CONTENTS

Page INTRODUCTION...... 1

FIELD RESEARCH IN THE MOUNT ADAMS AREA...... 4 History ...... 4 1972Experiment...... 5 Area Description ...... 5 Objectives ...... 9 Experimental Design...... 9 Treatments ...... 9 Data Collection and Processing ...... 13 Results ...... 14 Conclusions...... 22 Additional Mount Adams Field Research ...... 24

FIELD RESEARCH IN THE MOUNT HOOD AREA ...... 25 Area Description...... 25 Bulldoze-and-Burn Experiment...... 26 Objectives ...... 26 Experimental Design...... 28 Treatment...... 28 Data Collection and Processing ...... 29 Results ...... 29 Conclusions...... 29 Karbutilate Experiment...... 29 Objective...... 29 Experimental Design...... 29 Treatments ...... 32 Data Collection and Processing ...... 32 Results ...... 32 Conclusions...... 34 Five-Treatment Grid ...... 34 Objective...... 34 Experimental Design...... 34 Treatments ...... 34 Data Collection and Processing ...... 36 Results ...... 36 Conclusions...... 41

LABORAlIORYRESEARCH...... 43

DISCUSSION...... 45

MANAGEMENTRECOMMENDATIONS...... 47

LITERATURECITED...... 49 This page was intentionally left blank . - _--_ _.-- - ..- -, -._

For centuries before men prevented or controlled in recent learned to prevent and control years, and Indian-set fires have them, wildfires periodically raced not burned over the most heavily through northwestern forests. used, high-elevation, huckleberry Often destroying the forests on fields for several generations. As large areas in catastrophic burns, a result, trees of low timber these wildfires frequently created quality have been invading many open, tree-free environments above high quality huckleberry fields 3,000 ft (914 m) that were suitable (figs. 1 and 2). These trees for the growth and development of eventually form dense subalpine wild huckleberries. Some of the forests that crowd and shade the resulting huckleberry fields were shrubs, eventually eliminating heavily used by Indians. huckleberry production.

Indians apparently dried their Berry production is surpris- huckleberries by placing them near ingly high in some of the fields. campfires or slowly burning rotten We measured a yield of 100 gal per logs ignited for that purpose. acre (935 1 per ha) on one high Some years, when dry conditions and quality huckleberry area in 1976. high winds were favorable, these In 1977, when overall berry pro- drying fires may have spread and duction tended to be poorer, reburned the berry fields. The another area produced 77 gal per Indians also may have deliberately acre (720 1 per ha). Fresh set fires to reburn the heavily huckleberries sold for $10.00-11.00 used fields during dry, windy per gal ($2.64-2.90 per 1) in periods. In any event, periodic 1977. Most berry pickers do not fires kept trees out of many pick every berry on an area, but huckleberry fields and created new picking only half the berries would fields where postfire environmental have produced economic yields of conditions were favorable for over $300 per acre ($741 per ha) on huckleberry growth. several areas sampled in 1977.

Twelve blueberry-like huckle- berry species grow in Oregon and Washington (Minore 1972), and huckleberry fields occupy over 100,000 acres (40 469 ha) in these two states. 1/ Unfortunately, this acreage is dwindling. Most large wildfires have been effectively

lGerhart H. Nelson. Huckleberry management. 4 P. May 14, 1970. (Unpublished, on file at USDA Forest Service, Region 6, Portland, Oreg.) Figure 1. --A portion of the Sawtooth huckleberry field near Mount Adams, Washington in 1938. Note snags and open aspect.

2 Figure 2.-- The same area shown in figure 1, 34 years later. These two photographs, taken at the same point, illustrate the rapid invasion by trees of this highly productive huckleberry field. Subalpine forest will soon reduce berry production.

I

3 FIELD RESEARCH IN THE MOUNT ADAMS / -AREA

Economic yields do not ade- History quately reflect the importance of the northwestern huckleberry The huckleberry fields near resource, however, for the in- Mount Adams have been heavily used tangible values of fresh air, by berry pickers for many years. mountain scenery, and berry buckets Members of the expedition led by they have filled themselves are far Captain George B. McClellan noted more important than market values the extensive burned-over areas in I to most huckleberry pickers. Many this vicinity and found many people pick berries just for fun. Indians picking and drying berries i I Over a thousand vehicles were there in 1853. One member re- * I tallied in one ranger district's collected "a full tribe" and wrote berry fields during a single "I never saw so many (Indians) and huckleberry-season weekend in 1971. so ma kinds of berries in all my On another district, 163,000 life" 2/ visitor-days were recorded in one heavily used field during 1969 (see Eighty-one years later, in footnote 1). 1934, an animal exclosure was constructed to monitor the effects Considered either economically of grazing in the berry fields. or recreationally, deterioration of Vegetation within the exclosure and the northwestern huckleberry on an adjacent unfenced plot was observed yearly until 1942. The resource is serious. Several factors are involved: natural Forest Service observers concluded that sheep benefited the berries by succession in the, absence of reducing vegetative competition and wildfires; huckleberry regener- lightly browsing the huckleberry ation, growth, and berry produc- 3 shrubs. / In 1937, all trees were tion; meteorological effects; and the regeneration, growth, and competition of associated species. Seeking a better understanding of these factors, we studied huckle- berries from 1972 through 1977. Field phenomena were investigated in two areas near Mount Adams, 2George Henry C. Hodges. Personal recollec- Washington, and Mount Hood, Oregon. tion. Page 146, Washington State Historical We conducted laboratory and green- Society Publication. Volume 2, 1907 to 1914. (On file at USDA Forest Service Gifford Pinchot house studies at the USDA Forestry National Forest. Vancouver, Wash.) Sciences Laboratory in Corvallis, 3K. C. Langfield. Effect of grazing on Oregon. This report is a summary huckleberry production. 2 p. December 9. of the research at all three 1942. (Unpublished, on file at Mount Adams locations during the 6-year study. Ranger District, Trout Lake, Wash.) -__-.------. .------_ _ _ _ -. _ _

felled on 5 acres (2 ha) of berry field in the same Mount Adams area. 4/ Later (1963), more trees AREA DESCRIPTION were felled, and 6 acres were disked in an attempt to control We established a vegetation vegetative competition. 5/ Berry control experiment 13 mi. (21 km) production was not measured on southwest of Mount Adams during the these felled or disked areas, but summer of 1972 in sec. 16, T. 7 N., disking apparently stimulated R. 8 E. Located in a portion of rhizome sprouting. A huckleberry the Sawtooth Huckleberry Field management plan was formulated for already invaded by subalpine the Mount Adams huckleberry re- forest, this experimental area is source in 1968, but never imple- at an elevation of 4,000 ft. mented (see footnote 5). (1 219 m), with a gently sloping WSW aspect. Lodgepole pine, Dr. Perry C. Crandall (Wash- western white pine, subalpine fir, ington State University, personal Douglas-fir, mountain hemlock, and communication, March 17, 1972) Engelmann spruce comprise most of applied replicated herbicide the forest canopy (see table 1, treatments near Mount Adams in fig. 3).61 1969. He found that Casaron, The 1972 experimental area Simazine, Atrazine, and Paraquat occupies soil that is shallow, were ineffective in selectively coarse-textured, gravelly, low in controlling vegetation competing nutrients (table 2), and subject to with huckleberries. Crandall's erosion. Invading trees are short huckleberry pruning trials (50 and poorly formed, often showing percent and 80 percent top removal) considerable snow damage. Snow were also ineffective, damaging the packs usually are deep and long- huckleberry shrubs rather than lasting, and the growing season is improving them. cool and short.

4George A. Bright. Buckleberry release from reproduction. 3 p. September 24, 1937. (Unpublished, on file at Mount Adams Ranger Station, Trout Lake, Wash.)

5 Donald E. Wermlinger. Twin Buttes huckle- berry management plan. 25 p. January 5, 1968. (Unpublished, on file at Mount Adams Ranger 6Table 1 lists scientific names for all plants Station, Trout Lake, Wash.) mentioned in this report.

5

- -_ -_ . . -. ., . _ . , .- .- Table l--Names of plants 1/

Common name Scientific name

Agoseris , orange Agoseris aurantiaca Greene Beadlily, Queencup Clintonia uniflora (Schult.) Kunth Beargrass Xerophyllum tenax (Pursh) Nutt. Blueberry, eastern lowbush Vaccinium angustifolium Ait. Bramble, dwarf Rubus lasiococcus Gray Bunchberry Cornus canadensis L. Cinquefoil, Drummond Potentilla drummondii Lehm. Douglas-fir Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco Everlasting, pearly Anaphalis margaritacea (L.) B. & H. Fescue, sheep Festuca ovina L. Fescue, western F. occidentalis Walt. Fir, grand Abies grandis (Dougl.) Lindl. Fir, noble A. procera Rehder Fir, Pacific silver A. amabilis (Dougl.) Forbes Fir, subalpine A. lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt. Fireweed Epilobium angustifolium L. Hawkweed, white Hieracium albiflorum Hook. Hemlock, mountain Tsuga mertensiana (Bong.) Carr. Hemlock, western T. heterophylla (Raf.) Sarg. Huckleberry, big Vaccinium membranaceum Dougl. ex Hook. Huckleberry, blue V. globulare Rydb. Huckleberry, blueleaf V. deliciosum Piper Huckleberry, evergreen V. ovatum Pursh Huckleberry, red V. parvifolium Smith Lupine Lupinus spp. Mountain-ash Sorbus spp. Oatgrass, timber Danthonia intermedia Vasey Phlox, pink annual Microsteris gracilis (Hook.) Greene Pine, lodgepole Pinus contorta Dougl. ex Loud. Pine, western white P. monticola Dougl. ex D. Don Pussy-toes, rose Antennaria rosea Greene Redcedar, western Thuja plicata DOnn Sedge Carex spp. Sorrel, sheep Rumex acetosella L. Spirea Spiraea spp. Spruce, Engelmann Picea engelmannii Parry ex Engelm. Strawberry, western wood Fragaria vesca L. Violet Viola SPP. Wildrye, blue Elymus glaucus Buckl. Willow Salix spp. Willow-herb, alpine Epilobium alpinum L. Willow-herb, small flowered E. minutum Lindl. ex Hook. Woodrush, field Luzula campestris (L.) DC.

