Phase 2 Report February 2009

DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009

DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS

Submitted by a Consortium comprising

DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. BACKGROUND ...... 1 1.1 Introduction ...... 1 1.2 Project Objectives ...... 1 1.3 Phase 2 of the Project – ‗Pilot Programme Definition‘ ...... 2 1.3.1 Delineation of the Pilot Areas ...... 2 1.3.2 Identification of Regulatory and Institutional Systems ...... 2 1.3.3 Identification of the Socio-economic Factors ...... 3 1.3.4 Nodal Point Selection ...... 3 2. PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE PILOT AREAS ...... 4 2.1 Geography ...... 4 2.1.1 Physiography ...... 4 2.1.2 Climatology ...... 4 2.1.3 Rainfall...... 6 2.1.4 Evaporation ...... 7 2.1.5 Hydrology ...... 9 2.1.6 Groundwater Level Monitoring ...... 11 2.1.7 Water Use and Demand in the Central Limpopo Basin ...... 12 2.2 Drought ...... 12 2.2.1 Groundwater and Drought...... 14 2.3 Geological Framework ...... 16 2.4 Hydrogeological Setting...... 18 2.4.1 The Limitations of Groundwater ...... 19 2.4.2 Groundwater Occurrence ...... 20 2.4.3 Hydrogeological Classification for the Central Limpopo Basin ...... 21 2.4.4 Groundwater Potential and Resources ...... 22 3. INSTITUTIONAL AND REGULATORY ANALYSIS IN PILOT AREAS ...... 26 3.1 Botswana ...... 26 3.2 Mozambique ...... 28 3.3 South Africa ...... 29 3.4 Zimbabwe ...... 33 3.5 Stakeholder Analysis ...... 37

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i DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 3.5.1 Botswana ...... 38 3.5.2 Mozambique ...... 39 3.5.3 South Africa ...... 40 3.5.4 Zimbabwe ...... 42 4. POTENTIAL INTERVENTIONS ...... 46 4.1 Intervention Options ...... 46 4.1.1 Physical Intervention Options ...... 48 4.1.2 Social Intervention Options ...... 51 4.2 Synopsis of Field Visits and Selection of Nodal Points ...... 53 4.2.1 Selection of Representative Nodal Points ...... 55 4.2.2 Selected Nodal Point Sites...... 57 4.2.3 Zimbabwe Nodal Points ...... 58 4.2.4 Botswana Nodal Points ...... 60 4.2.5 South Africa Nodal Points ...... 62 4.2.6 Mozambique Nodal Points ...... 64 4.3 Monitoring ...... 67 4.3.1 Monitoring the Achievement of the Project Goals ...... 68 4.3.2 Monitoring the Community Management Planned Interventions ...... 68 4.4 Upscaling ...... 68 5. MANAGEMENT PLAN STRUCTURE ...... 71 6. CONCLUDING STATEMENT ...... 73 REFERENCES ...... 74 List of Guidelines and Manuals ...... 77 APPENDICES...... 78 APPENDIX A ...... 79 Pilot Area Maps ...... 79 APPENDIX B ...... 82 Workshop and Field Diaries ...... 82 APPENDIX C ...... 104 Community Reports ...... 104 APPENDIX D ...... 110 Stakeholder Analysis Data...... 110

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ii DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Time Series of Annual Summer Rainfall Totals in South Africa (after Tyson 1986) ...... 5 Figure 2.2 Distribution of Long Term Average Annual Rainfall (Zimbabwe) ...... 6 Figure 2.3 Rainfall Records – Northern Province South Africa ...... 7 Figure 2.4 Variations in Annual Evaporation at four sites located within the north-eastern . part of Northern Province, South Africa...... 7 Figure.2.5 Variations in Monthly Evaporation at the Nzhelele Dam site, in north-eastern Northern Province, South Africa during 1970-2006...... 8 Figure 2.6. Variations in Monthly ‗Recharge Potential Rainfall‘ at the Nzhelele Dam site, in north-eastern Northern Province, South Africa during 1970-2006. .... 9 Figure 2.7 Annual Flow of Rivers in Northern Province South Africa ...... 10 Figure 2.8 Groundwater Monitoring Record – Tshirunzini, Eastern Pilot Area ...... South Africa ...... 11 Figure 2.9 Groundwater Monitoring Record – Folovhondwe, Eastern Pilot Area South Africa ...... 12 Figure 2.10 Breaking the Drought Spiral ...... 14 Figure 2.11 Contrasting Response and Recovery of Groundwater and Surface Water to ...... Drought ...... 15 Figure 4.1 Spring Protection Scheme Suitable for Discharge from Basement type Aquifer ...... 49

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 2.1 Location of Groundwater Monitoring Stations in Northern Province South Africa ...... 11 TABLE 4.1 Food First versus Sustainable Livelihoods Approach to Intervention (after Calow et al. 2002) ...... 47 TABLE 4.2 Possible Pilot Intervention Activities identified in Field Visit November 2008 ... 54 TABLE 4.3 Location of Potential Nodal Points………………………..………………………. 58

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iii DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 Abbreviations

General BGS British Geological Survey EIA Environment Impact Assessment ESAP Economic Structural Adjustment Programme GDE Groundwater Dependent Ecosystem GEF Global Environment Fund GIS geographical information system GTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit IMF International Monetary Fund IWRM Integrated water resources management JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency LTA long term average NERC Natural Environment Research Council NGO Non-Governmental Organisation NORAD Norwegian OCAD Office of the Compliance/Advisor Ombudsman .pdf Portable Document Format SADC Southern Africa Development Community SIDA Swedish International Development Agency ToR Terms of Reference UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNICEF United Nations Children's Fund WHO World Health Organisation

Botswana DEA Department of Environmental Affairs DGS Department of Geological Survey DWA Department of Water Affairs MoA Ministry of Agriculture WCS Wellfield Consulting Services

Mozambique ARA Adminitracaoes Regional de Agues DAR Department of Rural Water DASU Department of Urban Water Supply and Sanitation DGRH Department of Water Resources Management DNA Direcção Nacional de Agua /National Water Directorate GRI Cabinet of International Rivers INGC National Institute for Disaster Management LNP Limpopo National Park MOPH Ministry of Public Works and Housing SdG Geohydrology Section UGB Basin Management Units

South Africa CMA Catchment Management Authorities CSIR Council for Scientific and Industrial Research DM District Municipality

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iv DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 DMP Disaster Management Plan DMS Drought Management Strategy DWAF Department for Water and Forestry GRIP Groundwater Resource Information Programme ISP Internal Strategic Perspective KNP Kruger National Park NGDB National Groundwater Database NWA National Water Act RDP Reconstruction & Development Programme RWS Rural Water Supply SABS South African Bureau of Standards STANSA Standards South Africa WMA Water Management Area WUA Water users association

Zimbabwe AREX Department of Agricultural Research and Extension CC Catchment Council DA District administrator DDF District Development Fund DWD Department of Water Development EMA Environmental Management Agency IRWSSP Integrated Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Programme NAC National Action Committee NCU National Coordination Unit RDC Rural District Council SCC sub- Catchment Council WV World Vision ZINWA Zimbabwe National Water Authority

Measurement Units km kilometre m metre mm millimetres m/d metres per day l/sec litres per second 106 m3 million cubic metres m3/hr cubic metres per hour mg/l milligrams per litre TDS Total dissolved solids m3/d/m cubic metres per day per metre of drawdown masl metres above sea level

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v DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 Executive Summary The overall project objectives are:

1. Develop and test a groundwater drought management plan and associated interventions within the Limpopo Basin Pilot Areas to obtain empirical information that can be replicated elsewhere in the SADC region.

2. Design and pilot physical interventions for mitigation against groundwater drought within the Limpopo Basin (i.e. drought-proof an area by addressing poverty while still considering bio-physical environmental groundwater needs).

3. Derive and develop approaches, methodologies, and lessons learnt to input into the development of generic decision support guidelines and the region‘s knowledge base regarding groundwater drought mitigation; and thus enable SADC Member States to replicate and expand the concepts and activities related to groundwater and drought management.

The main project outcome is to promote the development of drought preparedness throughout SADC and in particular gain a consensus on a SADC regional strategic approach to support and enhance the capacity of its Member States in the definition of drought management policies. This outcome is specifically focussed on the role, availability and supply potential of groundwater resources which will ultimately help towards the sustainability of wellbeing and rural livelihoods at times of water stress.

The work described in this report describes Phase 2 of the project which is essentially the pilot programme definition. This includes: stakeholder analysis and engagement within the pilot areas, delineation of pilot areas, institutional and regulatory analysis of groundwater management in pilot areas, and identification of the representative selected pilot nodes.

A detailed physiographic review of the Pilot Areas highlights the prevailing conditions in the Central Limpopo region of SADC. The key issues are the balance between effective rainfall and community aspirations in terms of land use and livelihood development. The interaction between meteorological drought and human drought shows there to be a lag between the failure of the rains and the failure of many groundwater sources, although in almost every case it is not the resource that fails but the water point structure, i.e. the pump.

The legislative and institutional frameworks within Botswana, South Africa, Zimbabwe and Mozambique reveal some marked contrasts. The rigid framework of service provision to rural communities in Botswana and South Africa contrasts with the chaotic lack of service provision, monitoring and maintenance currently offered in Zimbabwe and Mozambique.

The institutional and legislative framework has a direct bearing on the types of intervention that can be effective in the respective countries, for example, rehabilitation of existing and broken infrastructure in Zimbabwe will provide a direct example of the value of maintenance of existing assets rather than provision of new ones. Subsequent monitoring of livelihood and livelihood diversification will provide useful data on a community empowered with the status quo in terms of water security compared with adjacent villages which remain water insecure. It traditionally appears that it is easier to drill a new well rather than maintain an old pump - certainly as far as many NGOs are concerned. Physical intervention is also BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WELLFIELD CONSULTING SERVICES CSIR WALLINGFORD, OXON GABORONE PRETORIA UK BOTSWANA SOUTH AFRICA

vi DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 preferred in Zimbabwe where promotion of livelihood can be facilitated by ensuring adequate watering points for livestock and other horticultural activities.

Preferred interventions in Botswana and South Africa will likely comprise enhancement of livelihood by physical intervention in Botswana and social intervention in South Africa. In Botswana water is virtually guaranteed by government at times of drought. However, little support is given towards stock watering and the provision of fodder. Nor is there a culture of small scale irrigation and community gardens (interestingly domestic plots are often left bare when they could be used for vegetable growing using waste domestic water). It is, therefore, likely that intervention here will take the form of the promotion of community gardens using an existing private initiative as a demonstration plot. Enhancement of cattle holding is constrained by the disallowing of use of allocated agricultural ‗lands‘ for stock, so that any activity in this respect would need to be distant from a stock-owning community and situated on communal (tribal) land.

The South African intervention will take the form of empowering a community to manage its water issues with particular focus on drought preparedness. This will need careful management and implementation to ensure that all the relevant stakeholders are taken aboard and the community is informed of the benefits of liaison with the water undertaking and others. This will allow the community to be responsible for preparing itself for drought and drought-proofing its respective livelihoods as best it is able. As in the 1991/92 drought it is assumed that government would maintain rural community water supplies even if it has to resort to tankering.

Droughts affect livelihoods in a number of different ways, cutting across sector perspectives and disciplines. In many countries in SADC, however, drought management, or more typically relief, focuses almost exclusively on food needs. Other dimensions of vulnerability, including water availability, access and use constraints, which determine household water security, receive much less attention. This reflects the organisation and remit of the respective governments and not the realities of community and household livelihoods.

Food and water security are interwoven. Food security is an outcome of a set of vulnerabilities, each dependent on how people access production and exchange opportunities. This is influenced by the broad expenditure in time, labour or money, invested by individual households in gaining access to water. In many rural environments domestic water is a production input, i.e. in garden and other small scale irrigation, livestock watering, brewing and brick making. Therefore, water insecurity can effect wider household production and income as well as just the quality and quantity of water for human consumption.

Criteria for the selection of individual recipient communities or Nodal Points focus on the livelihoods aspect of each community. A strong selection criterion is evidence of a strong community group which can take ownership and which can manage any new facility or social empowerment. A secondary criterion is the availability of water to source interventions, although in the case of Zimbabwe it is the repair of existing but broken structures that will be implemented in order to allow renewed access to the existing resource.

The key to the success of the project is the monitoring of the impact of the respective intervention on livelihoods. This is best done by a local technician of community facilitator working to a prescribed monitoring regime. However, the choice of monitoring indicators is BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WELLFIELD CONSULTING SERVICES CSIR WALLINGFORD, OXON GABORONE PRETORIA UK BOTSWANA SOUTH AFRICA

vii DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 critical to success. Indicators will include health (visit statistics for the local clinic), community wealth (total head of cattle owned by the community) and individual household statistics taken as samples. Other indicators will be incorporated into the programme to suit each community and each type of intervention. For example, in the South African case of community empowerment towards water management some measure of satisfaction both on the part of the community and of the stakeholders will need to be made.

Individual interventions and monitoring programmes at each Nodal Point must not be so site specific that they cannot be replicated elsewhere. A key project issue is upscaling and dissemination. For the former the interventions must be suitable for upscaling, for example, the Zimbabwe case of rehabilitation lends itself to being upscaled throughout rural Zimbabwe and other countries in SADC. The South African empowerment intervention, however, can best suit only those areas of SADC which already have a prescriptive institutional framework for provision of services to rural communities. The intervention and monitoring data and subsequent analysis need to be well documented in order to underpin dissemination of the more successful actions in order to promote upscaling programmes through external agencies and NGOs.

Having now determined the Nodal Points and likely interventions the next action is additional but limited field data gathering in order to sharpen interventions and ensure that the baseline information is adequate and, most importantly, discussion with the communities to ensure a need for, and their buy in to, the proposed intervention. An important part of this work will be the preparation of detailed Groundwater Intervention Management Plans. These will include five basic components and will be the subject of the next project report:

1. Village description including present groundwater resource status, infrastructure, livelihoods – cash economy or agricultural economy, community health and community aspirations. 2. Detailed baseline analysis of the community status in terms of groundwater resources and livelihoods - essential information with which to judge subsequent impact created by intervention of whatever kind. 3. Proposed and justified groundwater (drought-orientated) intervention accompanied by description of the dialogue with the community and other stakeholders – i.e. community buy-in. 4. Description of the agreed intervention and expected impact on the community. 5. Identification of appropriate indicators with which to monitor the impact of the intervention on groundwater resource usage and overall wellbeing, i.e. community or sample household wealth (number of cattle), livelihood diversification, number of visits to clinic, water point usage, abstraction equipment maintenance actions etc.

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viii DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 1. BACKGROUND

1.1 Introduction

The current project [The Development and Testing of Groundwater Drought Management Plans for Two Pilot Areas in the Limpopo Basin] is Component 1 of the SADC Groundwater and Drought Management Project, which addresses aspects of six sub-projects of the SADC Groundwater Management Programme and is supported by the Global Environment Fund (GEF).

The overarching objective of the Groundwater and Drought Management Project is defined as “The development of consensus on a SADC regional strategic approach to support and enhance the capacity of its Member States in the definition of drought management policies, specifically in relation to the role, availability and supply potential of groundwater resources”.

1.2 Project Objectives

The specific objectives of this project are to:

1. Develop and test a groundwater drought management plan and associated interventions within the Limpopo Basin pilot area to obtain empirical information that can be replicated elsewhere in the SADC region.

3. Derive and develop approaches, methodologies, and lessons learnt to input into the development of generic decision support guidelines and the region‘s knowledge base regarding groundwater drought mitigation; and thus enable SADC member states to replicate and expand on the concepts and activities related to groundwater and drought Management.

The project programme extends over a period of 3 years and is been divided into five consecutive and mutually dependent Phases, namely;

Phase 1 -Inception  Review of groundwater related information in the Pilot Areas

Phase 2 - Pilot programme definition  Stakeholder analysis and engagement within the Pilot Areas  Delineation of Pilot Areas  Institutional and regulatory analysis of groundwater management in Pilot Areas  Representative pilot 'Nodes' selected

Phase 3 - Drought mitigation planning  Drought intervention and groundwater management plans for Pilot Areas.  Prepare design for drought interventions structures and develop ToRs for construction contractors

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1 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 Phase 4 - Drought intervention construction  Supervision of drought intervention activities

Phase 5 - Monitoring and evaluation  Monitoring and evaluation of pilot 'Nodes'  Strategy for sustainability of drought intervention measures  Lessons learnt

1.3 Phase 2 of the Project – ‘Pilot Programme Definition’

There are four main parts to this report that detail activities undertaken as part of Phase 2 of the project – ‗Pilot Programme Definition‘:

1.3.1 Delineation of the Pilot Areas

The physical aspects of the pre-selected project areas required for the delineation of the Pilot Areas and definition of project Nodal Points are described. This includes analysis of a variety of controlling factors:

Climatology: rainfall and evaporation data compilations used to form a discussion of drought occurrence from surface and subsurface perspectives which clearly demonstrate the patchy distribution of, and impact of, past occurrence of meteorological drought and the possible future patterns that may arise under the influence of climate change. Geology: maps and descriptions of the basic rock units used to define the nature and limits of the main aquifer units that occur in the Pilot Areas. Hydrogeology: information and available data with descriptions of the current understanding of the main aquifer characteristics, patterns of groundwater occurrence, water quality, recharge, and prevailing methods of groundwater abstraction. These are used to define the main hydrogeological environments and their distribution. Ecology and land-use: distribution of flora and fauna as well as past and present land use and population distribution as a reflection of groundwater availability. There is a focus towards groundwater dependant ecologies and the impact of groundwater abstraction upon them. Pilot Area definition: compilation of physical information and data within an Arc9 digital GIS (geographical information system) that permits better understanding and delineation of the Pilot Areas in map form.

1.3.2 Identification of Regulatory and Institutional Systems

These comprise:

Legislative: the main controls, in the form of laws and regulations, imposed by the state to produce sustainable patterns of water abstraction for domestic, agricultural and industrial use while limiting the effects of abstraction upon the environment. These may take account of patterns of environmental change. Institutions: these are the bodies that are empowered to oversee, control and regulate, for example, the development and use of water and the impact of such use on the environment. These bodies include national and local government bodies as well as traditional tribal and community level groups. Traditional belief systems have to be taken

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2 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 into account as does the well-being of various aquatic and water dependant animal and vegetative systems. System impacts: a description and comparison that contrast the regulatory and institutional systems present in each Pilot Area to highlight similarities and differences and what that means to community water supply systems during periods of 'drought'.

1.3.3 Identification of the Socio-economic Factors

These include:

Socio-economic attributes: focusing on available data and information for the Pilot Areas that describe patterns of socio-economic development and activities of the various population groups. This work highlights reliance upon, and patterns of, usage of accessible water sources especially during drought periods. Community surveys: the nature and results of surveys to indicate how patterns of water use complement or otherwise national and local regulations and other prevailing institutional requirements. Stakeholder analysis: an analysis of the main stakeholders involved in water supply and use and of their strategic emergency response to drought, but including coping strategies used by communities in the past and the present as well as any District or Regional level strategies (if any, other than traditional coping strategies). Development activities: the ongoing water resource development activities of water departments and NGOs within the water sector are important as the project will have to work within these activities during the intervention stage. Understanding the groundwater systems: understanding the prevailing traditional perceptions of how groundwater exists, its availability and usefulness in the context of local belief structures.

1.3.4 Nodal Point Selection

The project aims to provide:

Data consolidation: all data and information will be brought together within a single GIS and consolidated into an Access database with maps and papers accessible in .jpg and .pdf formats via hot links. Analysis of information: lists of water source locations and population group distributions, guidelines for selection criteria for possible intervention types at specific site environments where and how they can be constructed (based upon existing sets of guidelines) will be prepared in order to inform intervention selection. Nodal Point Selection: to draw all the analytical data together to categorise the potential nodal sites and to inform the selection of suitable locations but taking also account of their accessibility as demonstration sites.

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3 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009

2. PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE PILOT AREAS

2.1 Geography

As part of Task 2.2 the overall extent of the Eastern and Western Pilot Areas were delineated in map format in the Terms of Reference for the overall project, having previously been identified and defined by the preparatory project (Project no: JQ390) completed in 2003 by CSIR (CSIR Report No. ENV-P-C-2003-047). The project was funded through a grant from The Global Environmental Facility (GEF Grant GEF-PDF TF027934).

These large areas have now been examined in detail with respect to underlying geology, hydrogeological environments and land use with a view to characterising the Pilot Areas and to allow project activities to focus on zones within the Pilot Areas in which rural communities (rather than private farms, urban areas, mining, game ranching, or game parks) predominate. Comments on each of these aspects are presented below.

2.1.1 Physiography

The Central Limpopo Basin is situated between latitude 21° and 23° South and longitude 28° and 32° East and includes the towns of Beitbridge and Messina and the large villages of Bobonong, Tsetsebjwe, Evangelina, Tuli, Massisi, Sengwe, Malapati, Eduardo Mondlane and Mapai. It is an principally an area of livestock farming, irrigated agriculture, mining, eco- tourism, game farming subsistence farming and tourist facilities including numerous private game parks. The population density in rural areas is low except in the former Venda homeland area in South Africa. The topography of the area to the north of the Soutpansberg range is flat with land sloping gently towards the Limpopo River. The elevation of the Limpopo River falls from 1000 masl at its confluence with the Shashe River to 200 masl at Pafuri, where it joins the Levuvhu River and enters Mozambique to flow downstream through alluvial flats and wetlands.

