From Subsistence Agriculture to Commercial Enterprise: Community Management of Green Technologies for Resilient Food Production

Research Paper Future of Food: Journal on Food, Agriculture and Society 3 (2) Autumn 2015 From Subsistence Agriculture to Commercial Enterprise: Community management of green technologies for resilient food production

C.J.K. Latham1, L. Palentini*1, M. Katemaunzanga1, P. Ashton1 1 Cesvi - Participatory Foundation and NGO, Bergamo, Italy * Corresponding author’s contact details: Email: [email protected] | Tel: +263 772 283179

Data of the article

First received: 20 July 2015 | Last revision received: 28 October 2015 Accepted: 29 October 2015 | Published online: 16 December 2015 URN: nbn:de:hebis:34-2015092949080

Key words Abstract

Private Public Community The aim of this paper is to emphasize the capacity and resilience of rural communities in regard Partnership; irrigation; to sustainable food security by adopting innovative approaches to irrigation. The shift from governance; market-based subsistence to commercial agriculture is promoted as a means to sustainable development. agriculture; food security An analysis of the efficacy of irrigation schemes in Zimbabwe suggests that, in terms of providing sustainable agricultural production, they have neither been cost-effective nor have they provided long-term food security to their beneficiaries. This is certainly true of Shashe Scheme and most others in Beitbridge District. The Shashe Irrigation Scheme project represents a bold attempt at developing a fresh approach to the management of communal land irrigation schemes through a Private Public Community Partnership. The model illustrated represents a paradigm shift from subsistence agriculture to a system based on new technologies, market linkages and community ownership that build resilience and lead to sustainable food security and economic prosperity.

Introduction Beitbridge district is situated in the south west popo rivers. Settlements are mainly concentrated lowlands of Zimbabwe. It is part of agro-ecological near the rivers and scattered villages inland where zone five (Vincent & Thomas, 1960) with altitudes some water is available from natural pools and averaging about 500 meters above sea level. It is springs. In the nineteen 1960s more people were characterised as a semi desert region. Maramani moved into Maramani by the colonial government Communal Area is situated in the south west of the in order to avail more land for commercial farming. district and borders on the Shashe-Limpopo Rivers, the international boundary with South Africa and Boreholes were drilled throughout the hinterland Botswana. and irrigation schemes were constructed along the Shashe River to cater for the additional set- Zimbabwe’s Communal Areas are reserved for In- tlers. Shashe irrigation scheme (184 hectares) was digenous Zimbabweans where they live under tra- constructed as part of a governmental plan for the ditional systems of (land) tenure and governance ar- overall development of the area. Shashe as the big- rangements (Holleman, 1952; Rukuni, 1994). There gest scheme catered for at least half the villages in is very little water inland from the Shashe and Lim- the southern section of Maramani while Jalukanga

Citation (APA): Latham, C.J.K., Palentini, L., Katemaunzanga, M., Ashton, P. (2015). From Subsistence Agriculture to Commercial Enterprise: Community management of green technologies for resilient food production, Future of Food: Journal on Food, Agriculture and Society, 3(2), 8-17