1/ Nomenclature follows Fernald (1950), Garrison et al. (1976), and Hitchcock and Cronquist (1973). Some of the common names were obtained from Peck (1961).

6 Figure 3.-- A portion of the experimental area near Mount Adams before treatment. Note invading trees.

7 Table 2--Soil properties at the Mount Adams experimental area l/

Depth (cm) 2/

Property O-15 16-30 31-46 pH 5.6 5.6 5.8 Cation exchange capacity (meq/lOO g) 13.19 13.10 11.66

Total nitrogen (percent) .ll .07 .05 Phosphorus (pm) 14.00 6.00 3.00

Potassium (pm) 28.40 16.40 11.20

Calcium (meq/lOO g) 1.04 .70 .39

Magnesium (meq/lOO g) .08 .07 .05

Sodium (meq/lOO g) .02 .02 .03

Boron (pm) .22 .22 .20 Acetate extractable iron (pm) 42.00 53.00 168.00

1/ Average values based upon analyses of 4 samples--l for each of the randomly distributed control plots.

-2/ To obtain depth in inches, multiply by 0.394.

8 OBJECTIVES

The primary objective of this 1972 experiment was the developmen t of a method that could be used to control competing species without reducing huckleberry7/ growth or berry production. Ideally, such a method would increase berry pro- duction by creating a more favor- able environment for the plants. Secondary objectives included a study of plant succession after disturbance and assessments of the effects of sheep grazing on huckle- I Control m Borax berry growth and berry production Cut and Burn m Sheep and on forest regeneration. m Burn Figure 4. --1972 experimental plots near EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Mount Adams. Each l/3-acre (O-14-ha) plot is 120 ft (37 ml square, with We used a completely random IO-ft (3-m) buffer strips between. experimental design in 1972, with five treatments replicated four times. The following treatments were randomly assigned to a grid of TREATMENTS 20 plots (fig. 4): sheep grazing; cut and burn; burn ; borax Sheep Grazing application; and control (no treatment). Each plot is 120 ft We constructed a 3-ft (0.9-m) (37 m) square, occupying an area of high woven wire fence around the l/3 acre (0.14 ha). entire experimental area and fenced all four sheep plots during July 1972. A cooperator provided 320 dry ewes. On August 22, eighty of these sheep were penned on each l/+acre (O.&ha) sheep plot. 'Throughout this report, uhuckleberry" refers to Vaccinium membranaceum. Names of other They were confined on these small Vaccinium species mentioned are given in table 1. plots for 3 days, then returned to the cooperator. The resulting grazing intensity far exceeded anything that occurs during normal grazing operations, even exceeding the local intensity produced in bedding grounds. This deliberate

9 overgrazing was an attempt at time we used a flamethrower and controlling competing vegetation, about 150 gal (568 1) of diesel but it also served as a severe test oil. Although the resulting fire of possible sheep damage to the would not spread through the slash, huckleberry resource. (Many all of the plots were burned by huckleberry pickers claim that applying the flamethrower over the grazing damages the huckleberries; entire area. Fine fuels, herba- they strongly oppose allowing sheep ceous vegetation, and huckleberry in the berry fields.) leaves were consumed by the oil- fueled flame. Coarse fuels, duff, Cut and Burn and huckleberry stems were black- ened, but not consumed (fig. 5). All trees on the four cut- and-burn plots were felled by chain Burn saw during the second week in August 1972; cut trees remained Burning previously untreated where they had fallen. Firelines plots was even more difficult than were constructed around each plot burning the slash on cut-and-burn during the first week in September. plots; little fuel was present under the uncut trees, and a fire We attempted to burn during could not be kindled or spread. the second week in September. Drip Nevertheless, by using about 150 torches and slash fuel were used to gal (568 1) of diesel oil and the ignite the l-month-old slash, but flamethrower, we burned all four it was not dry enough to burn. An plots from October 3 to 7. Huckle- early autumn storm covered the berry shrubs, herbaceous vege- experimental area with 4 in (10 cm) tation, and lower tree branches of snow on September 25. The snow were burned deliberately. Burning melted by September 29, however, intensity was slightly less than and snowmelt was followed by that obtained on the slash-covered several days of warm, dry weather plots. Fine fuels, herbaceous and strong east winds. When vegetation, and huckleberry leaves :,I burning was attempted again October were consumed, but coarse fuels, 3 to 7, a weather station 5 mi (8 duff, and huckleberry stems were km) away, at the same elevation, only blackened (fig. 6). A few recorded 2:00 p.m. relative humid- huckleberry stems survived. ities averaging 35 percent, average maximum temperatures of 66" F (19o C), dry east winds averaging 7 mi/h (11 km/h) , and 10 percent average fuel moisture (10-h lag).8/ This

8As measured with fuel moisture sticks, the 10-h lag represents the moisture content in 1/4-l in (O-6-2.5 cm) material.

10 Figure 5. --Cut-and-burn plot near Mount Adams, immediately after burn. October 1972.

11 Figure 6. --Burn plot near Mount Adams, immediately after burning in October 1972.

Borax Application we applied similar quantities of borax powder to four plots during When borax was applied to the third week of September 1972. eastern lowbush blueberry fields at Dividing each plot into 49 equal the rate of 1 or 2 lb per 100 ft2 areas, we scattered 5 lbs (2.27 kg) (4.8 or 9.8 kg per 100 m2>, it on each area--a total of 245 lb killed or injured several weedy (111 kg) of borax per i/j-acre species without injuring the berry (0.X-ha) plot. Borax is Na2B407.10H20, - bushes (Smith, Hodgdon, and Eggert so the actual amount of boron 1947). Although the eastern applied was 27.8 lb (12.6 kg) per lowbush blueberry is quite differ- plot, or 83.3 lb/acre (93.4 kg/ha). .9 ent from our western huckleberry,

12 --. .- _ . .---~_. --. .-- ._

Control and species proved to be imprac- tical from the l-m tape height. All four control plots were Dominance estimates were substi- inside the fence constructed to tuted for linear measurements of prevent indiscriminate grazing, but grass species. Sedges were re- they received no other treatment, corded as Carex spp. Several other plant species were identified while DATA COLLECTION AND PROCESSING blooming, but recorded as genera during cover measurements. Vegetation Berry Production We measured species compo- sition and cover on all but the Huckleberry production was cut-and-burn plots in 1972, before measured by picking and weighing treatment. (Cutting occurred the berries on 16 one-mil-acre before pretreatment vegetation (0.0004 ha) subplots in each treat- could be measured on the cut-and- ment plot. These subplots were burn plots.) These measurements systematically located and per- were repeated on all plots (in- manently marked at equal intervals cluding those cut and burned) in along the vegetation intercepts. 1973, 1974, 1975, and 1977. The berries were picked in late August each year, combined on each We used the line interception plot, then weighed while fresh. method described by Canfield All berries were picked and weighed (1941). Four 120-ft (37-m) lines on each of the 320 subplots (20 were established at equal intervals treatment plots) during 1972, 1973, on each plot. Measurements were 1974, 1975, and 1977. Random taken along a tape stretched 3.3 subsamples of ripe berries and of ft (1 m) above the soil surface. all berries harvested were then Linear species coverage--first counted and weighed on each plot. below and then above the tape-- The average weight of a ripe berry was recorded to the nearest 0.1 ft on that plot was then determined, (3 cm) along the entire line each as was the average weight of a time. Thus, 480 ft (146 m) of line harvested berry. (All berries, were measured on each of the 20 ripe and green, were harvested.) plots. Harvested weight on each treatment plot was then converted to ripe Except for grasses, linear weight by using the following measurements were converted to equation: percentage cover for each plant genus. Linear grass measurements Ripe weight = (Harvested weight) x and total grass cover were re- corded; grass species were iden- Average weight of a ripe berry tified, but separating percentage Average weight of a harvested berry cover of individual grass genera

13

_^ ,_... . _ ^. -.- . . _ _ Statistical Analyses RESULTS

Both vegetation and berry- Overstory Vegetation production data were subjected to analyses of variance each year. As expected, the cut-and-burn Coverage of each plant species or treatment completelyeliminatedall . species group and ripe berry weights overstory competition. Burning were compared among treatments in alone was less effective, but it these analyses. Whexe significant also reduced the overstory cover, differences occurred, Scheffe' (1959) The burning killed many trees multiple comparison tests were used immediately. Others were severely to identify the treatments. injured and died several years later (fig. 7). By 1977, total

Figure 7. --The same burn plot shown in figure 6, 5 years after burning. August 1977.