2.1.2 Climatology

Information on rainfall/drought distribution in the Pilot Areas has been obtained from previous studies, published sources, and from unpublished government and non- government databases, reports and correspondence files. These sources include contemporary missionary correspondence files used to identify wet/dry periods during 1840- 1900. Rainfall and evaporation data are essential for the calculation of potential recharge for use in water balance studies which allow the estimation of the availability of groundwater resources especially during periods of stress such as drought and the period into the subsequent rains during which groundwater levels recover.

Climate in the Limpopo Basin is controlled by regional systems and the global El Nino event, and the most salient features are noted below:

The sub-tropical eastern continental moist maritime system brings cyclones and heavy rainfall. The south Indian Ocean high pressure system brings south-easterly landward winds and rain. The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone, located over the equatorial regions, can occasionally move south to bring heavy rains. Strong El Nino events can correlate with drought conditions in the SADC region while, conversely, weak events can bring above average rainfall. BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WELLFIELD CONSULTING SERVICES CSIR WALLINGFORD, OXON GABORONE PRETORIA UK BOTSWANA SOUTH AFRICA

4 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009

The central Limpopo Basin has a semi-arid to savannah climate, with low surface runoff and high moisture deficits. About 250 mm/annum of rain falls during November to March during rainstorms. Potential evaporation is high at 2000 mm/annum. The area is susceptible to progressive desertification with dry season maximum temperatures of 32 to 40°C.

Rainfall, temperature, soil moisture, evapotranspiration, river-flow, reservoir status and groundwater resources are critical drought controls that must be monitored. Meteorological drought is a long period of low and inadequate rainfall creating large soil moisture deficits, death of vegetation and consequent stress on animals, impacting first the annual often ephemeral surface water flows and after a lag time also the subsurface water resources. The main issue is shortage of water, which from the human aspect causes loss of livelihood followed by lack of sanitation (rather than actual water to drink) and consequent stomach disorders, ultimately death. A groundwater drought is the term which describes the failure of groundwater resources, rather than the failure of pumps to raise the water, as a consequence of meteorological drought. Rainfall and evaporation collectively control both the onset and duration of drought and under non-drought conditions also the amount of recharge that may go to replenish groundwater resources.

The region has experienced 18-20 year-long wet/dry cycles during the period 1830 to the present. Nash and Endfield (2008) identified the occurrence of droughts during 1831-35, 1844-51, 1857-65, 1877- 86 and 1894-99 as recorded in missionary correspondence from eastern Botswana and northern South Africa. Vogel (2000) and Tyson (1986) list regional drought events during 1906/07-1915/16, 1925/26-1932/33; 1944/45-1952/53, 1962/63- 1970/71 and 1980/81-1990 (Figure 2.1). Reason et al (2005) correlate the intense drought periods experienced during 1991/92, 1994/95 and 2001/04 with El Niño events.

Figure 2.1 Time Series of Annual Summer Rainfall Totals in South Africa (after Tyson 1986)

During the more recent 1991/92 and 1994/95 droughts, natural low flows in the Limpopo River were further reduced by high levels of abstraction that changed the Limpopo from a

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5 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 perennial to an ephemeral river, a condition that continues today and that reflects the stressed ecosystems.

Major flood events have affected the Limpopo. The highest Limpopo River flood occurred in March 2000 caused by heavy rainfall from cyclones Connie and Eline, the worst since 1848. Recent high floods occurred in 1893/94; 1915; 1939/40; 1955; 1967, 1971/72, 1975, 1976-8, 1980/81; 1995/96; and 1999/2000 (Christie and Hanlon, 2001).

The key effects of climate change include increased average air temperatures and a decline in average rainfall by more than 15%, although this is exacerbated by the fact that storm intensities have increased, giving rise to more severe flood events. The temperature increase has raised potential evaporation by 6-8% and this will clearly adversely impact low flows during droughts and increase flood size during wet periods.

2.1.3 Rainfall

The distribution of long term average annual rainfall is available from national compilation maps (see example from Zimbabwe, Figure 2.2). However, the patchy nature of the impact of climatic droughts is best demonstrated by annual rainfall records drawn from a series of rainfall measuring stations. These are used to indicate variations in areas affected by climatic drought within specific regions by showing the extent of drought periods at sub- catchment level within the Limpopo Province of South Africa (Orpen, 1996). Rainfall records obtained from stations in the Northern Province of South Africa indicate periods of drought (eg. 1982/83 and 1991/92) and heavy rainfall, the latter resulting in major flood events (2000/01) (Figure 2.3). Similar data are being acquired from stations in Botswana, Zimbabwe and Mozambique. Data are available from the Meteorological Department in Gaborone for Botswana. Long term data were compiled for the National Water Master Plan and are included in a CD from a number of relevant rainfall stations. The Weather Bureau of South Africa offer data for Limpopo Province and Orpen, (1996) reviewed the rainfall data from 119 rainfall stations.

Figure 2.2 Distribution of Long Term Average Annual Rainfall (Zimbabwe)

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6 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 Figure 2.3 Rainfall Records – Northern Province South Africa

Annual Rainfall - northeastern Northern Provence, RSA 2500 Albasini Dam Nzhelele Dam 2000 Luphephe Dam Mutshedzi Dam Levubu Settlement 1500

1000 Rainfall mm/annum Rainfall

500

2000/ 1 2000/ 3 2002/ 5 2004/ 7 2006/

1952/53 1954/55 1956/57 1958/59 1960/61 1962/63 1964/65 1966/67 1968/69 1970/71 1972/73 1974/75 1976/77 1978/79 1980/81 1982/83 1984/85 1986/87 1988/89 1990/91 1992/93 1994/95 1996/97 1998/99 Year

2.1.4 Evaporation

The collection of evaporation data requires the installation and monitoring of large unit evaporation pans or comprehensive weather stations. These are normally only to be found at installations such as large regional airports, major reservoirs and agricultural research stations.

Annual evaporation data from four sites in the Northern Province of South Africa shown on Figure 2.4 indicate the marked difference in evaporation rates experienced north and south of the Soutpansberg. At the Albasini Dam site south of the mountains evaporation rates vary between 1000 and 1500 mm/annum, only occasionally exceeding the latter amount during drought periods. In contrast, north of the Soutpansberg, evaporation rates measured at the Nzelele, Luphephe and Mutshedzi Dams varies between 1500 and 2000 mm/annum with up to 2500 mm/annum being experienced during major droughts as in 1991/92.

Figure 2.4 Variations in Annual Evaporation at four sites located within the north-eastern part of Northern Province, South Africa.

Annual Evaporation Data for Stations in Northern Provine, RSA.

3000

2500

2000

Albasini Nzhelele 1500 Luphephe Mutshedzi

Evaporation mm/annum Evaporation 1000

500

2000/ 1 2000/ 3 2002/ 5 2004/ 7 2006/

1952/53 1954/55 1956/57 1958/59 1960/61 1962/63 1964/65 1966/67 1968/69 1970/71 1972/73 1974/75 1976/77 1978/79 1980/81 1982/83 1984/85 1986/87 1988/89 1990/91 1992/93 1994/95 1996/97 1998/99 Year

Monthly variations in evaporation rates are illustrated for the Nzhelele site in Figure 2.5.

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7 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 Figure 2.5. Variations in Monthly Evaporation at the Nzhelele Dam site, in north-eastern Northern Province, South Africa during 1970-2006.

Nzhelel Dam - Monthly Evaporation (1970-2006) 1970 1971 350 1972 1973 1974 1975 300 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 250 1981 1982 1983 1984

200 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

150 1990 Evaporation mm/month Evaporation 1991 1992 1993 1994 100 1995 1996 1997 1998 50 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 0 2004 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov 2005 Month 2006

At this site monthly evaporation is fairly consistent during the winter falling from 150-200 mm/month in March to a low of 100-1300 mm/month in June. The greatest variations occur during the wet summer season during which the 200-250 mm/month rates are exceeded during drought years as in 1991 when evaporation rates exceeded 300 mm/month.

The combination of rainfall and evaporation data at the Nzhelele site is used to produce graphs of ―Recharge Potential Rainfall‖ (Figure 2.6). In essence, recharge of rainfall to groundwater is only likely when rainfall exceeds evaporation (ie when the graph rises above the ‗zero‘ value). Within the Nzhelele area this appears to be possible only during periods of extended rainfall as experienced during 1984, 2000, 2004 and 2005. During most years evaporation greatly exceeds rainfall therefore the possibility of recharge to groundwater systems, except during short duration heavy storm events, is small. A similar pattern is also obtained from the Luphephe site. In contrast, at the Albasini Dam site summer season

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8 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 monthly rainfall exceeds evaporation during most years providing greater potential for groundwater systems recharge in the areas south of the Soutpansberg.

Figure 2.6. Variations in Monthly ‘Recharge Potential Rainfall’ at the Nzhelele Dam site, in north-eastern Northern Province, South Africa during 1970-2006.

1970 Nzhelel Dam - Monthly Potential Rainfall/Recharge (1970-2006) 1971 1972 1973 100 1974 1975 1976 50 1977 1978 1979 0 1980 1981 1982 1983 -50 1984 1985 1986 -100 1987 1988 1989

-150 1990 Potential Rainfall Potential 1991 1992 1993 -200 1994 1995 1996 -250 1997 1998 1999 -300 2000 2001 2002 2003 -350 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2004 2005 Month 2006

2.1.5 Hydrology

Previous work has defined three Limpopo River reaches of which the Middle Reach, about 200 km long between the Shashe/Limpopo confluence and Pafuri, extends through the central Limpopo Basin.

By 1991, 60% of the natural annual flow along the Upper Limpopo (determined at 1, 432.5 x 106 m3 in 1991) had been allocated to water users. Since 1997, flows from Botswana have BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WELLFIELD CONSULTING SERVICES CSIR WALLINGFORD, OXON GABORONE PRETORIA UK BOTSWANA SOUTH AFRICA

9 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 been reduced by the newly constructed Letsibogo Dam on the Motloutse River in 1997 and additional dams are being planned on the Tati, Thune, Lotsane and Lower Shashe tributaries. The impact of damming and increased abstraction may render downstream areas susceptible to drought. Tauacale (2002) reported ―the intensive use of water in upstream countries especially in Zimbabwe and RSA reduced very much the flows (along the Limpopo River) entering in Mozambique. The river is now dry during 3-4 months in a normal year; a situation that had never occurred before 1980. Problems of water quality at the border inflows are also being felt‖.

In the Middle Reach, the Shashe, Umzingwane and Bubye Rivers join the Limpopo River from the north and the Sand, Nzhelele and Levuvhu Rivers from the south. Annual flow variations along rivers flowing into the Limpopo from the Northern Province of South Africa, the Nzhelele, Nwanedzi, Mutale and Mogalakwena Rivers, as shown on Figure 2.7. Flow along the Umzingwane River is reduced by the Zhorve Dam, north of Beitbridge.

The following facts are presented:

Between Shashe and Beitbridge, 6120 ha are irrigated using Limpopo River water. The Sand River catchment has >700 small farm dams used for stock watering and irrigation. The Nzhelele River catchment has the Nzhelele Dam and >80 small farm dams for domestic use, agriculture, forestry and game farming use. Downstream, the Nuanetzi River joins the Limpopo from the north 50 km downstream of Pafuri, and the Levuvhu River joins the Limpopo from the south at Pafuri. Annual flow along the Mutale River has diminished since 1966 due to excessive abstraction for irrigation (Figure 2.7) Heavy rainfall resulted in major flood events during 1939/40, 1974/78 and 2000/01 (Figure 2.7). Conversely, extended drought conditions, as experienced between 1983 to 1994, resulted in very low to no river flow in the four rivers in question.

Following the 1990 Joint Upper Limpopo Basin Study, a multi-catchment and multi-reservoir flow model of the Limpopo was developed to investigate rainfall-runoff, reservoir inflow, demand, outflow and evaporation, abstraction and point discharge functions, channel loss, and stream flow reduction due to afforestation.

Figure 2.7 Annual Flow of Rivers in Northern Province South Africa

Annual Flows of Rivers in Northern Province, RSA.

1400.0

1200.0

1000.0

800.0 Mutale River

/annum 3 Nzhelele River Nw anedzi River

600.0 Mogalakw ena River River Flow Mm RiverFlow

400.0

200.0

0.0

1932/33 1935/36 1938/39 1941/42 1944/45 1947/48 1950/51 1953/54 1956/57 1959/60 1962/63 1965/66 1968/69 1971/72 1974/75 1977/78 1980/81 1983/84 1986/87 1989/90 1992/93 1995/96 1998/99 2001/02 2004/05 2007/08 Year

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10 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009

2.1.6 Groundwater Level Monitoring

As part of their ongoing water level monitoring programme, DWAF Polokwane has installed 39 monitoring boreholes equipped with Diver groundwater data logger units since 2004. The distribution of these boreholes per catchment area is shown in Table 2.1. They have in general been located in areas away from abstraction points to minimise interference in water level change.

Table 2.1 Location of Groundwater Monitoring Stations in Northern Province South Africa

Catchment No. Bhs Pilot Area Notes

A6 7 Installed July 2005 – Feb West 2008, most in 2007 A7 6 A8 9 Installed Nov 2004 – Aug East 2007, most in 2005 A9 13

As none of the boreholes has been installed for more than four years the impact upon groundwater levels of major drought and flood events has still to be recorded at any of these sites. As an example of one of the longer records, the water level at Tshirunzini in catchment A9 in the Eastern Pilot Area shows a steady decline in water level from just below 25 m in 2004 to below 30 m in 2008 (Figure 2.8). In contrast that at Folovhondwe in catchment A8, also in the Eastern Pilot Area, shows a rise in water level of 1.25m after September 2005 after which the water level remains at a fairly constant depth (Figure 2.9).

Similar piezometric level records have yet to be obtained from Botswana, Zimbabwe and Mozambique.

Figure 2.8 Groundwater Monitoring Record – Tshirunzini, Eastern Pilot Area, South Africa

A9 Tshirunzini - Depth to Water Level 0

30 Depth to Water Level (m) Level Water to Depth 35

17/11/04 17/01/05 17/03/05 17/05/05 17/07/05 17/09/05 17/11/05 17/01/06 17/03/06 17/05/06 17/07/06 17/09/06 17/11/06 17/01/07 17/03/07 17/05/07 17/07/07 17/09/07 17/11/07 17/01/08 17/03/08 17/05/08 17/07/08 Date

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11 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009

Figure 2.9 Groundwater Monitoring Record – Folovhondwe, Eastern Pilot Area, South Africa

A8 Folovhodwe - Water Levels 0.00

0.50

1.00

1.50 Depth to Water table (m) table Water to Depth 2.00

2.50

16/11/04 16/01/05 16/03/05 16/05/05 16/07/05 16/09/05 16/11/05 16/01/06 16/03/06 16/05/06 16/07/06 16/09/06 16/11/06 16/01/07 16/03/07 16/05/07 16/07/07 16/09/07 16/11/07 16/01/08 16/03/08 16/05/08 16/07/08

Date

2.1.7 Water Use and Demand in the Central Limpopo Basin

Reliable figures for sectoral consumption and demand are not readily available for the central Limpopo Basin.

Annual domestic supply for the north-east of Botswana, estimated to be 100 x 106 m3 by 2020, will be obtained from dams on Limpopo river tributaries. Irrigation occurs along the Limpopo River using water drawn from the ―sand-river‖ at Talana and Seleka Farms. Livestock obtain water from shallow wells in sand-rivers. Groundwater is supplied to villages using boreholes equipped with motorised pumps.

There are no water use data available for Mozambique. The largest use of groundwater in the northern part of Limpopo District is for irrigation to schemes at Pontdrift/Weipe, Mutale Valley and Levuvhu.

Limited irrigation used to be practiced in Zimbabwe in the Tuli River and Umzingwane River catchments and on the Zimbabwe side of the Limpopo River. These systems are reported to be defunct. Rural communities use groundwater for domestic supply.

2.2 Drought

The subject of drought in arid and semi-arid areas has been extensively researched, particularly from meteorological, sociological and agricultural perspectives. Typically, however, the work of natural and social scientists remains divorced, and drought definitions are not consistent. The lack of universally accepted definitions and the inherent difficulties associated with separating causes from impacts creates a degree of confusion.

From a meteorological standpoint, drought exists when rainfall is abnormally low, i.e. less than a critical precipitation that defines initiation of drought (Bruwer, 1990, Solanes, 1986). Area specific definitions abound. For example, in South Africa, Chavula (1994) defines

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12 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 drought as occurring when rainfall in any particular period is 70% of normal, becoming severe when this occurs over two or more consecutive seasons.

In hydrological terms, drought has been defined as occurring when actual water supply falls below the minimum required for ‗normal‘ operations, reflecting a deficit in the water balance (Bruwer 1990, Solanes 1986). ‗Normal operations‘ would include safe water supply for domestic purposes and basic agricultural activities such as the maintenance of livestock. A similar definition, encompassing supply in broad terms in relation to demand, was offered by Hazelton et al. (1994), stating that drought occurs when there is a deficit in water, including surface and sub-surface runoff and storage, as well as rainfall. This leads to the ‗catch-all‘ definition of drought, of arising when demand exceeds supply.

Drought amelioration has focussed in the past on physical measures, i.e. on the resource itself. However, work carried out in SADC during the mid-1990s (Calow et al. 1999) demonstrated that the resource was usually still available during the early part of a drought and that it was the water points that failed. However, it was apparent that drought-induced water insecurity was perceived as a problem by most rural communities and this could cause temporary migration in countries such as Malawi but more importantly ill-health and disease as seen in the Limpopo Province of South Africa in the drought years of the early 1990s. Besides, without exception the effort in collecting water was greatly increased as local water points ceased up and more distant sources had to be accessed. That being so the main effort concentrated on availability and access to food ignoring the need for water. Effort in providing access to safe water generally was too little and too late and rarely co-ordinated the multiple dimensions of household vulnerability.

The lessons of the 1991/92 drought have not been learned. The institutional and political rigidities continue to separate food security from other aspects of household vulnerability, not least the ability of a household to access water by drawing on assets such as labour and or money.

Types of Drought

There are several types of drought defined in the literature. Agricultural drought exists when soil moisture is depleted to the wilt point such that rain-fed crop and pasture yields are reduced and some susceptible crops die before cropping (Bruwer, 1990; Solanes, 1986). A meteorological drought, the cause of agricultural drought, is the persistent failure of the rains. Typically one failed rain season causes failure of the crops, the second consecutive failed rain season causes death of animals, and subsequent to this the death of people. However, in the meantime livelihood has suffered and intervention is required. Various early warning systems are in place in the Pilot Areas to predict meteorological drought in order that ameliorating strategies can be put in place. However, these concentrate more on food security than they do on water security and are in any case generally inadequate.

Drought is a relative concept, defined in terms of a deviation from the norm. In semi-arid lands it is critical to wellbeing whereas in European terms it may mean restriction in water use such as hose pipe bans with little real impact either on community and wealth. However, drought in SADC is potentially life threatening and should not be considered as unusual, it is a recurring event that must be catered for within both national and regional strategies – drought is endemic in semi-arid Sub- Saharan Africa. But in defining drought, sufficient data must be gathered to help describe the normal conditions of the system and the critical conditions at which normality can no longer be sustained without external intervention. Internal intervention can include subsidised purchase of livestock to remove them from the arid pastures, promotion of drought resistant but nevertheless rain-fed crops, provision of free fertilizer, food aid and local medical assistance. External intervention is that which Government can no longer cope with and which requires emergency intervention by global NGOs, BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WELLFIELD CONSULTING SERVICES CSIR WALLINGFORD, OXON GABORONE PRETORIA UK BOTSWANA SOUTH AFRICA

13 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 much of which is short term assistance, e.g. emergency and ill-defined drilling programmes, which do little to drought proof an area in the longer term.

Other terms used in water scarcity are: Water shortage - occurs when available water does not meet minimum needs‘ Water scarcity - relates water demand to availability and use, Water stress - caused by scarcity can result in conflict due to crop failure, Water security - reliable and secure access to water.

2.2.1 Groundwater and Drought

Groundwater drought is the phase during which groundwater levels are depleted and the resource is no longer able to sustain normal demand and withdrawal. However, before this occurs poorly maintained and overstressed pumps tend to fail, in turn putting additional pressure onto the declining number of operating water points that a community can rely on. In practice it is rarely the failure of the resource that leads a community to critical water shortage but the failure of their access route to the resource. The spiral of drought intervention is illustrated in Figure 2.10 and can be translated into community wellbeing as follows:

Pre-drought – secure livelihoods, easy access to safe water

Onset of drought – crops start to fail, access to safe water possibly at distance from the village

Livelihood insecurity and water stress – livestock dying, food shortages, poor access to safe water, lack of sanitation

Crisis – livelihoods replaced by survival, widespread disease, particularly stomach disorders, food scarcity, inadequate water to maintain basic sanitation

Figure 2.10 Breaking the Drought Spiral

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14 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009

Meteorological drought dries up the surface water sources, many of which may be ephemeral in any case, although sub-source flow in sand rivers may still occur. A traditional regional drought coping strategy is to resort to dug-outs in the sand rivers to sustain both the community and its animals. A longer term strategy is to build sand river dams. Only when the meteorological drought is well advanced does the groundwater drought start to occur, and only long after the meteorological drought is over and the rivers have started to flow again will the groundwater levels respond and the groundwater drought end (Figure 2.11).

