medina NY 14103 76 Lakeshore Rd. Web site: www.koppesstrawberryplants Phone: 585-798-6198 West Boxford, MA 01921 .com Phone: 508-352-2633 Simmons Berry Farm Krohne Plant Farms, Inc. 11542 North Hwy. 71 Waters J9 Blueberry Farm 65295 CR342 Mountainburg, AR 72946 600 Ditney Road Hartford, MI 49057 Phone and Fax: 479-369-2345 Madisonville, KY 42431 Phone: 269-424-5423 E-mail: simmonsplantfarm@hotmail Phone: 270-322-9222 Fax: 269-424-3126 .com E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Web site: www.simmonsplantfarm.com Web site: www.watersj9blueberryfarm Web site: www.krohneplantfarms.com .com Southmeadow Fruit Gardens Kube Pak Corp. 10603 Cleveland Ave. Weeks Berry Nursery 194 Rt. 526 PO Box 211 6494 Windsor Island Road North Allentown, NJ 08501 Baroda, MI 49101 Keizer, OR 97303 Phone: 609-259-3114 Phone: 269-422-2411 Phone: 503-393-8112 Fax: 609-259-0487 Fax: 269-422-1464*51 Fax: 503-393-2241 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Web site: www.kubepak.com Web site: www.southmeadowfruitgar- Web site: www.weeksberry.com dens.com Appendix C ❦ Nursery Sources of Berry Plants 261

Whitman Farms 3995 Gibson Road NW Salem, OR 97304 Phone: 503-585-8728 Fax: 503-363-5020 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: www.whitmanfarms.com

Windermere Orchards & Nurserya 199 Windermere Road, RR #1 Berwick, NS B0P 1E0 Canada Phone: 902-538-3213 Fax: 902-538-0244

Zilke Bros. Nursery 8924 Cleveland Ave. Baroda, MI 49101 Phone: 269-422-2666 a. Phytosanitary certificates are required for importation of all small fruit crops from Canada. This may mean additional charges by Canadian nurseries; contact individual nurseries for details. In addition, importation of Rubus into the United States from Canada requires Form PPQ587 (application for permit to import plants), which may be obtained from individual states’ Department of Agriculture offices. Form may also be downloaded from the USDA APHIS Web site. Go to www.aphis .usda.gov/plant_health/permits/down- loads/forms/ppqform587.pdf. b. Distributes plants only through other nurseries. Call for information on distributors. 262 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Strawberry Raspberry Source Dormant Plugs Blueberry Red Gold Black Purple Blackberry Gooseberry Currants Elderberry Hardy Kiwi Cranberry Misc. Aarons Creek Farms • A. G. Ammon Nursery • Awald Farms • • • • Barwacz Farm • Blueberry Croft Farm & Nursery • • Boston Mountain Nurseries • • • • • • Briggs Plant Propagators • • Cedar Valley Nursery • • • • Cottle Strawberry Nursery •a Daisy Farms • • • • • DeGrandchamp Farms • • • DiMeo Fruit Farms • • • • • Fall Creek Farm and Nursery • • • • Finch Blueberry Nursery • G. W. Allen Nursery • • • • • Hartmann’s Plant Co. • • • • • • • • • • • • Indiana Berry and Plant Co. • • • • • • • • • • • • • J. W. Jung Seed Co. • • • • • • • • • • • Koppes Plants • Krohne Plant Farms • Kube Pak Corp. • Lassen Canyon Nursery • • Lewis Nursery and Farms • •a • • NorCal Nursery • • • • Northwoods Wholesale Nursery • • • • • Nourse Farms • • • • • • • • • • Schlabach’s Nursery • • • • • Simmons Berry Farm • • • • • • • • Southmeadow Fruit Gardens • • • Stokes Berry Farm • • • Strawberry Tyme Farms • • • • • • • Tower View Nursery • • V. Kraus Nurseriesb • • • • • Walker Bros. • Walter K. Morss & Son • • • • Waters J9 Blueberry Farm Weeks Berry Nursery • • • • • • • • • • Whitman Farms • • • • Windermere Orchards & Nursery • Zilke Bros. Nursery • a. Also supplies runner tips for growers who wish to root their own plug plants. b. Distributes through other nurseries. Call for information on local distributors. 263

No endorsement of the companies listed Fax: 800-551-1128 Appendix D below is intended. Suppliers not listed E-mail: [email protected] that deal in commercial quantities are Web site: www.gemplers.com requested to contact the coordinator (Visual and auditory scare devices) Production of this publication if they wish to be included in this listing. Hartmann’s Plant Co. PO Box 100 Supplies and Lacota, MI 49063-0100 Production Supplies Phone: 269-253-4281 Services Bird Damage Control Fax: 269-253-4457 E-mail: info@hartmannsplantcompany Bird Barrier .com 74 henry street Web site: www.hartmannsplantcompany Secaucus, nj 07094 .com Phone: 800-503-5444 (Netting) Fax: 201-348-1385 E-mail: [email protected] Indiana Berry and Plant Co. Web site: www.birdbarrier.com 2811 US 31 Contents (Balloons, netting, spike systems, other Plymouth, IN 46563 Production Supplies...... 263 scare devices) Phone: 800-295-2226 Fax: 574-784-2468 Bird Damage Control...... 263 Bird Gard, LLC Cover Crop Seed...... 264 E-mail: [email protected] PO Box 1690 Web site: indianaberry.com Frost Monitoring Equipment...... 264 270 E. Sun Ranch Drive (Scare-eye, netting, reflective tape) High Tunnels...... 264 Sisters, OR 97759 IPM—Beneficial Insects...... 264 Phone: 888-332-2328 or 541-549-0205 Industrial Netting IPM—Monitoring Supplies...... 264 Fax: 541-549-5286 7681 Seltzer Pkwy. N. Irrigation and Moisture Monitoring E-mail: [email protected] Minneapolis, MN 55445 Supplies...... 265 Web site: www.birdgard.com Phone: 800-328-8456 or 763-496-6355 Mammal Repellents...... 266 (Digital recordings of bird distress calls) Fax: 763-496-6356 Mammal Cage or Box Traps...... 266 E-mail: [email protected] Bird-X, Inc. Monofilament Grape Trellis Wire...... 266 Web site: www.industrialnetting.com 300 N. Oakley Blvd. Packaging...... 266 (Netting) Chicago, IL 60612 Personal Protective Equipment...... 267 Phone: 800-860-0473 J. A. Cissel Petiole Sap Meters (Ion Meters)...... 267 Fax: 312-226-2480 1995 Rutgers University Blvd. pH Meters...... 267 E-mail: [email protected] PO Box 2035 Row Covers, Plastic Mulch...... 267 Web site: www.bird-x.com Lakewood, NJ 08701 Promotional Supplies...... 267 (Scare devices, roost barriers, repellents, Phone: 800-631-2234 or 732-901-0300 Specialized Equipment...... 268 sound devices, plastic owls and hawks, Fax: 732-901-1166 Organic Products...... 268 balloons, reflective tape, netting) E-mail: [email protected] Services...... 