8 Future of Food: Journal on Food, Agriculture and Society, 3 (2) and Bili schemes serviced the northern half. In 2003, Nottingham Estate, a large-scale commercial citrus farm some forty kilometres from Shashe, Shashe, Jalukanga and Bili, differ from most other promoted a consultation with local plot holders re- colonial schemes in that the members do not live sulted in a proposal submitted by CASS (Centre for on the scheme in villages dedicated to this purpose, Applied Social Science – University of Zimbabwe) to but are scattered amongst their home villages along the FAO. The farmers wished for greater jurisdiction the river and hinterland, in not a few cases as far as and ownership of the scheme (including irrigation 16 kilometres away. The influence of this settlement infrastructure). They wished to foster the idea of a pattern upon the emergence and development of partnership with commercial institutions or NGOs the model described below should not be underes- with a view to raising capital to revamp the scheme. timated in terms of distribution of obligations and They also proposed a high value marketable crop the rewards of participating in the scheme. be introduced and favoured the introduction of or- anges. Shashe Scheme was built and run as a top down government controlled “technocratic” scheme (Bolding, The notion was expressed that if a new successful 2004). The scheme was designed to provide liveli- model could be developed, it could lead to Shashe hood opportunities to approximately ten villages in being used as a template and training aid for other Maramani. From then until the early nineteen 1980s schemes in the area. A household survey and a start the scheme was productive, growing crops mainly on capacity building were undertaken until the eco- for local consumption. Support from central and lo- nomic meltdown in 2008 meant that FAO funding cal government dwindled from the nineteen 1970s ceased. By this time, the community had devel- and almost completely ceased by the early 1980s oped a vision of how the scheme might develop. as collateral damage of the independence war and In 2010 CESVI – Italian NGO active in the Southern the resulting lack of funds by the new government. Lowveld since 1998 having done extensive research The scheme slowly deteriorated and for all practi- in the Maramani area associated with the introduc- cal purposes it became defunct by the end of the tion of the Mapungubwe TFCA (Trans-Frontier Con- nineteen 1980s. Devastating floods and cyclonic servation Area) – with EU financial support accepted the challenge of a project for the resuscitation of Shashe scheme. A new model was proposed, which promoted a paradigm shift from the traditional subsistence agriculture to turn the community into a commercial enterprise by linking together: traditional knowledge of the area and its resources; local expertise from existing commercial ventures; market access through the local processing plant; commitment for the implementation of a long term strategy through traditional and local leaderships; and donor funds through the technical support of an NGO. Work commenced on the scheme in 2011.

Literature review Figure 1: Shashe irrigation scheme superimposed to satel- lite map of the area. Research indicates that communal area systems of managing irrigation have rested heavily on two events finally damaged remaining infrastructure persistent models: the “Technocratic” model and so that by the mid-nineties no more than between the “Local” model. (Bolding (2004) refers to the two ten and twenty hectares were being irrigated. A few models as “factory” and “African” – labels that do attempts were made by well meaning but under re- not accurately describe their components). Neither sourced non-profit partners and the Department of model has proved to be sustainable. Analysis re- Irrigation to revive the scheme but without success. veals essential institutional and economic flaws in

ISSN-Internet 2197-411x OLCL 862804632 UniKassel & VDW, Germany- December 2015 9 Future of Food: Journal on Food, Agriculture and Society, 3 (2) both. Thus, the model being introduced at Shashe Case study seeks to create a sustainable system of management through a major paradigm shift involving The present model introduced at Shashe (Figure three interlinked principal ingredients: (i) market vi- 2) is based on research carried out over a number ability, (ii) strategic partnerships and (iii) maximum of years of regional and national level (i.e. Water devolved jurisdiction to local level. Research Southern Africa (WARFSA) program) and confirmed by local participative research with and Analysis has shown that these schemes generally by the Shashe Community. The work undertaken collapse for the following reasons: by Mead (Mead, 2001), Cunliffe (Cunliffe, 2004) and Latham (Latham, 1999, 2005) as advisers/ consult- • The “technocratic” model fails because techno- ants to CESVI, who has been active in the southern crats do not have the capacity to manage down Lowveld of Zimbabwe since 1998, contributed to its to field level. The transaction costs if properly evolution. Most important of all it incorporates the charged to the scheme (and thus the farmers) views and scenarios formed in consultation with are not cost effective. If the government is un- the community, local leadership and other stake- willing or unable to subsidize the scheme, all holders. technical and managerial inputs cease or are curtailed. Without the financial support supplied by Government or NGOs, the scheme’s infrastructure deteriorates and collapses. Local level management lacks capacity to manage the financial, institutional, marketing capacity requirements for sustainability (Manzungu & Machiridza, 2005).