Figure 2.11 Contrasting Response and Recovery of Groundwater and Surface Water to Drought

Groundwater enables rural communities to face the onset of drought, indeed to face the first year following the failure of the rains without too much difficulty, because water points continue to supply safe water to maintain normal village life including limited crop and stock watering. Thereafter, following a second failed rain season, and as water points start to fail because of enhanced demand as other sources fail, so fewer and fewer water points are left in operation. Maintenance of the water points is vital at this stage since pumps rarely fail because the water level has declined beyond the pump intake; they normally fail because of mechanical failure of the pump mechanism due to overuse. At this time, water level monitoring is critical in order to predict possible pump failure and allow well deepening or the development of new sources in hydrogeologically more favourable locations (i.e. deeper regolith) to be developed.

With the return of the rains, perhaps in the third year, the rivers and ponds start to fill up and the land recovers. Soon the rain will end for the season and the ground dries up once again. Infiltration to the water table following this first post-drought wet season is usually insufficient to fully replenish the groundwater system and springs and sand rivers may not be available in this first season of seeming normal conditions. In fact, just as the groundwater supply is sustained into the drought, so its recovery is delayed after the drought. A mix of surface and groundwater sources for community use is the only means of safeguarding continuity of supply. It is important in this post-drought phase to continue to monitor groundwater levels in order to assess when the groundwater resource has fully recovered.

There is a need for integrated drought management strategies that take account of the impact of long-term drought on groundwater recharge and the long-term sustainability of groundwater resources. Although groundwater may be a reliable alternative source during BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WELLFIELD CONSULTING SERVICES CSIR WALLINGFORD, OXON GABORONE PRETORIA UK BOTSWANA SOUTH AFRICA

15 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 surface water drought it will only remain so if managed properly. Poor management of groundwater resources and inadequate maintenance of the water point systems themselves during drought can lead to so called ‗groundwater drought‘.

Past responses to drought have been reactive, e.g. the mobilisation of emergency borehole drilling and community feeding programmes. Unfortunately, such groundwater development responses, frequently initiated by major NGO‘s, are rarely followed up and supported by subsequent maintenance programmes. This borehole and pump maintenance is vital to ensure continued operation of the extraction systems during extended drought periods when, for instance, a second successive wet season fails, surface resources are not fully recovered and there is maximum stress on groundwater sources. This results in a downward spiral of increasing source (mechanical!) ‗failure‘, reduced water availability and increasing hardship for rural populations.

Drought responses thus need to be better prepared and planned, taking into account the sustainable management of all natural resources so that appropriate use of available groundwater can be achieved and maintained to mitigate the impact of drought when surface waters are in deficit. This will require the development of specific but broad-based groundwater management strategies that will sustainably and appropriately increase the utilisation of groundwater in drought prone areas so as to reduce the impact of drought on community life as well as associated natural systems and resources.

2.3 Geological Framework

The quantity and quality of detailed site specific geological data varies greatly from country to country. Although many thousands of boreholes have been drilled for groundwater abstraction few yield useful geological information. Detailed geological information is mainly derived from geological mapping, geophysical surveying and borehole drilling activities associated with mineral exploration and development. The geology of Botswana has been mapped at 1:250 000 scale, of Mozambique at 1:1 000 000 scale, of South Africa at 1:250 000 scale, and of Zimbabwe at 1:1 000 000 scale.

Digital versions of the national geology and topographic maps at 1:1 000 000 and 1:250 000 scales) of the respective countries were used to compile a geological base map of the two Project Pilot Areas. A simplified geological base map was produced to inform the selection of potential Nodal Points.

Detailed and summary geological descriptions of the rock formations underlying the Eastern and Western Pilot Project areas included in peer reviewed journal papers, geological memoirs, geological maps and relevant consultant reports are being collected in digital and hard copy forms. Where possible the hard copy reports are being scanned for entry into the project bibliographic archive in .pdf format. Digital files of the maps and accompanying databases are being compiled within an Arc9 GIS database.

The geology of the Limpopo Basin is included in regional and national descriptions of the geologies of the four constituent countries. Comprehensive volumes describing the geology of Mozambique and South Africa were published in 2006-7 by the Council for Geosciences of South Africa (Lachelt, 2004 and Johnson et al, 2006). District geological memoirs and scientific literature describing aspects of specific areas add further detail. Each country has produced national geology maps at 1:1 000 000 scale with regional maps at 1:250 000 scale. All these sources have been drawn upon to produce a comprehensive summary of the geology of the Limpopo Basin.

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16 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 For the purposes of providing a geological framework for understanding groundwater occurrence a much simpler geological description is required that relates to gross lithostratigraphy and tectonic structure as well as rock weathering profiles and depths in the near surface zone. It is the latter that is the key to shallow groundwater occurrence and rainwater recharge.

Lithostratigraphy of the Central Limpopo Stratigraphic Unit Lithology Holocene Sand river alluvium Pliocene–Quaternary Palaeo-Limpopo alluvium Miocene-Cretaceous Continental sandstones and clays Jurassic (Upper Karoo) Basalts, rhyolites and volcanics Triassic (Middle Karoo)Sandstones, siltstones and mudstones Carboniferous – Permian (Lower Karoo)Sandstones, shales above glacial sediments Neoproterozoic Sedimentary, volcanic and granitoid intrusive rocks Granitoid (intrusive and metamorphic) Achaean Basement Complex (Cratons) Mafic (―greenstone belt‖) to felsic volcanic and meta- sedimentary supracrustal units (mobile belt) Achaean The Achaean Basement Complex consists of two granitoid and metamorphic cratonic blocks (the Kaapvaal and Zimbabwean Cratons) separated by the Achaean-Early Proterozoic Limpopo Mobile Belt. The Cratons are ancient continental blocks composed of complexes of granitoid intrusives, highly schistic and gneissic metamorphics and greenstone belt rocks. The metamorphic Limpopo Mobile Belt is divided into northern, central and southern zones separated by shear zones. The ENE trending marginal zones contain high-grade granite- greenstone derived rocks; the north trending Central Zone contains high grade metasediments including granulites and amphibolites. In the Cratons and the mobile belt, groundwater occurs in shallow fractured-and weathered regolith zones where dolerite dykes and fracture zones provide deeper flow-paths for circulating groundwater. In these units high fluoride concentrations can occur in groundwater in the granite and trace elements such as arsenic and lead may occur in groundwater in the greenstone.

Neoproterozoic Rocks The Neoproterozoic sediments and volcanic rocks of the Soutpansberg Trough separate the Southern Marginal Zone of the Limpopo Mobile Belt from the Central Zone, in the SE Central Limpopo basin. Groundwater mainly occurs in shallow fracture zones.

The Late Palaeozoic-Mesozoic volcano-sedimentary sequences (Karoo Supergroup) The Karoo sediments are of continental origin and comprise materials which were deposited in river, lake and desert environments. The sediments mainly occur in block-faulted grabens and are often intruded by sills and west-north-west to east-south-east trending dolerite dykes. The basal Lower Karoo units include fine-grained compact glacially derived micrites, overlain by mudstones that form aquitards with poor porosity and water quality. The coarser- grained upper Karoo sedimentary formations contain water bearing sandstones often under confined conditions and at depth. The upper part of the Karoo sequence is formed by extrusive rhyolite and basalt lavas of the Drakensberg and Lebombo Groups.

Miocene to Pliocene Rocks The Miocene to Pliocene formations present in western Mozambique include Miocene /Pliocene continental coarse, ferruginous sandstones with interbedded clays. The late- Miocene and Pliocene epochs are characterized by tectonic activity with uplift and faulting. There are also several hot springs, as at Tshipise and Klein Tshipise. The Pliocene - Quaternary periods are marked by sea-level decline and coastline regression resulting in erosion of the uplifted central areas and deposition of extensive alluvial flood plains.

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17 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 2.4 Hydrogeological Setting

The hydrogeology of areas such as the central Limpopo Basin is best described in terms of hydrogeological environments, each with a uniform set of groundwater occurrence characteristics. These are based on the lithostratigraphy (Section 2.3), tectonic activity, and the degree of weathering and erosion. The mode of groundwater occurrence in terms of storage and flow in each environment needs to be understood. The adopted system is based upon the UNESCO system of hydrogeological map production as applied throughout eastern and southern Africa, including Mozambique. South Africa, however, has developed a (not dissimilar) system of hydrogeological regions as proposed by Vegter (2001a).

The five main hydrogeological environments are;

1) Achaean Basement Complex rocks (granites, gneisses, greenstone belts, volcanics); 2) Neoproterozoic age sedimentary rocks (Waterberg Group shales, quartzites, conglomerate and volcanic sequences), 3) Palaeozoic/Mesozoic age (Karoo Supergroup) sedimentary deposits with associated intrusions (i.e. dyke and basalt flows); 4) Cretaceous and younger age consolidated and unconsolidated sedimentary sequences mainly in Mozambique; and 5) Recent sand, gravel and clay deposits associated with water courses such as the Limpopo and Shashe Rivers.

This project neither seeks to explore for nor evaluate new groundwater resources; rather it seeks to make better use of known groundwater resources which are already sustaining local communities in the focus areas.

Groundwater is often perceived as a mysterious resource, defying logic and science. This attitude has led to it being managed inappropriately in many parts of the world with associated dependent populations consequently not gaining maximum benefit.

Before considering the role groundwater can play in coping with drought it is important to clarify the ‗mysterious‘ nature of the resource and identify the properties of groundwater that make it such a valuable resource. Four particular aspects are outlined below.

1. Groundwater does not exclusively rely on seasonal rainfall. Aquifers can store much larger quantities of water than their annual recharge, therefore if rainfall is particularly low over a short period (e.g. one or two years) there are usually sufficient reserves to provide a reliable perennial supply. This effect is the ‗buffering capability‘ of groundwater. Unlike surface water, groundwater does not suffer evapotranspiration losses; therefore there is little depletion of the resource other than by abstraction or slow seepage to surface at springs or as base flow to rivers. The time lag between water level decline and rise with rainfall season may be only a few days to a few weeks or even months, and the magnitude of the eventual impact on groundwater resources will vary with the severity and duration of ‗surface‘ drought, as well as the physical (hydrogeological) environment. 2. Groundwater resources can be accessed from many locations allowing the supply to be provided at the point of need, for example in the centre of a village. There is no need for large and expensive piped systems to transfer the water – the aquifer provides a ‗natural reticulation‘ system. 3. Technology for accessing groundwater can be quite simple and does not require large engineering structures. Hand dug wells and the drilling of boreholes can be quite easily managed by capable NGOs and regional government, and can be constructed quickly and at reasonable cost.

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18 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 4. Groundwater is generally of good and reliable quality even during prolonged drought. Water stored in reservoirs, ponds and rivers is easily contaminated, especially at times of shortage when quantity and the dilution capacity of the inflow system reduce. Groundwater is less vulnerable as it cannot be directly contaminated, however seepage through the unsaturated zone can allow contamination of the resource to occur through, for example, badly constructed wells/boreholes or from poorly sited on-site sanitation.

2.4.1 The Limitations of Groundwater

Because of its many advantages, groundwater might be (and in some cases is) proclaimed as the panacea for sustained water supply in drought prone areas due to it‘s continued existence even when surface waters have disappeared. However, there are several aspects of groundwater resources that limit their effectiveness in coping with drought.

1. The first is obvious: some areas do not possess usable groundwater resources. The groundwater that may be present may not be of inadequate quality for consumption, e.g. having a high concentration of total dissolved solids of specific toxic elements such as fluoride or arsenic. In other locations, groundwater may not be present in sufficient quantities to sustain long-term useable abstraction. This could be the case in geological formations with negligible primary porosity or insufficient weathering or fracture distribution in which to store groundwater. 2. Even if groundwater is abundantly present within an aquifer it can only be accessed at discrete points via springs, wells or boreholes. Therefore the amount of water that is available is a function not only of the volume of the available renewable resource but also of the number and type of access points to that resource. The problem does not arise with surface water where water can be accessed at any point within the body of the resource. In addition, groundwater cannot be moved or engineered easily and generally requires energy to pump it to the surface. Energy may be human, animal, or powered. 3. Basement rocks underlie the majority of the drought prone areas of Sub-Saharan Africa (Wright and Burgess, 1992). The low permeability of these rocks (<1 m/d) ensures that the flow of water towards wells and boreholes is restricted and the resource, although almost universally present, cannot be accessed at the required and useable demand rate. 4. Groundwater also recovers slowly. The delay between changes of recharge and falling water levels is one of the primary benefits of using groundwater in drought prone areas as it provides a valuable buffer to the loss of surface supplies. However, this delay also has a negative impact – water-levels are affected over a much longer period than are the surface waters. Therefore, the underground water resource may continue to decline and be less available to communities long after the surface water drought has ended. It thus needs to be managed carefully during drought and non-drought cycles if it forms a critical source of supply.

Before employing groundwater as a solution to the water needs of areas prone to drought it is essential to understand the nature of the resource and the aspects particular to the local aquifer. Too often the limitations of groundwater are ignored and a water supply system or, more frequently, a drought relief programme is planned without considering the capability of the aquifer system. The success of the resulting programme will then rely entirely on luck and good fortune, hoping to hit a sustainable groundwater supply, while it is only when the limitations as well as the benefits of groundwater are understood that groundwater can be managed to its maximum potential.

With respect to gaining an understanding of regional groundwater resources hydrogeological information and data obtained from the drilling and testing of exploration and production

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19 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 boreholes have been compiled into national archives within Botswana, Zimbabwe, South Africa and Mozambique. However, the quantity and quality of data and accessibility of the information varies greatly both from country to country and from area to area within each country. Subsequent to the time when the majority of groundwater production boreholes were installed directly by government departments, the aim of NGOs (the current primary implementers in both Zimbabwe and Mozambique), is water supply, and this is reflected in a progressive decline in the quantity and quality of hydrogeological data collected during borehole drilling and testing over the past two decades. This has resulted in national and regional borehole archives containing the locations of many thousands of boreholes but little in the way of usable hydrogeological data for the subsequent assessment of groundwater resources. In turn, this means that little can be learned from the successes and failures of many of the more recent groundwater drilling programmes around the SADC region.

2.4.2 Groundwater Occurrence

In Botswana the Limpopo Basin Western Pilot Area is characterised by Achaean Basement and gneisses, the Karoo Supergroup and Karoo age dykes. Achaean Basement and gneisses underlie the north-eastern half of the basin. Groundwater resources are sufficient for rural supply. Fractured aquifers, such as Karoo sandstones, have good groundwater potential. The Ntane Sandstone Formation is characterised by high yields (100-150 m3/hr) and good quality. The alluvial aquifers along the Limpopo River are under-utilised and have high yields.

The hydrogeology of Eastern Pilot Area in Mozambique differs from that of the other three countries as it is underlain by Cretaceous continental sedimentary rocks and rhylolite/basalt extrusive strata. The Lebombo rhyolite and basalt along the border of South Africa and Mozambique is a ―hard rock aquifer‖ whose properties depend on weathering and fractures. Yields are higher in basalts and water quality in much of the basalt and rhyolite is of usable quality. To the east Cretaceous and younger sediments are present, the aquifer properties of which are little understood. The Upper Cretaceous Sena Formation consists of continental calcareous sandstones and conglomerates with a predominantly clayey cement, both of which are relatively impermeable. Groundwater in this formation has high salinity. A thin alluvial sandy clay or clayey sand cover commonly masks these formations. Individual borehole and well yields from these aquifers range from 3 to 10 m3/h.

The hydrogeology of the two Pilot Areas in South Africa has been mapped at 1:500 000 scale and significant groundwater data is available from DWAF (du Toit, 2002). Groundwater in both the Western and Eastern Pilot Areas of South Africa occurs in secondary aquifers in rocks of Achaean, Proterozoic and Palaeozoic/Mesozoic ages. However, the groundwater potential of weathered and fractured basement rocks is low. The sedimentary basins of Karoo age include the Tshipise Basin and the Tuli Basin. Ephemeral river systems with alluvial aquifers are the Crocodile, Olifants, Sand and Mogalakwena Rivers. The alluvial aquifers associated with the Limpopo, Olifants, Sand and the Crocodile Rivers supply local farming, mining and domestic water needs, as well as the town of Mussina, the Venetia diamond Mine and irrigation at Pontdrif.

In Zimbabwe, >70% of the surface area of the Limpopo Basin is underlain by Achaean granite and gneiss. In the southeast, Karoo-age sandstone and basalt occur (Interconsult, 1985). The three main aquifer units that occur in the two Pilot Areas in southern Zimbabwe are the Achaean Basement, Karoo sediments/basalts and Cretaceous mudstones. The Achaean granite and gneiss of the Basement and Limpopo Mobile Belt are the most widespread rock types and groundwater occurs in shallow weathered zones and in deeper fractured zones. Yields are low (10-50 m3/d). Water quality is good, but the smaller

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20 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 weathering basins are vulnerable to overexploitation due to limited storage. Zones of Karoo age sediments covered by basalt feature in the Western Pilot Area as part of the western Tuli Basin that extends from Botswana into South Africa and Zimbabwe. Similarly, in the Eastern Pilot Area the Nuanetsi Basin is connected to the Tshipise Basin and the Save Basin. The sandstone underlying the basalt is a significant fractured and confined aquifer with yields of 50-300 m3/d with good water quality. In the east along the border with Mozambique, the basalt is overlain by younger Cretaceous age mudstones from which yields are low and waters brackish to saline. The Karoo basalt and underlying sandstones in this area have not been hydrogeologically assessed. Alluvial aquifers occur along the Limpopo, Shashe, Masunga and Nuanetsi, with the Limpopo and Shashe Rivers forming transboundary or international aquifers.

2.4.3 Hydrogeological Classification for the Central Limpopo Basin

The central Limpopo Basin is divided into six hydrogeological environments, as shown on the Hydrogeological Environments Map (Appendix A, Map 1), based on the lithostratigraphical rock formations present. The environments comprise:

1. Achaean Basement Complex

Weathered and fractured granites, gneisses and schists rocks of the Central and Northern Marginal Zones of the Limpopo Mobile Belt have poor groundwater conditions with low yields and deep water strikes with water levels>50 mbgl and poor water quality of below 2 000 mg/l. The hydrogeological potential of these rocks are described in Vegter (2001b). Houston and Lewis (1988) present similar data obtained from the installation of drought relief boreholes in Mashvingo Province, Zimbabwe.

2. Proterozoic Soutpansberg Group

Soutpansberg Group quartzitic sandstones, shales and conglomerates with underlying basaltic lavas form the highland area in the southern part of the eastern focal area in the Northern Province of South Africa. These rock types have little primary porosity, groundwater occurring mainly within well defined fracture zones. Boreholes drilled to 60-90 metres depth produce yields of up to 5 l/sec. (Jacobson and Haupt, 1992)

3. Karoo Sedimentary Rocks

Fluvial mudstones, arkosic sandstones and conglomerates with overlying aeolian fine- grained sandstones of Karoo age underlie the peripheral areas of the Tuli Basin of the western Pilot Area and much of the central potion of the eastern Pilot Area. In the latter they also occur within several linear down-faulted graben areas. Borehole yields of 0.1 – 5.7 l/sec are possible from boreholes drilled to 50 – 100 m depth. Water quality is generally good (Interconsult, 1985).

4. Karoo Lavas

The Batoka Basalt comprises a thick sequence of amygdaloidal layered lavas. With moderate permeability, boreholes installed to depths of 20-70 m depth within this formation can yield between 0.1-3.0 l/sec. Water quality is generally good (Interconsult, 1985).

5. Cretaceous - Tertiary Sediments

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21 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 In the south-east of Zimbabwe the Cretaceous to Tertiary age sediments are reportedly composed of terrestrial siltstones interbedded with mudstone and some fine to medium grained cemented sandstone. These strata are characterised by very low permeability although boreholes drilled to 70-100 m deep in sandstone may produce up to 0.5 l/sec. Water quality may be a problem (Interconsult, 1985).

6. Quaternary River Sand Alluvium.

The Quaternary River Sand Alluvium found along the courses of the Limpopo River and its tributaries forms a sustainable aquifer more than 2250 km long. This unconsolidated sedimentary aquifer is well developed in all countries and plays a major role in water supply during droughts. Boroto and Görgens (2003) indicate channel dimensions used to assess the amount of alluvium along the river course and that can be used for groundwater storage within different river reaches. The project Pilot Areas include;

River reach 2: The lower reaches to the confluence with the Shashe. River reach 3: From the Shashe confluence to Beitbridge. River reach 4: From Beitbridge to Pafuri River reach 5: The upper reaches from Pafuri to Mapai. Upstream of confluence of the Limpopo and Olifants River, the alluvial system is narrow but well developed.

The alluvium of the Limpopo River in Mozambique tends to be clay rich with coarse to very coarse sands and occasional limestones, and good water quality and yields. The valleys eroded into the Tertiary and Cretaceous sedimentary formations have limited thickness of alluvial materials and do not constitute a significant aquifer.

2.4.4 Groundwater Potential and Resources

Botswana

Groundwater sources in the Limpopo Basin of Botswana are sufficient for rural water supply. However, the generally poor groundwater potential in the Basement aquifers is reflected in low yields and aquifer depletion. Alluvial aquifers along the Limpopo River have sediment thickness and lateral extent that promote higher average yields. Alluvial aquifers along tributaries have lower potential due to limited aquifer extent and finer grained material. Fractured-porous aquifers in the basin, such as Karoo sandstone units near Bobonong, also have good groundwater potential and high yields (100-150 m3/hr) with good water quality (Water Surveys Botswana, 2007).

Mozambique

Alluvial valleys associated with river courses form important shallow primary aquifers in Mozambique. Development of these water sources is, however, risky due to the likelihood of flood conditions often experienced in the Limpopo River flood plain. The sediments along the middle reaches of the Limpopo are important due to the good quality of the water and high specific yields of up to 20 m3/h/m. However, Ferro & Bouman (1987) caution that these resources should not be overestimated, as over-utilization could lead to salinisation of the aquifer.