268 Web site: www.jacissel.net Analysis of Soil and Plant Tissue...... 268 Endurance Net, Inc. (“Knitted” netting) Fumigation...... 268 PO Box 127 Plastic Recovery...... 268 Roebling, NJ 08554 JWB Marketing, LLC Pollinators...... 268 Phone: 800-808-6387 or 609-499-3450 2308 Raven Trail Fax: 609-499-3520 W. Columbia, SC 29169 E-mail: [email protected] Phone: 800-555-9634 or 803-939-9622 Web site: www.endurancenetinc.com Fax: 803-796-0654 (Netting) E-mail: [email protected] Web site: www.birddamage.com Fly Bye Bird Control Products (Distress calls, scare windmills, eagle 13609 NE 126th Pl #150 and hawk kites) Kirkland, WA 98034 Phone: 800-820-1980 or 425-820-8496 Nixalite of America, Inc. Fax: 425-821-5672 1025 16th Ave. E-mail: [email protected] East Moline, Il 61244 Web site: www.flybye.com Phone: 888-624-1189 (Netting and visual scare devices) Fax: 888-624-1196 E-mail: [email protected] Gempler’s Web site: www.nixalite.com PO Box 44993 (Netting, repellents, visual scare Madison, WI 53744-4993 devices) Phone: 800-382-8473 264 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Orchard Valley Supply, Inc. Johnny’s Selected Seeds Greenhouse Supply, Inc. 5610 Harrisburg Industrial Park Dr. 955 Benton Ave. 12 Acme Rd., Suite 212 Harrisburg, NC 28075 Winslow, ME 04901 Brewer, ME 04412-1546 Phone: 888-755-0098 or 704-455-4933 Phone: 877-564-6697 Phone: 800-696-8511 or 207-989-1585 Fax: 704-455-4952 Fax: 800-738-6314 Fax: 207-989-1553 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: www.johnnyseeds.com E-mail: [email protected] Web site: www.orchardvalleysupply.com (Untreated seed) Web site: www.agrotech.com (Visual and auditory scare devices) (Single-bay tunnels) Seven Springs Farm Reed-Joseph International Co. 426 Jerry Lane NE Ledgewood Farm 800 Main St. Check, VA 24072 132 old mountain road PO Box 894 Phone: 800-540-9181 or 540-651-3228 Moultonborough, NH 03254 Greenville, MS 38702 E-mail: [email protected] Phone: 603-476-8829 Phone: 800-647-5554 Web site: www.7springsfarm.com E-mail: [email protected] Fax: 662-335-8850 (Untreated and certified organic seed) Web site: www.ledgewoodfarm.com E-mail: [email protected] (Single-bay tunnels) Web site: www.reedjoseph.com FROST MONITORING EQUIPMENT (Visual and auditory scare devices, Omega Engineering Rimol Greenhouse Systems, Inc. Rejex-it) PO Box 4047 Northpoint Industrial Park Stamford, CT 06907 40 Londonderry Turnpike Sutton Ag Enterprises, Inc. Phone: 800-848-4286 or 203-359-1660 Hooksett, NH 03106 746 Vertin Ave. Fax: 203-359-7700 Phone: 877-746-6544 or 603-629-9004 Salinas, CA 93901 E-mail: [email protected] Fax: 603-629-9023 Phone: 866-280-6229 or 831-422-9693 Web site: www.omega.com Web site: www.rimolgreenhouses.com Fax: 800-482-4240 or 831-422-4201 (Thermocouples, thermometers) (Single-bay tunnels, including moveable E-mail: [email protected] ones on tracks) Web site: www.suttonag.com Nolt’s Produce Supplies (Netting, visual and auditory scare 152 North Hershey Ave. IPM—Beneficial Insects devices) Leola, PA 17540 Biocontrol Network Phone: 717-656-9764 5116 Williamsburg Road Wildlife Control Technology, Inc. Fax: 717-556-0700 Brentwood, TN 37027 2501 N. Sunnyside Ave. E-mail: [email protected] Phone: 800-441-2847 Fresno, CA 93727 (Remote frost alarm) Fax: 615-370-0662 Phone: 800-235-0262 or 559-490-2262 E-mail: [email protected] Fax: 559-490-2260 (sales) or 559-490-2274 Spectrum Technologies, Inc. Web site: www.biconet.com (service) 12360 S. Industrial Drive East E-mail: [email protected] Plainfield, IL 60585 IPM Laboratories, Inc. Web site: www.wildlife-control.com Phone: 800-248-8873 or 815-436-4440 PO Box 300 (Netting, visual and auditory scare Fax: 815-436-4460 Locke, NY 13092-0300 devices, owl nest boxes) E-mail: [email protected] Phone: 315-497-2063 Web site: www.specmeters.com Fax: 315-497-3129 Cover Crop Seed (Remote frost alarms) E-mail: [email protected] Albert Lea Seed House Web site: www.ipmlabs.com 1414 W. Main Street High Tunnels Albert Lea, MN 56007-1816 Farmtek The Green Spot, Ltd. Phone: 800-352-5247 1440 Field of Dreams Way 93 Priest Rd. E-mail: [email protected] Dyersville, IA 52040 Nottingham, NH 03290-6204 Web site: www.alseed.com Phone: 800-327-6835 Phone: 603-942-8925 Fax: 800-457-8887 Fax: 603-942-8932 Ernst Conservation Seeds Web site: www.farmtek.com E-mail: Contact form is at greenmethods 9006 Mercer Pike (Single-bay tunnels) .com/site/contact/#gb_form Meadville, PA 16335 Web site: www.greenmethods.com Phone: 800-873-3321or 814-336-2404 Haygrove USA East Fax: 814-336-5191 Ralph and Keith Cramer IPM—Monitoring Supplies E-mail: [email protected] 694 Kraybill Church Road Gempler’s Web site: www.ernstseed.com Mount Joy, PA 17552 PO Box 44993 Phone: 866-haygrove Madison, WI 53744-4993 Fedco Seeds Fax: 717-492-4959 Phone: 800-382-8473 PO Box 520 E-mail: Contact form available at www Fax: 800-551-1128 Waterville, ME 04903 .haygrove.com/contact-us E-mail: [email protected] Phone: 207-873-7333 or 207-430-1106 Web site: www.haygrove.com/haygrove- Web site: www.gemplers.com Web site: www.fedcoseeds.com usa (Traps, monitoring equipment, water- (Untreated and certified organic seed) (Multibay and single-bay tunnels) sensitive paper targets) Appendix D ❦ Production Supplies and Services 265