14 overstory canopy on the burn plots was significantly 9/ less than that on the control, borax, or sheep plots (table 3). The sheep and borax treatments did not signifi- cantly affect overstory canopy composition or cover. Overstory canopy results are graphically compared in figure 8.

Figure 8. --Average overstory canopy %lnless otherwise noted in this reprt, at the Mount Adams experimental significance refers to statistical significance at PC 0.05 as indicated by Scheffe'tests. area. Treatments were applied between the 1972 and 1973 measure- ments.

Table 3-Average overstoly cover (percent) on the Mount Adams experimental area’

western Sub- Pacific Eslge1- kmn- west- Total Yeai- and treatment white Douglas- alpine silver Noble lmnn tain em overstory pine fir fir2/ fir2/ fir2/ spr"Ce/ hemlock henllocr Willow cover

1972 (before treatment): Control 22.1 5.3 2.1 0.3 1.2 0 0 0.1 0 31.1 Borax 16.3 3.8 5.4 0.1 0 0 0.3 0 z 0.2 26.1 Sheep 16.8 5.3 2.7 0 0 0.6 0 0.1 0.6 26.1 BUTI Il.8 2.6 0.3 1.3 0 0 0.4 1.7 : 1.0 19.1 cut and burn 2 -- _. _- _. -- __ _- __ __ _-

1973: Control 22.2 5.8 3.1 0.3 1.1 0 0 0.4 0 0.5 33.4 Borax 17.0 5.7 0.1 0 0 0.3 0 0 0.2 27.3 sheep 19.2 1:: I 2.6 0 0 0.7 0 0.1 0 1.7 29.9 BUT-D i 7.9 ( 0.6 0.1 0 0 0 0.1 0.5 0 0 t 9.2 cut and burn 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1974: contra1 20.2 6.0 3.0 0.3 1.2 0 0 0.3 0 0.5 31.5 Borax 18.6 4.6 5.9 0.2 0 0 0.3 0 0 0.2 29.8 Sheep 19.2 I 5.2 I 2.8 0 0 0.8 0.2 0.1 0 1.3 29.6 Bum 8.4 0 0 0 0 0 0.2 0.3 0 0 i 8.9 cut and bum 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1975 : contra1 23.8 5.8 3.2 0.3 1.3 0 0 0.4 0 0.2 35.0 Borax 21.4 5.0 5.5 0.3 0 0 0.4 0 0 0.1 32.7 SheeD 20.9 l 5.7 I 3.0 0 0 0.7 0 0 0 0.9 31.2 BurnA i 8.5 0 0 0 0 0 0.1 0 0 0 [ 8.6 cut and bun 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

24.4 6.4 3.8 0.3 1.3 0 0 0.6 0.3 0.6 37.7 24.4 6.1 6.1 0.6 0 0 0.5 0 0 0.1 22.1 6.5 I 3.3 0.1 0 0.7 0.5 0.6 0.1 0.9 2 8.6 0.2 0 0 0 0 0.5 0.5 0 0 9.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1/ Eachaverage represents four t*eatment plots. Averages within a common bracket are not significantly different (Scheff8 tests were not significant at P

11 Absence on most treatment replications made statistical analyses impractical.

2' No vegetation data were collected on the cut-and-burn treatment plots in 1972.

15 Understory Vegetation Understory vegetation on the control, sheep, and borax plots was Burning significantly affected not significantly affected by the understory cover and composition. 1972 treatments--with one exception. Huckleberry and beargrass cover Pink annual phlox, a tiny herb, in- percentages initially dropped on vaded the sheep plots 1 year after the burned plots, then recovered. grazing to create a significantly By 1977, no significant differences greater cover there. By 1974 occurred among treatments for these this seral species began to fade two species (table 4). Understory away on the sheep plots, and by trees did not recover as quickly, 1977 it was found only where and the understory cover of lodge- burning had occurred. pole pine, western white pine, subalpine fir, and Douglas-fir was Berry Production lower on burned than on unburned plots in 1977. Both burning treatments significantly reduced huckleberry Grasses were not significantly production on the Mount Adams affected at first, but they began experimental area (table 5). The to increase 2 years after being huckleberry plants sprouted during burned. By 1977 (5 years after the next growing season (fig. 10), treatment), grass cover was but no flowers or berries were significantly greater on the burned produced on these sprouts until plots than it was on unburned 1975--3 years after the burning plots. Species composition was treatments were applied. Five also affected. The dominant grass years after treatment, a few species on the burned plots in 1977 berries occurred on the burned was timber oatgrass; dominant plots, but the bushes still had not grasses on the unburned plots were completely recovered. Control blue wildrye, western fescue, and plots produced 7 times as many sheep fescue. Sedges, pearly berries as the burn plots and everlasting, rose pussytoes, sheep almost 300 times as many berries as sorrel, and fireweed all responded the cut-and-burn plots in 1977. like the grasses--no significant Although some of these 1977 differ- differences were recorded for 1 or ences in berry production were 2 years after burning, but by 1977 associated with differences in they were significantly more overstory protection from a severe abundant on the burned plots. Few local hailstorm, very few flowers significant differences appeared or berries were present on the among burning treatments; burning burned plots before or after the with and without slash had similar August storm. effects on the understory. These effects are illustrated in figures Overgrazing by sheep reduced 7 and 9. berry production for 2 years, but increased it during the 3d year after treatment. The borax treat- ment had little effect on berry production. 16

P -_.- _-_- -- _

Table #4 which should appear on pages 17 & 18 will be found at back of book.

17

_ .- . . This page was intentionally left blank Figure 9.-- The same cut-and-burn plot shown in figure 5, 5 years after burning (1977). Note grass cover and sprouting huckleberries.

19 _r---- Lii-- _--

Table 5 --Average berry production on the Mount Adams experimental areal 1/

Berry production by year Treatment 2 5 1972 / 1973 3/ 1974 1975 1977 /

Kilograms per hectare 4/

Control 99.30 0 35.06

Borax 61.43 0 44.98

Sheep 81.24 0 41.00

Burn 83.01 0 0.03 1.81 4.90 Cut and burn -- 0 0 0.27 0.15

1'/ Each average represents 4 treatment plots. Averages within a common bracket are not significantly different (Scheffe' tests were not significant at P

2 / Berries were picked before the treatments were applied. No produc- tion data were collected on the cut-and-burn treatment plots.

3/ Unusual cold and very little snow during the 1972-73 winter, followed by severe spring frosts, destroyed the 1973 berry crop. 4/ To obtain pounds per acre, multiply by 0.8922.

5/ A severe August hailstorm destroyed most of the berries on the experimental area.

Miscellaneous Treatment Effects Combustion of flamethrower oil probably was not complete when Although the borax treatment the burn and cut-and-burn plots produced no statistically signifi- were treated in 1972. Some con- cant differences in overstory tamination of the soil probably cover, understory cover, or berry occurred from the 300 gal (1 136 production, it did affect vege- 1) of diesel oil used in burning tation. Conifer needles developed the 2.7 acres (1.1 ha) occupied by brown tips during the spring of these plots. 1973. In the fall, the new foliage on subalpine firs treated with CONCLUSIONS borax was blue-green and seemed unusually vigorous. Beargrass None of the four treatments plants were damanged slightly by successfully controlled competing the borax; they developed abnormal species without damaging the inflorescences and produced few huckleberries. Those treatments seeds in 1973. Furthermore, that controlled the competition average beargrass cover on the (burning, cutting and burning) also borax plots declined after treat- reduced huckleberry production. ment. It equaled the control cover Those that did not damage huckle- before treatment in 1972, but was berry (borax, sheep grazing) did less than 60 percent of control not control competing species. cover in 1977 (table 4). Unlike the sudden decline and subsequent Sheep grazing did not damage recovery after burning of bear- the huckleberries. Although some grass, its slow decline on borax browsing of the berry bushes occurred, ;i plots seems to be continuing. this mechanical influence was more :,, ,' than offset by the nitrogen added 8 Intensive overgrazing by sheep as sheep manure. ! The damage to ',Ii in 1972 did not significantly conifer seedlings (table 6) that II affect the cover of forest tree resulted from overgrazing the sheep i' species. It did significantly plots probably would be less severe .' reduce the number and average under normal grazing practices. 5 ! growth of tree seedlings on the I.; sheep plots (table 6). Terminal 1: bud nipping and trampling by the crowded, confined sheep seem to have been responsible. The sheep also added an estimated 2,000 lb of manure/acre (367 kg/ha) to the overgrazed plots.

