THE STATUS OF LARGE CARNIVORES OF THE GREATER MAPUNGUBWE TRANSFRONTIER CONSERVATION AREA: 2004 to 2010

Compiled by the Shashe Limpopo Predator Research Group: an international research initiative working towards effective conservation of the large mammalian carnivores of the Shashe-Limpopo region.

Publishing Organisation: Shashe Limpopo Predator Research Group P.O Box 2633

Registered UK charitable trust number 1115723

© Shashe Limpopo Predator Research Group 2010

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1 Introduction

This report details large carnivore distribution, density and movement data accrued at annual workshops of and reports to the Shashe-Limpopo Predator Research Group from 2004 to 2010. It has been prepared with the contributions of all SLPRG participants. The Greater Mapungubwe Transfrontier Conservation Area (Figure 1) has since 2004 been proclaimed within the Shashe Limpopo Region.

2 Status of the six large carnivore species of the Greater Mapungubwe TFCA

2.1 (Panthera leo)

In 2004 there was evidence that were present in all three countries, with the population being relatively contiguous from the Shashe Campfire Area in Zimbabwe (adjacent to the Tuli Circle Safari Area) in the north to Venetia-Limpopo Nature Reserve (VLNR) in the south. The largest population within this area was in the Northern Tuli Game Reserve (NOTUGRE), estimated to comprise 30 individuals of which 16 were individually identifiable in two well known prides. Lions were seemingly never extirpated from the NOTUGRE area, but persecution has been a long term management issue. In the 1950’s it was estimated that 150 lions were killed in the area (Lind, 1974), with large carnivores almost non-existent by the late 1960’s (McKenzie, 1990). However, increased protection in the early 70’s saw the population increase from an estimated 20 to 40 individuals in three years (Lind, 1974). It is likely that the numbers of lions in NOTUGRE have fluctuated around that number since then.

Since the late 70’s many subadult lions have been recorded disappearing from NOTUGRE, most of which never returned with many being assumed to have been hunted in the Tuli

1 Circle Safari Area (TCSA) in Zimbabwe. At least seven dispersing lions recolonized VLNR before the fencing was completed in the 1990’s (Cotteril, 1996). By 1994 reserve managers estimated that 12-15 lions were resident, with 22 lions estimated in 1996 (Cotteril, 1996). To halt further population growth consumptive utilization of lions in the form of trophy hunting began in 2000 on VLNR. Up until 2003 no particular consideration was taken with respect to which individuals were removed, but subsequent to a population assessment in that year (Funston & Janse van Rensburg, 2003) removals has been focused on specific known individuals to ensure a management determined population structure.

Figure 1: Map illustrating the location and types of landuse in the Greater Mapungubwe Transfrontier Conservation Area (GMTFCA). Purple = Government safari hunting area, Orange = communal farming land, Grey = Private ranches, Light

Subsequently lions also colonized (MNP) but have only recently settled as one small pride in the eastern section. In 2004 only two lions were thought to reside in MNP, with a possible six lions in the Vhembe Reserve. Thus, in 2004 it was estimated that at about 48 lions occurred in the GMTFCA. Lions were also reported to be vagrants along the boundary between and /Zimbabwe, and along the border between Botswana and Zimbabwe where NOTUGRE and communal lands meet. In these areas there were a number of reported snaring and poaching incidents.

Currently there are only about 25 lions in the GMTFCA, with VLNR having managed its population down to six individuals in 2008, and with at least twenty lions killed in the area (mainly NOTUGRE residents) in the last three years. The NOTUGRE population had

2 declined to just eleven individuals by mid-2009, but there have been some subsequent births since then. A lion survey in the TCSA in 2009 revealed no resident lions in that area, although it is possible that a few individuals were present. Five male lions have been monitored with GPS collars in the last two years, and although they do spend most of their time in protected areas (Figure 2) infrequent forays out of these have resulted in the two of these individuals being killed, both in South Africa on farms near the . One uncollared adult male from NOTUGRE was also killed in the Maramani area on a very brief foray outside the reserve. A male lion collared in MNP in July 2009 recently spent some time in Zimbabwe, being observed on Sentinel Ranch. It has subsequently returned to MNP confirming regular cross boundary movement.