Great Lakes IPM, Inc. Dosmatic O. A. Newton 10220 E. Church Road 1230 Crowley Circle 16356 Sussex Highway Vestaburg, MI 48891-946 Carrollton, TX 75006 PO Box 397 Phone: 800-235-0285 or 989-268-5693 Phone: 800-344-6767 or 972-245-9765 Bridgeville, DE 19933 Fax: 989-268-5311 Fax: 972-245-9000 Phone: 800-726-5745 or 302-337-8211 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Fax: 302-337-3739 Web site: www.greatlakesipm.com Web site: www.dosmatic.com E-mail: [email protected] (Baited and unbaited sticky traps, moni- (Injectors) Web site: www.oanewtonirrigation.com toring equipment) (Irrigation systems and installation) Forestry Suppliers, Inc. Trece, Inc. 205 West Rankin St. Penn State Seed Co. (main office) 7569 Highway 28 West PO Box 8397 Highway 309, RR 1 Box 390 PO Box 129 Jackson, MS 39284-8397 Dallas, PA 18612-9781 Adair, OK 74330 Phone: 800-647-5368 Phone: 800-847-7333 or 570-675-8585 Phone: 866-785-1313 (for orders) or Web site: www.forestry-suppliers.com Fax: 570-675-6562 918-785-3061 (Tensiometers, other soil moisture E-mail: [email protected] Fax: 918-785-3063 sensing equipment) Web site: www.pennstateseed.com E-mail: [email protected] (Overhead and trickle irrigation supplies) Web site: www.trece.com Irrometer Company, Inc. (Traps, baits) PO Box 2424 Other Penn State Seed Locations Riverside, CA 92516-2424 Irrigation and Moisture Phone: 951-689-1701 224 Maple Avenue Monitoring Supplies Fax: 951-689-3706 Bird-in-Hand, PA 17505-9703 Aquaterr Instruments & Automation E-mail: [email protected] Phone: 800-917-7333 or 717-295-9808 1685 Babcock Street Unit A Web site: www.irrometer.com Fax: 717-295-1460 Costa Mesa, CA 92627 (Tensiometers, other soil moisture and Phone: 800-284-1201 sensing equipment) Hwy. 206, Box 1508 Mount Holly, NJ 08060-9694 Fax: 949-646-7493 Jain Irrigation, Inc. E-mail: [email protected] Phone: 800-385-7333 or 609-265-8600 740 Water St. Fax: 609-265-9449 Web sites: www.aquaterr.net Watertown, NY 13601 (Soil moisture, temperature, and salinity Phone: 800-242-7467 Rainbow Irrigation Systems meters) Fax: 866-329-2427 One Rainbow Drive Belle Terre Irrigation Web site: www.jainsusa.com PO Box 70 8142 Champlin Road (Drip irrigation supplies) Fitzgerald, Georgia 31750 Sodus, NY 14551 Phone: 229-423-4341 Lee Rain, Inc. Fax: 229-423-4645 Phone: 866-478-3747 or 315-483-6155 2079 E. Wheat Rd. Fax: 315-483-4064 Web site: www.rainbowirrigation.com Vineland, NJ 08361 (Overhead irrigation) E-mail: [email protected] Phone: 877-533-7878 or 856-691-4030 Web site: www.dripsupply.com Fax: 856-691-1990 Rain-Flo Irrigation (Drip irrigation supplies and design) E-mail: [email protected] 929 Reading Road Berry Hill Irrigation, Inc. Web site: www.leerain.com East Earl, PA 17519 3744 Highway 58 (Drip and overhead irrigation) Phone: 717-445-3000 Fax: 717-445-8304 Buffalo Junction, VA 24529 Mazzei Injector Company, LLC Phone: 800-345-3747 or 434-374-5555 E-mail: [email protected] 500 Rooster Dr. Web site: www.rainfloirrigation.com Fax: 434-374-0131 Bakersfield, CA 93307-5555 E-mail: [email protected] (Trickle and overhead irrigation Phone: 661-363-6500 supplies, etc.) Web site: www.berryhilldrip.com Fax: 661-363-7500 (Drip irrigation supplies, tensiometers, E-mail: [email protected] Robert Marvel Plastic Mulch, LLC injectors, soluble fertilizers, etc.) Web site: www.mazzei.net 2425 Horsehoe Pike Dosatron International (Injectors) Annville, PA 17003 Phone: 800-478-2214 or 717-838-0976 2090 Sunnydale Blvd. Nolt’s Produce Supplies Clearwater, FL 33765 Fax: 717-838-0978 152 North Hershey Ave. E-mail: [email protected] Phone: 800-523-8499 or 727-443-5404 Leola, PA 17540 Fax: 727-447-0591 Web site: www.RobertMarvel.com Phone: 717-656-9764 (Drip irrigation) Web site: www.dosatronusa.com Fax: 717-556-0700 (Injectors, etc.) E-mail: [email protected] 266 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Trickl-Eez Co. Miller Chemical and Fertilizer Corp. Frecon Orchard Supplies 3550 Chambersburg Rd. Box 333, 120 Radio Road 231 Powder Mill Road Biglerville, PA 17307 Hanover, PA 17331 Boyertown, PA 19512 Phone: 800-672-4700 or 717-337-3030 Phone: 717-632-8921 Contact: Richard Frecon, Jr. Fax: 717-337-1785 (Hot Sauce Animal Repellent) Phone: 610-367-2933 E-mail: [email protected] Fax: 610-367-2934 Web site: www.trickl-eez.com Nott Products Co., Inc. E-mail: [email protected] (Overhead and trickle irrigation PO Box 975 supplies, etc.) Coram, NY 11727 Grower’s Discount Labels, LLC Phone: 631-563-4455 PO Box 70 Troyer Grower’s supply Fax: 631-563-3950 632 Tunnel Road 817 Rt. 97 E-mail: [email protected] Tunnel, NY 13848 Waterford, PA 16441 Web site: www.nottproducts.com Phone: 800-693-1572 or 607-693-1572 Phone: 814-796-7082 (Nibble-Not and Chew-Not) Fax: 607-693-4415 Fax: 814-796-2751 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Mammal Cage or Box Traps Web site: www.growersdiscountlabels Web site: www.troyerinc.com/growers_ Havahart .com supply Woodstream Corp. (Custom labels) 69 N. Locust Street Zimmerman Irrigation, Inc. Lititz, PA 17543 Jordan Seeds, Inc. (see Trickl-Eez Co.) Phone: 800-800-1819 6400 Upper Afton Road Woodbury, MN 55125-1146 Mammal Repellents E-mail: [email protected] Web site: www.havahart.com Phone: 651-738-3422 or 651-739-9578 Biocontrol Network Fax: 651-731-7690 5116 Williamsburg Road H. B. Sherman Traps, Inc. Web site: www.jordanseeds.com Brentwood, TN 37027 3731 Peddie Drive Phone: 800-441-2847 Tallahassee, FL 32303 Kurt Zuhlke & Assoc., Inc. Fax: 615-370-0662 Phone: 850-575-8727 PO Box 609 E-mail: [email protected] Fax: 850-575-4864 Bangor, PA 18013-0609 Web site: www.biconet.com Web site: www.shermantraps.com Phone: 800-644-8729 E-mail: [email protected] Deer-Out, LLC Tomahawk Live Traps, LLC Web site: producepackaging.com PO Box 290 PO Box 155 South Plainfield, NJ 07080 Hazelhurst, WI 54531 Monte Package Co. Phone: 908-769-4242 Phone: 800-272-8727 3752 Riverside Rd. Fax: 908-769-3253 Fax: 715-356-4611 Riverside, MI 49084-0126 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Phone: 800-653-2807 or 269-849-1722 Web site: www.deerout.com Web site: www.livetrap.com E-mail: [email protected] (Deer-Off Deer Repellent) Web site: www.montepkg.com Monofilament Grape Trellis Wire Pactiv Corporation Faesy and Besthoff, Inc. Amberg’s Nursery, Inc. 143 River Road 1900 West Field Court 3164 Whitney Rd. Lake Forest, IL 60045 PO Box 29 Stanley, NY 14561 Edgewater, NJ 07020-1002 Phone: 888-828-2850 or 847-482-2000 Phone: 585-526-5405 Web site: www.pactiv.com Phone: 201-945-6200 Fax: 585-526-6522 Fax: 201-945-6145 (Company headquarters; not a E-mail: [email protected] distributor) (Rabbit and Dog Chaser) Web site: www.ambergs.com Putnam Plastics, Farm Products Div. Havahart Packaging Woodstream Corp. 255 S. Alex Rd. 69 N. Locust Street Belle Terre Irrigation West Carrollton, OH 45449 Lititz, PA 17543 8142 Champlin Road Phone: 800-457-3099 or 937-866-6261 Phone: 800-800-1819 Sodus, NY 14551 Fax: 937-866-9365 E-mail: [email protected] Phone: 866-478-3747 or 315-483-6155 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: www.havahart.com Fax: 315-483-4064 Web site: www.putnamfarm.com E-mail: [email protected] Hot Pepper Wax Web site:www.dripsupply.com Rockford Package Supply, Inc. 305 Third St. (Carries packaging supplies in addition 10421 Northland Dr. Greenville, PA 16125 to irrigation) Rockford, MI 49341 Phone: 800-627-6840 Phone: 800-444-7225 or 616-866-0143 Fax: 724-646-2302 First State Packaging, Inc. Fax: 616-866-4921 E-mail: [email protected] 511 Naylor Mill Rd. Web site: www.rockfordpack.com Web site: www.hotpepperwax.com Salisbury, MD 21802 Phone: 410-546-1008 Web site: www.firststatepackaging.com Appendix D ❦ Production Supplies and Services 267