Groundwater potential in the Alto Limpopo Plains of western Mozambique underlain by arkosic sandstones of the Cretaceous Sena and Lower Tertiary Elefantes Formations is low. Groundwater occurs in conglomerates and calcareous formations where yields up to 1 l/s have been obtained. Water quality is about 1000 mg/l, but poor recharge potential and deep BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WELLFIELD CONSULTING SERVICES CSIR WALLINGFORD, OXON GABORONE PRETORIA UK BOTSWANA SOUTH AFRICA

22 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 water levels restrict development. The groundwater potential of the Miocene age Mazamba Formation arkosic and argillaceous sandstones is moderate to low. Between the Changane and Limpopo Rivers the sandstone has a higher clay content which reduces borehole yields. Water quality is poor with TDS >3 000 mg/l, reaching in places 30 000 mg/l. The Quaternary cover on the Mazamba Formation is up to 60 m thick, but water quality is brackish to saline.

A potentially higher yielding aquifer, termed the ‗Limpopo Aquifer‘, containing relatively fresh water (800 – 1 200 mg/l) occurs at 50 to 200 m depth to the north of the Limpopo River. Permeabilities are low, ranging from 0.8 to 1.4 m/d. The deeper groundwater levels characteristic of this aquifer is indicative of deeper confined aquifers not hydraulically connected to the Limpopo River.

The basalts and rhyolite of the Lebombo volcanic rocks do not produce high yielding boreholes, although the basalts are more productive than the rhyolites. Groundwater quality of the rhyolite is better than that of the basalt and TDS is usually below 500 mg/l. Groundwater quality in the plains along the Lebombo mountain range is poor and borehole yields are small with low recharge potential.

South Africa

In South Africa, DWAF has compiled a National Groundwater Database (NGDB) that includes all hydrogeological information. The database forms the basis for the Governments water supply programme to the rural communities. There is also the Groundwater Resource Information Programme (GRIP) database complied for the Limpopo Province. The Directorate of Water Services has a programme of ―Groundwater Developing Strategies‖. In the Limpopo Province these strategies are developed on a District Municipality basis.

The geological formations underlying the Eastern Pilot Area (Messina) are described by Brandl (1981) and those underlying the Western Pilot Area (Aldays) are described by Brandl (2002). The groundwater resources of those parts of the Eastern and Western Pilot Areas located within the Northern Province of South Africa are summarized on the hydrogeological map of the Messina area (du Toit, 2002) and in Appendix J of the Internal Strategic Perspective (ISP) for the Luvuvhu/Letaba Water Management Area of DWAF (Goba, Moahloli, Keeve, Steyn, 2004).

Quaternary sand river deposits composed of alluvial sands and gravels occur along the courses of the main rivers, especially the Limpopo downstream of its confluences with the Motloutse and Shashe Rivers. Extensive palaeogravels associated with former courses of the Limpopo occur at higher levels south of the Pont Drift – Weipe area in the western focal area. These shallow aquifers are composed of variable thicknesses of fine to coarse sands and gravels deposited during Holocene to Recent times. Those located within the present day river channels are regularly recharged by flood waters but are of limited volume. Very high potential yields of 80-400 m3/hr have been reported but they have limited storage volume. Water quality is generally fresh with TDS <200 mg/l in west but deteriorates in the east to TDS 200-1300 mg/l. The groundwater resources of these Limpopo sand river deposits have been extensively developed to supply riverside irrigation schemes in the Pont Drift – Weipe area upstream of Messina, water supply to the Venitia Diamond Mine and domestic water supply to Messina township.

Much of the Eastern and Western Focal Areas within the Northern Province of South Africa are underlain by metamorphosed and highly deformed supracrustal and intrusive rocks of Swazian age belonging to the Central Zone of the Limpopo Mobile Belt. The aquifer potential of the Archean Basement Complex weathered and fractured gneisses and schists of the

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23 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 Limpopo Granulite-Gneiss Belt are described in Vegter (2001b). These rocks have been intruded by E/W striking granite dykes and ENE-WSW trending dolerite dykes; and are affected by ENE-WSW trending horst and graben fractures north of the soutpansberg. As elsewhere in these areas, although many boreholes have been drilled few data have been reported According to an analysis of National Groundwater Database results the aquifer potential of these rocks is low with only 40% of the boreholes drilled into these rocks yielding more than 0.1 l/s. Drilling sites are mainly located in valley bottoms, on deeper weathered zones developed on main fractures, using geophysical surveying methods. Optimum depths of water strike occur between 50 and 85 metres; at 15 to 25 m below the water table. Areas underlain by these low permeability aquifers have limited aquifer storage capacity. As these areas receive average rainfalls of less than 400mm/annum and are markedly affected by long periods of low rainfall and drought, little or no aquifer recharge takes place for significant periods. Water levels only rise after periods of significant rainfall. Water quality ranges from good to poor with TDS contents of 500 to 2000 mg/l. Water types are mainly (Ca, Mg)(HCO3) and (Ca, Mg)Cl; but more than 50% of the groundwater sampled was found to be unfit for human consumption due to excessive quantities of nitrate and fluoride.

A large part of the Eastern Pilot Area, especially that area located within the Kruger National Park, is underlain by Karoo-age lavas comprising fractured basalts and rhyolites (along the Lebombo Escarpment). Karoo lavas also underlie an ENE-WSW trending belt between Tshipise and Pafuri. The aquifer potential of these lavas is low to medium, with >2 m3/hr along the escarpment and 2-9 m3/hr elsewhere. They have poor to good storage with good recharge in areas of moderate rainfall but can be much affected by low rainfall and drought. Water quality generally fresh with TDS 70-300 mg/l and occasionally > 1000 mg/l.

Much of the northern portion of the Western Pilot Area, south of the Limpopo River, is underlain by Karoo sedimentary rocks of the Upper Karoo Clarens (sandstones) and Bosbokpoort (mudstones) Formations. These overlie coal bearing sandstone deposits of the Middle Karoo Ecca Group. The main water bearing formations are the sandstones of the Ecca Group and Clarens Formation, the aquifer potentials of which are medium to high with yields of 20-50 m3/hr. Limited recharge occurs away from the main river channels, especially in areas much affected by extended periods of low rainfall and drought. Water quality in the Clarens Formation is generally fresh with TDS <500 mg/l, and poor in the underlying Ecca sandstones.

The southern highland portion of the Eastern Pilot Area is underlain by Proterozoic Soutpansberg Group Sandstones and Lavas composed of weathered fractured well cemented sandstones and quartzites and older basalts. These rocks are affected by ENE- WSW trending fractures that form typical horst and graben landforms with high mountains and deep valleys. Several of the larger valleys contain significant thicknesses of Quaternary sediments upon which crop irrigation takes place. According to an analysis of National Groundwater Database the aquifer potential of these rocks is low to medium with boreholes yielding 2-7 m3/hr. Drilling sites are mainly located in valley bottoms, on weathered zones developed on main fractures and into Quaternary age sedimentary deposits. A large number of boreholes have been drilled, especially within the former Venda Homeland but few data have been reported. Springs frequently occur along scarp slopes. The lower slopes receive annual average rainfall of 400-600 mm/annum. In general, areas underlain by these low permeability aquifers have limited storage capacity, but good recharge may occur, especially in mountainous areas with rainfalls of 600->1000 mm/annum. Water quality is generally good with TDS contents of <300 mg/l.

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24 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 Zimbabwe

Groundwater occurrence in the Basement rocks which occupy much of southern Zimbabwe and which occur on both Pilot Areas is controlled by secondary porosity associated with fracturing, jointing and weathering. The average depth of weathering is between 10 m to 30 m. Borehole yields from the weathered and/or fractured zones are low (10-50 m3/d) with specific capacity between 2 and 20 m3/d/m. Where weathering is well-developed yields of between 50 to 100 m3/d are feasible. Water levels are usually less than 10 mbgl and quality is generally good.

In the Western Pilot Area Upper Karoo-age Batoka Basalt outcrops in the south and southeast of the Tuli (Karoo) Basin where it is underlain by the Forest Sandstone formation. In the Batoka basalt formation groundwater occurs in weathered and/or fractured zones with yields of 20-100 m3/d. Water quality is generally good. The confined Forest Sandstone aquifer underlying the basalt is laterally extensive and has primary and secondary porosity. The aquifer has yields of 50-300 m3/d and water quality is good. Recharge is estimated to be only about 100x106 m3 (Interconsult, 1985) Therefore, should this aquifer be exploited to any large degree, groundwater management will be of utmost importance. Thompson (1975) notes that in the Mazunga area of Beitbridge District ―earth-fill gravity dams and concrete structures built on basalt have failed or have breached during floods. Those that have not, hold water only for a month or two after the cessation of rains. Dams founded on the Karoo sediments are more successful, but sites are limited. ―

Cretaceous mudstones, siltstones and sandstones are present in south-eastern Zimbabwe in the eastern Pilot Area, with yields of 10-50 m3/d, but water quality is variable with high TDS.

The alluvial aquifers along the major rivers in Zimbabwe have thick clean sands and groundwater potential is high with yields in the range of 100-5000 m3/d. Water quality is good although vulnerable to pollution. Recharge occurs through annual flood events. Estimates made by Hughes (1999) for base flow shows that there is very little groundwater inflow into the Limpopo River; an indication of low groundwater recharge in the area. There are several areas of high nitrate concentrations (>250 mg/l) that are linked to agricultural activities along the Limpopo River. Thompson (1975) notes that in the Mazunga area of Beitbridge District groundwater for crop irrigation is obtained from alluvial sands and gravels at six schemes including three on the Shashe River, two along the Tuli River and one on the banks of the Mzingwane River. The current status of several of these schemes and another at Chikwarakwara is reported in by Clanahan (2005). Within the western focal area a number of detailed studies have been undertaken of the Mzingwane River alluvial aquifer.

Over the largest part of the Limpopo Basin in Zimbabwe the groundwater levels are indicated to be below 20 m, which is a reflection of the shallow weathered aquifers found on the Basement granites of the area. There are, however, a number of small isolated areas where water levels are >50 m below surface. These isolated areas of deeper groundwater levels are in the Karoo basins where the aquifers are confined and overlain by basalt. The deeper groundwater levels in the Zimbabwe-Mozambique border zone of the Eastern Pilot Area are also believed to be associated with the confined aquifer conditions in the Karoo Nuanetsi sedimentary basin.

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25 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 3. INSTITUTIONAL AND REGULATORY ANALYSIS IN PILOT AREAS

3.1 Botswana

Within the Bobonong area of the Western Focal Area, village water supply is undertaken by central Government via the Department of Water Affairs. Nationally, water supply is provided to villages and settlements with a population >250 persons. Water supply is provided almost exclusively from groundwater, generally from good and sustainable resources, abstracted from wellfields and piped to the point of distribution and use. This ensures that the population of the larger villages are largely ‗drought proofed‘ or protected from any detrimental effects due to drought with specific regard to domestic and institutional water supply. The impact of successive droughts has been a general migration of population from small settlements to the larger villages where water supply is better assured. The long term impact of pumping wellfields above the recommended maximum borehole discharge rates to meet the increasing demands of an expanding population needs to be monitored carefully as abstraction from the aquifers is currently in excess of long term average (LTA) recharge and may result in the long term deterioration and ultimate failure of some of the sources.

The institutional framework in Botswana has developed over time in order to regulate, control and provide the essential necessities demanded of its rural communities. These include the basic infrastructure of roads, education and training along with the provision of water for domestic supply. The latter comes with the proviso that it is for domestic use only and must not be applied to other uses such as livestock watering. Governmental provision thus covers water security and at times of stress would encompass food security. However, in ‗no drought‘ periods Government is not empowered to assist communities in livelihood development and livelihood diversification. As a consequence there is great reliance on cattle and goats both as means of livelihood sustenance and as a mark of wealth. Diversification towards small scale irrigation from private wells and boreholes used other than for stock watering is rare. Gardens around individual dwellings are generally barren with little if any attempt to grow vegetables on a family basis using waste washing and kitchen water for irrigation.

The main Government agencies involved in the water sector in Botswana include:

The Ministry of Mines, Energy and Water Resources through the constituent Department of Water Affairs and the Department of Geological Survey and appointees of the chair person of the Water Utilities Corporation. The governmental structure is rigid but workable and dialogues exist between departments sufficient for day to day purposes.

The Department of Water Affairs has five divisions: . Hydrology and Water Resources Division: responsible for water resource planning and development including groundwater, water resource assessment, monitoring, data collection and assessment. . Groundwater Division: responsible for groundwater investigations for village water supply and wellfield testing and assessment. . Design and Construction Division: design of village water supply systems. Has an Appropriate Technology Section. . Operations and Maintenance Division: responsible for operating large village water supply systems.

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26 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 . Water Apportionment Board: administers rights to abstract groundwater, all new boreholes and dams need WAB approval.

The Department of Geological Survey (DGS) holds responsibility for investigating national groundwater resources through its Hydrogeology Division. The Department also maintains the National Borehole Archive. DGS is also responsible for groundwater resources and basin monitoring as part of the National Monitoring Network. This national network comprises 476 manually monitored boreholes, 37 autographic water level recorders and 17 rain gauges.

The Ministry of Local Government is responsible for local government through:

. The Department of Local Government and Development. . The Department of District Administration. . The Department of Local Government Service Management.

The District Land Boards approve land allocations that are required for the siting of all boreholes and dams. Each District Council has a Water Department responsible for the operation and maintenance of rural village water supplies. Projects are funded by the central government through the Rural Village Water Supply Programme and a number of derivative programmes.

The Ministry of Agriculture, Division of Land Utilisation administers the small dam building programme in communal areas through its Small Dams Section. The Ministry‘s Irrigation Section designs small irrigation schemes.

. The Small Dams Section has a field unit in Mahalapye which constructs dams for livestock watering using its own equipment. It has guidelines for assessment of dam capacity and yield. Soils are tested at the Central Testing Laboratory in Gaborone. . The Irrigation Section conducts feasibility studies, prepares designs and assists in equipment procurement, operation and maintenance. For small and medium scale schemes enterprise grants are made under the central government Financial Assistance Policy. The office is located in Mahalapye. Water is normally obtained from sand-rivers or boreholes.

The Ministry of Health prescribes water quality standards. The Ministry of Works, Transport and Communications provides meteorological data through the Department of Meteorological Services.

The Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA - created 2005) is responsible for evaluation of EIA‘s and all environmental monitoring and management in the country, including protection of water quality and GDE‘s. Unfortunately, DEA is still in it‘s formative stages and most water-related issues and monitoring of water quality remains with DWA, who undertake regular groundwater quality monitoring of village water sources throughout the country and who maintain a national groundwater quality database that is also supplemented by DGS, project and private water source information.

Acts and other legislation relating to water supply include: . The Borehole Act 1956; . The Waterworks Act 1962, amended in 1983; . The Water Act 1968; . The Water Utilities Corporation Act 1970, amended in 1978.

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27 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 . The National Conservation Strategy . The EIA Act (2005)

3.2 Mozambique

Despite an impressive legislative structure northern Mozambique suffers from lack of governmental influence in many rural areas due to lack of fabric and lack of resources. The nation has tried hard to catch up subsequent to its own internal problems that have only been resolved in its recent past. That being said the institutional framework does exist, although its ability to implement action on the ground is inhibited by its resources. The contrast between the rigid institutional framework experienced in Botswana, and for that matter South Africa, means that direct physical interventions would be more feasible at community level in Mozambique than South Africa or Botswana.

Until 1991 water resources and water supply and sanitation were managed centrally. A new Water Law then allowed the transfer of government management of water supply systems to private firms, utilities and water users groups. This Law established: . ‗common‘ water use – free water for domestic and personal needs, including watering livestock and small-scale irrigation; and . ‗private‘ water use - commercial use according to concession or licence.

The National Water Council, which was created in 1991, grouped the Ministries of Agriculture, Energy, Industry and Construction and Water. The National Water Directorate (DNA), a directorate of the Ministry of Construction and Water, ensures proper utilisation of ground and surface water resources. Adminitracaoes Regional de Agues (ARAs) were established to act as public institutions but with financial and administrative autonomy. They report directly to the DNA, and are responsible for decentralized river basin management and hydrological network operation at a regional level, coordinated by the DNA. The ARAs prepare basin development plans, maintain and operate hydrological infrastructure, maintain a register of water users, and collect water-user taxes and fees. Below the ARAs there are Basin Management Units (UGBs). By the late 1990s only the ARA-Sul, in charge of the area south of the Save River, had been fully established. The Ministry of Public Works and Housing (MOPH) through the National Water Directorate (DNA) was previously responsible for water resource assessment, planning, development and management.

The Mozambican Water Law is the most important legal instrument in water related activities. This law brought about tangible changes in the institutional set-up of the water sector, allowing private sector participation in water projects. For example, establishment of ARA‘s and privatisation of state drilling companies.

Since 1991, the regional authorities have been responsible for water resources management in some catchments. The MOPH has been transformed into regulator, manager and policy maker with the DNA co-ordinating the water sector in Mozambique. The DNA comprises:

. The Department of Water Resources Management (DGRH) composed of the Geohydrology Section (SdG) and Hydrology Section (for surface water). . The Department of Urban Water Supply and Sanitation (DASU) - responsible for urban water supply and sanitation.

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28 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 . Department of Rural Water (DAR), formerly the National Programme for Rural Water, operates as a National Directorate for rural water programmes, responsible for all rural water projects. . Cabinet of International Rivers (GRI) to liaison with institutions in neighbouring countries.

Groundwater development projects are mainly undertaken by private national/international consultants and contractors in consultation with central government. UNICEF and CARE- International are the main groundwater sector NGOs operating in Mozambique; UNICEF supports government in the re-structuring of the groundwater sector. Donor Agencies active in the sector include the Japanese International Co-operation Agency, GTZ, HELVETAS – Sweden, SIDA, OXFAM and the KfW Development Bank.

Other related laws include:

. The Environment Law 20/97 and its supporting Decree Law regulating the EIA processes 96/98. . The Law of Land 19/97. . The National Water Policy of 1995. This established nine supply and management principles:

1. Satisfaction of basic needs in water supply and sanitation is a basic priority. 2. Participation of stakeholders in planning, implementation, operation and maintenance, and cost bearing, to provide services that meet the needs and economic capacity of users (demand-driven approach). 3. Water has both economic and social value. 4. Water resources management decentralised to catchment authorities; and water supply and sanitation decentralised to local level and become self financing. 5. Government to withdraw from service delivery and focus on planning initiatives, mobilisation of resources, provision of technical assistance and regulation. 6. Bulk raw water allocated according to integrated river basin management plans. 7. Investment policy to balance economic development with poverty alleviation and public health improvement. 8. Sector capacity expanded through capacity building, definition and implementation of institutional arrangements; involvement of stakeholders. 9. Private sector used to quicken provision and improve service quality.

3.3 South Africa

The collapse of the white minority government in 1994 in South Africa saw government seeking to reverse ownership and user patterns of the natural resources, including water, to match the new socio-political order (Manzugu 2002). Consequently, water reforms were initiated in the 1990s culminating in the promulgation of the National Water Act (no. 36 of 1998) which is the basis of a rigid governmental framework which controls access to and exploitation of available water resources for all communities – be they rural or urban. This institutional rigidity makes physical intervention at community level almost impossible because while Government is still resourced to meet the demands of the rural community which are to a large extent fulfilled. The body responsible for water supply and indeed for drought management for rural communities is the Department for Water and Forestry (DWAF). It is the department‘s job to co-ordinate a response to drought and to prioritise areas to be dealt with while deciding on appropriate actions. An agricultural based strategy

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29 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 to drought management is described in the box below. The South African philosophy of water provision would only change should the government structure fail due to economic or political collapse.

The Drought Management Strategy (Agriculture)

A Drought Management Strategy (2003) exists which arises from the provisions of section 25 of the Disaster Management Act, although a Disaster Management Plan (DMP) needs to be drafted to cater for the specific needs of the Agricultural sector. The Drought Management Strategy (DMS) forms part of the DMP and is the sole responsibility of the National Department of Agriculture, while it will strengthen the organisational structure with the establishment of a Directorate of Agricultural Disaster and Risk Management.

―The vision contained in the Drought Management Strategy is to develop for the South African Agricultural Sector an effective integrated management system, with special reference to the reduction of risk caused by disasters whether by ―natural triggers‖ or those that are more human- induced.

The target goal is to create a culture where preparedness and awareness to minimise the impact of disasters is pivotal. The strategic objectives will begin with a process of reducing risk to disasters and the management of disasters through:

. Utilising the existing legislation and organisational structures to manage risk and more specifically the management of disaster reducing measures. . setting up a comprehensive drought plan in a system of information management, monitoring and evaluation that may assist in determining various vulnerabilities to disasters (both biophysical and social) and hereby minimising the impact of disasters;. . compiling disaster indicator ―maps‖ as to provide an overview (weekly or biweekly) of the disaster situation in South Africa, as to where it is emerging, subsiding or forecast. . improving and implementing early warning systems. and . establishing and implementing priority programmes for risk reduction.

The strategy represents a marked departure from the existing approach to drought management. Risk management and, therefore, risk reduction, is the core principle of the strategy and is aimed at reducing the vulnerability of the farming communities, especially the poor and disadvantaged. Furthermore it will follow an approach where farmers must learn to live with disasters, especially drought as a sustained, ongoing daily activity.

The strategy signifies a shift away from the disproportionate emphasis given to rare major disasters and the Government‘s intention to move away from direct financial intervention and rather improve South Africa‘s ability to manage emergencies or disasters and their consequences in a co-ordinated, efficient and effective manner.