22 Table 6 --Average tree seedling density and growth on sheep and control plots at the Mount Adams experimental area 1/

Seedlings per h&i Avg 1973 growth Avg 1975 growth in 1976 Species

Sheep Control Sheep Control Sheep Control plots plots plots plots plots plots

Number Centimeters/

Lodgepole pine 5,752 12,046 4.9 7.2 6.0 6.3 Western white pine 2,179 2,832 4.9 8.2 4.8 6.5

Subalpine fir 1,905 2,090 3.3 5.1 4.1 4.8

Pacific silver fir 0 1,529 -- 3.5 -- 3.5

Grand fir 46 139 0 3.0 3.0 4.3 Noble fir 0 46 -- 4.0 -- 15.0

Douglas-fir 324 1,158 6.4 5.4 7.7 6.0 Mountain hemlock 46 185 2.0 7.2 6.0 11.2

Englemann spruce 139 46 1.3 12.0 1.3 16.0

All species 10,391 20,071 4.6 6.7 5.4 6.0

-'/ Based on sixteen 12.5 m2 (134.6 ft2) circular samples systematically located on each of the 8 plots (4 sheep plots and 4 control plots). Significant (PcO.05) differences are underlined.

-2/ To obtain seedlings per acre, multiply by 0.405. 2/ To obtain growth in inches, multiply by 0.394.

23 Recovery of the huckleberry Additional Mount Adams bushes after fire seemed to be slow and several competing species Field Research appeared to recover faster. Burning was difficult and large Although our primary emphasis quantities of diesel oil were was on control of competing vege- applied, which may have influenced tation in the Mount Adams area, our results. These results should several other aspects of the be compared with those obtained in huckleberry problem were investi- similar burning experiments. gated in smaller, previously Burning eastern lowbush blueberry published field studies. When the (Black 1963, Smith and Hilton 1971) rhizome system and root structure is not comparable, however, for the of big huckleberry were investi- morphology and physiology of this gated by hydraulic excavation eastern species are very different (Minore 1975b), numerous robust from the morphology and physiology rhizomes were found 8-30 cm (3-12 of big huckleberry. Differences in) below the soil surface. The also occur among the western soluble solid contents of shaded Vaccinium species, so conclusions and exposed huckleberry fruits about V. membranaceum should be sampled throughout one berry- based on V. membranaceum experi- picking season showed no signifi- ments. cant exposure differences, but the berries were sweetest after beargrass began shedding seeds (Minore and Smart 1975). Finally, high huckleberry abundance was related to an optimum soil pH of 5.5 and the presence of seven associ- ated plant species in a study of huckleberry environments (Minore and Dubrasich 1978).

24 FIELD RESEARCH IN THE MOUNT HOOD AREA Area Description site (fig. 111, but vegetatively vigorous huckleberry shrubs persist Seven miles (11 km) southwest in the understory without producing of Mount Hood, at an elevation of many berries. Average overstory 4,800 feet (1 463 m), we estab- composition is 86 percent lodgepole lished three field experiments in a pine, 7 percent noble fir, 4 percent uniform area where competing Douglas-fir, 2 percent mountain species are inhibiting huckleberry hemlock, and 1 percent composed of production. All three are in scattered western white pine, SE1/4, NW1/4 sec. 10, T. 4 S, R. 8 subalpine fir, grand fir, western

E l ,- and all are on gently sloping hemlock, Engelmann spruce, and western aspects. A dense young western redcedar. conifer forest now occupies the

Figure 11 .--Dense young conifer forest at the Mount Hood experimental area. There are 5,800 trees per acre (14,332 trees per ha) in the stand (55% are taller than 4.5 ft (1.4 m), 45% are seedlings). Big huckleberry is abundant in the understory, but berry production is poor. 25 --. - -I_- -1 -c-’

Although its elevation is analyses of variance indicated that greater, the Mount Hood experi- cation exchange capacity and mental area is warmer than the contents of potassium, sodium, and Mount Adams area during summer. boron are significantly higher in Winter snow packs remain there the Mount Hood soil than in the longer than at Mount Admas, how- Mount Adams soil. Phosphorus and ever, and huckleberry development acetate-extractable iron are lower. (bud burst, blooming, berry ripen- ing) is later at Mount Hood. On Bulldoze-And-Burn Experiment July 9, 1974, we had to use a toboggan to transport equipment over OBJECTIVES 2 mi (3.2 km) of snow-covered road, and 3 ft (0.9 m) of snow still To test the effectiveness of covered portions of the access road mechanized overstory removal and on July 23. subsequent slash burning for control of competing vegetation in Soil in the Mount Hood experi- the huckleberry fields, we con- mental area is shallow and rocky, ducted a bulldoze-and-burn to but less subject to erosion than answer several questions: Does the soil encountered in the 1972 bulldozing provide suitable slash Mount Adams experiment. Like the fuel for burning upper elevation Mount Adams soil, it is low in huckleberry fields? If so, does it nutrients (table 7). Nevertheless, provide this fuel at less cost than tree-cutting with chain saws? Does the bulldoze-and-burn treatment seriously reduce huckleberry growth or berry production?

26 Table 7--Soil properties at the Mount Hood experimental area 1/

Depth in centimeters 2/ Property 0-15 16-30 31-46

PH 5.30 5.70 5.50 Cation exchange capacity (meq/lOO g) 23.39 20.00 26.10 Total nitrogen (percent) 0.16 0.11 0.08

Phosphorus (pm) 4.90 6.00 6.40 Potassium (pm) 75.00 90.00 114.00

Calcium (meq/lOO g) 0.69 0.29 0.38

Magnesium (meq/lOO g) 0.12 0.07 0.07

Sodium (meq/lOO g) 0.13 0.16 0.16

Boron (pm) 0.32 0.30 0.28 Acetate extractable iron (pm) 47.10 18.70 25.90

1/ Average values based upon analyses of 4 samples--l for each of the randomly distributed control plots.

2/ To obtain depth in inches, multiply by 0.394.

27 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN TREATMENT We treated one plot in each of A Caterpillar D6C tractor with six pairs; the other, randomly 12-ft angle blade was used to push located plot was used an an un- over all trees on each of the six treated control (fig. 12). Control treated plots on October 23 and 24, plots are l/3 acre (0.14 ha); 1973. Trees larger than 14 in (36 adjacent treated plots are the same cm) d.b.h. were difficult to uproot size, with an additional 30-ft (9- or break off. Those smaller than 4 , :. m) buffer strip that includes a in (10 cm) d.b.h. tended to spring tractor-built fireline. back after the blade went over them. Except where buried by slash or disturbed by uprooted trees, huckleberry shrubs were not damaged by the tractor. After transpor- tation charges were deducted, the bulldozing cost $34 per acre ($84 per ha). Slash created by the bull- dozing was burned the following summer, early in the evening on August 26, 1974. Eight miles (13 km) away and 350 ft (107 m) lower, a weather station recorded a 2:00 p.m. relative humidity of 23 percent, a maximum temperature of 84o F (29o C), northwest winds of 6 mi/h (10 km/h), and a 10-h lag fuel moisture of 7 percent (see footnote 8) for that date. Cooperating personnel from the Zig Zag Ranger District, Mount Hood National Forest, used drip torches to ignite each plot. Figure 12 .--The Mount Hood experi- No contamination with fuel oil mental area showing the paired- occurred. The slash burned well, plot bulldoze-and-burn experi- but the fire did not spread into ment (center), the Karbutilate areas without slash. Small patches plots (lower left), and the (less than 10 percent of the area grid plots (upper left). Kar- treated) remained unburned. Most butilate plot numbers indi- huckleberry shoots were blackened, cate pounds of active ingredi- but not consumed. ent per acre.

28 DATA COLLECTION AND PROCESSING CONCLUSIONS Vegetation data were collected Bulldozing provided suitable on each bulldoze-and-burn plot in slash fuel for burning upper 1975 and 1977 by the techniques elevation huckleberry fields if the used at Mount Adams. Huckleberry slash was allowed to dry for 1 and total overstory cover were year. It provided this fuel at tallied along four 120-ft (37-m) less cost than tree-cutting with lines established on each plot. chain saws. The bulldoze-and-burn Competing understory species were treatment effectively eliminated not tallied. competing vegetation, but burning the slash seriously damaged huckle- Sixteen 1-milacre (0.0004 ha) berry shrubs and reduced berry subplots were established at equal production for at least 3 years. intervals on each plot. Equal Bulldozed sites look unattractive; numbers of these subplots were bulldozing should not be done in randomly chosen on each plot in scenic areas or where soil erosion 1975 and 1977, and the berries on is a problem. the chosen subplots were picked and weighed. Picked weights were Karbutilate Experiment converted to ripe weights by using the procedure described earlier. OBJECTIVE Ripe berry weights, huckle- Researchers in the Coast berry cover, and total overstory Ranges of Oregon and Washington canopy cover on the treated and observed that karbutilate killed control plots were compared by most plant species, but had little analyses of variance in 1975 and effect on evergreen huckleberry and 1977. red huckleberry. Our objective was to determine if it could be used to RESULTS kill competing plant species in Cascade Range huckleberry fields The bulldoze-and-burn treat- without affecting big huckleberry. ment eliminated dense overstory competition. The huckleberry EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN understory was severely damaged by the burn, however, and huckleberry Four treatments were repli- cover and berry production had not cated four times in a completely recovered to control levels 3 years random experiment. One-tenth-acre after treatment (table 8). Huckle- (0.04 ha) plots were used in a berry shrubs sprouted vigorously four-by-four grid (fig. 12). The (fig. 13), but they produced very following treatments were randomly few berries. assigned to these plots: 5 lb karbutilate/acre (5.6 kg/ha); 10 lb karbutilate/acre (11.2 kg/ha); 15 lb karbutilate/acre (16.8 kg/ha); and control (no treatment). 29

- - __ ,, .i- . . . -Tp.-----..--rrEz-T‘-:-.~--.-..;’ _.,_.. .w -- - - Table 8--Average overstory cover, huckleberry cover, and berry production on the Mount Hood bulldoze-and-burn experimental plot 1/

Control Bulldoze-and- Control Bulldoze-and- plots burn plots plots burn plots

Overstory cover (percent) 45.30 0.20 50.60 0.20 Huckleberry cover (percent) 33.00 6.00 35.20 9.40 Berry production (kg per ha ) 2/ 94.85 10.14 66.73 7.89

1/ All control vs. bulldoze-and-burn differences are statistically significant (P

-2/ To obtain pounds per acre, multiply by 0.8927.