• The “local” model fails because technical knowledge is lacking, crops are grown largely for self-provisioning and do not realize sufficient income to provide adequate funds for maintenance and management costs. Local institutions fail to manage adequately as they lack capacity. Insufficient income is generated to levy Figure 2: Project area the farmers and infrastructure collapses after a period of reduced productivity. The caveat to It includes the following: the above is that small schemes have a greater chance of sustainability and micro-schemes (ir- -- Devolution of “ownership” to beneficiary farm- rigated gardens run by individual families) have ers who form a management organization with a very high level of sustainability. constituent representation.

• Shashe Scheme was built and run as a “tech- -- Considerable institutional development, the nocratic” scheme from about 1960 to the early acquisition of skills and additional competen- nineteen 1980s. Because support from central cies sufficient to manage the complexities of and local government dwindled and almost a commercial enterprise. This is a long process completely ceased, the scheme collapsed. Since that takes time – up to five years – and patient then the scheme has (de facto) been managed understanding (Murphree, 2004). by the beneficiary farmers through an elected management committee. Devastating cyclonic -- The creation of partnerships with the private events further damaged the infrastructure and sector, focused upon seeking market guaran- it finally collapsed. tees, crop loan finance and technical support for economically profitable crops to be grown in

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preference or addition to crops grown for food The development of the new model is based on security. regular and iterative use of systematic, strategic, scenario planning referred to as adaptive manage- -- Support from extension agencies (NGOs, local ment (Jiggins & Roling, 2000; Latham, 1999, 2005; and central government and private) is confined Murphree, 2001). to assisting the farmers to make the transition to one of commercial sustainability with a food By goal setting, and regular, iterative self-assess- security element or Maize Equivalent Income ment, farmers are assisted to develop and change (MEI) (Osofsky, 2005, p. 42). perceptions in the light of newly perceived opportunities, technologies and agronomic innovations Replacement of obsolete technologies (well points and to adapt and change their short-term goals while retaining their vision and overall objectives. Facilitators, advisors and techno-bureaucrats are also facilitated to understand perceptions and worldviews other than their own. The new model emerging thus embraces a common worldview and vision that is centred upon rural perceptions of food security (“food crops”) as a principal objective, but now married to one of long term commercial sustainability – citrus – (“high value crops”) and the investment of acquired income in scheme management and maintenance with individual profits accruing to participating beneficiaries (shareholders). A demonstration/trial plot (Figure 4) or ‘mini-farm’ started at the outset of the project was and con- tinues to be a useful adjunct to the development and introduction of farming and technological innovations, hands on management, and identifica- tion of problems. The rural resource and training Figure 3: “Shashe Citrus Orchard” installation centre, offices and workshops situated adjacent to the demonstration plot, makes what the com- and flood irrigation) with a modern and sophisti- munity now calls “The Demo”, the nerve centre of cated irrigation system (submersible pumps and the scheme. The creation and maintenance of an ultra-high center pivots) (Figure 3) designed and on-going learning organisation with the resilience modified to fit the needs of the community and and vision to embrace a partnership between the the agricultural regime (coexistence of citrus and community and its external partners becomes an inter-cropping) . Citrus represents an innovative in- essential element of the centre. All activities and troduction on a community-managed scheme. practices are viewed as part of an on-going learning process, and help develop a “learning organisation” The adoption of inter-row cash cropping at the be- (Senge, 2006; Senge & Sterman, 1992). hest of the community, in order to enhance immediate returns of food and funds for development and Partners are sensitised to the fact that the scheme is maintenance, represent a further innovation de- premised on common property management with parting from the traditional citrus culture. In doing tenure (“ownership”) vested in the community of this, immediate cash returns are made available by beneficiaries (Rukuni, 1994). Thus techno-bureau- utilising land between the trees, normally remain- crats and other resource providing agencies have ing uncultivated on citrus monoculture. The ‘shift’ to understand and adapt their own interventions to from subsistence agriculture to a community-based the reality that their empowerment and status lies commercial enterprise. in delivering an innovative, sapient support role, not a directional or authoritarian one. Moreover, man-