The strategy recognises the fact that Government should only provide relief where sustainable agricultural management is employed over the long-term, which presents the question of reciprocation by way of a partnership between the Government and the farming community.

In many rural areas the water infrastructure is not meeting population growth and supply is not keeping up with demand. For example the source of water is not meeting the demand of the population in Vondo RWS, Mutshedzi RWS and Mutale RWS and is not meeting the Reconstruction & Development Programme (RDP) standard, with water being supplied below the RDP standard. In Makhodo, for example, 85% of all households had water to an

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30 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 acceptable standard, but in 2001 the RDP standard was implemented and this figure dropped to 60% of households.

The National Water Act provides a comprehensive framework, in the form of national water resource strategy, within which water is managed at regional or catchment level within defined water management areas. The national water resource strategy was designed to:

. Provide for the progressive establishment of catchment management authorities (CMAs) (see box below). . Establish water management areas and determine their boundaries. . Contain objectives for the establishment of institutions to undertake water resource management. . Determine the inter-relationship between institutions involved in water reserve management.

Between 1956 and 1998 water usage was governed by the Water Act (No. 54 of 1956). Rights to abstract water were mainly riparian, although groundwater flowing beneath land was considered the private property of the owner of the land. The then government was concerned with the provision of water to the commercial farming sector and industry rather than to its many rural populations. By the mid-1990s, irrigation accounted for 50% of total water use. Water rights were linked to land ownership. Homeland resources were communally owned, and controlled by tribal authorities. The government provided block allocation to each homeland Department of Agriculture. Black farmers had to obtain a water allocation from the homeland amount held by the Department of Agriculture. Irrigation Boards were responsible for water distribution within Government Water Control Areas.

Water management in South Africa now lies within the framework of the National Water Act, Act 36 of 1998. This Act abolished riparian rights and the distinction between ‗private‘ and ‗public‘ water. Water was nationalised: all water in the water cycle whether on land, underground, or in surface channels, falling on, flowing through or infiltrating between such systems became an ―indivisible national asset‖ over which the national government would act as custodian ‗in the public interest. The legislation established a national water reserve that prioritised human and ecological flows over flows to agriculture or industry. The use of water ‗for all other purposes‘ remained subject to authorisation. The legislation also sought to simplify water resources management, and develop multiple stakeholder catchment management agencies. Under the Act, the redistribution of water allocation was guided by the principle of making water available to all, especially to previously excluded social groups.

Catchment Management Authorities – South Africa

The Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) is responsible for water development and can act as the CMA where one has not been established. DWAF reviews CMA proposals and makes a decision as whether to accept or reject it and then makes recommendation to the minister. The minister may conditionally accept the proposal pending clarification and correction of deficiencies. DWAF has produced guidelines for evaluation of the proposals.

A key to the CMA strategy is promotion of community participation in water resource management. A governing board is instituted in such a way that the interests of the various stakeholders are represented and the necessary expertise for its operation is included. Members of the board can be elected or nominated by the different user groups for appointment by the minister. The minister must disclose reasons not to appoint a nominee. The minister may appoint

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31 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 more members and remove members for a good reason. It is also provided that local government should be represented. Further the minister may appoint members to:

. Represent or reflect interests as recommended by the advisory committee. . Ensure sufficient gender representation. . Achieve sufficient demographic representation. . Achieve representation of DWAF. . Achieve representation of the disadvantaged persons or communities that have been prejudiced by past racial or gender discrimination in relation to access to water.

The CMA may also appoint committees. These are can be either geographical and specialist committees. Water users associations (WUAs) are provided in Chapter 8. They are cooperative associations of individual water users who wish to undertake water-related activities for their mutual benefit. They are also a mechanism through which a CMA can devolve implementation aspects of a catchment management strategy for the area it operates in. However, evidence indicates that the implied voluntary membership of the WUAs underlining the spirit of free association as expressed in the Act is in practice being violated by the insistence on multi- sectoral representation by the state.

Decentralised water management institutions were developed. Nineteen Water Management Areas were formed each governed by a Catchment Management Agency (CMA). Each CMA includes a governing board charged with achieving a balance among the interests of water users, potential water users, local and provincial government and environmental interests groups. The CMAs are financed through charges payable by catchment water users. The board reflects the range of water users and stakeholders, including gender and ethnic representation, DWAF, local, provincial and national government and historically disadvantaged communities.

The core functions of a CMA are to: . investigate and advise on the protection, use, development, conservation, management and control of water resources in a particular WMA; . develop a catchment management strategy; . coordinate related activities of water management institutions within a particular WMA.

Under the CMAs, the Water Users Associations are composed of former large-scale farmers, who are able to pay for the operation and maintenance costs of any capital works and for the full administrative costs of the WUA.

The key features of the National Water Act are:

. Guarantee of water to meet basic human needs and to maintain environmental sustainability, to be known as the ‗Reserve‘. . Allocation of water to meet other needs that is beneficial to the public interest. . Allocations will not be permanent, but for a ‗reasonable period‘, and may be traded between water users with Ministerial consent. . The new legislation broadens the definition of water use to include any activities which result in reduction of stream flow (e.g. forest plantations), or deterioration of the water resource (e.g. waste, effluent), or removing and disposing of underground water (e.g. mining). . All water, wherever in the water cycle it occurs, will be subject to a catchment management charge which will cover actual costs of catchment management activities . Some or all charges may be waived for disadvantaged groups to promote equitable access for productive purposes such as agriculture.

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32 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 . Water management will be carried out in regional or catchment water management areas, recognizing that conflicting interests will intensify the need for national management and supervision, and that the policy of subsidiarity does not interfere with the need for a national perspective on water use. . Phased establishment of catchment management agencies, subject to national authority, to undertake water resource management in water management areas. . In shared river basins, government will be empowered to give priority over other uses to ensure that the legitimate requirements of neighbouring countries will be met.

Other legislation related to water management includes the 1994 White Paper on Community Water Supply and Sanitation, by which DWAF became responsible for water and sanitation services in the former homelands. The 1994 White Paper included the principles that supply of water and sanitation should be demand-driven and community based, that basic services were a human right, that water has an economic value, and that the user pays. The ensuing Local Government Act also established the responsibility of local government to provide water services in the long term.

Water Services Act 57 of 1996 included: . Land Use Management Bill, 2003 . White Paper on Disaster Management, 1999 . The National Disaster Act (Act 57 of 2002) . Environmental Conservation Act, 73, 1989 . National Environmental Management Act 107, 1998 . Biodiversity Act, 2004 . Draft White Paper on Water Services, 2002

The Standards South Africa (STANSA) division of South African Bureau of Standards is in the process of producing a code of practice for the development, management and maintenance of groundwater resources including borehole construction and rehabilitation standards, while DWAF has produced guidelines on groundwater management for IWRM within the new Water Management Areas.

3.4 Zimbabwe

Water resource management is the joint responsibility of the parastatal Zimbabwe National Water Authority (ZINWA), which has the operational functions of the Department of Water Development (DWD), and the Regional Water Authority which operated in south-eastern Zimbabwe. DWD retains policy and legal functions. The existence and functioning of the CCs or sub-river basins are given in the Water Act. Part 3 of the Water Act is entitled ‗Water Resources Planning and Development‘ and provides for the establishment of catchment management bodies or CCs. A river system shall be under the control of a CC, subject to the supervision of ZINWA (see box below).

Catchment Councils Zimbabwe

To ensure optimum development and utilization of water reserves in a catchment, ZINWA and the CC shall prepare a catchment outline plan in consultation with authorities and bodies who have interests in development of the catchment area. They must also prepare an inventory of catchment water resources. Catchment outline plans should indicate:

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33 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 . Major water uses. . The potential yield allocated to different water uses. . Maximum permissible levels of water exploitation and quality standards. . Phasing of any development and priority of that proposed development. . The relationship of the development proposals and with neighbouring river systems. . Reserve areas for dams and water for future use and benefit for the environment. . Priorities in utilization and allocation of water taking into account ministerial policy guidelines. . Provide for changes in priorities of use due to availability of water or social or economical priorities.

The plan shall be forwarded by ZINWA to the Secretary of the Ministry of Water for examination and recommendation. The Secretary has the power to gather more evidence, revise or amend the plan. The plans are subject to review after 10 years. The minister in consultation with ZINWA may draw the boundary, stipulate the number of members and assign a name to the CC. The functions of CCs are to:

. Prepare an outline plan. . Determine applications and grant permits. . Regulate and supervise exercise of water rights. . Supervise performance of sub-catchment councils.

The process of establishing sub-catchment councils is virtually the same as those of CCs. The major differences between the catchment and sub-catchment councils are that the CCs are more like company boards in that they do not have operational responsibilities unlike sub-catchment councils. For example CCs have no power to levy water users while sub-catchment councils can do so. CCs also do not have a budget of their own—they function according to a budget provision from the Water Fund. CCs can, however, delegate any function to sub-catchment councils except the responsibility of issuing water permits.

The Catchment Councils and Sub-catchment Councils:

. The 1998 Water Act, enacted in January 2000, defines how water is apportioned, managed and paid through catchment councils (CCs) and sub-catchment councils (SCCs). . The development of the seven catchment management systems was donor led. The new system sought greater local stakeholder involvement in management decision making. The CCs, that include elected representatives of water user groups, manage all the water affairs of the catchment. The CC plans the river system management, assessing applications and granting permits for water use, regulates and supervises water use, supervises the performance of SCCs and resolves conflicts amongst users. . SCCs promote stakeholder involvement. They regulate and supervise permits, monitor flows, elect a representative to the CC, provide technical expertise in protection, data collection and planning of catchment management, collect rates and fees and collect levies. In practice they are primarily collectors of fees. . Challenges facing the CCs include managing complex dam constructions, including large numbers of small dams built by NGOs after the 1992 drought. The programme accepted the multiple uses of water, including livestock use, irrigation, and fisheries, especially enabling women to increase their vegetable production. . ZINWA Board includes representatives elected by the Catchment Councils and other stakeholders. . The Catchment Councils comprise representatives elected by the Sub-catchment Councils within the Catchment. . The Sub-catchment Councils comprise elected or nominated stakeholder representatives. . The Catchment Council and the Catchment Manager are responsible for the same geographical (and hydrological) area.

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34 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009

Given a comprehensive government framework and an admirable triple tier of governance, local government administration is currently poorly resourced and is to a large extent ineffective. As a consequence village communities are ripe for physical types of intervention, one of which could simply be rehabilitation of the status quo, i.e. reverting the village structure to that which it possessed ten years previously.

Zimbabwe National Water Authority, ZINWA

. The Water Resources Department became the self-financing Zimbabwe National Water Authority (ZINWA) designed to operate commercially. ZINWA generating its own funds for infrastructure operation and maintenance through increased prices for water. ZINWA‘s catchment managers provide technical assistance. . Zimbabwe National Water Authority (ZINWA) is mandated to oversee development and use of all water resources in Zimbabwe. Limpopo Basin - Mzingwane Catchment - ZINWA Catchment Manager. The Catchment Manager reports to the CEO, and only consults the Catchment Council. In law, the Catchment Council is responsible for water allocations and planning. . ZINWA is responsible for the registration of all boreholes nationwide and for the capturing of all borehole data into a groundwater database. Groundwater data are initially captured into a regional database, then forwarded to the national database kept by ZINWA. ZINWA is also responsible for water provision under all circumstances. . District Development Fund is/was responsible for the drilling and construction of community boreholes but, due to a lack of funds and equipment, this function has now been taken over by NGOs such as World Vision.

The Environmental Management Agency (EMA) oversees water quality management.

Department of Agricultural Research and Extension (AREX) assist rural communities with their water permit applications.

The 1998 Traditional Leaders Act charges traditional leaders chiefs, headmen, and village heads with functions and roles including compliance with natural resources management laws. Committees at village and ward levels headed by the traditional leadership have roles in the management of the small dams. Rural District Councils are mandated to provide, conserve and control water resources at district level. They are currently largely inactive due to lack of funds and equipment. They also form district development committees at village and ward levels.

Of the various NGOs in the water sector only World Vision are currently active. By 1991 21 districts had been covered by the Integrated Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Programme (IRWSSP).

Historical Evolution of the Water Sector in Zimbabwe

In the early 1990s the International Monetary Fund (IMF) Economic Structural Adjustment Programme (ESAP) programme coming into being. Its policies included domestic deregulation and cost recovery. Specifically:

. The future responsibility for planning, financial control, implementation and operation and

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35 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 maintenance of rural water supply and sanitation, including decisions on technology choice, must be borne by the local authorities and community members, leading to complete management through local structures. . Financial responsibility for direct operations and maintenance should be borne by communities and local authorities. . Contribution of the private sector and non-governmental organisations in the sector, will in future assume greater importance and should be encouraged and co-ordinated.

As the lower levels of responsibility developed the responsibility of the District Water and Sanitation Sub–Committee changed from planning and development to that of an advisory body. During this transition international NGOs entered the sector including the Lutheran World Federation, Christian Care, World Vision, Africare, Save the Children (UK), and UNICEF. Within the community-based, RDC-led process there was a decline in the influence of the DDF, with locally based NGOs undertaking training in community-based management. RDCs were unable to undertake training and development of community maintenance and management capacity due to lack of resources. During the 1992 drought, the process of policy and institutional change slowed, with all sectoral funding returning to NAC control.

During the late1980s the water sector focused upon community-based maintenance of boreholes, wells and pumps through a three layer system that included:

. A water point committee, one member of which is a pump caretaker responsible for preventive maintenance and cleanliness of the pump surround. . A mechanically-trained pump minder responsible for the general maintenance and repair of the pump. . The DDF maintenance team capable of major repairs.

The impact of the ESAP programme in the 1990s resulted in the DDF system failing by 1994. Borehole pump repairs took up to six months, there was little involvement of stakeholders in the repair processes, and poor supply of spare parts.

There remained, however, several problem areas (after Nicol, 2001):

. How has the decentralisation of responsibility for developing rural water supplies to RDCs been accomplished in practice? What are the capacity constraints at the Council level and how successful have they been at establishing funds for spare parts? How has the relationship between the DDF and RDCs developed under the decentralising environment? . The decentralisation of catchment management is opening new opportunities for access to decision making over the resource by poorer farmers and other users. What is the reality of participation in these new institutions and what are the significant (invisible) barriers that prevent entry by new stakeholders? . New modes of land use in many catchments may be influencing the demand for water and increasing. . The propensity for environmental change. How are these changes being responded to within the new management institutions? What role are the various institutional actors represented on the new bodies playing in this response?

The 1976 Southern Rhodesia Water Act had linked access to water with land ownership, water rights being granted in perpetuity. The Irrigation Department was mainly concerned with water supply from dams to commercial farms. In African communal areas it helped open up lands for irrigation development in the Zambezi, Limpopo and Save valleys.

The 1985 National Master Plan aimed to provide ―…the entire communal and resettlement area population with access to safe and adequate (drinking water and sanitation) facilities by the year 2005‖ by improved institutional coordination and steering from the centre. The National Action Committee (NAC) of key ministries oversaw development through Province-level Water and

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36 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 Sanitation sub-committees chaired by the DA. The National Coordination Unit (NCU) supported the NAC by preparing sector plans and budgets and coordinating the activities of international donors and NGOs. Major donors included DANIDA, NEDA, EU, Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), NORAD, SIDA and the United Nations Children Fund (UNICEF).

Under the 1988 Rural District Council Act, the Ministry of Environment and Water Resources Development focused on providing free water to rural communities through the offices of the District Administrator by controlling the allocation of funds on water supply development. However, with water being perceived as an ‗economic good‘ donors became concerned about local resource governance, local-level cost recovery and sustainable water supply delivery.

After the RDC Act of 1988, a steering committee for cost recovery was formed within the NAC and a cabinet paper on cost recovery was drafted in 1990.

The Water Act of 1998 provided the new legal framework. The new act differs from the old in the following major areas.

. The PDS of water allocation is replaced by proportional allocation of water once an outline catchment plan has determined the volumes available. . Water permits replace water rights. Permits are issued for a specific period whereas water rights were issued in perpetuity. . All water belongs to the State, including ground water. . The seven catchment councils on the recommendations of their SCCs issue permits. An elective process forms catchment councils and SCCs by identified stakeholders.

3.5 Stakeholder Analysis

Stakeholders can be defined as individuals, groups, organisations and institutions that have a vested interest in a project and have the potential to influence it or be influenced by its development. This section provides an analysis of the project‘s key stakeholders, an assessment of their interests and the potential impact of the project on each stakeholder category. The stakeholders provided in the analysis include groups, organisations and institutions with a potential interest in the ground water and drought management project. Primary stakeholders are those that will be ultimately affected, either positively or negatively. The secondary stakeholders are the intermediaries in the project delivery process.

The objectives of carrying out the stakeholder analysis are to draw out the interests of stakeholders in relation to the problems which the project seeks to address. The stakeholder analysis also helps identify patterns of co-operation and conflicts of interest between stakeholders. The roles and relations between stakeholders which can be built upon to enable ownership, co-operation and the effective implementation of the envisaged drought management interventions are also identified. Furthermore, the stakeholder analysis will help to assess the appropriate type of participation by different stakeholders at the various stages of the project cycle.

In the following chapters the stakeholders for each country will be presented. To ensue project focus, only the stakeholders deemed high priority with respect to cooperation will be presented in any detailed whereas others will be only briefly described. Three main criteria were used for the evaluation of the stakeholders:

1. The envisaged interventions (physical or/and social)

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37 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 2. The level on which interventions will be implemented and show their impact: local, district, regional or national level. 3. How stakeholder contribute to achieve project‘s objective (interventions, developing drought strategies, up-scale of lesson learned)

Using these three essential criteria each stakeholder and its priority for cooperation was assessed. Clearly, once intervention implementation has started and the project is active in the field, the stakeholders and their priority with respect to the project might differ from the present analysis and other new and unexpected stakeholders may be added.

A detailed presentation of each stakeholder, their interests in, the impact in/of the project and possible conflicts are given in tables contained in Appendix D.

3.5.1 Botswana

As aforementioned, regulations in Botswana are quite strict and it is considered that the focus of interventions could be given to household/small scale gardening as an addition to livestock as an income generating activity. To achieve sustainable results with such interventions the co-operation with local communities as well as the respective ministry representatives on the ground is of high priority for the project.

Therefore a high priority has to be given at national level to the Department of Water Affairs as it sets the overall regulations and guidelines in the country. Its influence goes from setting national agenda (laws) down to representatives at District Council level. Lessons learned from such an intervention can be up-scaled through this entity to other places in the country or other departments. As it also collaborates closely with the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA), responsible for implementing policies in the area of crop production, animal health and production so both are high priority stakeholders when planning to implement small scale farming activities. In addition, the Ministry of Agriculture implements drought relief programmes and projects, irrigation schemes and dams and assists farmers with livestock water provision and will benefit from the lessons learned. MoA is also represented at district level and in remote rural settlements through agricultural extension staff, namely Agricultural Demonstrators and Veterinary Officers.

The interests of the Ministry of Local Government and its representative District Councils are that the project lies within the legal water framework as well as enhancing livelihoods through improvements in water provision. As they are responsible for the rural water supply they constitute key local authorities when planning activities in rural communities. The Ministry can as well upscale lessons learned to other areas.

On a local level, farmers, the Farmer‘s Committees, community based organisations and existing gardening cooperatives/projects, and all population groups are stakeholders of a high priority. Improvements and new interventions in the community have to be equally accepted to ensure proper use and sustainability. Farmers are especially interested in the project, working in livestock production for livelihood security. Besides knowledge transfer they are also interested in the provision of water to pursue livelihood strategies. Land use conflicts between arable and livestock farmers and conflicts with DWA on boreholes and watering livestock are always present and have to be addressed through interventions and future ground water strategies.

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38 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 The tabular overview of all stakeholders for Botswana also mentions the Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA) which is important at a national level as it monitors and coordinates environmental issues in the country and works closely with other ministries to develop as well as ensure the implementation of environmental legislation, policies and strategies. As they are not represented at district level where the interventions take place, their priority is, however, lower then for the aforementioned other stakeholders. It is nevertheless important that all interventions have to be in line with DEA regulations and policies and DEA can be a useful entity when it comes to up-scaling and development of drought management policies.

The Ministry of Sanitation and Waste Management can be understood as a stakeholder but is of medium priority as a result of its role in ensuring conservation of natural resources and environmental protection.

In Botswana the important aspects of the proposed interventions focussing on household gardens are the full acceptance of the intervention by the community and the requirement to ensure that the intervention falls within the legal and environmental frameworks of the relevant ministries. In the Pilot Area itself the District Council structure, particularly the District Development Committee, includes representatives from the most important ministries and is a focal point of key players which facilitate the establishment of a triangular cooperation between the communities and ministries and the project. The project will thus need to develop good relations to this entity.

At the national ministerial level liaison and cooperation is important for the possible roll out of lessons learned and the development of future drought management strategies.

3.5.2 Mozambique

For Mozambique the possible interventions are not identified yet. However, at this stage it has been assumed that due to the weak presence of institutions and regulations on the ground in the Pilot Area, the project could implement certain physical interventions easier than in other Pilot Areas. However, such interventions will still require adhering to the legal framework (through ministries and specific departments) as well as full community participation.

In Mozambique the National Directorate for Water (DNA) sets the legal framework and has the overall responsibility for the national planning of water related interventions. Its interest in the project lies in the development of water management policies and lessons learned for interventions which can be helpful for other arid areas in the country. The actual implementation arm of DNA is the Regional Water Administration (ARA), which is the ARA- Sul for the pilot area. The ARAs are responsible for decentralised river basin management and are active in creating basin committees. Any intervention from the project side should be in line with their activities and integrate them in drought policy or strategy development.