30 Figure 13.-- Three-year-old huckleberry shoots on a bulldoze-and-burn plot near Mount Hood. They are not producing berries.

31 TREATMENTS RESULTS

The active ingredient in The karbutilate applications TandexlO/ is karbutilate (m-(3,3- produced no immediate results, but dimetsureido) phenyl tert- huckleberry leaves began to turn butylcarbamate). It is often used brown 1 month later. By late as a soil sterilant. Mammalian autumn 1975, a few of the overstory toxicity is very low. We applied a trees also began to show herbicide granular form of the chemical damage. One year later, effects of (Tandex 10 G) in late June 1975, by the herbicide were evident (fig. uniformly spreading measured 14). The two heaviest applications amounts on treated plots as the last snow was melting. We were extremely careful to secure an even distribution of the chemical and expended about 8 man-hours per acre (20 man-hours per ha). Control plots were located and marked, but they received no other treatment.

DATA COLLECTION AND PROCESSING

Overstory and understory cover were recorded in both 1976 and 1977 along three lines established on each of the 16 plots. As in the other huckleberry experiments, the resulting linear measurements were converted to percentage cover for each species. Cover percentages were then subjected to analyses of variance, Where significant differences occurred, Scheffg multiple comparison tests were used to identify the treatments in- volved. Berry production was observed, but not measured on the treated plots.

Figure 14. --A karbutilate plot 15 months after treatment with 15 lb of karbutilate per acre loMention of companies or products does not (16.8 kg/ha). The trees and huckle- constitute an endorsement by the U.S. Department berry shoots are dead. September of Agriculture. 1976.

32 Table g-Average vegetative cover in percent on plots treated with karbutllatel

overstoryl/ UnderstoryY

Year and treatment Lodge- W! Pearly Lodge- Total p01e Douglas Noble All huckle- Bear- Dwarf ever- pole huckleberry pilIe fir fir species berry grass bramble lasting Violet pine competition

1976: Control 22.6 5 lb/acre (5.6 kg/ha) 9.6 10 lb/acre (11.2Q/ha) 2.1 15 lb/acre (16.8ktzg/ha) 2.4 1977: Control 49.4 4.0 5 lb&me (5.6 @g/ha) 28.8 5.6 10 lb/acre (11.2 kg/ha) ' 5.6 15 lb/acre (16.8 kg/ha) ,3.9

1/ Each average represents 4 treatment plots. Averages within a common bracket are not significantly different (Scheff&tests were not significant at PcO.05). g' Only major species are listed individually, but all are included in the "all species" and "total huckleberry competition" columns.

could be identified on the ground species from the bottom up, (When by amount of vegetation damaged. affected by 2,&D, they die from Indeed, most plants (including the top down). Huckleberry shrubs huckleberry shoots) were dead. The appear to be slowly recovering from 5-lb/acre (5.6-kg/ha) treatment the treatments. Some of the damaged produced significantly less damage shoots bear a few green leaves, and (table 9); many of the overstory some rhizomes are sprouting. Never- trees and huckleberry shoots were theless, treated plots produced not killed. few berries in 1977, and many brown, curled leaves or bare huckle- Lodgepole pine was damaged berry branches remained. more than noble fir by the herbicide, and noble fir was damaged more than Douglas-fir. We noted that karbuti- late killed all of the conifer

33 . ,.

,,,“,. ..._, ,,

CONCLUSIONS TREATMENTS Karbutilate nearly eliminated competing vegetation in a huckle- Cut and Burn berry field when applied at l0-15 lb/acre (11.2-16.8 kg/ha). Un- With chain saws, we cut all of fortunately, it also nearly elimi- the overstory trees on the four cut-and-burn plots in September nated huckleberry. Lesser quantities of karbutilate were less effective 1973. The operation required about in reducing competition and less 18 man-hours per acre (44 man-hours damaging to huckleberry. per ha). The resulting slash was left in place, and firelines were Five-Treatment Grid built around each plot. The ll-month-old slash was OBJECTIVE burned by Zig Zag Ranger District Like the 1972 experiment at personnel late in the afternoon on Mount Adams, this Mount Hood August 26, 1974. Meteorological experiment had as its objective the conditions for that date are development of a method of con- recorded elsewhere (see bulldoze- trolling vegetation that could be and-burn experiment). Relative humidity was 30 percent and the used against competing species o o without reducing huckleberry growth temperature was 76 F (24 C) when burning commenced 4:00 p.m. Although or berry production. A successful method should increase berry the slash burned readily after production. being ignited with drip torches, several small areas without slash (less than 10 percent of the area EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN treated) did not burn at all. Most We duplicated the completely huckleberry shoots were blackened, random experimental design used in but not consumed by the fire, the 1972 experiment at Mount Adams for this five-treatment, four replication grid, but applied Brown and Burn different treatments (fig. 12): cut and burn; brown and burn; 2,4-D Firelines were constructed frill; phellinus (Poria) inocu- around the four brown-and-burn lation; and control (no treatment). plots in October 1973. These AS at Mount Adams, each grid plot plots were treated with a low is 120-ft (37-m) square, occupying volatile ester of 2,4-D on July 23, an area of l/3 acre (0.14 ha). 24, 25, and 26, 1974. We mixed three lb (1.36 kg) 2,4-D with 3 gal (11.4 1) of diesel oil and 97 gal (367.2 1) of water, then sprayed the resulting emulsion

34 on all vegetation. The vege- tation was dense, and we used about 190 gal of emulsion per acre (1 777 M-4. Most of the foliage below 10 ft (3 m) turned brown during the following month.

Burning was attempted at the same time that adjacent cut-and- burn plots were successfully ignited, but here it failed. Dry fireline slash along the plot edges burned, but the other vegetation-- even the brown pine needles and herbicide-damaged huckleberry shrubs--would not carry a fire. Thus, the brown-and-burn treatment was browned, but not burned. 1-t became a test of broadcast spraying with low volatile 2,4-D ester.

2, 4-D Frill A one-to-one mixture of 2,4-D amine and water was applied to individual trees on the 2,4-D frill plots. We used a hatchet to cut Figure 15, --2,4-D amine being applied frills 1.5 in (3.8 cm) apart around to frills cut in an overstory tree. every tree larger than 2 in (5 cm) Note hatchet, squeeze bottle, and d.b.h. and squirted the 2,4-D snowdrift in background. July solution into the frills with a 1974. plastic squeeze bottle (fig. 15). This operation is sometimes re- ferred to as the "hack-squirt" Phellinus (Poria) Inoculation technique. Frill plots were treated on July 8-11, 1974, when Phellinus weirii (Murr.) remnants of the heavy winter snow Gilbertson (a native, root-rotting pack remained as drifts and huckle- fungus that attacks conifers) berry shrubs were just beginning to spreads slowly, but remains in the produce leaves. The large number soil for long periods after it of overstory trees (3,20O/acre or becomes established. Establishment 8,00O/ha) made this treatment very by inoculation could result in time consuming. It required about continuous, long-term overstory 21 man-hours/acre (52 man-hours/ha). thinning in the huckleberry fields.

35 11 Pathologists Earl E. Nelson / and plots, however, and both total 12 Allen W. Todd / inoculated 25 overstory and overstory cover by well-spaced trees on each of the species were obtained. four Phellinus plots. At each tree, two lateral roots were Berry production was measured excavated and scarred by removing a in 1975 and 1977 by picking and strip of phloem and cambium. weighing all the berries on 16 Phellinus weirii inoculum (alder- systematically spaced l-milacre block cultures) was then placed in (O.OOO4-ha) subplots on each of the contact with the exposed root 20 plots. Picked weights were xylem, wrapped in plastic, and converted to ripe weights by using buried. Tree species and diameter, the procedure described on page 13. root size, root direction, and the inoculation point on each root were Ripe berry weights, huckle- recorded. Azimuths and distances berry cover, and overstory cover between inoculated trees on each were subjected to analyses of plot were also recorded, and the variance in 1975 and 1977. inoculated trees were labeled with metal tags. RESULTS

Control Overstory Vegetation

Four control plots were Overstory vegetation was located and permanently marked in significantly reduced by the the field. No treatments were herbicide spray in the brown-and- applied, and the control plots were burn treatment, which affected undisturbed except for periodic lodgepole pine more than the other measurements of vegetation and tree species (table 10). The 2,4-D berry production. frill treatment was much more effective, however; it killed all DATA COLLECTION AND PROCESSING but 8.7 percent of the overstory cover (fig. 16). Only the frilled Vegetation data were collected trees were affected by 2,4-D. in 1975 and 1977 on the five- Phellinus weirii inoculations treatment grid by methods used in showed no visible results in 1977, the bulldoze-and-burn experiment. and Phellinus plot overstories did Only huckleberry cover was recorded not differ significantly from the below the four 120-ft (36.6-m) controls (fig. 17). lines established on each of the 20 plots. Overstory cover was re- corded by species on the grid llUSDA Forestry Sciences Laboratory. Corvallis, Oregon. 120regon State University, Corvallis, Oregon.