Southern Container Corporation of pH Meters Indiana Berry and Plant Co. Wilson, Inc. 2811 US 31 Ben Meadows Co. (Lab Safety PO Box 216 Plymouth, IN 46563 Supply) 6003 Ward Blvd. Phone: 800-295-2226 PO Box 5277 Wilson, NC 27894-0216 Fax: 574-784-2468 Janesville, WI 53547-5277 Phone: 800-261-2295 or 252-237-0539 E-mail: [email protected] Phone: 800-241-6401 Fax: 252-237-0308 Web site: indianaberry.com Fax: 800-628-2068 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: www.benmeadows.com Web site: www.socontainers.com Ken-Bar (Garden Trends, Inc.) 355 Paul Road Forestry Suppliers, Inc. Wasserman Bag Co., Inc. PO Box 24966 205 West Rankin St. 70 Commerce Place Rochester, NY 14624-0966 PO Box 8397 Hicksville, NY 11801 Phone: 800-336-8882 Jackson, MS 39284-8397 Phone: 800-634-3828 or 516-681-5900 Fax: 585-295-3608 Phone: 800-647-5368 Fax: 516-681-5905 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: www.forestry-suppliers.com E-mail: [email protected] Web site: www.ken-bar.com Web site: www.wassermanbag.com Gempler’s Nolt’s Produce Supplies PO Box 44993 Personal Protective Equipment 152 North Hershey Ave. Madison, WI 53744-4993 Leola, PA 17540 Gempler’s Phone: 800-382-8473 Phone: 717-656-9764 PO Box 44993 Fax: 800-551-1128 Fax: 717-556-0700 Madison, WI 53744-4993 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Phone: 800-382-8473 Web site: www.gemplers.com Fax: 800-551-1128 Robert Marvel Plastic Mulch, LLC Griffin Greenhouse & Nursery E-mail: [email protected] 2425 Horsehoe Pike Supplies Web site: www.gemplers.com Annville, PA 17003 Main office: Phone: 800-478-2214 or 717-838-0976 Lab Safety Supply 1619 Main St Fax: 717-838-0978 PO Box 1368 Tewksbury, MA 01876 E-mail: [email protected] Janesville, WI 53547-1368 Phone: 800-888-0054 Web site: www.RobertMarvel.com Phone: 800-356-0783 Fax: 978-851-0012 Fax: 800-543-9910 Web site: www.griffins.com Walker Bros. Web site: www.labsafety.com Local office: 105 Porchtown Road 200 Mountain View Rd. Northern Safety Co., Inc. Pittsgrove township, NJ 08318 PO Box 709 PO Box 4250 Phone: 856-358-2548 Morgantown, PA 19543 Utica, NY 13504-4250 Fax: 856-358-6127 Phone: 800-888-0054 ext. 81439 Phone: 800-571-4646 E-mail: Contact form is at www.walker- Fax: 610-286-0012 Fax: 800-635-1591 plants.com/info/contact.php E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: customerservice@northernsafety Web site: www.walkerplants.com .com Pike Agri-Lab Supplies Promotional Supplies Web site: www.northernsafety.com 154 Claybrook Rd Indiana Berry and Plant Co. Jay, ME 04239 Petiole Sap Meters (Ion Meters) 2811 US 31 Phone: 207-897-9267 Plymouth, IN 46563 Spectrum Technologies, Inc. Fax: 207-897-9268 Phone: 800-295-2226 12360 S. Industrial Drive, East Web site: www.pikeagri.com Plainfield, IL 60585 Fax: 574-784-2468 Phone: 800-248-8873 or 815-436-4440 Spectrum Technologies, Inc. E-mail: [email protected] Fax: 815-436-4460 12360 S. Industrial Drive East Web site: indianaberry.com Plainfield, IL 60585 E-mail: [email protected] Monte Package Co. Phone: 800-248-8873 or 815-436-4440 Web site: www.specmeters.com 3752 Riverside Rd. Fax: 815-436-4460 Riverside, MI 49084-0126 Pike Agri-Lab Supplies E-mail: [email protected] Phone: 800-653-2807 or 269-849-1722 154 Claybrook Rd Web site: www.specmeters.com PO Box 67 E-mail: [email protected] Jay, ME 04239 Row covers, Plastic Mulch Web site: www.montepkg.com Phone: 207-897-9267 Berry Hill Irrigation, Inc. Rockford Package Supply, Inc. Fax: 207-897-9268 3744 Highway 58 10421 Northland Dr. Web site: www.pikeagri.com Buffalo Junction, VA 24529 Rockford, MI 49341 Phone: 800-345-3747 or 434-374-5555 Phone: 800-444-7225 or 616-866-0143 Fax: 434-374-0131 Fax: 616-866-4921 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: www.rockfordpack.com Web site: www.berryhilldrip.com 268 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Specialized Equipment Services Bdi Machinery Sales Co. Analysis of soil and plant tissue 430 East Main St. Macungie, PA 18062-1713 See Appendix B. Phone: 800-808-0454 Fumigation E-mail: [email protected] Web site: www.bdimachinery.net TriEst Ag Group (Formerly Hendrix & Dail and Reddick Berry Hill Irrigation, Inc. Fumigants) 3744 Highway 58 1101 Industrial Blvd. Buffalo Junction, VA 24529 Greenville, NC 27835 Phone: 800-345-3747 or 434-374-5555 Phone: 800-637-9466 Fax: 434-374-0131 3002 W Main Street E-mail: [email protected] Williamston, NC 27892 Web site: www.berryhilldrip.com Phone: 800-358-8837 Ferguson Manufacturing Co. E-mail: [email protected] PO Box 1098 Web site: www.triestag.com Suffolk, VA 23439 Plastic Recovery Phone: 757-539-3409 Fax: 757-934-3612 Zook’s Plastic Recovery E-mail: [email protected] 183 S. Farmersville Road Web site: www.fergusonmfgco.com Leola, PA 17540 Phone: 717-656-4422 Hillside Cultivator Co., LLC Fax: 717-661-7121 911 Disston View Drive E-mail: [email protected] Lititz, PA 17543 Web site: www.zooksplastic.com Phone: 717-626-6194 (Buys certain used ag plastic; call for E-mail: [email protected] details) Web site: www.hillsidecultivator.com Pollinators Kennco Manufacturing, Inc. The Web site for the Mid-Atlantic 1105 3rd St. NE Apiculture Research and Extension Ruskin, FL 33570 Center (agdev.anr.udel.edu/maarec) Phone: 800-645-2591 or 813-645-2591 contains links to various topics regarding Fax: 813-645-7801 pollinators in the Mid-Atlantic region. Web site: www.kenncomfg.com Bjorn Apiaries at Honeycomb Farms Mechanical Transplanter Co. 180 Century Lane 1150 Central Avenue Dillsburg, PA 17019 Holland, MI 49423-5230 Phone: 717-938-0444 Phone: 800-757-5268 or 616-396-8738 Fax: 717-938-0444 Fax: 616-396-3619 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: mtc@mechanicaltransplanter Web site: www.bjornapiaries.com .com Web site: www.mechanicaltransplanter Fisher Bee Farm .com 6395 SR 103 N Lewistown, PA 17044 Phone: 800-736-6205 or 717-242-4373 Organic Products Fax: 717-242-3978 The Fertrell Company Web site: www.fisherbeefarm.com 601 North Second Street Bainbridge, PA 17502 Phone: 800-347-1566 or 717-367-1566 Fax: 717-367-9319 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: www.fertrell.com