Further stakeholders of high priority for the project are district administrations. Both the project and the local administration wish to enhance population livelihoods through improvements in water provision. As this entity manages all government services at district level any project activities will have to be coordinated with it. It also represents a connection between the ministerial and the local community level which is important for the sustainability

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39 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 of the project. Possible strategies to mitigate droughts can be implemented or controlled by them if material and capacities are available.

All interventions, either physical or social, have to be accepted and used by the population which makes them a stakeholder of very high priority. In the case of Mozambique, farmers are especially interested in the project with regards to the possible provision of water for livestock and domestic consumption.

However, with respect to livestock water in particular the project has to be aware that conflicts could arise between members of the communities because of differences of access to water resources, differences of participation in water source maintenance and in maintenance of borehole committees; watering livestock at communal stand pipes in villages might also causes conflicts between farmers.

Of a slightly lower priority while planning and implementing physical or social interventions is the cooperation between the project and the Ministry of Agriculture which is represented on a local level in the local governments. As the ministry is already working in/on drought relief programmes and is active in food security measures and promoting horticulture, a consolidation and regular exchange of information would be an asset.

The National Institute for Disaster Management (INGC) is also closely linked to the district administrations but develop disaster prevention and mitigation on a more national level. As the project and this institute follow the goal of promoting drought mitigation interventions a regular exchange and cooperation would be recommended. The Ministry of Agriculture and the INGC will be stakeholders of a high priority once the upscaling of lessons learned and drought management strategies will be planed and implemented.

International NGOs and government organisations are involved in water projects in rural Mozambique, UNICEF even on governmental level. The cooperation with these organisations can be of a lower priority. GTZ/Peace Park Foundation are active inside the Limpopo National Park, which is next to one of the selected Nodal Points. Their activities have some indirect impact in the area. An assessment of their activities and an assessment of their work and involvement by the project are necessary to avoid duplication, confusion among population, or contradictory work. However, such groups can learn from the project and in the future implement any proven interventions.

It is obvious that in Mozambique the district authorities, and the represented ministries and institutions in it, are key players with regards to cooperation when implementing intervention activities. However, as a priority the community has to be involved in any interventions to enhance the sustainability. Once the lessons learned are able to be up-scaled and drought management strategies established, the national level will become a high priority.

3.5.3 South Africa

As mentioned in earlier chapters the institutional setting and regulations pertaining to water provision in South Africa are very strict and it has thus been concluded that appropriate interventions are more likely to be ‗soft‘ social interventions focussing directly on the Nodal Point communities. Activities with the community itself and other social groups will thus be emphasized.

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40 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009

Of a high priority for cooperation with the project programme are the district municipalities of the Nodal Points (Vhembe District Municipality and other local municipalities). As the district and local municipalities are entrusted by the DWAF with the water services they are responsible for the development of groundwater resources (boreholes, reservoirs, water tanks) and the improvement of the current state of groundwater resources, the water services delivery and the access for the population. In the Eastern Pilot Area such water services are managed by a Water Management Unit (WMU) based in Vhembe District Municipal offices which is responsible for planning and implementation of water projects. WMU staff evaluate technical and designer reports for quality water service delivery. They already work closely with traditional authorities on the water issues and have to be involved with any project activities due to their experience, resources and responsibilities.

The mentioned traditional tribal authorities are also key players when motivating and creating relationships with local communities which will be the primary requirement for social interventions. Traditional tribal authorities are highly respected by the communities and have the power to influence the population‘s acceptance. In addition, they also support the municipalities to ensure the water management for consistent water supply and bridge the cooperation between national, district and local level.

Private farmers are represented in the Pilot Areas and are important groundwater users. Their main interest in the project is to have more water available for their production and livestock. They are denied access to community water resources for watering their livestock by the local municipalities, a practise that they perceive as unfair. When deciding to focus on social interventions in the RSA Pilot Areas (monitoring of water use or abstraction) farmers and their interests, which defer other social groups, thus have to be approached in a specific way. A close integration from the beginning in the project intervention implementation will be important as they may easily block the project interventions and act in a counterproductive manner to achieve their own interests.

At a national level DWAF and the Department of Agriculture can be seen as stakeholders of medium priority concerning implementation of measures. They are more important when it comes to up scaling and dissemination of lessons learned from interventions as they set regulations, laws and guidelines concerning groundwater for Integrated Water Resources Management or the production of Drought Management Strategies. However, it is noted that the Department of Agriculture cooperates actively with farmers on the ground and this channel and experience could be used by the project to implement certain activities with them.

DWAF has also developed Water Catchment Management Unit Authorities in all districts and municipalities throughout RSA, and Vhembe is no exception. These WCMU Authorities are established to effectively manage water catchment projects and are thus very important stakeholders with respect to any project activities. In Vhembe a committee was formed constituted by DWAF, Municipalities and the community and the main purpose of this committee is to ensure stakeholder participation in water catchment projects. Under the WCMU Authority specific water catchment projects are under control of Water User Associations established in order to exercise water management functions. The WCMU Authority oversees and authorises water uses such as recreation, environment and forestry, including brick making and small industries. With all these competing uses, water users respect each other‘s needs so that they all have equal access to this scarce resource. Though the Water User Associations are delegated with certain responsibilities, DWAF is

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41 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 still accountable via the WCMU Authority. Both these organisations have high priority for cooperation with the project. DWAF has commissioned the process of validation and verification of existing lawful water use as well as a system for the determination of water allocations for the resource poor farmers in the previously neglected schemes.

With respect to the relatively small number of mining operations in the Pilot Areas a low priority can be given to individual mines, although due to their significant use of groundwater they are important players on the ground with regards to overall groundwater resources management. It is suggested that project interventions on community monitoring of water use and quantity have to include representatives of mines to achieve acceptance and drought preparedness skills. The experience gained in the project area is important to apply to other places in the country in a national/regional drought management strategy.

The same applies to the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism. The department has a high interest in the guarantee of water supply to the tourism industry. This economically driven interest has to be considered in any interventions planned, hence representatives of the tourism sector have to be integrated in project activities at an early stage. In the future, national or regional strategies on drought preparedness and management can encompass tourism-related water issues based on this project experience.

Depending on the exact nature of the intervention, the respective stakeholders have to be included. As envisaged so far, interventions focusing on monitoring skills and development of monitoring structures primarily require the commitment and participation of communities. In addition, they have to be implemented within the limits of laws and regulations set by municipalities and ministries. Private or parastatal groups (mines, tourist agencies) and their specific needs and interests have to be taken in consideration to avoid conflictive impacts.

Internal Strategic Perspectives (ISP) have been prepared for DWAF covering the Luvuvhu/Letaba Water Management Area (Goba Moahloli Keeve Steyn (Pty) Ltd., 2004a) and the Limpopo Water Management Area (Goba Moahloli Keeve Steyn (Pty) Ltd., 2004b). The primary objective of this Internal Strategic Perspective (ISP) is to ensure that there is synergy within the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF), at both head office and regional office levels, regarding water resources management in the Limpopo WMA.

A Catchment Management Strategy can only be finalised once the Catchment Management Agency (CMA) assumes responsibility for managing the water resources of a Water Management Area (WMA). In the interim, DWAF‘s Regional Offices will continue to manage the water resources in their area of jurisdiction until such time as they can hand over these management functions to established and fully operational CMAs. In accordance with the NWA, DWAF (the Minister) will still remain ultimately responsible for the management of the water resources.

The Limpopo WMA includes the following catchments: the Matlabas, Mokolo, Lephalala, Mogalakwena, Sand, Nzhelele and Nwanedi parts of which are located within the easern and western focal areas. The Luvuvhu/Letaba Water Management Area includes the Luvuvhu and Mutale catchments parts of which lie in the eastern focal area.

3.5.4 Zimbabwe

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42 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 Due to the current political and economical situation in Zimbabwe the water situation is deteriorating tremendously. Rehabilitation of existing infrastructure or community gardens can revive ways to develop livelihoods. Hence, possible interventions are likely to focus more a local community level and require the participation of respective stakeholders.

The Ministry of Water is responsible for the overall national water use, policy formulation and implementation and represents an entry point for the project as any project programme requires official sanction prior to on the ground activities. Although the ministry is very ineffective on the ground it will be an important partner at national level and especially in the future for developing and applying of drought strategies.

Rural District Councils in Zimbabwe are, amongst other things, responsible for rural administration of water issues. The rural administrations have their own water and projects department and will be an important project partner in respect of wards, boundaries, rules and regulations. The project will enhance the rural administrations role of ensuring that communities have adequate water sources during drought and non-drought seasons. The district office is involved in a network of local, regional and national entities which will also be very useful for any intervention. Future strategies concerning drought preparedness and management could possibly be adapted to their scope of work and implemented and monitored by them.

In former years the District Development Fund (DDF) was responsible for the infrastructural development of rural areas, including water supply and infrastructure. Because of the economic crisis, their tasks and activities are mainly handed over to World Vision International (and other international and local NGO‘s). However, the DDF still remains a project partner of medium priority because they have personnel knowledge and experience with projects and the water situation in the Pilot Areas.

World Vision International currently implements water and sanitation projects in the Pilot Areas including borehole drilling, dam construction, irrigation schemes and training in communities. As this NGO took over many essential DDF‘s tasks and is actively in the field a higher priority has been given to them than to the governmental organisation DDF. Through cooperation, their experience and network among communities can be built upon by the project, and even specific interventions could be subcontracted to them. This will help to avoid duplication and confusion on the ground. To facilitate DDF to take over its tasks and responsibilities again will exceed the project‘s capacities and objective, although the DDF would be the entity responsible for implementing and monitoring activities on the ground in line with a national drought preparedness and management strategy.

As already mentioned for other countries, a high priority stakeholder is the Nodal Point community in which implementation activities are planned. Besides rehabilitation of existing water supply infrastructure, social development of those communities in the form of training and awareness building activities need definitely to be considered as well. To create ownership and sustainability among all social groups and local authorities, their full and active participation from an early stage is essential.

Another stakeholder in the Pilot Areas in Zimbabwe is ZINWA. This organisation is responsible for water storage, distribution and purification on a national level. According to Mupindu (2004) ZINWA was operationalized in 2000. It has the overall responsibility for the management and development of water resources in the whole country. ZINWA is directed by a board comprising a chairperson, who is appointed by the Minister of Rural Resources

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43 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 and Water Development, Chief Executive and eight other members of whom four are appointed by the Minister and the other four are appointed from the list of not less than five people and are nominated by the Catchment Councils. The term of office for the board members is three years. In the absence of a forum for CCs to meet and discuss issues common to them, it means that the CCs that are not represented in the board may not have their concerns addressed.

Water is managed by catchment areas and Catchment and Sub-Catchment Councils have been set up for all river systems and aquifers, and are based on sub-hydrological zones. Catchment Councils (CC) were established in terms of Section 24 of the new Water Act of 1998. CCs are corporate bodies whose functions are to allocate and regulate the use of water in areas under them. They also have the responsibility for catchment planning and resolving disputes relating to water use in their areas of jurisdiction. Councils replace the River Boards and the Advisory Councils and are responsible for granting water permits.

Catchment Councils‘ functions included preparing an outline plan for their river systems, determining applications and granting water permits, regulating and supervising the use of water, supervising the performance of functions by Sub-catchment Councils, and dealing with conflicts over water. The specific roles and responsibilities of Catchment Councils as defined in the Water Act of 1998 are:

. Allocation and re-allocation of water . Approval of new allocations . Monitoring performance of sub catchment councils . Monitoring use of permits . Development of development plans in consultation with other planning agencies . Revenue collection . Catchment protection . Water development . Groundwater monitoring . Water quality monitoring . Temporary suspension of water rights . Determining compensation for misuse or loss of use

Sub Catchment Councils (SCC) were also established under Section 24 of the new Water Act and are also corporate bodies. There are a tier below the CCs. SCCs comprise representatives from commercial farming, communal farming, small-scale farming, Rural District Councils (RDCs), traditional leaders, industry, and both old and new resettlement schemes. SCCs also have the responsibility of regulating and supervising water use in their areas. Sub-Catchment Councils‘ functions include:

. Regulating and supervising the exercise of permits for the use of water including ground water within the area for which they established . Reporting as required to the Catchment Councils on exercise of water permits within its areas . Monitoring water flows and water use in accordance with the allocations made under the permits . Assisting in the collection of data and participating in planning . Collecting sub-catchments rates, fees and levies

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44 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – FEBRUARY 2009 Each of the seven national Catchment Councils is headed by a Catchment Manager who is an employee of ZINWA. Councils also include elected representatives from communal, small-scale commercial and large-scale commercial farms, mines, as well as representatives from industry, manufacturing and local authorities/municipalities. For example, the Mzingwane Catchment is managed by the Mzingwane Catchment Council (MCC). The MCC is composed of elected officials and the Catchment Manager, and is supported by a team of ZINWA professional, technical, accounting and administrative staff who report to the ZINWA CEO in Harare.

There is also a tier or two below the sub catchment council level which is recognized within the entire water sector though it/they are not explicitly provided for in the Water Act. These are the various Water User Committees who have a say in water management issues in their areas and whose contributions are captured at sub catchment council level.

Unfortunately, involvement in catchment management is largely dominated by the powerful in society (commercial farms, plantations, mines, cities) and not communal farmers – who are yet to see water as an economic good. The only way in which communal farmers are involved is via Rural District Council (RDC) representation on the subcatchment councils (SCCs). In addition, the boundaries of Catchment and Sub-catchment Council areas span administrative boundaries, and this often has serious adverse implications for water management. The degree of involvement of many stakeholders in water management is also a challenge that is partly attributable to the scale of their water consumption. For example, in the Mwenezi Subcatchment, Mwenezana Estate uses apparently more water than all other users combined (certainly more than all other recorded users) (Love et al, 2005).

The priority of ZINWA per se with respect to the project interventions is lower than some other stakeholders. However, they could become important if a national groundwater and drought strategy were to be developed and implemented. Much higher priority with respect to project cooperation and involvement are the specific Catchment and especially Sub- catchment Councils in the respective Pilot Areas, although the nearest operational Catchment Council office is in Bulawayo which makes close cooperation difficult

Given the current economic situation in Zimbabwe there is also a serious lack of funding, equipment and staffing across all sectors and conflicts might arise during any implementation activities as a result of individuals and organisations mistrusting each other and competing for any funds that may be made available. In addition, the responsibilities of the various organisations concerning water (eg World Vision and DDF) are not clear anymore, with the result that any cooperative involvement may be difficult to achieve.

The District Authorities, the Catchment Council and Sub-catchment Councils, World Vision and the local communities seem to be the stakeholders of highest priority when determining the possible interventions in Zimbabwe. Up-scaling of interventions and distribution of lesson learned can be done through other players (ministries, governmental organisations) on a higher/national level, but due to their current weak position the main focus of project interventions will thus essentially concentrate on direct and immediate impact physical interventions at local community level.

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45 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008 4. POTENTIAL INTERVENTIONS

4.1 Intervention Options

A variety of intervention options are available. However, these depend on the institutional and governmental framework prevailing in each of the four countries, with that in Botswana being well organised and prescriptive, that in rural South Africa less so, while Mozambique has provision of some safeguards to community livelihoods and that in Zimbabwe remains largely ineffective.

The specific intervention must be acceptable to each community. The reasons for and type of intervention needs to be thoroughly discussed at village level with all the stakeholders. It must also be acceptable to higher levels of governance so that total ownership of the intervention is vested with the community and its respective households and with local and regional tiers of Government. Above all the proposed intervention must not contravene standing legislation of whatever kind.

Typical pre-drought interventions designed specifically to increase the sustainability of groundwater supplies include: Ensuring that service options offered to a community are sensitive to the prevailing hydrogeological conditions, and that they can provide a reliable source of supply during drought. The perception and anecdotal reports for north-east Botswana suggest that this has to a large extent been attained by government provision of domestic water. However, there remains the provision of additional water supplies specifically for sustaining livelihoods – stock watering, small scale irrigation, brewing, brick making etc. Ensuring that wells and boreholes are situated in the most productive part of an aquifer, i.e. in basement terrain that they are sited in the deeper zones of weathering. Constructing an adequate number of water points to supply a village and ensuring proper maintenance of these water points – better (and cheaper) to maintain what you have than develop anew and lose yet more production along the way. Sinking deep relief boreholes away from villages that might be opened up at times of stress. These could be used to sustain all villages within an enlarged catchment. There are sensitivities with this option: it is both an expensive option and one that needs policing as the temptation to open up the borehole in normal conditions for stock watering purposes may be overwhelming and the resource may be exhausted by the time the surrounding communities need to turn to it for their domestic supply.

Intervention may also be on a social basis. Aspects may include education – the role and value of groundwater, or the uses to which water can increase livelihood potential. It may also focus on empowerment of the community to carry out either components of monitoring or of demand management. These interventions should focus on recognised community needs which the community will readily identify as an issue and be prepared to buy into, undertake and report. A common example of this is the lack of a reporting system for the need for spare parts in order to maintain hand pumps. Pumps may be broken not because local mechanics are incapable of repair but because they and their communities cannot access spares.

Intervention options need to address the overall picture of household vulnerability in relation to drought. This includes the broad expenditure invested by households in gaining access to water and the impact that this has on household consumption, production and income. In this way livelihood security becomes a more useful indicator than either water insecurity or food insecurity. The contrast between water security in north east Botswana with water BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WELLFIELD CONSULTING SERVICES CSIR WALLINGFORD, OXON GABORONE PRETORIA UK BOTSWANA SOUTH AFRICA

46 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008 insecurity in southern Zimbabwe could not be more extreme, while the patchy coverage in Limpopo Province in South Africa is hindered by rigid legislative control although the similar patchy coverage experienced across the border in Mozambique reflects past problems of Governance and more recent efforts to catch up. Bearing this in mind, the major dimensions of water insecurity can be summarised as:

Lack of access to water for domestic use, with respect both to quantity and quality, can be a major cause of disease. This, for example, is currently the case in Beitbridge where cholera has developed as hygiene levels have deteriorated without access to adequate water. Numerous epidemiological surveys have shown that in drought/famine related events, preventable diseases such as measles and diarrhoea are primary causes of death (Moore et al. 1993). However, the nutritional status of communities is an outcome of not an explanation of food insecurity as it is also related to access to health care and access to safe water and sanitation, determinants that are additional to simple food security indicators (Devereux, 2001). Rural community water supply is an important input to local production whether it is small scale irrigation, livestock watering, brewing or brick making. This production contributes significantly to household income. This role of water to supporting livelihoods is commonly overlooked in the analysis of sectors, policies and institutions. It is common for households to ‗buy in‘ to ownership of new infrastructure such as village well or borehole. However, the ability of poorer households to meet these costs without compromising their resilience to shocks is questionable and such water tariffs may be a barrier to livelihood diversification. The time taken to collect water can be a significant expenditure in terms of labour and collection times varying up to five hours have been noted in some areas.

This idea that water insecurity is an outcome of the availability/access/use relationship by a community and how food and water insecurity are interwoven is summarised in Table 4.1.

TABLE 4.1 Food First versus Sustainable Livelihoods Approach to Intervention (after Calow et al. 2002)

Livelihood Food First Solution Sustainable Livelihood Approach Secure and sustainable livelihood maximising access to Objective Access to food all assets to support production, income and production. Priorities Food first Livelihood needs including water for income generation Narrow entitlement Broad base including access to common pooled Entitlements base resources such as water Insecurity: exposure to shocks and stress including lack Vulnerability Lack of food of ready access to water Vulnerable Based on social and Based on wider set of livelihood security indicators but groups medical criteria including water availability and use. Specifically designed to preserve livelihoods and include Coping Designed to maximise trade-offs between expenditure on accessing water and strategies access to food preserving consumption, production and income. Broad: livelihood security and sustainability, including Measurement Narrow: food water security indicators. Emphasis must be on local and monitoring availability and access assessment Supporting Food aid, food-for- To protect livelihoods and assets, i.e. co-ordinated food interventions work, food stamps etc and water interventions

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47 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008 Two key questions need to be addressed before interventions are implemented. Firstly how can the potential impact of drought shock on a community and a household within that community be better predicted, and how can this knowledge best be used to improve drought preparedness. In the latter case this may also include triggered and appropriate responses from Government and elsewhere.

Assessment of a region can target physical intervention such as increased access to groundwater in areas of high socio-economic insecurity defined by food security, poverty, history of insecurity and water coverage assessment. Interventions in this category include:

Improved domestic water supply – access and sustainability. Improved livestock watering (note that in Botswana it is forbidden to water livestock from Government supplied wellfields providing domestic water to villages) Development of small scale irrigation community gardens so supporting livelihood and reducing vulnerability. Broadcasting the role that groundwater could play in developing livelihoods within a specific community.

More explicit water security based drought proofing measures can be targeted at vulnerable communities. These include water point rehabilitation and repair (an essential precursor to any other form of intervention in many parts of rural Zimbabwe) and well deepening and spring protection. These interventions ensure that water/groundwater that is available is not constrained by the poor state of the infrastructure. In addition it is essential to identify those communities which are at risk where the remit of existing monitoring and information systems, which may focus on narrow food needs, can be widened to include indicators or reports of water stress.

4.1.1 Physical Intervention Options

Sand-river Dams: An impermeable wall is placed across a suitably constricted section of a sand river behind which sediments and water can accumulate. The water within the sand cannot evaporate and is stored in the sand between periods of flood. The filling of the reservoir behind a newly constructed dam with sand takes place in about 5 to 7 years. The coarse particles (i.e. sand) sediment first, after which the smaller silts sediment. The top layer consists mostly of the silts and the deeper layer of the coarser material. With the next flood the fine top layer is eroded by the water again, leaving the sand behind, after the whole sequence is started over again. After each flood sand is left behind and the silt is transported downstream, increasing the thickness of the sand behind the dam.