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Figure 4: Demonstration plot with 3 ½ year old trees ready for harvesting (June 2015) agement structures of the scheme are responsible CESVI and planted by the community. Intercrop- to their constituents and not to outside officials or ping between the young trees became an estab- institutions (NGO officials, Rural District Council, line lished practice. Crops such as seed beans, squash, ministries, etc.) Through lengthy debate and prac- sweet potatoes, rape (canola) cabbages and maize tical trial and error a dynamic institutional frame- are cultivated, either on contract for cash, or for ba- work develops, upon which the organization and sic food requirements or both. management of the scheme can move forward. This includes the formulation of a constitution and by- While this activity was underway, the community laws that are applicable, enforceable and enforced was also involved in attempts to renovate the two in partnership with traditional institutions (courts arable blocks known as A and B (see Figure 1). This of headman) and local law enforcement agencies included work on a breached barrage, construction (Police, Environmental Management Authority and of a weir and work on canal repairs. Alas, all this Wild Life Management). This answers one of the es- demanding work was for nothing. An exceptional sential requirements of common property manage- flash flood in a minor tributary of the Shashe that ment (Ostrom, 1990). is normally diverted by the barrage was breached in several places and wrought havoc over the two Hand in hand with the institutional development at blocks, destroying all the gains that had been made. Shashe is the task of upgrading the infrastructure. This disaster illustrates the nature of projects such Introduction of the centre pivots and related instal- as Shashe, surprise events can never be ruled out. lations fell to CESVI. It involved some bold decisions such as the sinking of boreholes for submersible The Management Committee had to deal with this pumps deep in the Shashe River bed to replace the disaster as well as supervise its members for the ur- unserviceable old well point system, replacing de- gent need to plant orange trees under the third piv- graded asbestos-cement delivery lines from pumps ot commissioned by the end of 2014; complete allo- to field edge and extensive bush clearing and land cation of trees to beneficiaries; negotiate contracts preparation for three 30 hectare centre pivots that with Agri-businesses for seed bean and crops; tend replaced the in-field trapezoidal canals, siphons and to existing trees planted in previous years; maintain flood irrigation system that had been completely inter-row crops; attend meetings and workshops destroyed by neglect and cyclonic events. (some unrelated to the scheme) as well as maintain their social responsibilities. This daunting array of In addition 22 000 orange trees were supplied by activities they have managed with commendable