McGeary Organics PO Box 299 Lancaster, PA 17603 Phone: 800-624-3279 or 717-394-6843 Fax: 717-394-6931 Web site: mcgearyorganics.com 269

Earlier discussions referred the reader Appendix e Sources of Information on Growing to Appendix E for additional sources Cover Crops and Green Manures (Table of information. Topics are listed below 2.2) according to the chapter in which Building Soils for Better Crops (2002) by Additional they appeared, followed by additional F. Magdoff and H. van Es, 3rd ed., 294 reading. pages, and Managing Cover Crops Profit- Sources of ably (2007), Andy Clark Coordinator, 3rd Chapter 1 ed., 244 pages. From SARE’s Sustainable Information Agriculture Network. SARE Outreach How to Do a Bioassay for Triazine Publications, PO Box 753, Waldorf, MD and Other Herbicides 20604-0753. Phone: 301-374-9696; fax: “Herbicide Persistence and How to Test 301-843-0159; e-mail: sarepubs@sare for Residues in Soils.” Chapter 15 in .org. Can also be ordered or downloaded Illinois Agricultural Pest Management from www.sare.org/publications. Handbook (2007). Available online at ipm.uiuc.edu/pubs/iapmh/15chapter A Comprehensive Guide to Cover Crop .pdf. Species Used in the Northeast United Contents States. NRCS Plant Materials Program. Chapter 1...... 269 “A Quick Test for Herbicide Carry-Over Prepared by Shawnna Clark. Online at Chapter 2...... 269 in the Soil,” Pub. G1891, by R. N. Klein, www.plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov Chapter 3...... 270 M. L. Bernards, and P. J. Shea, University /pubs/nypmcpu10645.pdf Chapter 5...... 270 of Nebraska-Lincoln. Available online at Cover Crops and Conservation Tillage for Chapter 6...... 270 www.ianrpubs.unl.edu/pages/publica- Soil Erosion Control on Cropland. Available Chapter 7...... 270 tionD.jsp?publicationId=1052. Chapter 8...... 271 online at pubs.cas.psu.edu/FreePubs/ “Step-by-Step Guide to Conducting a pdfs/uc128.pdf. Appendix D...... 271 Bio-Assay.” Available online at oregon- How to Obtain Extension Publications state.edu/dept/nursery-weeds/feature Northeast Cover Crop Handbook (1994) by Penn State...... 271 _articles/herbicide_carryover/bioassay M. Sarrantonio. Published by the Rodale Rutgers University...... 271 .htm. Institute. To order, contact: The Rodale University of Delaware...... 271 Institute Bookstore, 611 Siegfriedale University of Maryland...... 271 Road, Kutztown, PA 19530. Phone: Chapter 2 Virginia Cooperative Extension (Virginia Tech 610-683-1400. and Virginia State University)...... 272 The Amount of Nitrogen Added to Overview of Cover Crops and Green West Virginia University...... 272 the Soil by Various Cover Crops Manures. From ATTRA—National Other Valuable Sources of Berry Production Commercial Vegetable Production Recom- Sustainable Agriculture Information Extension Information...... 272 mendations (2012), Table B-9. This Thinking of Growing a Different Crop?...... 272 Service, PO Box 3657, Fayetteville, AR publication is a joint effort of Rutgers Postharvest Handling and Design of 72702. Phone 800-346-9140. Digital or University, University of Maryland, Postharvest Cooling Systems...... 272 print copies may be ordered at https:// University of Delaware, Penn State, and Other States’ Small Fruit Production or attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/summaries/ Virginia Tech. Available through exten- Pest Management Guides...... 272 summary.php?pub=288. sion publication distribution channels The Strawberry Plasticulture System...... 272 The Penn State Agronomy Guide Disease and Insect Compendia...... 272 in each participating state (see listing 2011–2012, “Section 10: Cover Crops.” General References...... 272 below). Paper copies of The Agronomy Guide Books...... 272 “Cover Crops,” from Michigan Field Crop can be obtained through Pennsylvania Web Sites of Interest...... 272 Ecology. Michigan State University. Avail- county extension offices and from the Home Pages for Related able online at www.covercrops Publications Distributions Center as Organizations...... 273 .msu.edu/pdf_files/covercrop.pdf listed below. Also available online at Northeast Cover Crop Handbook (1994) by agguide.agronomy.psu.edu/cm/sec10/ M. Sarrantonio. Published by the Rodale sec10toc.cfm. Institute. To order, contact: The Rodale Penn State’s Soil Management Web site Institute Bookstore, 611 Siegfriedale with articles and links to other sites: Road, Kutztown, PA 19530. Phone: extension.psu.edu/soil-management. 610-683-1400. Also available through certain companies that sell cover crop seeds such as Johnny’s Selected Seeds and Fedco Seeds. 