Figure 2. GPS data points for three adult male lions originally collared in the Northern Tuli Game Reserve, Botswana, January 2009 to March 2010.

Main threats identified to lion survival:

1. Retaliatory killing by farmers in all three countries

2. Loss of prey in the Zimbabwe section – resulting in more interaction with livestock

3. Small population size with little opportunity for natural recolonization

2.2 Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus)

Reports in 2004 indicated that cheetahs are present in all three countries where they were thought to be highly transient and only present in any particular area for short periods of time. In NOTUGRE a total of seven different cheetahs were seen during the period January

3 to October 2004. None of these animals could be said to be resident but none were thought to be resident. There was anecdotal evidence of cheetah movement between NOTUGRE and the farms of the . In South Africa cheetahs are occasionally reported on game farms all around VLNR but their presence was similarly sporadic. Cheetahs are periodically observed in VLNR and MNP but at that time there is no evidence of resident animals. Subsequently a coalition of two adult male cheetah radio-collared on VLNR in August 2008 have been resident on the reserve, but an adult female collared there soon after proved to be transient. In Zimbabwe cheetahs were also confirmed to on occasion be present on Sentinel and Nottingham Ranches, in the Bubye Conservancy, and in the Shashe Campfire area north of the Tuli Circle. They were thus likely to also occur in the TCSA. No information was available from the Maramani communal lands

Although cheetahs seem to move in and out of formerly protected areas such as NOTUGRE and VLNR, in the last few years there have been several instances of successful reproduction with females being seen with groups of large cubs. From 2004 to 2007, 24 different individual cheetahs were observed and photographed in NOTUGRE indicating a fairly large population in this area. Ten cheetahs were similarly identified in VLNR. Two cheetah were observed crossing the from Maramani community into Charter area of NOTUGRE in June 2005, confirming both transboundary movement and the transient nature of cheetahs in the GMTFCA. In 2009, photographs of two separate groups of cheetah were taken in Tuli Circle Safari Area, one included a mother with 2 subadults. Sightings of cheetah in the Zimbabwe section of the TFCA and extending to Bubye conservancy have increased in the last 3 years as more farmers are aware of the interest in the species. Cheetahs are quite often observed along roads in the greater MNP/VLNR area in South Africa trying to get through game fences. In 2006 four cheetahs were killed between Alldays and the Mapungubwe turnoff (46 km), indicating that road kills are a serious threat in the area.

All of the above information is fairly anecdotal with no formal studies on cheetah having been conducted in the GMTFCA as yet. It is still not yet clear what proportion of the cheetah home ranges would be incorporated into the GMTFCA, but that the TFCA could hold a viable population of cheetahs if linkages to other surrounding areas of farmland are maintained? As the present information suggests that cheetahs are highly mobile and transient there is no clear indication what impacts different land-use systems within the GMTFCA have on survival, except that cheetahs are continually recorded in the area. Although it is clears that the cheetah population in the GMTFCA is part of a much larger contiguous population of cheetah using private game farms, ranches and communal lands around the area it is still not clear how important to formally protected areas within the GMTFCA are to cheetah persistence in the area. Clearly more research efforts need to be focussed on cheetahs in the GMTFCA.

Main threats identified to cheetah survival:

1. Lack of knowledge as to the status and actual survival threats

2. Probably persecution in all three countries and wire snaring

3. Probably relatively small population size with lack of knowledge about inter- connectedness with other populations

4 2.3 Leopard (Panthera pardus)

In 2004 very little information on the status of leopards in the GMTFCA was available, but they were generally thought to be resident throughout, and were perhaps the least impacted by humans of the large cats. They seemingly occurred in higher densities along the major river and drainage systems, particularly in NOTUGRE. Reports of conflict were varied and appeared to relate to how much value a leopard was perceived to have to the landowners. Perceived value ranged from none in communal farming areas in Zimbabwe to very high in commercial farming areas in all three countries, and in the established reserves.