12 ISSN-Internet 2197-411x OLCL 862804632 UniKassel & VDW, Germany- December 2015 Future of Food: Journal on Food, Agriculture and Society, 3 (2) energy and maturity. This proves that communities, reserved for food crop production (the maize and given the incentives and authority over their own wheat cycle). They drew attention to a workshop affairs, are generally resilient and responsible. None held in 2007 where this arrangement had been the less, the learning organisation that is Shashe agreed. Despite arguments and scenarios presented community, has still to experience their first season to them about the advantages of cash crops (as MEI) of mature trees when they harvest their first major and particularly citrus they remained obdurate. Wis- orange crop, transport it to market and receive pay- dom acquired by outsiders may now see the logic ment and budget their income against expenses. behind their stance. No one at that stage (and indeed ever) will be able to guarantee that citrus will, A major strategic objective inspiring the colonial for ever, be the cash crop that it currently appears and post-colonial policy on irrigation schemes was to be. Bolding (ibid) points out that his extensive an attempt to provide food security, to mitigate or research in the Save Valley area (similar to Shashe avoid having to provide famine relief in the vulner- in climate and livelihood strategies) noted that a able low veld districts. This was certainly the case constant strategy amongst irrigation farmers was in Maramani. Shashe was designed to help the ten to place food security before economic gain. The southern villages, Jalukanga and Bili the 10 north- time honoured peasant belief in securing enough ern villages. Indeed, this objective went some way food before contemplating any adventurous farm- to justifying the expense of the primary develop ing innovation holds true. Also, more enlightened ment of the schemes and the subsequent heavy thinkers at these early discussions were concerned subsidisation (Bolding, 2004). about the obvious risk of “putting all their eggs in one basket”. We have given an analysis of why these schemes eventually collapsed and the rationale behind de- In the light of the above, Blocks A and B will remain veloping a new sustainable model. It is necessary reserved primarily for food security. It is an unfor- to demonstrate that this model when it reaches tunate turn of fate that the efforts to restore them maturity should once more be capable of providing to productivity failed. Nevertheless, it is a firm com- the food so necessary to augment other livelihood mitment of the community to bring them back into strategies in Maramani and similar environmentally production. disadvantaged districts. The Shashe case study illu- minates this important component of the model’s Findings design and purpose. It must be born in mind, that the final concept of the Shashe model was largely In the light of the experience gained at Shashe the influenced by local knowledge, which proved to be following scenario illustrates that the new model generally wiser and more aware of local dynamics being developed may well prove to be the tem- and indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) and strat- plate for success not only at Shashe but for repli- egies than some theories and implementing plans cation (with suitable modifications to fit the needs, brought by development practitioners, technocrats aspirations and technical requirements) on other and commercial operators. In particular, their lead- schemes in the area. The figures indicate that not ers were acutely aware of the community’s need for only can food security be enhanced, but the general the assurance of food security and for all agricultur- livelihoods of all the people of Maramani would be al plans to include this perceived element so vital to significantly improved. their well-being. Notional scenario When the CESVI plans for the Shashe Project were being drawn up by the technical and administrative Maramani has a population of about 4 000 people. professionals, they logically included all four blocks Assuming the basic maize requirement per person in the projected citrus orchards. Only after the pro- per annum at 250 kg (Osofsky, 2005, p. 42), the need ject was accepted and became operational did se- for feeding Maramani population per annum is rious discussion with the local community ensue. 1000000 kg (1000 tons). The farmers were adamant that Block A and B be

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Table 1: Shortfall for whole Maramani

@ 5 tons per ha scenario @ 4 tons per ha scenario

Shashe 750 600 Shortfall 1 000 – 750 = 250 1 000 – 600 = 400 Less Jalukanga + Bili 400 320 Surplus = 150 Tonnes Deficit = -80 Tonnes

Therefore: than the projected shortfall plus any additional for If 100 hectares (unutilised Block A & B) are going to repairs, maintenance and management costs but be cultivate and assuming two scenarios @: only after 5 years, when citrus reaches its commer- a. 5 tonnes/hectares = 500 tonnes cial viability. b. 4 tonnes/hectares = 400tonnes NB: The figures in the above scenario only reflect Assuming inter-rows cropping can be cultivated un- a single food crop per annum. Irrigation schemes der pivot on approximately 50 ha can grow a minimum of 2 crops / p.a. – one for food security (or its maize equivalent) and one MEI crop a. @ 5 tons/ha =250 tonnes dedicated to generating cash for repairs, mainte- b. @ 4 tons/ha =200 tonnes nance and management etc. and for farmers’ income to be used to supplement food or in good By promoting the same model to the other two years to be disposable income. schemes in the area: Thus, the new model developed for Shashe is not Jalukanga ( 60 ha) only economically sound and sustainable but can a. @ 5 tons/ha = 300 tonnes theoretically also feed the whole of Maramani from b. @ 4 tons/ha≃ = 240 tonnes the small cluster of Shashe, Jalukanga and Bili.