270 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Chapter 3 The Penn State Pesticide Safety Fact Chapter 6 Sheet EPA Worker Protection Standard Pesticide Education Web Sites of for Agricultural Pesticides Use of Tensiometers and Other Soil Each University in the Region This publication can be obtained from Moisture Sensors Penn State: extension.psu.edu Pennsylvania county extension offices, Irrigation Scheduling with Tensiometers /pesticide-education ordered from the Publications Distribu- (FS657). Rutgers University. Can be Rutgers University: www tion Center as listed below, or down- downloaded at njaes.rutgers.edu/pubs .pestmanagement.rutgers.edu loaded from pubs.cas.psu.edu /publication.asp?pid=FS657. /FreePubs/pdfs/uo228.pdf. Also, many University of Delaware: ag.udel.edu The Interpretation of Strawberry Peti- other extension publications exist within /extension/pesticide/index.php ole Sap Nitrate and Potassium Levels the region that explain issues of pesticide Fertilization of Strawberries in Florida. Can University of Maryland: www.pesticide use, safety, and regulations. See “How to be viewed at edis.ifas.ufl.edu/cv003. .umd.edu Obtain Extension Publications” below. Virginia Tech: www.vtpp.ext.vt.edu How to Produce Your Own Strawberry Chapter 5 Plug Plants from Tips West Virginia University: anr.ext.wvu Disease Management Considerations for .edu/pests Vertebrate (Deer, Birds, etc.) Producing Strawberry Plug Plants by Frank Management Sources of Information on Pesticide Louws, North Carolina State University. Constructing High-Tensile Wire Fences Toxicity to Nontarget Organisms Available online at www.smallfruits.org/ (Pub. No. 442-132). Updated May 2009 Material safety data sheets and labels Strawberries/production by S. W. Gay and R. D. Heidel, Virginia for most products can be found through /StrawberryPlugProductionIPM0604.pdf. Tech. Can be downloaded at pubs.ext Crop Data Management Systems, Inc.’s Southeast Regional Strawberry Plasticulture .vt.edu/442/442-132/442-132.html. Web site at www.cdms.net/manuf Production Guide. Can be viewed /manuf.asp. High-Tensile Woven Wire Fences for online at www.smallfruits.org/ Reducing Wildlife Damage (FS889). Extension Toxicology Network Pesticide SmallFruitsRegGuide/Guides Rutgers University. Can be downloaded Information Profiles can be found online /2005culturalguidepart1bs1.pdf. at njaes.rutgers.edu/pubs/publication at pmep.cce.cornell.edu/profiles. .asp?pid=FS889. Some information was used from Penn Chapter 7 Managing Deer Damage in Maryland State’s Tree Fruit Production Guide, online Weed Identification (Bulletin 354-C). University of Maryland at agsci.psu.edu/tfpg. Weeds of the Northeast Cooperative Extension. Can be down- (1997), by R. H. Pesticide reregistration information from loaded at extension.umd.edu Uva, J. C. Neal, and D. M. DiTomaso, EPA can be found at www.epa.gov/ /publications/PDFs/EB354-C.pdf. Cornell University Press, is an excellent pesticides/reregistration/status.htm reference with complete information on Portable Electric Fencing for Preventing weeds and look-alike species. Its 416 “How to Reduce Bee Poisoning from Wildlife Damage (FS888). Rutgers pages contain 746 color photographs and Pesticides,” by H. Riedl, E. Johansen, L. University. Can be downloaded at njaes 118 drawings. Cornell University Press Brewer, and J. Barbour, is an excellent .rutgers.edu/pubs/publication Services, Box 6525, 750 Cascadilla Street, publication, found at extension .asp?pid=FS888. Ithaca, NY 14851-6525. Phone 607-277- .oregonstate.edu/catalog/pdf/pnw Wildlife Damage Control 14: Controlling 2211 or visit www.cornellpress /pnw591.pdf. Birds on Fruit Crops (UH121); Wildlife .cornell.edu. The National Pesticide Information Damage Control 6: Geese, Ducks, and Swans The New Jersey Weed Gallery can be Center (UH087); Wildlife Damage Control 7: found at njaes.rutgers.edu/weeds. The NPIC, a cooperative effort of Oregon Cottontail Rabbits (UH095); and Wildlife State University and the U.S. EPA, has Damage Control 9: Voles (UH094). All The Weed Science Society of America has a wealth of pesticide-related links for four titles are available through most a photo gallery of weeds at www.wssa commercial producers and homeowners. Penn State Cooperative Extension offices .net/Weeds/ID/PhotoGallery.htm. Phone: 800-858-7378, 7:30 a.m. to 3:30 or from the Publications Distribution How to Obtain PALS (formerly NRAES) p.m. Pacific time (10:30 a.m. to 6:30 p.m. Center (as listed below) or from pubs Guides Eastern time), Monday–Friday; e-mail: .cas.psu.edu. Publications of specific interest to berry [email protected]; Web site: npic.orst The Deer Management Assistance growers include the following: .edu. Active ingredient fact sheets can be Program (DMAP) in PA found at npic.orst.edu/ingred/aifact Highbush Blueberry Production Guide This program was established by the .html. (NRAES-55) (1992). Edited by M. Pritts Pennsylvania Game Commission. Infor- and J. Hancock. 200 pp. EPA’s Web Site mation is available online at www.portal. Raspberry and Blackberry Production Guide www.epa.gov state.pa.us/portal/server.pt?open=514& (NRAES-35) (2008). Edited by L. Bushway, objID=622401&mode=2. M. Pritts, and D. Handley. 157 pp. Appendix E ❦ Additional Sources of Information 271

Strawberry Production Guide for the The Rotating Cross-Arm Trellis to sites of interest to beekeepers and Northeast, Midwest, and Eastern Canada Diagrams and photos can be found at growers: agdev.anr.udel.edu/maarec (NRAES-88) (1998). Edited by D. trellisgrowingsystems.com. This system Handley and M. Pritts. 162 pp. was developed by F. Takeda at the USDA How to Obtain Extension Other valuable NRAES publications in Kearneysville, West Virginia. Publications include: Identification of Predatory (Beneficial) A wealth of information exists in the Mid-Atlantic Orchard Monitoring Guide Mites and Other Beneficial Insects form of extension publications from (NRAES-75) (1995). 361 pp. Beneficial Insects (HYG-14) (Revised universities within the region and March 2004) by D. Caron and S. D. elsewhere. In most cases, publications Production of Vegetables, Strawberries, and Walker, University of Delaware. This containing information produced within Cut Flowers Using Plasticulture (NRAES- information covers beneficials other each state can be obtained from county 133) (2004). 156 pp. than mite predators. Available online at extension offices. In some states, paper Sprinkler Irrigation Systems (MWPS-30) ag.udel.edu/Extension/horticulture copies are being phased out, but local (1999). 250 pp. /pdf/bi/bi-5.pdf. extension personnel can still help with accessing Web information if neces- Trickle Irrigation in the Eastern United Biological Control: A Guide to Natural sary. Publications can also be obtained States (NRAES-4) (1985). 