When the water level in the riverbed decreases following a period of flood, the groundwater in the banks will slowly recharge the water in the riverbed. This process occurs in a non- perennial river with a sand bed without dams, but the sand storage dams increase the thickness of the sand in the river and increase the storage potential in the sand. By increasing the level of the sand in the river, the ‗base level‘ of the groundwater flow is also raised, thus increasing the amount of water that is stored in the banks and the volume that can be withdrawn. The amount of water stored behind a sand storage dam is thus higher than just the amount of water stored in the sand behind the dam. Typical yields from a sand dam are between 2 and 10 m3/day throughout a typical dry season. This is additional water which a community can use to its best advantage with virtually no impact on other local demands for water.

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48 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008 The most important conditions for the application of sand storage dams are: Coarse material in the riverbed. (Semi-) impermeable layer underneath the proposed dam site. High intensity rainfall within the stream catchment, that can re-work and remove silt layers in the sand dam aquifer. Organised community to participate in constructing and maintaining the dam.

Managed Artificial Recharge: Placement of shallow wells in the bank deposits adjacent to sand river dams can draw on the enhanced storage created by the dam. This can enable facilities such as community gardens and the like. Whereas these shallow wells draw on the enhanced storage of the dam, a well or shallow borehole placed below the dam will draw on losses from it, either under the dam foot or in fractures and cracks in the underlying bedrock.

These wells or boreholes actually increase the ultimate yield of the dam. Larger scale managed artificial recharge, such as treated waste water applied to sand lagoons, is not feasible at community level.

Spring Protection: Spring discharges that are not utilised by villages for domestic supply, i.e. which are too distant from the village for such use, are often unprotected and are used for livestock watering. This is an inefficient use of the available water which contaminates the runoff away from the spring and may adversely affect local ecosystems down gradient from the spring. Protection of the spring using simple expedients to collect the water within a contained chamber which will allow piped discharge as required not only protects the source from contamination but also provides a new source of water that could, for example, be discharged for use in a community garden or other small scale irrigation scheme (Figure 4.1).

Benefits to communities are increased livelihood activities and consequent security from water stress. Care needs to be taken to ensure that the spring source is sustainable at times of water stress in order not to place livelihoods at risk.

Figure 4.1 Spring Protection Scheme Suitable for Discharge from Basement type Aquifer

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49 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008 Pump Status and Maintenance: This is an essential exercise that is lacking in Zimbabwe and hinders reliable supply elsewhere. Only in Botswana is the monitoring and reporting chain complete which ensures a raid response to domestic supply failure to a village. Many villages in north east Botswana are connected to mechanised wellfield supplies and these of necessity are serviced and maintained by government. In South Africa, a traditional preference for mechanised reticulated water supply to villages, either from river off-take or from a single or pair of wells has led to mechanical breakdown and abandonment. Few of these supplies are worthy of rehabilitation unless Government acts to maintain them and provide energy to run them. Conventional practice is to drill and equip with a hand pump as these facilities can more readily be maintained and their status monitored.

Villagers can be empowered to report the status of their water points in order that maintenance can be forthcoming. In some areas intervention can be provided which instigates a monitoring and maintenance schedule. However, no programme of systematic maintenance can be effective without monitoring and the two need to be performed together to be effective.

Reserve Deep Boreholes for Emergency Use: Deep drilling at a hydrogeologically favoured site between groups of villages has been advocated by some as a valuable form of intervention. The borehole would be opened and equipped only at a time of water stress in the surrounding villages. Although it is focussed partly on livelihood, it in fact provides only domestic water at time of stress as villagers are unable to travel to and from the emergency borehole to carry back water for other than domestic purposes. Besides this form of intervention is not cost effective and more direct intervention is a better option on which to commit limited resources. Reserve and isolated deep boreholes are also open to abuse as enterprising farmers will be tempted to tap the potential of the borehole during normal times in order to provide water for stock watering or irrigation of fodder crops.

Well Deepening: Programmes of well deepening and of drilling through the bottom of hand dug wells to increase access to deeper groundwater are only successful if good quality groundwater is available at depth. Although this is a common form of intervention, not only in Sub-Saharan Africa but also in the Indo Gangetic basin of India and Pakistan, it is a questionable intervention in the context of the Central Limpopo region. Although relatively deep aquifers are sourced for domestic wellfield supply in north-east Botswana, the aquifers elsewhere are relatively shallow and their transmissivity declines rapidly with depth. Consequently borehole deepening should only be contemplated in Central Limpopo area after thorough hydrogeological investigation to see firstly that additional potable water exists at depth, and secondly that withdrawal of the deeper water will not drain the shallow water supplying existing shallow sources.

Rehabilitation: Repair of broken infrastructure is a valuable form of intervention which returns the status quo. It allows a village to stand up in the face of stress with the same assets as any other village which has a well maintained water point system. Effort spent in redressing the operational status of a water point is money well spent and by far a cheaper option than attempting emergency intervention should drought again arise.

The situation in southern Zimbabwe is such that water points have successively fallen into disrepair at a time when Government at all levels has been increasingly unable to carry out its mandate. Rehabilitation of water points in Zimbabwe is now the focus of a number of NGOs, but in the meantime well caps are being broken into to allow simple bailers to access water with which to sustain village communities. Rehabilitation of all the water points in a village community allows that village to stand up and think once again about regaining its former livelihoods – income perhaps from stock, gardening and so on. It is important to

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50 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008 rehabilitate all the wells and borehole supplies within the community so as not to put undue demand on an inadequate number of sources - a prescription for further breakdown. It is also important in such communities to retain simple technology, i.e. repairs to hand pumps rather than installation of motorised pumps for which there is unlikely to be any fuel.

4.1.2 Social Intervention Options

Community Empowered Monitoring: A simple and cost effective form of intervention is empowerment of a community to take matters into its own hands. One effective means is to equip a community with the means of monitoring its own infrastructure. A stick and a piece of chalk is enough to measure the depth to water in its village wells - best done at dawn each day before the diurnal drawdown on the aquifer commences. Measurement of the number of buckets drawn from a well provides a useful indicator of demand and how demand might change in response to changed conditions. Other indicators that can easily be self measured include number of cattle owned within a village, quantity of vegetables taken from a community garden. These data combined with health indicators such as the number of patients dealt with by the local clinic can provide valuable insight into the overall status of the village not just in terms of its food security and its wellbeing but also its status with regards water security.

Participatory Water Management (based on OCAO Advisory Note June 2008)

Every human activity has the potential to alter water quality. The central question that needs to be addressed by a monitoring programme is the degree of change and whether this change impairs a particular use. Participatory monitoring provides a means to deepen public understanding of what is an acceptable or an unacceptable impact. In this way, it can help move public discourse beyond the simple yes or no answer of whether a project or development is impacting local water supplies.

Before launching a participatory water monitoring programme, it is important to focus on a few key questions: Is participatory monitoring well suited to address the root concern—and thus help prevent or manage conflicts—in comparison to other strategies? Can a credible convener be identified? Are there some minimum conditions that need to be met in order for the planning process to go forward? In many instances, there would simply be three minimum conditions: 1. Willingness among the parties to design and implement a programme. 2. Technical capacity to create a credible programme. 3. Financial resources to support the programme.

A thorough assessment of the social, geographical or physical, and institutional context can help answer these questions. The assessment also needs to gauge and manage the expectations of the community.

If the decision is made to go forward, a planning team needs to be assembled and a convener identified that is acceptable to all key parties. Then the planning team needs to clearly define the purpose of the programme. The purpose helps determine how complex the monitoring program needs to be and the corresponding protocols, methods, and standards that will be incorporated. Possible purposes for participatory water monitoring programmes include:

Promoting general education and awareness. Building capacity to delve into technical issues and understand how the scientific method can be used to answer questions. Developing a baseline and evaluating changes over time. Investigating a potential problem. Answering specific questions about how a project or land use influences water quality and BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WELLFIELD CONSULTING SERVICES CSIR WALLINGFORD, OXON GABORONE PRETORIA UK BOTSWANA SOUTH AFRICA

51 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008 quantity. Determining whether the water is safe for different uses. Determining compliance with regulations. Addressing public uncertainties and lack of trust by trying to answer a question that is not being addressed by any other monitoring programmes, or filling in where there is a perceived lack of credibility. Addressing public perceptions that may or may not be grounded in facts. Establishing a technical basis for compliance and accountability. Evaluating the effectiveness of improvements for water quality or remediation.

For water monitoring to be truly participatory and to achieve its purpose, the programme must have an effective and appropriate means of engaging citizens. Exactly how public participation is incorporated into a monitoring programme depends on the objectives and interests of the community, the resources available, and the collective vision of what participation means.

Community Empowered Water Point Maintenance: Empowerment of a village community to self-maintain its infrastructure can take a variety of forms. A common one is the appointment of a water committee which in turn might chose to elect a keeper of the community well or wells. Some small tariff might be applied against income within the village which allows the purchase of spare parts for pumps and pays the local mechanic to undertake repair as required. Such structures are widespread throughout many of the semi- arid savanah lands of SADC but they are strikingly absent in north east Limpopo Province and Mozambique.

Small Scale Irrigation: Small scale irrigation of community gardens has been widely advocated as a means of improving livelihood and in making rural communities more resistant to external shocks. Although seeds and fertilizer are an issue they are small compared to the provision of an irrigation water supply. However, a variety of sources may be readily available. For example, a spring used for stock watering and dirty water left to soak away downstream might be captured for use both for stock and garden watering. Clearly the garden has to be fenced in order to keep the animals out, and some reticulation may be required to bring the water to the garden. In addition a community garden needs to be accessible to the community and needs to be in close proximity to the village and under its guard from possible predators.

Appropriate Use of Water and Natural Resources: Intervention is also feasible in advising and educating villages with regard to optimum use of available water. Ran-fed crops are an easy income generating option but only if suitably drought resistant seed is used. Minor irrigation areas need to grow vegetables and other crops that give the best return for the water supplied. It may, for example, be more ‗water wise‘ to buy bricks from the adjacent village than to encourage the village brick maker to use valuable water resources which could better be deployed on say stock watering. Choices like these cannot, however, be easily made within the village and advise coupled with suitable training can be valuable means of enhancing community livelihood.

Rainwater Harvesting: Tin roofs with gutters are suitable for rainwater collection. Downspouts draining to containers can collect a significant quantity of water to maintain a garden in the dry season at, for example, a district clinic or school. A simple but effective intervention.

Change in Agricultural Practises: Although agricultural advice is available in general terms form Government, outreach to village communities is rarely complete. IN order to optimise crop yields, advice on available and suitable crop types and best varieties of crops

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52 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008 will be made where appropriate. Similarly, advice on how best to use available resources for irrigation and stock watering will be forthcoming.

Optimum Use of Land: Just as advice on water use can be a valuable form of interception so too can advise on use of land. Although this issue is invariably complicated by land rights it is worth investigating if land could be better used and whether the existing land use is sustainable.

An example of radical change of land use is the development of the open rangelands in the northern Tuli Block in Botswana where game is encouraged to roam in return for tourist expenditure. Although not a change that a village community could implement on its own, it might want to take part in such an exercise, usually promoted by local land-owning farmers – because of the benefits of job provision that could ensue in the local area.

Other smaller scale examples include advice on land given over to rain-fed fodder crops and the potential for small scale irrigation of selected areas, and the abandonment of some cropped area to rough grazing. Advice from an agronomist in this way can again enhance the community livelihood ensuring greater protection to it at times of water stress.

Direct Drought Intervention: As drought intensity increases a number of direct physical interventions may be desirable. However, none of these need be considered within the context of the present project which is specifically targeted at pre-drought intervention for the sake of sustainable livelihoods during subsequent periods of stress. However, drought intervention could include subsidised purchase of livestock by Government, food aid, and at a later stage subsidised issue of seed and fertilizer.

4.2 Synopsis of Field Visits and Selection of Nodal Points

Task 2.1 required ‗reconnaissance‘ visits to national segments of the Pilot Areas by members of the appropriate Country Teams. These visits were described in the first Quarterly Report and have enabled contact to be established with stakeholders at both national and regional level in the water, agricultural and health sectors, relevant NGO‘s, private sector organisations and the rural communities and community-level organisations. The work was focussed towards gathering information which would inform the types of intervention that might both acceptable to the respective communities and feasible.

Key issues were noted included declining groundwater levels in the east and north of the Limpopo District in South Africa. In Zimbabwe many local government agencies are inactive due to lack of funds, fuel and equipment. Technical functions have to a large extent been taken over by World Vision who are embarking upon a water source census and borehole and dam rehabilitation exercise within selected parts of Beitbridge and Gwanda districts.

Subsequently second visits have been made to most villages in order to gather baseline information that has enabled provisional selection of Nodal Points (communities) to be made. The reports for these visits are given in Appendix B.

In accordance with the methodology set out in the Inception Report the process of selection of representative ‗Pilot Nodes‘ (or ‗Nodal Points‘) involved the development of a set of Matrices for the evaluation of the ‗physical‘ attributes of the Target Zones in each of the Pilot Areas. It was anticipated that this set of ‗physical‘ matrices would be paralleled by a similar set of suitably populated socio-economic matrices such that both sets of matrices would be brought together to finally enable the selection of the Nodal Points at which the drought interventions would be planned and implemented. BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WELLFIELD CONSULTING SERVICES CSIR WALLINGFORD, OXON GABORONE PRETORIA UK BOTSWANA SOUTH AFRICA

53 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008 Possible communities considered for intervention at this stage were listed as follows:

WESTERN PILOT AREA

Botswana: Gobojango, Semolale, Bobonong, Molalatau, Mathathane and Tsetsebjwe Zimbabwe: Hwali, Dendele, Mamatuturi, Wunga, Siyoka and Shashe South Arica: No obvious village communities in Pilot Area

EASTERN PILOT AREA

Zimbabwe: Gota, Diti and Chabile South Africa: Segole, Shakudza, Tshivaloni and Maaheni Mozambque: Chassanga, Mugugugo, Mahatlane, Tchale, Salane and Lisenga

During November visits to preferred potential Nodal Points were made by a group comprising the project team, SADC PMU and a representative from GW-MATE. Although this field visit was inhibited by time constraints of the personnel involved, it was able to visit sites in both the Eastern and Western Pilot Areas, which coupled with extensive discussion both in the field and on return to office enabled a sharpening of the selected Nodal Points and their likely interventions. The outline pilot projects identified during this third field survey are summarised in Table 4.2 which is based on the field report written jointly by the SADC PMU and GW-MATE.

TABLE 4.2 Possible Pilot Intervention Activities identified in Field Visit November 2008

Social and Environmental Objective of Technical Institutional Issues and Upscaling Pilot Sustainability Sustainability Drought Potential Intervention Requirements Requirements Preparedness

Buy in MoA support at national and regional Well documented level. Trees along river pre- and post- banks could be a intervention

No NGO culture GDE issue. situation. BOTSWANA Sand rivers for Strong community [Water for dams and trenches. structure linked to Impact of livestock Identify likely vegetables, local government. watering around success and water for Needs sand dam. constraints. livestock] hydrogeological Focus on small Institutional assessment. communities (women Community linkages. important). management plan needed. Upscaling and No tradition of dissemination. vegetable growing.

Provision of basic Well documented ZIMBABWE Sand rivers. water needs. pre-and post- [Water for GDE issues? implementation domestic, Groundwater Establish community gardening and hydrogeological water user and Community Identify success livestock to assessment management management plan. factors and return needed. organisation. Implementation constraints. communities to arrangements. the status quo] Upgrade former Secure involvement of Upscaling and infrastructure World Vision. dissemination.

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54 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008

Linkage to government structure

Introduce community Well documented SOUTH management of water pre-and post- AFRICA supply and focus on GDE issues? implementation. [Secure water drought preparedness. No technical for drinking and intervention. Community Identify success livestock at Need support from management plan factors and times of DWAF/LG at various Concentrate on Implementation constraints. drought[ levels and agree on social intervention. arrangements responsibilities and Upscaling and mandates between dissemination. parties Well documented pre- and post- implementation. Community MOZAMBIQUE management plan Identify success [To be Implementation factors and determined} arrangements constraints

Upscaling and dissemination

Discussion that took place between the SADC PMU, GW-MATE and the Project Team on 25 November in Gaborone focussed on identifying communities and possible interventions. These were ranked according to the following criteria:

Likely receptiveness of the community, i.e. potential for community to own, manage and look after physical interventions or likelihood of participating in social interventions. Provision of a diverse range of interception types which must not be so site dependent that they cannot be upscaled. Likely availability of natural resources to maintain intervention type

It was noted that Botswana and South Africa both have a rigid governmental structure that is designed to provide for the needs of the rural communities in normal and drought conditions. However, neither state provides direct assistance towards livelihood support and interventions in these countries is best direct towards this goal. In Zimbabwe maintenance of infrastructure has deteriorated to a point where rehabilitation and a return to normal water security is a widespread community requirement. Conditions are likely to be similar in Mozambique, although the November field campaign did not attempt to visit this area given personnel time constraints.

4.2.1 Selection of Representative Nodal Points

Selection of Nodal Points was based on a set of criteria designed to identify communities that were accessible, receptive to proposed assistance, suffered from water supply shortage as a whole or which had inadequate supply for small scale irrigation, stock watering or other non- domestic uses. Although the criteria were flexible and varied from one socio-political environment to another, they enabled communities to be identified which would enable pilot interventions to be implemented by the villagers themselves, with minimum external interference. A key criterion was a willingness on the part of the community to participate; another was the identification of stakeholders that would be willing and able to take part in

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55 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008 dialogue regarding the interventions. A third was that the individual community had an identifiable intervention that could be applied with a likely positive outcome.

Not all the proposed interventions were physical. Drought proofing also includes ‗early warning‘ and provision of adequate sustainable water supply. Community empowerment to monitor water points in order to identify increasing stress as well as to hold discussions with the stakeholders regarding improving supply was recognised as a useful intervention under circumstances of strong governance. Physical interventions were better employed in those countries where governance was less robust, whereas in one country suitable intervention in the form of water supply for small scale irrigation was seen as a favoured intervention. The detailed selection process is described below.

Zimbabwe

Six potential villages have been identified for possible intervention: Diti, Hwali, Dendele, Wunga, Siyoka and Shashe. Of these Diti, Wunga and Shashe offer an opportunity for intervention in terms of rehabilitation, or return to the status quo, although Diti has an increased population due to recent migration from Beitbridge and elsewhere. The preferred option was to concentrate on Diti village as the preferred Nodal Point and to reinstate the water security that the village enjoyed prior to the collapse of maintenance and repair by government. This will allow investigation of the development of livelihood, given renewed water security, with comparisons to be made to adjacent villages. Water points will be reinstated throughout the village by repairing hand pumps to a sufficient number to supply the present day community. A second Nodal Point, the village of Wunga was also selected for intervention in the form of reinstatement of the community garden by means of a sand river dam as well as one or several wells. This will provide data on whether this form of livelihood is sustainable in a water stressed community. It was noted that the clinics at both these villages had no safe water supply and further investigation of possible (small scale intervention) was suggested.

Action: Investigate the issues regarding clinics at both Wunga and Diti and the potential for additional intervention regarding enhancing the water supply to them.

Botswana

In Botswana six potential Nodal Point communities had been investigated and a range of interventions considered. The interventions focus on the enhancement of livelihood, it being perceived that domestic water supply is a given even during times of drought. There is scope to introduce community or small scale garden initiatives, a favoured livelihood in Zimbabwe but peculiarly absent in north-east Botswana. Consideration is also given to provision of cattle watering and or irrigated fodder crops as an intervention.

Of the six villages there are two that have particularly strong village community groups, and for this reason it was agreed to focus on these two villages. They are Gobojango and Tsetsebjwe. Both communities would benefit from the introduction of a community garden and to this end a private initiative at Bobonong could be used as a demonstration unit. Water could be sourced for the intervention from sand rivers (Table 2). However, the final decision as to which village should become the Nodal Point depends on further investigation of the water resource availability.

Action: Investigate the water supply potential in sand rivers near to both Gobojango and Tsetsebjwe villages and adopt the respective better endowed sand river for Gobojango and Tsetsebjwe preferred Nodal Points.

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56 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008

South Africa

It was agreed that the north-western corner of Limpopo Project i.e. within the Western Pilot Area) is devoid of suitable village communities with which to interact. The area is dominated by farms with resident populations attached. However, in the Eastern Pilot Area there are likely Nodal Points that have been identified for social intervention, notably the village of Shakudza. Given a strong governmental structure and provision of services including water both at normal times and in drought, intervention will attempt to empower the community to monitor its water supply and use with particular regards to drought preparedness. This will require collaboration between a newly created community water committee and local representatives of DWAF and other stakeholders.

Action: Discussion at community level and with stakeholders to investigate a sound and useful way forward.

Mozambique

Preparatory work is as yet insufficiently far forward to progress the identification of Nodal Points in Mozambique. This is now being addressed as a priority.

4.2.2 Selected Nodal Point Sites

Following village meetings and initial data gathering initial community selection was undertaken using the following outline criteria: Good access Positive community reaction Record of water supply scarcity Inadequate infrastructure Inadequate facility management

Site visits were undertaken to selected groups of villages in each of the Pilot Areas based upon these criteria. However, in both Pilot Areas cattle and game ranch as well as large commercial farm areas had to be excluded, limiting the choice of possible locations to tribal trust lands in Zimbabwe and the former Homelands in South Africa. Final nodal point selection depended largely on perceived suitability to receive either or both physical or social intervention. The potential Nodal Point site selection as derived from initial field visits is listed in Table 4.3 below and the status of each potential Nodal Point site is briefly described thereafter.