The Mashatu leopard project commenced in NOTUGRE in February 2005 with a sample of six adult females and one adult male being collared with VHF and GPS collars to investigate their socio-spatial organisation investigated and determine population density. Home ranges of adult females averaged 36.4 ± 10.1 km² and 78.9 km² for the single male. Home ranges of females overlapped as much as 43.4% and had an average overlap of 26.0%. However, the core areas of each adult female did not overlap (Steyn & Funston, 2010). Land-use influenced the type of excursions leopards made from their home ranges, with one of the collared adult females making regular forays outside the reserve when she presumably also killed livestock. The results of a camera-trap census revealed a high density of 7.5 leopards/100 km² in the central Notugre area. The suggested a minimum estimate of about 54 leopards in the NOTUGRE area.

This project is ongoing, but has now largely shifted focus to the dispersal of sub-adult males and the territorial tenure pattern of adult males. The dispersal behaviour of subadult males indicates that they tend to go on extensive excursions in search of possible territories (Figure 3), invariably though returning to their natal home ranges when a territory is not found. This potentially increases their risk of being killed should they leave the protection of the reserve. GPS technology has also proved that leopards resident in NOTUGRE are occasionally lured with baits into the TCSA where they are hunted.

Figure 3. Natal home range and dispersal pattern of two sub-adult male leopards in the Northern Tuli Game Reserve, Botswana.

5 One adult male leopard in the study killed and cannibalised three adult female leopards (Steyn & Funston, 2006). The reason for which is unclear. Although leopards occur throughout the GMTFCA their relative abundance in the various areas has not yet been fully determined. Camera trap and spoor surveys suggest a high density in MNP and a lower density in VLNR. The final results for these areas are not available yet. Although leopards are definitely present in the Zimbabwe areas of the GMTFCA there are no population estimates or further inform for these areas.

Main threats identified to leopard survival:

1. Excessive trophy hunting especially in the TCSA and game farms in South Africa

2. Probably persecution in all three countries

2.4 African wild dog (Lycaon pictus)

In 2004 wild dog numbers within the GMTFCA were extremely low, with the only resident population (20 individuals) confined to VLNR. A small pack was known to occur near Musina, South Africa, thought to have originated from Zimbabwe. This suggested some past cross border movement. Most other sightings of wild dogs within the greater GMTFCA were of small groups none of which settled. Prior to 2004 some wild dogs from VLNR had dispersed; two individuals appearing to follow the Limpopo River upstream for approximately 250km along the Botswana border. Three packs of wild dogs were, however, present in the Conservancy, the southern tip of which is approximately 40km from the Limpopo River where it borders Zimbabwe and South Africa. Other commercial farmers in the district of Zimbabwe had reported wild dogs on their properties, but not within the GMTFCA including the Shashe Campfire Area and Maramani communal land.

Subsequent to 2004 there continued to be odd reports of wild dog sightings in NOTUGRE and the Zimbabwe areas of the GMTFCA. In 2005 the wild dogs on Venetia reached a peak population size of 25 (~14 adults), with pups having high survival rates. After peaking at 25 individuals the pack declined quite sharply, mainly due to the managed and unmanaged dispersal of a total of 18 individuals as well as some predation. They were down to six adults in 2007, and only four in 2008. Although two dogs were introduced into the remaining three dogs in 2009, they were all subsequently removed, VLNR not being deemed to be able to support a pack until the fences between it and MNP are removed. Researchers were puzzled as to why none of the dispersing wild dogs from VLNR, or others, not did not move into either MNP or NOTUGRE, where there was ample habitat and abundant suitable prey (impala).

In August 2006, five wild dogs were observed in the centre of NOTUGRE, and there were a few reports from communal lands to the west of the reserve that 14 dogs were seen on cattle posts. This was possibly the same pack and an over-estimate. One of the six dogs had a snare that was removed by Mashatu staff. This group, however, also did not settle, for which no explanation was immediately apparent. In April 2007, 18 wild dogs were introduced into NOTUGRE. Three males broke away from the pack soon after it was released and were observed occasionally along the TCSA before finally disappearing. Over the last few years

6 this pack has largely settled in NOTUGRE, but it has been extremely difficult to contain. The pack has made several movements out of the reserve to the west but the trail bio-fence has routinely been used to encourage them back into the reserve. In 2008 and 2009 they denned in the south of the reserve just a short distance away from the Pont Drift border crossing.