24 pp. Enemies in North America. Cornell directly from each state’s publications Contact: Plants and Life Science University. Has pages on more than distribution centers, which are listed as Publishing, PO Box 4557, Ithaca, New 100 natural enemies of pests. Available follows: York 14852-4557. Phone: 607-255-7654; online at www.biocontrol.entomology fax: 607-254-8770; e-mail: PALSpub- .cornell.edu/index.php. Penn State [email protected]; Web site: Mid-Atlantic Orchard Monitoring Guide. Visit the Publications Web site at pubs. palspublishing.cals.cornell.edu See the above section entitled “How to cas.psu.edu to download most publica- Obtain PALS (formerly NRAES) Guides” tions. Paper copies of the catalog and Chapter 8 for information on how to order this publications are also available through Penn State Cooperative Extension The Pan Evaporation Method for publication. offices, or can be requested from the Scheduling Irrigation Natural Enemies of Vegetable Insect Pests. Publications Distribution Center, 112 Basic Irrigation Scheduling in Florida, This manual is available from The New Agricultural Administration Building, by A. G. Smajstrla, B. J. Boman, D.Z. York State Agricultural Experiments University Park, PA 16802. Call 814-865- Haman, F. T. Izuno, D. J. Pitts, and F. S. Station Online Bookstore, Barton Labora- 6713, fax 814-863-5560, or e-mail Zazueta.University of Florida Extension. tory, 630 W. North Street, Geneva, NY [email protected] for information. Available online at edis.ifas.ufl.edu 14456. Phone: 315-787-2248; fax: 315-787- /AE111. 2443; e-mail: [email protected]. This Rutgers University publication can be ordered online from Most publications can be downloaded Managing Row Middles calsbookstore-lamp.cit.cornell.edu for free from njaes.rutgers.edu/pubs. Turfgrass for Orchard and Nursery Floor /catalog. Click on “Plant Agriculture” or the Management. Rutgers University, FS319. category of interest. Available online at njaes.rutgers North Carolina State University’s .edu/pubs/publication.asp?pid=FS319. Biological Control Center has numerous University of Delaware photos of beneficial insects and look- Paper copies of some publications are High Tunnel Raspberry and Blackberry alikes at cipm.ncsu.edu/ent/biocontrol. Production available through county offices. In New Predatory Mites (Insect Identification Castle County, phone 302-831-2506 or fax High Tunnel Raspberries and Blackberries. Sheet No. 123). New York State IPM 302-831-8934. For Kent County, phone Cornell Dept. of Horticulture Publication Program. This online fact sheet contains 302-730-4000 or fax 302-735-8130. For No. 47 (2012 revision). Available online descriptions and photos of predatory Sussex County, phone 302-856-7303 or at www.fruit.cornell.edu/berry/produc- mites at different growth stages. fax 302-856-1845. Some publications can tion/pdfs/hightunnelsrasp2012.pdf. Viewable online at nysipm.cornell.edu also be downloaded from ag.udel.edu Greenhouse Raspberry Production /factsheets/treefruit/pests/pm/pm.asp. /Extension/horticulture. Web Sites University of Maryland Greenhouse strawberry and raspberry Appendix D production: www.fruit.cornell.edu Publications are available through /berry/production/pdfs/ghrasp.pdf Pollination Suppliers Maryland county extension offices. The Mid-Atlantic Apiculture Research Many can be downloaded for free from Greenhouse winter raspberry and Extension Consortium has a valu- pubs.agnr.umd.edu after clicking on production: www.fruit.cornell.edu able Web site with articles on topics of the topic of interest. Nonresidents of /Berries/ghrasp.pdf interest, information on beekeeping and Maryland can download a form from pollinators, and links to beekeepers’ this site to order publications. associations, along with many links 272 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14

Virginia Cooperative Extension sion.psu.edu/ag-alternatives or can be Bookstore, University of Massachusetts (Virginia Tech and Virginia State obtained from Penn State’s College of Amherst, 101 University Drive, Suite University) Agricultural Sciences Publications Distri- A4, Amherst, MA 01002-2385. Phone Visit pubs.ext.vt.edu to browse and bution Center as listed above. Within the 1-413-545-2717; fax 413-545-5174; Web: download agriculture and natural berry crop area, Ag Alternatives Publi- umassextensionbookstore.com. resources numbered extension publica- cations Strawberry Production (UA290); Pest Management Guide for Horticultural tions. Paper copies of some extension Red Raspberry Production (UA431); and and Forest Crops (Pub. 456-017). Virginia. publications are available—contact Highbush Blueberry Production (UA265) The small fruit section of this guide may your local county extension office. The are available. be downloaded at pubs.ext Virginia Tech Extension Distribution .vt.edu/456/456-017/456-017.html. Center may also be contacted at 540-231- PostHarvest Handling and Design 1322. of Postharvest Cooling Systems The Strawberry Plasticulture West Virginia University North Carolina State University has a System Visit www.wvu.edu/~exten/infores “Postharvest Commodity Series” and Hill System Plastic Mulched Strawberry /pubs.htm and then click on the area of a “Postharvest Technology Series” Production Guide for Colder Areas (Pub. interest, or visit local county extension that include titles such as Postharvest 438-018). Virginia Tech. May be viewed offices. Handling and Cooling of Strawberries; online at pubs.ext.vt.edu/438/438- Forced-Air Cooling; Cool and Ship: A 018/438-018.html. Other Valuable Sources of Low-Cost Forced-Air Portable Cooling Berry Production Extension Unit; and many more. Available online Disease and Insect CompendiA Information at www.bae.ncsu.edu/programs/ extension/publicat/postharv. The following are available from the Cornell University publications can be American Phytopathological Society, found at www.cals.cornell.edu APS Press, 3340 Pilot Knob Road, /cals/hort/extension/publications.cfm; Other States’ Small Fruit