36 d 0 0 0 0 0 d 0 0 0 0

In UT 0 0 d 0 0 0 0 d 0 0

n N rl 0 d d d 0

d \D 0 0 0 n* 0 0 0 0 d 0

.t r- 0 n; 0 0 0 0 d 0 0 0

to D In m . . . . ,d In iu 0, 0

37 Figure 16. --A 2,4-D frill plot 3 years after treatment. Note dead overstory trees. Huckleberry shrubs comprise the understory. September 1917.

Figure 17. --Average overstory canopy 60 on the Mount Hood grid plots. Treatments were applied in 1974.

38 Overstory species reacted Berry Production differently to the 2,4-D frill treatment. Lodgepole pine was most As it did in the Mount Adams susceptible, followed by noble fir, experiment, the cut-and-burn which was more susceptible than treatment at Mount Hood essentially Douglas-fir. Mountain hemlock was eliminated huckleberry production 1 most resistant. All trees affected year after treatment (table 10). by the 2,4-D frill treatment died The few berries picked in 1975 came from the top down, not (as in the from shrubs that were not burned. karbutilate treatments) from the Three years after treatment, in bottom up. 1977, berries were still limited to those few shrubs, and no increase Huckleberry Cover in production occurred. Burned shrubs sprouted vigorously during Although burned shrubs sprouted the 1st year after treatment, but vigorously, burning significantly produced no berries 3 years after reduced the huckleberry cover burning (fig. 18). measured on cut-and-burn plots in 1975, 1 year after treatment. This Berry production was also reduction was still significant eliminated on the brown-and-burn 3 years after treatment, in 1977 plots 1 year after treatment. (table 10). The brown-and-burn Huckleberries sprayed with 2,4-D plots were never successfully bore a few berries again during burned, but they also experienced a following years, however, and in significant reduction in huckle- 1977 the brown-and-burn plots berry cover in 1975, a reduction produced much more than the cut- caused by the 2,4-D spray used for and-burn plots (table 10). Never- browning. Herbicide damage seems theless, berry production on brown- to have affected the huckleberry and-burn plots was far below the plants less severely than fire production attained on control, damage, however, for by 1977 the Phellinus, or 2,4-D frill plots. average huckleberry cover on brown- and-burn plots, though still much Although berry production on less than that of the controls, the Phellinus plots was higher than appeared to be increasing faster that on control plots in both 1975 than on the cut-and-burn plots. and 1977, the difference was not statistically significant in either Huckleberry cover on the 2,4-D year. Production was appreciably frill, Phellinus, and control plots lower for both treatments in 1977 all increased slightly from 1975 to than it was in 1975 (table 10). 1977. No significant differences Phellinus weirii inoculations did occurred among these three treat- not affect berry production. ments. Figure 18. --Huckleberry shrub on a Mount Hood cut-and-burn plot, 3 years after burning. Note vigorous young shoots and absence of berries. September 1977.

c

40 Fewer berries were produced on CONCLUSIONS the 2,4-D frill plots than on the control plots in 1975, but the Although the Mount Hood difference was not statistically experiment was not contaminated significant. Three years after with diesel oil, the cut-and-burn treatment, in 1977, the frill plots treatment was no more successful produced more than twice as many there than it was near Mount Adams. berries as the controls, and the Huckleberry shrubs burned in the difference was significant. summer or autumn sprout during the Furthermore, although production following summer, but do not declined on all other plots but produce berries for at least 3 those recovering from herbicide years after the fire. spraying between 1975 and 1977, it increased during the same period on One-year-old slash carries 2,4-D frill plots (fig. 19). fire satisfactorily, and flame- Huckleberries were abundant on the thrower burning is not necessary if frilled plots in 1977 (fig. 20). this slash is burned during warm dry weather. Warm dry weather probably will not be sufficient for a satisfactory burn in high ele- vation huckleberry areas where dry slash is absent, however. Success in burning may require that it be done during high-hazard conditions, which are infrequent. Low fuel densities, frequent fogs, and heavy dews seem to be responsible for unsatisfactory burning. Herbicide browning of the foliage does not provide enough dry fuel to carry a fire on slash-free sites. Phellinus wierii inoculations might thin the overstory canopy without the need MEASUREMENT YEARS for either fire or slash, but Figure 19. --Average berry produc- Phellinus has had no visible effect tion on the Mount Hood grid on our plots. We can only conclude plots. Treatments were applied that benefits of inoculation, if in 1974. any, will be slow in appearing. .

Figure 20. --Huckleberry shrub on a 2,4-D frill plot, 3 years after treat- ment. Note abundant berries. September 1977.

Application of 2,&D amine in reduction in overstory canopy was frills had little effect on berry accomplished without damaging the . production during the first year huckleberry understory. It created after treatment, but it greatly favorable conditions for berry reduced the overstory canopy. This production. .

42 LABORATORY RESEARCH

Considerable time and effort at cool growthchamber temperatures were spent in culturing huckleberry (18o C or 64o F, 12-h days and 13o in laboratory growthchambers and C or 55" F, 12-h nights were greenhouses. Our initial attempts satisfactory). Seed stratification were rooting trials. Two thousand was not necessary, and germination stem cuttings were collected from occurred in 16-21 days. dormant shoots in June 1972. These cuttings were placed in a peat-sand The resulting seedlings grew mixture under intermittent mist. rapidly when watered periodically All broke buds. None rooted. In with a nutrient solution based on late July, another 2,000 stem the macronutrient proportions cuttings were collected from published by Ingestad (1973) and growing shoots. They were soaked the micronutrients listed by in an indolebutyric acid solution Minton, Hagler, and Brightwell (25 mg IBA/l water) overnight, then (1951): rinsed before being placed in the peat-sand mixture under inter- Macronutrient Solution (in 1 liter H2O) mittent mist. Again, none of the stem cuttings rooted. Rhizome 0.048 g NH4H2PO4 cuttings grew vigorously, even when collected in midsummer and potted 0.095 g KC1 without further treatment. . 0.041 g Ca (N03)2 4H20 As our attempts to root stem . cuttings failed, and as uniform 0.086 g MgSO4 7H20 plants are difficult to obtain from rhizome cuttings, we cultured 0.341 g NH4C1 Vaccinium plants from seed. V. membranaceum, V. globulare, and V. deliciosum all grew equally well Micronutrient Stock Solution&' under the conditions described. 0.90 g manganese chloride/500 ml H20 Ripe berries were pulped in a blender with water and a small 0.10 g zinc sulfate/500 ml H20 amount of detergent added to wet the seeds and prevent them from 0.05 g cupric sulfate/500 ml H20 floating away with the pulp. The resulting slurry was placed in a 0.50 g boric acid/500 ml H20 dish and decanted under a slow stream of water. The pulp floated 0.08 g molybdic acid/500 ml H20 away, leaving the seeds in the dish bottom. These seeds were air- 19.23 g sequestrine NaFe/5OO ml H20 dried, then sown on moist peat kept 130ne ml of each stock solution was added to each liter of macronutrient solution.

43 Excellent growth occurred in Using V. membranaceum cultured chambers set for 20' C (68" F), from seed, we cooperated with an 14-h days and 14" C (57" F), 10-h Oregon State University graduate nights. When well watered, the student who studied the relation of plants also grew satisfactorily in nutrients and pH in a greenhouse greenhouse and lathhouse conditions. and in the field (Nelson 1974). He found in both places that vegeta- When V. membranuceum plants were tive growth increased with added grown from seed, they first bloomed nitrogren. Better growth in the during their third growing season. greenhouse occurred at pH 5.0 than Rhizomes were first formed during at 3.0, 4.0, or 6.0. V. membranaceum the third growing season (fig. 21). seedlings were also used in a study Rhizome formation in V. deliciosum of the comparative tolerances of apparently occurs much earlier--we huckleberry and lodgepole pine to found rhizomes on l-year-old boron and manganese (Minore 1975a). growthchamber seedlings.

F syuss A,,uL,ulaLlaceum rhizome produced during the third growing season in a lathhouse. Our growth chamber, greenhouse, and lathhouse plants formed no rhizomes during their first two growing seasons.