As with cheetah, the number of reported sighting of wild dogs on the Zimbabwe has increased, as farmers realise the interest. Wild dogs were seen in TCSA in March 2010, and a young wild dog was killed on the road about 60km north of Beitbridge in Dec 2009. Other sporadic sightings have been reported, usually of small groups (4 – 5 adults) during the last year.

Main threats identified to wild dog survival:

1. Wire snaring is a particular problem for wild dogs with road kills being and additional threat

2. Probably persecution in all three countries

3. Increased lion density throughout the GMTFCA may be detrimental to wild dog abundance

2.5 Spotted hyaena (Crocuta crocuta) and brown hyaena (Hyaenea brunnea)

In 2004 both brown and spotted hyaenas were reported to occur in all the formerly protected areas of the GMTFCA, with a high density of spotted hyaenas reported for NOTUGRE. The relatively low spotted hyaena densities in areas such as MNP and VLNR (approximately 18 individuals) seemed to favour brown hyaenas in these areas, which were reported to be common in both (approximately 25 individuals in both reserves). Throughout the GMTFCA and surrounding private cattle and game ranchers, and communal areas both species of hyaenas reportedly occurred with the brown hyaena apparently being more abundant on private land. Estimates of the numbers of spotted hyaenas in NOTUGRE ranged from 50 – 100 individuals, with typical clan structures and communal of den sites noted within the reserve. In South Africa and Zimbabwe, however, spotted hyaenas appeared to occur only as individuals, with no clans or dens sites being reported. One clan of fifteen on a property near VLNR had previously being reduced to five individuals as a problem animal control exercise.

In 2008 and 2009 spotted hyaena surveys were conducted in NOTUGRE, and a survey was conducted in the TCSA in 2009. In 2008, 14 calling stations were done in NOTUGRE over 5 nights. Results from the survey indicated a population estimate of 143 hyenas (95% confidence intervals: 113 to 202), which equates to a density of 17.8 hyenas/100km² (Snyman, 2008). In 2009 17 calling stations were used resulting in a population estimate of 177 hyaenas (95% confidence intervals: 140 to 251)(Snyman, 2009). There was no statistical difference (µ = 75.5, P > 0.05, Mann-Whitney U-test) between the census done in 2008 (µ = 4.8 ± 3.5 range 1-12) and 2009 (µ = 5.9 ± 4.3 range 1 -14), suggesting consistency in the results. This is a high density when compared with other similar

7 protected areas in southern Africa. The survey in the TCSA using eight calling stations resulted in population estimate of 45 spotted hyaenas (95% confidence intervals: 32 to 59), which is only slightly lower than the density estimate for NOTUGRE (Funston, Mandisodza & Snyman, 2009).

Main threats identified to brown and spotted hyaena survival:

1. Wire snaring is a problem particularly for spotted hyaenas in Botswana

2. Probably persecution in all three countries

3. Increased lion and spotted hyaena density throughout the GMTFCA may be detrimental to brown hyaena abundance

3 Acknowledgements This report is an outcome of efforts from all members of the S-LPRG. Costs of production have been sponsored by Shashe-Limpopo Predator Research Group (registered UK charitable trust number 1115723).

4 References

Cotterill, A. 1996. Venetia-Limpopo Nature Reserve: Report on the preliminary lion census. Unpublished report.

Funston, P.J. & Janse van Rensburg, D. 2003. Venetia-Limpopo Lion Project: Lion Survey March 2003, Department of Nature Conservation, Tshwane University of Technology.

Funston, P.J., Mandisodza, R., & Snyman, A. 2009. Lion and spotted hyaena population survey: Tuli safari area, 2009.

Funston, P.J. 2008. Leopard monitoring and management program for the Botswana Wildlife Producers Association (BWPA).

Lind, P. 1974. Shasi-Limpopo ranger's report 1973 / 1974. Unpublished report.

Snyman, A. 2008. Northern Tuli Game Reserve: Spotted hyaena census 2008.

Snyman, A. 2009. Northern Tuli Game Reserve: Spotted hyaena census 2009.

Steyn, V. & Funston, P.J. 2006. A case of cannibalism in leopards. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 36(2): 189-190.

Steyn, V. & Funston, P.J. 2010. Land-use and socio-spatial organisation of female leopards in a semi-arid wooded savanna, Botswana. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 39(2): 126–132.

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