Regional Power and Local Ecologies Accumulated Population Trends and Human Impacts in the Northern Fertile Crescent
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Downloaded from orbit.dtu.dk on: Oct 26, 2019 Regional power and local ecologies Accumulated population trends and human impacts in the northern Fertile Crescent Lawrence, D.; Philip, G.; Wilkinson, K.; Buylaert, Jan-Pieter; Murray, A. S.; Thompson, W.; Wilkinson, T. J. Published in: Quaternary International Link to article, DOI: 10.1016/j.quaint.2015.06.026 Publication date: 2017 Document Version Peer reviewed version Link back to DTU Orbit Citation (APA): Lawrence, D., Philip, G., Wilkinson, K., Buylaert, J-P., Murray, A. S., Thompson, W., & Wilkinson, T. J. (2017). Regional power and local ecologies: Accumulated population trends and human impacts in the northern Fertile Crescent. Quaternary International, 437(B), 60-81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.06.026 General rights Copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. Users may download and print one copy of any publication from the public portal for the purpose of private study or research. You may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain You may freely distribute the URL identifying the publication in the public portal If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. Regional Power and Local Ecologies: Accumulated Population Trends & Human Impacts in the Northern Fertile Crescent. Lawrence, D., Philip, G., Thompson, W., Wilkinson, K., Buylaert, J. P., Murray, A. S., Wilkinson, T. J. Corresponding Author: Dan Lawrence, [email protected] ABSTRACT Archaeological data tends to be gathered at the local level: human agency also operates at this scale. By combining data from multiple surveys conducted within a larger area, it is possible to use local datasets to obtain a perspective on regional trends in settlement, population, and human activity. Here we employ data derived from nine archaeological surveys in the northern and western regions of the Fertile Crescent (west and north Syria, SE Turkey, and northern Iraq) to show how local trends aggregate to create a general proxy record of settlement and regional population. In addition, we use geoarchaeological data from a region extending from Homs in the west to northern Iraq in the east to outline historical trends in alluvial fill development. Both settlement and alluviation trends are then related to palaeoclimate proxy data from Soreq Cave and Lake Van. Settlement, geoarchaeological signatures and climate are then examined side by side in order to assess long-term human interactions. Key Words: Fertile Crescent, local ecology, landscape archaeology, settlement archaeology, scale 1.0 Introduction "Small-scale environments" or "ecological niches" are important research foci for the investigation of socioecological dynamics. However, a single region may include more than one such small-scale environment. In some cases, a given locality will consist of a patchwork of different physical landscapes, often deriving from a variegated geology, or differential access to water. In other cases, our environmental records relate to different scales of environmental influence. For example, the geoarchaeological sequences discussed here pertain to fluvial catchments of varying size, from major river basins to individual slopes. Consequently, the palaeoenvironmental record with which scholars must work may vary in scale from the highly local to the spatially extensive, the latter often reflecting a combination of processes in operation at multiple locations. Furthermore, the interference of humans with vegetation and hydrology can change significantly the nature of ecological niches, thereby presenting new opportunities for local communities. In such cases, human adaptation may not be a straightforward response to the local environment, but rather will take the form of human niche construction in which successful communities provide pathways for future development that deliver positive returns greater than would have been expected under the previous conditions (Kendal et al. 2011: 785). Having sketched the significance of small-scale regional niches for the earlier phases of settlement for the northern Fertile Crescent (i.e. north Syria, southern Turkey and NW Iraq), we present a series of geoarchaeological case studies which are then related to long-term climate change and broader trends in settlement. For the latter, we employ a series of archaeological surveys (Fig. 1), which, when standardized, enable us to infer "settlement densities" for a range of sample areas across the northern Fertile Crescent. These not only provide a rough datum for assessing local human impacts on the landscape but also indicate local trajectories of settlement. We argue that while the micro-regions recognized continued 1 to be significant, after the Late Bronze Age (LBA) local ecologies frequently became overridden by the large scale imprint of the later territorial empires under the influence of which settlement trends became partly decoupled from the immediate environment. The case studies comprise recent research from the Homs area (western Syria), the Orontes Valley, the Middle Euphrates, and from the Khabur Valley of eastern Syria. For brevity, the sequences from the areas reviewed are summarised, and references are made to more fully documented publications. INSERT FIG 1 1.1 The role of local ecologies Most ancient human settlement in the northern Fertile Crescent was supported by agricultural production, which in turn depended upon the quality and productivity of soils and the available moisture as derived from rainfall. Consequently, for an area like the Khabur basin soil maps demonstrate two basic patterns of soil. The first is a zonal development in which soils follow the rainfall gradients. The northern moister areas (with rainfall > 300 mm per annum) exhibit prismatic soil structure and carbonate nodules; further south, where rainfall is from 200-300 mm per annum, soils become shallower with progressively more gypsum as shallow desert soils predominate (Van Liere n.d.). Second, within any one zone different lithologies can result in very specific soils (intrazonal soils) which create local niches with markedly different physical and ecological properties than the local (zonal) soils (see below the two examples drawn from different areas of basaltic geology in eastern and western Syria). In addition to these variations in soil type, soil moisture can be time dependent. This is not only because of climatic cycles but also because the increased use of irrigation during the last 3000 years which radically changed the range of crop plants grown. The significance of regional variations in ecology is also apparent in archaeological data. For example, recent palaeobotanical and isotopic research has demonstrated that climate proxy data from carbonized grain as well as variations in grain and associated faunal assemblages exhibit local or regional signatures (Riehl et al. 2014; Smith and Munro 2009). Consequently, Smith and Munro (2009) argue that soil moisture, itself a function of atmospheric humidity, produces different crop-faunal signatures which can be grouped according to local ecologies. 2.0 Regional Setting and Palaeoclimate 2.1 Physical Geography The broad area under consideration forms a crescent-shaped configuration which receives sufficient rainfall for rain-fed cultivation, and which merges into the semi-desert to the south and the Zagros, Taurus, Amanus and Anti-Lebanon mountains, as well as the Jebel Zawiya forming an arc from east to west. The region can be subdivided into the following terrain types (Wilkinson et al. 2014), although it should be noted that these broad types encompass a much larger range of micro-environments (Fig. 2): Agricultural Plains These formed the “bread basket” of northern Mesopotamia because, although receiving only moderate rainfall, their large area compensated for yields that appear relatively low when compared to the irrigated landscapes of southern Mesopotamia (Weiss 1986). The rolling plains, which form a classic “landscape of tells”, underpin the “staple economy” of the numerous tell-based communities which grew up during the Chalcolithic and Bronze Ages. The valleys which dissect these plains show significant but varying degrees of alluviation 2 resulting in localized burial of settlements. The largest of these plains is centred on the upper Khabur basin (Fig. 2) where soils developed upon alluvial sediments washed from the mountains to the north as well as caps of Plio-Pleistocene basalts and outcrops of Pliocene sediments. Additional agricultural plains include the upland plains west of the Euphrates, specifically the Gazientep / Quoueiq plains; the Jabbul plain to the east of Aleppo; agricultural basins of the Harran/ Balikh and Saruj; the Amuq, Orontes and Ghab valleys together with the Marl landscapes south of Homs (Fig. 2). INSERT FIG. 2 Alluvial valleys The valleys of the Tigris, Euphrates, Orontes and Afrin Rivers and their tributaries provide well watered corridors and loci for long-term settlement. Eroded through Tertiary and Cretaceous limestone with occasional igneous rocks, these valleys have been infilled with deep alluvial sediments and are flanked by Pleistocene terraces