44 DISCUSSION

The pine was more tolerant to Although we tested vegetation boron. We used seedlings of V. control methods in only two areas, membranaceum, V. deliciosum, and these areas appear to be typical of V. globulare in a carefully con- the berryfields that occur at trolled study of frost tolerance elevations of 4,000-6,000 ft (1 220- (Minore and Smart 1978). v. 1830 m) in the Cascade Range of deliciosum was significantly more Oregon and Washington. Lodgepole frost tolerant than the other pine, western white pine, bear- species. grass, lupines, and grasses are the most important huckleberry competitors Beargrass is a major com- in the areas studied. Burning petitor in the huckleberry fields the slash created by cutting or and in high elevation clearcuttings, pushing over all trees with a but herbicides, burning, and tractor eliminated the lodgepole grazing have been ineffective in and white pine competition. controlling it. Past attempts to Beargrass, lupines, and grasses, culture beargrass have been ham- however, were not satisfactorily pered by the inability to germinate controlled. Indeed, grass growth the seeds. After trying several was stimulated by burning. methods, we obtained successful (64 percent) germination by stratifying Controlled burning is ex- the seeds for 16 weeks (Smart and ceedingly difficult in northwestern Minore 1977). The seedlings were huckleberry areas at these elevations. successfully cultured under the Without dry slash to carry the same nutrient, temperature, and fire, burning appears impossible photoperiod regimes used in growing except during hazardous meteor- V. membranaceum. ological conditions; it seems counterproductive when short-term benefits are desired. Abundant berries did not occur after our fires. Although the huckleberry bushes sprouted almost immediately after being burned, the sprouts did not begin to bloom until the third growing season. Significant berry production was delayed for at least 5 years and perhaps much longer. Meanwhile, tree seedlings from adjacent unburned stands began to invade the burned area. Unless this area is very large (comparable to the areas burned by wildfires in former years), reinvasion of burned areas by trees may be almost as fast as huckleberry recovery.

45 -

Spring burning increased V. and autumn burning reduced both globulare stem density within 1 stem density and berry production year in the larch/Douglas-fir for at least 5 years. forests of western Montana (tiller 1977), but Montana results may not Sheep grazing--even severe apply to huckleberry in Oregon and overgrazing--did not damage the Washington. Western Montana huckleberries. It may even have environments differ from Pacific benefited them by adding nitrogen Northwest environments. Furthermore, to the soil. Unfortunately, added the morphology and sprouting be- nitrogen is of little value to havior of V. globulare in Montana huckleberries growing under a resemble that documented for V. closed forest canopy, and sheep angustifolium (Miller 1978); be- grazing does not eliminate this havior of big huckleberry does not forest canopy or retard its closure. resemble that of V. angustifolium, so it probably also differs from Applications of karbutilate that of V. globulare. V. globulare, eliminated the forest canopy, but like V. angustifolium, may recover they also eliminated the huckle- from fire more rapidly than big berries growing under that canopy. huckleberry. The huckleberries could recover and sprout again, but the prospects are Season of burning--not not encouraging. Boron applica- species differences--probably was tions are even less encouraging and responsible for higher stem density should not be considered further. on some of the Montana fire plots. Density-increasing burns there Successful Phellinus weirii occurred in the spring, when soil inoculations probably would main- moisture was higher and heat tain an open overstory indefi- penetration was shallower than in nitely. As yet, the inoculations the autumn. The Montana autumn have not been successful, however, burns, like our burning treatments, and we will have to wait several reduced stem densities. As our more years to see if this form of Mount Adams burning treatments were biological control merits further applied less than 2 weeks after an investigation. early autumn snowfall, however, and as the Mount Hood burning was done Application of 2,4-D amine only 5 weeks after the disappearance to frills cut in each treated of a heavy winter snow pack, our tree certainly deserves further burns may have occurred under soil investigation. The method is moisture conditions similar to expensive in dense stands like those of a Montana spring. In any those treated near Mount Hood, case, snow cover makes spring but it would be an economical burning impossible in most north- way to eliminate trees at western huckleberry fields. Summer earlier seral stages when stand

46 MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDATIONS density is much lower. We Huckleberry management will be found no evidence of the 2,4-D expensive, and the areas to be moving out of treated trees. managed should be carefully selected. Applied in frills, the herbicide Access, public use, and berry appeared to be safe as well as production should all be considered. efficient. In many areas, the public already is using easily accessible areas Dense shade is detrimental to that are known to produce good huckleberry production, and some berry crops. Preserving and sort of overstory control is needed maintaining these traditional to preserve and maintain existing picking grounds should be given berry fields. Partial shade does highest priority. The following not seem to be harmful, however, recommendations are applicable to and the slight overstory protection huckleberry areas at 4,000-6,000 ft afforded by dead snags or a thin (1 220-l 830 m) in the Cascade overstory canopy may even be Range of Oregon and Washington. beneficial. Absolutely open conditions, without shade of any Overstory trees should be kind, may be less desirable than controlled in the areas to be this light partial shade. managed. If berry production is to be maintained or increased without Shrub disturbance is detri- delays of 5 years or longer, this mental to production of huckle- must be done with minimal dis- berries. Old shrubs continue to turbance of the huckleberry under- produce berries year after year, story. without pruning or other rehabili- tation. When these old shrubs are A one-to-one solution of 2,4-D burned, cut, or otherwise dis- amine and water, applied to frills turbed, they stop producing berries cut in the individual trees, and start producing vigorous new effectively kills a conifer over- shoots. Unfortunately, vigorous story without disturbing the huckle- new shoots do not produce many berries. It should be applied in berries. the spring, just as conifer buds are breaking. Where herbicide use Vigorous new shoots should is undesirable, individua produce many berries eventually, girdling would produce th however. When they do, areas result at somewhat higher cost. that were disturbed by burning may Frilling and girdling will be least be more productive than undisturbed expensive when done before a dense areas. The long-term benefits of overstory canopy develops. burning might then exceed the short-term benefits obtained by applying 2,4-D in frills. We will continue to monitor all of our experimental plots to see if this occurs.

47 Where dense overstory canopies Where optimal growth and berry occupy large areas that are to be production are desired, nitrogen managed for huckleberries, and fertilization is beneficial. where berry production delays of 5 Nelson's work (1974) indicated that years or longer are acceptable, the 40 lb of nitrogen per acre (44.8 bulldoze-and-burn treatment should kg/ha) produced a response nearly be considered. Using a crawler- equal to the maximum possible type tractor with raised bulldozer response from field fertilization. blade, all trees in a large area To supply this amount of nitrogen, should be pushed over and allowed he used 191 lb of ammonium sul- to dry for a year before burning is fate/acre (214 kg/ha). attempted. Burning should then be done while soil moisture remains If intensive huckleberry high, as soon as the slash will management is ever attempted, the carry a fire. This method has a young shrubs probably should be severe visual impact on the land- planted in heavily used berry scape, it will eliminate berry fields or recent clearcuttings in production for several years, and berry-producing areas. Cultural long-term berry production benefits techniques are available, and these are unknown. Nevertheless, it is shrubs can be produced from seed much cheaper than frilling or with little difficulty. In high girdling where dense unmerchantable elevation areas where spring frosts overstories are to be removed. cause frequent crop failures, the Where merchantable overstories frost-resistant blueleaf huckle- exist, conventional clearcutting berry could be introduced and probably would be just as effect- managed. It is low-growing and ive. Unfortunately, merchantable difficult to pick, however, and overstories do not always occur on seems to be less productive than areas capable of producing good big huckleberry. Mixtures of these huckleberry crops. two species probably should be grown where frequent frosts occur Sheep grazing is compatible in the growing season. with huckleberry production, but sometimes incompatible with huckle- berry pickers. Wherever possible, grazing should be scheduled so that sheep are out of the berry fields before the huckleberries ripen.

48 LITERATURE CITED

Black, W. 1963. The effect of Miller, Melanie. 1978. Effect of frequency of rotational burning on growing season on sprouting of blue blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium) huckleberry. USDA For. Serv. Res. production. Can. J. Plant Sci. Note INT-240, 8 p. Intermt. For. 43(2):161-165. and Range Exp. Stn., Ogden, Utah.

Canfield, R. H. 1941. Application Minore, Don. 1972. The wild huckle- of the line interception method in berries of Oregon and Washington- sampling range vegetation. J. For. a dwindling resource. USDA For. 39:388-394. Serv. Res. Pap. PNW-143, 20 p. Pac. Northwest For. and Range Exp. Fernald, Merritt Lyndon. 1950. Stn., Portland, Oreg. Gray's manual of botany. 8th ed. 1,632 p. American Book Co.: New Minore, Don. 1975a. Comparative York, Cincinnati, Chicago, Boston, tolerances of lodgepole pine and Atlanta, Dallas, San Francisco. thin-leaved huckleberry to boron and manganese. USDA For. Serv. Res. Garrison, G. A., J. M. Skovlin, C. Note PNW-253, 6 p. Pac. Northwest E. Poulton, and A. H. Winward. For. and Range Exp. Stn., Portland, 1976. Northwest plant names and Oreg. symbols for ecosystem inventory and analysis. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Minore, Don. 1975b. Observations Tech. Rep. PNW-46,263 p. Pac. on the rhizomes and roots of Vaccinium Northwest For. and Range Exp. Stn., membranaceum. USDA For. Serv. Res. Portland, Oreg. Note PNW-261, 5 p. Pac. Northwest For. and Range Exp. Stn., Portland, Hitchcock, C. Leo, and Arthur Oreg . Cronquist. 1973. Flora of the Pacific Northwest. 730 p. Univ. Minore, Don, and Michael E. Dubrasich. Wash. Press, Seattle. 1978. Big huckleberry abundance as related to environment and associ- Ingestad, Torsten. 1973. Mineral ated vegetation near Mount Adams, nutrient requirements of Vaccinium Washington. USDA For. Serv. Res. vitis idaea and V. myrtillus. Note PNW-322, 8 p. Pac. Northwest Physiol. Plant. 29(2):239-246. For. and Range Exp. Stn., Portland, Oreg. Miller, Melanie. 1977. Response of blue huckleberry to prescribed Minore, Don, and Alan W. Smart. fires in western Montana larch-fir 1975. Sweetness of huckleberries forest. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. near Mount Adams, Washington. USDA INT-188, 33 p. Intermt. For. and For, Serv. Res. Note PNW-248, 4 p. Range Exp. Stn., Ogden, Utah. Pac. Northwest For. and Range Exp. Stn., Portland, Oreg.