St. Paul, Minnesota 55121-2097. Call Cornell also has an excellent Web site for Production or Pest Management 800-328-7560 or visit their Web site at berry crops at www.fruit.cornell.edu Guides www.apsnet.org/apsstore /berry.index.htm. Check to see when last updated before /shopapspress/Pages/default.aspx. Ohio State University’s publications are ordering. Compendium of Blueberry and Cranberry available online at ohioline.osu.edu. A Cornell 2012 Pest Management Guidelines Diseases (1995). F. L. Caruso and D. C. catalog of publications available in print for Berry Crops. Available online at Ramsdell, eds. 87 pp. can be obtained from Media Distribu- ipmguidelines.org/BerryCrops. Compendium of Raspberry and Blackberry tion, 385 Kottman Hall, 2021 Coffey Rd, Commercial Blueberry Pest Control Diseases and Insects (1991). M. A. Ellis, Room 216, Columbus, Ohio 43210-1044. Recommendations for New Jersey, 2012 R. H. Converse, R. N. Williams, and B. Phone: 614-292-1607; fax: 614-292-1248; (E265). Rutgers Cooperative Extension. Williamson, eds. 122 pp. e-mail: [email protected]. Ohio residents Can be downloaded at njaes.rutgers should contact their local county exten- .edu/pubs. Compendium of Strawberry Diseases (1998). sion offices to obtain printed copies. 2nd ed. J. L. Maas, ed. Includes insect Bramble (Raspberries and Blackberries) information. 128 pp. University of Massachusetts publications Weed Control Recommendations for New can be found at umassextensionbook- Jersey, 2007 (E316). Rutgers Cooperative store.com. To order, contact: UMass Extension. Can be downloaded at njaes General References Extension Bookstore, University of .rutgers.edu/pubs. Books Massachusetts Amherst, 101 University The Berry Grower’s Companion (2000). B. Drive, Suite A4, Amherst, MA 01002- Brambles—Production, Management, and L. Bowling. Timber Press, Inc. Portland, 2385. Phone: 1-413-545-2717; fax 413-545- Marketing (Bulletin 782) and Midwest OR. www.timberpress.com 5174. Small Fruit Pest Management Handbook (Bulletin 861). To order a copy, contact Uncommon Fruits for Every Garden (2004). Ohio State University Extension, Media Thinking of Growing a Different Reich, L. Timber Press, Inc. Portland, OR. Distribution, 385 Kottman Hall, Room Crop? www.timberpress.com 216, 2021 Coffey Rd., Columbus, Ohio Penn State has an “Ag Alternatives” 43210-1044. Phone: 614-292-1607; fax: Web Sites of Interest series that briefly describes the process 614-292-1248; e-mail: [email protected]. Small Fruit Pathology Fact Sheets contain involved in producing different high- Also available online at ohioline.osu.edu. information on disease biology, value crops or livestock and provides including photos to help identify Integrated Pest Management for budgets that give an idea of the expenses problems. They are found at extension Strawberries in the Northeastern United and returns that might be expected. Any .psu.edu/fruit-diseases/small-fruits. States (IP-STRW). D. Cooley and S. publication from the complete series can Schloemann, eds. UMass Extension Small Fruit IPM AdVisor contains be found and downloaded at exten- information or links to Web sites with Appendix E ❦ Additional Sources of Information 273 information on many insects found on berries. This site is available at www .virginiafruit.ento.vt.edu /VisorSmallIPM.html. The Berry Diagnostic Tool, a site where you can click on photos or descriptions that match your problem, can be found at www.fruit.cornell.edu/berrytool /index.htm. Sources of small fruit cultivars can be found at www.fruit.cornell.edu/berry /nurseries/index.html. National Sustainable Farming Information Service from ATTRA, the national sustainable farming information center, has many publications available at https://attra.ncat.org/. The Agriculture Network Information Center has links to numerous publications at www.agnic.org. Home Pages for Related Organizations North American Raspberry and Blackberry Growers Association: www.raspberryblackberry.com North American Fruit Explorers: www.nafex.org/about.php North American Strawberry Growers Association: www.nasga.org U.S. Highbush Blueberry Council: www.blueberry.org 274 The Mid-Atlantic Berry Guide, 2013–14 Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences research and extension programs are funded in part by Pennsylvania counties, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, and the U.S. Department of Agriculture. This publication is available from the Publications Distribution Center, The Pennsylvania State University, 112 Agricultural Administration Building, University Park, PA 16802. For information telephone 814-865-6713. Where trade names appear, no discrimination is intended, and no endorsement by Penn State Cooperative Extension is implied. This publication is available in alternative media on request. The Pennsylvania State University is committed to the policy that all persons shall have equal access to programs, facilities, admission, and employment without regard to personal characteristics not related to ability, performance, or qualifications as determined by University policy or by state or federal authorities. It is the policy of the University to maintain an academic and work environment free of discrimination, including harassment. The Pennsylvania State University prohibits discrimination and harassment against any person because of age, ancestry, color, disability or handicap, genetic information, national origin, race, religious creed, sex, sexual orientation, gender identity, or veteran status and retaliation due to the reporting of discrimination or harassment. Discrimination, harassment, or retaliation against faculty, staff, or students will not be tolerated at The Pennsylvania State University. Direct all inquiries regarding the nondiscrimination policy to the Affirmative Action Director, The Pennsylvania State University, 328 Boucke Building, University Park, PA 16802-5901; Tel 814-865-4700/V, 814-863-0471/TTY. © The Pennsylvania State University 2013 Produced by Ag Communications and Marketing Code # AGRS-097 Rev7.5CM8/12mpc3530