Bili ( 20ha) Our research and conclusions also suggest that in- a. @ 5 tons/ha = 100 tonnes creased resilience is achievable by introducing solar b. ≃ @ 4 tons/ha = 80 tonnes power to replace expensive and unreliable grid energy thus promoting environmental conservation BUT: If Jalukanga and Bili halve their “food security and increased profitability of the scheme. section” and adopt the Shashe model of half food security and half cash crops, they can only reasona- It is clear that these ideas need further research in bly aspire to reap 200 tonnes at 5 tonne per hectare order to prove the practical benefits, which seem to scenario or 150 at 4 tonnes per hectare. be self-evident. Perhaps most importantly research should be undertaken to establish the empirically Thus, the Maize Equivalent Income (MEI) must equal held notion that the trickle-down effect of bene- or exceed this shortfall and provide sufficient in- fits accruing to farmers and their families on such come for repairs, maintenance and management schemes does in fact reach out into the wider com- costs and provide a disposable income to the farm- munity – and the actual impact of such interven- ers. tions. If the current programme at Shashe (CESVI/ EU) and the FAO/EU engagement with Jalukanga Citrus plus intercropping can provide much more and Bili are to go ahead for another two to three 14 ISSN-Internet 2197-411x OLCL 862804632 UniKassel & VDW, Germany- December 2015 Future of Food: Journal on Food, Agriculture and Society, 3 (2)

Figure 5: Shashe beneficiaries at work years (funding permitting) this final stage of the the experience of the farmers. “Shashe experiment” may well set the pattern for schemes throughout Zimbabwe and beyond, into All these innovations require management. More SADC and the continent. That would certainly be importantly, they require a sense of ownership by a fulfilment of the vision and mission of those in- the community. Thus, the development of a man- volved, no least the Shashe community itself. agement paradigm must have three primary ingredients. First, it must be developed as part of the Conclusions community’s own vision and mission and fit with its worldviews and perception of how best to improve From what we have illustrated in the preceding par- its livelihood strategies in a harsh and unforgiving agraphs, it becomes clear that managing an irriga- environment. Second, it must develop in circum- tion scheme incorporates counterbalancing sets of stances which allow a conservative and cautious essential ingredients. There is the need for efficient community to adapt to the changes brought about and effective means of delivering cost effective wa- by the technology, the demands of a market driven ter to the crops in sufficient quantities and reliabili- economy and reliance on outside agencies for sup- ty and it is necessary to have effective, appropriate, port and expertise. Third, and perhaps most impor- resilient and adaptable management in place. The tant is the powerful imperative of ownership of the Shashe model illustrates the implementation of a scheme being firmly in the hands of the community programme designed to maximise the benefits of (This is achieved by the creation of a ‘Trust’ which deriving from these primary requirements. State incorporates the ownership of the scheme by the of the art technology, in the form of submersible community). pumps replaced well points supported by prime movers mounted on the riverbanks. Polyethylene From the outset, the facilitators (CESVI and the Be- pipes replaced asbestos cement delivery pipes, ca- itbridge Rural District Council) employed the meth- nals and furrows. Booster pumps and generators odological tools of scenario modelling and plan- (to overcome power outages) insure water delivery. ning linked to adaptive management. Farming at Finally, centre pivots provide water to citrus and in- best is an enterprise that has to be able to respond ter-row crops with maximum accuracy, efficiency to unforeseen changes in weather, markets, disease and reliability. Coupled with the introduction of and other unexpected events. Adaptive manage- these technologies, novel and untested by the com- ment is thus a natural extension and improvement munity, has been the introduction of citrus and on on normal agricultural cultures. The term was first a scale both in terms of hectares and lead-time (5 described as far back as 1999 seeking to balance the years for its commercial viability) unprecedented in conflicting sets of conditions imposed by the clash ISSN-Internet 2197-411x OLCL 862804632 UniKassel & VDW, Germany- December 2015 15 Future of Food: Journal on Food, Agriculture and Society, 3 (2)