49

-.._, ~~.~r----s-e?...- .-.. -=- 1 T--. -_. ._, , (. .(( *,- .:: - . . .._. -_ _ * --.- _ . . _: . ..-. _. .. - --

Minore, Don, and Alan W. Smart. Scheffe'; H. 1959. The analysis of 1978. Frost tolerance in seedlings variance. 477 p. Wiley, New York. of Vaccinium membranaceum, Vaccinium globulare, and Vaccinium deliciosum. Smart, Alan W., and Don Minore. Northwest Sci. 52(3):179-185. 1977. Germination of beargrass (Xerophyllum tenax (Pursh) Nutt.). Minton, Norman A., T. B. Hagler, and Plant Propagator 23(3):13-15. W. T. Brightwell. 1951. Nutrient- element deficiency symptoms of the Smith, D. W., and J. R. Hilton. rabbit eye blueberry. Proc. Am. 1971. The comparative effects of Soc. Hort, Sci. 58:115-119. pruning by burning or clipping on lowbush blueberries in north-eastern Nelson, Eric A. 1974. Greenhouse Ontario. J. Appl. Ecol. 8(3):781- and field fertilization of thin- 789. leaved huckleberry. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Note PNW-236, 13 p. Pat, Smith, W. W., A. R. Hodgdon, and Northwest For. and Range Exp. Stn., Russell Eggert. 1947. Progress Portland, Oreg. report on chemical weed control in blueberry fields. Proc. Am. Sot. Peck, Morton Eaton. 1961. A manual Hort. Sci. 50:233-238. of the higher plants of Oregon. 2d ed. 936 p. Binfords and Mort, Portland.

50 Table 4-Average understory cover on the Mount Adams experimental area1

Big Lodge- Western Western Pearly Year and treatment huckle- Bear- pole white wood ever- berry grass Lupine Grasses pine2/- pine/ strawberry lasting Sedges 1972 (before treatment):

Control 22.1 19.7 4.9 1.1 Borax 23.2 19.4 1.8 Sheep 24.7 20.5 ::! 0.4 Burn 18.4 17.9 2.7 1.3 cut ma burn 4' -- 1------1973: Control 17.4 0.8 Borax 12.4 t:: 1.3 Sheep 10.2 I l 3.7 1.7 Burn 0.1 1.6 Cut and burn I ;:: 0 2.2 1974: Control 22.5 16.8 0.8 Borax 22.0 11.0 ;:: 1.9 Sheep 21.2 9.6 I 3.5 1.8 Burn 15.1 6.3 0 Cut and burn 8.8 i 6.3 0 1 z 1975: Control 22.6 16.6 3.8 1.0 Borax 22.7 11.0 2.0 Sheep 22.3 12.0 t ;:Lf 1.7 Burn 18.1 7.9 0.1 3.6 Cut and burn 6.7 0 i 5.4 i 2.1 1977: Control 24.4 15.2 3.4 Borax 25.6 8.6 4.5 Sheep 23.7 11.2 2.8 Burn 18.8 10.6 0.1 cut aa burn 11.6 9.1 0

'1 Each average r ep resents 4 treatment plots. Averages within a common bracket are not significantly significant at PqO.05). 2' Tallied as understory cover when encountered below the l-m height of our intercept tape.

2' Absence on most treatment replications made statistical analyses impractical.

4' No vegetation data were collected on the cut-and-burn treatment plots in 1972. Field Sub- Pink White Queen cup Dwarf Sheep Fire- wood- alpine Douglas- annual hawk- Mountain- Bead- Orange bramble sorrel Spirea weed rush fir2/- fir2/- phlox weed ash lily agoseris

0.4 0.2 0 0.4 0.7 0 0 0.1 0 0 0.4 0.2 0 1.2 0.5 0 0.1 0.2 0 0 1.0 0.3 0 0.1 0.4 0 0.2 0.2 0 0 0.8 0.4 0 i 1.6 0.5 0 0 0.2 0.1 0 -- [ ------i -- -- 1------

1.0 0.2 0.3 0.3 '0.2 0.2 0.7 0 b.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 1.6 0.6 0.4 0.5 0.8 1.0 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 1.3 0.7 0.8 0.5 0.7 0.2 0.5 1.8 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.8 1.6 0 I0 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 1.3 0.6 0.4 0.4 1 0.8 r 0.9 1 0.3 r 0.6 1.2 0 0 0.4 0.2 I0.1 0.3 [ 0.3 1.4 0.3 0.6 0.3 0.1 0.6 0.4 0 0.3 0.2 0 f 2.1 0.7 0.5 0.6 0.4 1.0 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.2 0 0.2 1.7 0.9 0.8 0.5 0.2 [ 0.2 [ 0.2 0.5 0.4 ' 0.1 0.2 0.3 1.7 0.9 0.7 1.3 0.7 0 0 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.6 0 0 0.3 0.2 ,l.3 c L.9 [ 0.4 1 1 [ 0.4 \'0.2 [ 0.8 [ 0.4 '1.3 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.7 0 '0.2 0.2 0.1 0 1.7 0.6 0.6 0.3 0.8 I 0.5 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 1.7 0.8 0.9 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2 ,1.2 1.2 0.7 0.8 0.9 0 0.2 0.10.2 [ 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.5 1 1.0 1 0.1 1 0.5 10.7 0 0.2 p.1 0 i 0.2 [ 0.2

'1.6 0.2 0.6 0.4 0.9 0.9 0 ‘0.3 0.3 0.4 0 2.2 0.4 0.8 0.4 2.3 I 0.5 0 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.1 1.7 0.5 1.0 0.5 0.4 0.3 0 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.1 1.8 1.5 1.2 1.4 0 0 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.3 ,1.2 1.6 1.0 0 0 ,0.2 [ 0.2 I 0.9 0.1 [ 0.4 I 0.3 ifferent (Scheffe/ tests were not MOUI-l- Rose Pacific Small Fngle- Drummond Al tain pussy- silver flowered cinque- Bunch- Noble wli hemlock2/3/-- Willow2/3/-- toes fir2/3/-- willow herb Egce2/3/-- foil3/ _ berry fir2/3/-- Violet he

0.3 0 0 0.7 0 0 0 0.1 0 0 0 0.3 0 0 0 0.2 0 0 0 0 0.2 0.4 0 0 0 0 0 0.1 0.1 0 1.4 0.6 0 0 0 0.4 0 0 0 0 ------

0.2 0.3 0.1 0.1 0 0 0.1 0 0 0.2 0 0.1 0.2 0.1 0 0 0.1 0 0 0.1 0 0 0 0.2 0 0 0.1 0.2 0.1 0 0 0 0 0.1 0.1 [ 0.3 0 0.2 0 0

0.4 0 0 0.5 0 0 0 0.1 0 0 0 0.1 0 0 0.3 0 0 0 0 0.1 0.1 0 0.1 0 0.1 0.1 0.2 0 0.2 0.2 0 0.1 0 0 0 0 0 0.2 0.2 0 0.1 0 0.1 0 I 0.3

0.6 0.2 0.1 0.4 0 0 0 0.2 0 0 0.1 0 0 0 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.1 0 0.2 0 0 0.3 0 0.2 0.1 0 0 0 0 0.1 I 0.2 0 c 0.2 0 0.2 0 0

0.4 0 0.1 0.5 0 0 0 0.2 0.1 0.1 0 0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0 0 0 0.1 0.4 0 0 0.1 0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0 0 0.4 0 0.1 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.7 0 [ 0.2 0 E.3 z.1 0 Alpine Total Bunch- Noble willow- Grand huckleberry berry fir2/3/-- Violet herb3/ fir2/3/-- competition

0.1 0 0 0 58.8 0 0 E 0 0 63.2 0.1 0.1 0 0 0 56.6 0 0 0 0 0 65.6 ------

0.1 0 0 0 0.1 53.5 0 0 0 0 0.1 56.6 0 0.2 0 0 0 50.7 3 0 0.1 0 0 38.9 0 3 0.1 0 0 i 36.5

0.1 0 0 0 0 47.2 0 0 0 0 0 50.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0 46.3 0 0 0 0.1 0 40.7 0.1 0 0 0.1 0 [ 42.9

0.2 0 0 0.1 0.2 44.1 0 0 0 0.1 0 45.2 0 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 40.9 0 0 0 0.1 0 r 33.1 0 0 0 0 0 23.3

0.2 0.1 0.1 0 0 57.2 0 0 0 0 0 58.9 0.1 0.2 0.2 0 0 56.9 0 0 0 0 59.4 0.1 0 0.1 : 0 54.5