between economics and ecology (nature is cyclical References while industrial systems are linear). Thus adaptive management “is an approach to the management Bolding, A. (2004). In hot water: A study on socio- of complex systems based on incremental, experi- technical intervention models and practices of water ential learning and decision making, buttressed by use in smallholder agriculture, Nyanyadzi catchment, active monitoring of and feedback from the effects Zimbabwe: Doctoral thesis, Wageningen University, of outcomes and decisions.” (Jiggins & Roling, 2000). The Netherlands. While experience and research has proved the efficacy of such a methodology, the caveat is that it Cunliffe, R. (2004). Sustainable development and is a process. It strengthens resilience, creates a cul- natural resources management in southern Zimba- ture of learning and a capacity to use experience bwe. PRA and Questionnaire Survey Study in Seng- blended with new ideas to cope with situations we-Tchipise Communal Lands - Final Report Part not normally encountered. Ownership and pride in II: Livelihood Patterns. http://www.cesvi.org/aaa- their ability to cope with internal and external chal- root/o/SLP29_CESVI%20AID5063%20Sengwe%20 lenges is enhanced and management improved. PRA%20part%20II%20final.pdf: CESVI. Thus, the gains achieved by adaptive management must be balanced against the reality that the pro- Holleman, J. F. (1952). Shona Customary Law: With cess takes time. Murphree (2004) suggests that at Reference to Kinship, Marriage, the Family and the Es- least five years would be a conservative estimate for tate. Manchester: University Press. any large scale innovative programme. It is a view shared by others, including these commentators. In Jiggins, J., & Roling, N. (2000). Adaptive manage- fact, if properly implemented it creates a self- per- ment: potential and limitations for ecological petuating system of management or as indicated in governance. International Journal of Agricultural the above definition, a “learning organisation” (Sen- Resources, Governance and Ecology, 1(1), 28-42. ge, 2006). Latham, C. J. K. (1999). Local Level Management of Acknowledgement Natural Resources: a Longitudinal Perspective. IAC, Wageningen, Netherlands. The authors would like to extend their thanks to the European Commission for funding the project, Latham, C. J. K. (2005). Nyika Vanhu: the land is the to Cesvi for the continuous support throughout the people. University of Zimbabwe. implementation, to the Beitbridge District Admin- istration and Rural District Council for believing in Manzungu, E., & Machiridza, R. (2005). Economic-le- the idea since its early inception; to Nottingham gal ideology and water management in Zimbabwe: Estate for the unique and invaluable support, to Implications for smallholder agriculture. Paper pre- Schweppes/Beit Bridge Juicing and GIZ for their fi- sented at the International workshop on African nancial contributions; to the numerous consultants; Water Laws: Plural Legislative Frameworks for Rural CASS (Center for Applied Social Sciences – Universi- Water Management in Africa. ty of Zimbabwe); and last, but not least, to the en- tire Maramani community and the Shashe Irrigation Mead, B. (2001). Consultancy for the Re-design of Scheme beneficiaries and management for their Small-scale Irrigation Schemes, Maramani Commu- courage, energy and unbelievable efforts through- nal Land, Beitbridge District, Zimbabwe (Shashe, out the five years of the project. Furthermore, au- Jalukanga and Bili Irrigation Schemes): CESVI. thors wishes to thank the anonymous reviewers for their helpful and critical comments. Murphree, M. (2001). Experiments with the future. Paper presented at the A seminar on an interdisci- Conflict of Interests plinary longitudinal and interactive methodology to explore environmental and institutional sustain- The authors hereby declare that there is no conflict ability in the human use of nature, UCB Botanic of interests. Garden.

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Murphree, M. (2004). ‘Local level scenario modelling, Rukuni, M. (1994). Report of the Commission of iterative assessment and adaptive management’ Inquiry Into Appropriate Agricultural Land Tenure Paper presented to WWF SARPO Concept workshop Systems: Main report: Zimbabwe. Commission of on self-administrated performance protocols, Jo- Inquiry into Appropriate Agricultural Land Tenure hannesburg, South Africa. Systems.

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