This list of potential Nodal Points for project implementation activities was then discussed in detail by the Project Team (October 2008) as well as with the Client and the WB Representative at a meeting held in Gaborone in November 2008. Following discussion agreement was reached on the number and location of Nodal Point communities and the scope of the interventions that could be implemented on the basis of current data, as well as options for replicability and the implementation plan. It was further agreed that some of the potential Nodal Points (see Table 4.3 below) will require additional data collection by means of field visits before selection can be finalised (scheduled to run in parallel with initial implementation activities in early 2009). These additional data collection visits particularly apply to sites in Mozambique and, to a lesser degree, in South Africa.

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57 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008 Table 4.3 Location of Potential Nodal Points

Country Name Location Botswana Bobonong Lat: S -21° 57‘ 36‖ Long: E 28° 25‘ 47‖ Botswana Gobojango Lat: S -21° 49‘ 32‖ Long: E 28° 40‘ 20‖ Western Botswana Tsetsebjwe Lat: S -22° 24‘ 49‖ Long: E 28° 23‘ 54‖ Pilot Area Zimbabwe Wunga Village Lat: S -21° 38‘ 12‖ Long: E 29° 21‘ 58‖ Zimbabwe Shashe Lat: S -22° 05‘ 56‖ Long: E 29° 18‘ 34‖ Zimbabwe Diti Lat: S -22° 13‘ 19‖ Long E 30° 23‘ 12‖ Mozambique Chassanga Lat: S -21° 53‘ 46‖ Long: E 31° 51‘ 29‖ Mozambique Mahatlane Lat: S -21° 57‘ 47‖ Long: E 32° 06‘ 58‖ Mozambique Mugugugo Lat: S -21º 55‘ 08‖ Long: E 31° 58‘ 01‖ Mozambique Tchale Lat: S -22º 20‘ 20‖ Long: E 31º 30‘ 25‖ Eastern Mozambique Salane Lat: S -22º 37‘ 01‖ Long: E 31º 42‘ 36‖ Pilot Area Mozambique Lissenga Lat: S -22º 51‘ 04‖ Long: E 31º 57‘ 29‖ South Africa Segole Lat: S -22° 31‘ 43‖ Long: E 30° 40‘ 40‖ South Africa Shakudza Lat: S -22° 36‘ 33‖ Long: E 30° 32‘ 52‖ Tshivaloni/ South Africa Lat: S -22° 41‘ 17‖ Long: E 30° 30‘ 12‖ Gwagwatini South Africa Maheni Lat: S -22° 44‘ 22‖ Long: E 30° 35‘ 20‖ Note: Locations already selected as Nodal Points for implementation of interventions are shaded

4.2.3 Zimbabwe Nodal Points

Diti [Eastern Pilot Area]

Location Lat: S 22° 13‘ 19‖ Long: E 30° 23‘ 12‖, elevation 485 masl Diti village is located about 41 km east of Beitbridge town. The area is accessed by gravel road from the main Mashvingo Road.

Physiography Weathered basement gneiss terrain with relatively shallow depths of weathering as evidenced by shallow outcrops strewn around the focal point. The site is located along the ephemeral Diti River with possible recharge from the stream during rainy seasons. Large tall trees along the river could indicate shallow groundwater levels.

Infrastructure Clinic, stores, school

Livelihoods Employment in BeitBridge, local agriculture, small irrigated gardens and rainfed crops.

Water Supply Situation One hand-dug well supplies the school, the clinic, shops and the surrounding community with water for domestic use, vegetable gardening and livestock watering. The well does not yield substantial amount of water and it was reported to decrease in yield. People travel 1-2km to come and fetch water from this well.

A diesel engine powered borehole used to supply the clinic, however this borehole and the engine has since broken down. There are critical water shortages at the clinic and patients or their relatives are

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58 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008 asked to bring water when they come to seek medical attention. 2 boreholes which used to supply water for the community and the school are no longer in use (no loner equipped and have been blocked.

Further downstream, an operational well (DITE 3), helps in alleviating over usage of the well supplying the clinic, school, community and livestock. There is also a private/individual in the area. A small earth dam built by the community with help from WVI nearly 2km downstream was dry and holds water temporarily from one season to the next.

Wunga Village [Western Pilot Area]

Location Lat: S -21° 38‘ 12‖ Long: E 29° 21‘ 58‖, elevation 677 masl To access the site, travel 90 km north of Bietbridge to Mokado, turn west and drive 30 km to the Mzingwane River and then a further 20 km to the southwest. Wunga is located in the western area of Dendele ward. Estimated population of 6732 (in 2002) of which 4091 are women under the leadership of head man Mazibeli.

Physiography Moderately weathered to unweathered basement granite gneiss and dolerite dykes. Very rocky area that hardly supports any crop farming. Persistent drought/crop failure and lack of clean/safe drinking water. The Wunga river, about 40 m wide, has accumulated much sand that although does not hold surface water holds some sub-surface water all of the year round.

Infrastructure Graded all-weather dirt road to Shashe in the south and to Mokado on the Bulawayo-Bietbridge main road to the east. Some stores but closed and shelves empty. Operational borehole equipped with Zimbabwe Bush Pump, in need of maintenance.

Livelihoods Dry land farming, livestock rearing, some communal gardens, also brick making.

Water Supply Situation Nearly 300 people from the surrounding community rely on wells dug in the sand river for water for domestic use and vegetable gardening. Collapsed well with windmill used to supply the reservoir. Water from reservoir formerly supplied livestock and vegetable gardens. The nearest borehole and well, nearly a km, either has broken down or dries up due to low yield. Due to the rocky nature of the landscape, groundwater potential is low. Most wells in the area dry up in the dry season. Sand dam built in 1952 still functions but quickly runs dry. Three unprotected deep wells are used for domestic supply. Of 8 boreholes in the village, 3 were working at the time of the visit.

Shashe [Western Pilot Area]

Location Lat: S -22° 05‘ 56‖ Long: E 29° 18‘ 34‖, elevation 540 masl Western area, in Shashe Ward, site is located 2.5 km from Shashe River

Physiography Stormberg Lava Group basaltic rocks, forming undulating terrain and gently sloping towards the Shashi River. The channel of the Shashe River is 1 km wide, while the flood plain is 1.5 km wide and is characterised by alluvial sand deposits, which provides an extensive alluvial aquifer along its course.

Infrastructure

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59 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008 Large irrigations schemes have been developed along the Shashi River; Jalukanga, Shashi, Biri, etc although some are no longer operational. Shashi centre consists of community clinic, community primary and secondary schools, business centre with numerous shops, grinding mills etc and surrounding community. This community get their livelihood from Shashi irrigation scheme where >10 ha of wheat is under irrigation and they grow various crops all year round.

Livelihoods Limited crop irrigation, livestock rearing

Water Supply Situation Water supply system for the irrigation scheme and the community and institutions are independent.

There is critical water shortage at the clinic, the secondary school, business centre and for the community. A water tank which used to store water for the various institutions is no longer in use.

A well within the community which was supplying water has broken down and also has low yield and dries up at times.

The only borehole supplying water taps the alluvial aquifer along the Shashi River and also has broken down.

Possible link between diarrhoea occurrences at the clinic with water shortage. A primary school, nearly 3km from the centre is supplied by an electric borehole, but this is too far for the centre to fetch water from.

4.2.4 Botswana Nodal Points

Bobonong

Location Lat: S -21° 57‘ 36‖ Long: E 28° 25‘ 47‖, elevation 690 masl Bobonong is the main village in Bobirwa sub-district of Central District, Botswana. The population of Bobonong in 2003 was 14622, with an additional 6398 in surrounding areas.

Physiography Bobonong is located on the south bank of the Motloutse River, an ephemeral sand river. The village of Bobonong is located on the western extension of the Karoo-age Tuli Basin, within the downfaulted Bobonong graben. The Karoo-age sedimentary and basaltic rocks are intruded by ENE-WSW trending dykes. The main aquifer unit is the Ntane Sandstone Formation (Tsheung Sandstone) of the Lebung Group that is confined beneath the Stormberg basaltic lavas. The basalts weather to form the brown ferruginous soils and sand deposits that are found in the Motloutse River and adjacent flood plains. Mopane scrub vegetation predominates with galley type woodland along river channel. The area receives rainfall 350-500 mm/annum

Infrastructure Bobonong lies at the confluence of roads from Selebi Pikwe to the northwest, Gobojango/Semolala to the northeast, Molalatau and Mathathane to the southeast and Sefope and Tsetsejwe to the southwest. It is the administrative centre of Bobirwa sub-district, and the location of district and council offices and the main police station. As the service centre for Bobirwa sub-district it includes fuel stations and supply agencies, the main hospital and school, bus service terminus and supermarkets and other shops.

Livelihoods Agriculture includes cattle ranching based on surrounding cattle posts, and rainfed cultivation of maize and sorgum within lands areas. Most employment is obtained within local and national government offices and related institutions and the service sector supporting these.

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60 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008 Water Supply Situation Water Resources Consultants, who undertook groundwater investigations for Bobonong in 1999, are currently undertaking the Bobonong Groundwater Investigation and Development Project. Water supplies are supplied from wellfields that are planned to meet a projected demand of 1880 m3/day by 2021. Water-born sewerage is treated at station between Bobonong and Molalatau.

Gobojango

Location Lat : S -21° 49‘50‖ Long: E 28° 43‘ 24‖ , elevation 730 masl. Gobojango, located to the north east of Bobonong had a population of 1631 in 2003, with an associated population (in lands areas) of 199 (1830 total pop). By 2021, the population is expected to grow to 1900 (total pop.)

Physiography Gobojango is located to the south of an ENE-WSW trending hills formed of Precambrian Basement Complex granitic-gneiss, the hills forming the watershed between the Shashe catchment to the north and the Matloutse River catchment to the south. These rocks are faulted against Karoo-age Basalts by the Gobojango Fault Zone that marks the northern edge of the Tuli Basin. WNW-ESE trending dolerite dykes intrude these rocks. The village lies on faulted Karoo age basalts that weather to form brown ferruginous soils that have some irrigation potential.

Infrastructure The village of Gobojango, located on the tarred road between Bobonong and Semolale, includes institutions such as school, clinic and police station and a variety of stores, shops and other service agencies.

Livelihoods The main economic activities are cattle ranching, on surrounding cattle posts, and the cultivation of rainfed crops, on lands areas. Increasingly the population of the village will obtain employment in Bobonong or Selebi Pikwe.

Water Supply Situation Water supply is obtained from the shallow basalt/sandstone aquifer via a borehole wellfield located close to Gobojango (at S -21° 49‘32‖, E 28° 40‘ 20‖, elevation 727 masl). Although water quality is acceptable, the source has suffered from a history of bacteriological contamination. Water Resources Consultants investigated the groundwater resources of the Gobojango area in 1999. They estimate that water demand will reach 163 m3/day by 2021. A small private vegetable farming scheme (2 acres) was noted near Gobajango village being irrigated with groundwater from a borehole.

Tsetsebjwe

Location Lat : S -22° 24‘ 49.4‖ Long : E28° 23‘ 54.1‖ elevation 804 mamsl Tsetsebjwe, located to the south west of Bobonong, had population of 3467, with 929 in surrounding lands areas (total pop of 4396) in 2003. By 2021 the population is expected to grow to 4500 (total pop.).

Physiography The village of Tsetsebjwe is located on the south side of a prominent Precambrian granitic-gneiss inselberg (elevation 917 mamsl) on the watershed between the Limpopo River catchment to the south and the Thune River catchment to the north. The village is underlain by Mahalapye Formation migmatites of the Limpopo Schist Belt. These rocks have been intruded by ENE-WSW trending dolerite dykes.

Infrastructure

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61 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008 The village of Tsetsebjwe, located on the tarred road between Bobonong/Selebi-Pikwe, the international border crossing at Zanzibar and the Tuli Block back Line, includes institutions such as school, clinic and police station and a variety of stores, shops and other service agencies.

Water Supply Situation Water Resources Consultants investigated the groundwater resources of the Tsetsebjwe area in 1999. Water supply obtained from boreholes drilled into weathered Precambrian Basement Complex formations is supplemented by water drawn from boreholes in Karoo-age basalt and sandstone at Mathathane and transferred to the Tsetsebjwe area by pipeline. Water from the Basement Complex aquifer has been found to contain high levels of bacteria. By 2021 the expected water demand should have reached 276 m3/day

4.2.5 South Africa Nodal Points

Segole [Eastern Pilot Area]

Location Lat: S 22° 31‘ 43‖ Long: E 30° 40‘ 40‖ , elevation 449 masl Located 17 km east of Muswordi and 22 km west of Matule.

Physiography Located on flat area, north of east-west trending fault bounded quartzite ridge, where well bedded northerly dipping Soutpansberg quartzites are faulted against Karoo-age basalts to the north. The Klein Tshipise spring issues from this fault zone. The community is located in an arid to semi-arid area that receives low rainfall. The vegetation is predominantly acacia bush with many mature baobab trees.

Infrastructure The community is located on the recently tarred road between Muswordi to the west and Matule to the east, a number of abandoned magnesium mines with remnant villages located along the road, and the Nwanedi Game reserve is located to the west of the area.

Livelihoods Segole is a rapidly expanding service centre with school, police station, clinic and spa holiday centre. Agricultural activities include the irrigation of tree fruits and other crops using overflow spring water, rain-fed crop cultivation, and the rearing of cattle and goats.

Water Supply Situation Currently, water is drawn manually from spring eye for domestic us. Most of water flowing from spring is used for irrigation of fruit trees and other crops, some water used at the mineral spa complex. The development of the spring water as a reticulated supply with pipeline system and header tank is currently under construction.

Shakudza [Eastern Pilot Area]

Location Lat: S 22°36‘33‖ Long: E 30°32‘52‖, elevation 657 masl The borehole at Shakudza is located 1.4 km south-east of the main road.

Physiography

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62 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008 The community of Shakudza is located within an east-west down-faulted dry valley some 1.5 km wide between parallel outcrops of Soutpansberg Series Quartzites forming hills 700-800 masl high. A spring occurs within a narrow north trending faulted valley 1.4 km south of the borehole site. Infrastructure The village is connected by a dirt track to the recently tarred Muswordi to Tengwe Valley road. Shakudza is a small service centre with a large clinic, store and school.

Livelihoods Cultivation of rainfed crops, service centre employment, and cattle and other livestock rearing.

Water Supply Situation At the site there are two abandoned boreholes and a third recently installed borehole equipped with an electrical submersible pump. Water is pumped to header tank located 1 km to the south and at an elevation of 780 masl, from which it is reticulated to village standpipes and metered connections. There is a small spring 1.4 km to the south used as source of water for cattle.

Tshivaloni/ Gwagwatini [Eastern Pilot Area]

Location Lat: S 22° 41‘ 17‖ Long: E 30° 30‘ 12‖, elevation 861 masl The supply borehole is located some 3.8 km west and south of the main road.

Physiography The borehole site is located on side of faulted escarpment/incised valley in Soutpansberg Quartzite hills.

Infrastructure The borehole site is accessed from the main tarred Muswordi to Tengwe Valley road by way of a poor all-weather unpaved road connection. This borehole supplies a series of six villages, strung out along tarred road ranging in elevation from 968 masl at the water shed to 582 masl towards the down slope end of the valley.

Livelihoods Employment in local service centre, cultivation of rainfed crops?? Some irrigation of crops along bottom of nearby valley.

Water Supply Situation Single borehole recently re-equipped with electrical submersible pump to supply five previously connected villages with reticulation system along a system some 15 km long. A sixth village connection is being added to the system with the pipeline being in the process of construction to a point on the watershed 5.2 km from the pump at an elevation of 968 masl.

Maheni / Mulodi

Location A series of three boreholes located along a pipeline distribution system along the southern side of the Tengwe Valley Lat: S 22° 44‘ 36‖ Long: E 30° 33‘ 15‖, elevation 616 masl Mulodi School, roundabout borehole Lat: S 22° 44‘ 21‖ Long: E 30° 35‘ 20‖, elevation 608 masl Maheni school borehole Lat: S 22° 44‘ 05‖ Long: E 30° 36‘ 02‖, elevation 615 masl Maheni Hand pump borehole

Physiography Wide half graben northeast-southwest trending valley about 5 km wide. The Soutpansberg Quartzite hills north of the fault scarp along northern side of the valley rise to 800-900 masl. In contrast the southern dip slope ridge of Soutpansberg Quartzite only rises to 700 masl. The valley is occupied by a dry misfit channel that slopes from 600 masl in the west to 560 masl in the east, infilled with Quaternary sediments probably deposited by a former course of the Mutale River.

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63 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008

Infrastructure The three boreholes are located within an elongate village strungout along south side of the Tengwe Valley. This village is served by a poorly maintained dirt road connected to the main tarred road at its north-western end. Tengwe is the main regional service centre institutions include district and council offices, schools, clinic and police station. Facilities include shops, fuel stations and vehicle repairers.

Livelihoods Employment in regional service centre, cultivation of rainfed crops. Some irrigation of crops along bottom of main valley.

Water Supply Situation Surface water is reticulated from the Mutale river takeoff throughout the Tengwe Valley. Standpipe and metered connections were evident throughout the Maheni/Mulodi village. However those located towards the lower end of the system obtained little water from an intermittent supply. The hand pumped borehole at the end of the village is heavily used by all at the lower end of the community. The Maheni school borehole is also used as a source of supply, containers being taken to the borehole for filling in small vehicles and wheelbarrows. The roundabout pump equipped borehole at Mulodi is for school use only.

4.2.6 Mozambique Nodal Points

Chassanga

Location Lat : S -21° 53‘ 45.6‖ Long : E 31° 51‘ 28.8‖, elevation of 368 masl The community of Chassanga (leader Nelson Manhice) is located along the border of Mozambique and Zimbabwe, north east of the international border crossing point at Eduardo Mandalane, on the Chefu River.

Physiography The community of Chassanga is located in an arid area in the headwaters of the eastward flowing ephemeral Chefu River. The area is underlain by continental Cretaceous age sedimentary rocks that include consolidated low permeability sandstones and mudstones.

Infrastructure Access to Chassanga community is relatively good, using the inter-district road to the North of the district capital at Eduardo Mondalane, along the Zimbabwe border (currently being cleared of mines and re-opened).

Livelihoods Cattle ranching and the cultivation of rainfed crops

Water Supply Situation Government provided a borehole in November 2006 at location: S -21º 53‘ 53‖, E 31º 51‘ 43‖; before then water had to be fetched sometimes from across the border in Zimbabwe. When the borehole pump broke down in 2007, water had to be transported from Mahatlane, some 40 km away. - 1 borehole (slightly brackish) with manual pump (operational), - 1 private borehole with solar system (population has restricted access, when the community pump breaks down, - family wells in the Chefu riverbed (limited as the substrate is rocky);

Mahatlane

Location Lat : S - 21° 57‘ 47‖ Long : E 32° 06‘ 58‖ , elevation 269 masl The community of Mahatlane is located some 35 km east of Chassanga. BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WELLFIELD CONSULTING SERVICES CSIR WALLINGFORD, OXON GABORONE PRETORIA UK BOTSWANA SOUTH AFRICA

64 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008

Physiography The community is located within an arid to semi-arid dissected plateau area, west of the confluence of the Chefu and Mamande ephemeral rivers. The area is underlain by continental Cretaceous age sedimentary rocks that include consolidated low permeability sandstones and mudstones.

Infrastructure The access to Mahatlane community is relatively good, using the inter-district road to the north of the district capital at Eduardo Mondalane, along the Zimbabwe border (currently being cleared of mines and re-opened); and thence east along the valley of the Chefu River.

Livelihoods Cattle ranching and the cultivation of rain-fed crops

Water Supply Situation The only borehole is equipped with a hand pump that has not been in operation since 2007. Water from the borehole has a very high salt content and so is only be used for washing and not domestic consumption. There are several hand excavated family wells in the sand deposits in the Chefu riverbed where yields are better than in similar wells at Chassanga

Mugugugo

Location Lat : S - 21º 55‘ 08‖ Long : E 31° 58‘ 01‖ , elevation 330 masl.

Physiography The community is located within an arid to semi-arid dissected plateau area, along the valley of the ephemeral eastward flowing Chefu River. The area is underlain by continental Cretaceous age sedimentary rocks that include consolidated low permeability sandstones and mudstones.

Infrastructure The access to Mugugugo community is relatively good, using the inter-district road to the north of the district capital at Eduardo Mondalane, along the Zimbabwe border (currently being cleared of mines and re-opened); and thence east along the valley of the Chefu River.

Livelihoods Cattle ranching and the cultivation of rain-fed crops

Water Supply Situation There are several hand excavated family wells in the sand deposits in the Chefu riverbed where yields are better than in similar wells at Chassanga Mugugugu community started a small dam construction on the Chefu River, which was interrupted by the onset of rains and not completed afterwards;

Tchale

Location Lat: S - 22º 20‘ 20‖ Long: E 31º 30‘ 25‖ , elevation 203 masl

Physiography The community of Tchale is located on the northern bank of the eastward flowing Mwenezi River. At that point the river is ephemeral, sand filled and about 250m wide. The river has a meandering course within a flood plain some 2000m wide. The area is underlain by continental Cretaceous age sedimentary rocks that include consolidated low permeability sandstones and mudstones.

Infrastructure

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65 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008 The access to Tchale community is acceptable, using the inter-district road to the South of the district capital at Eduardo Mondalane located on the Zimbabwe border (currently being cleared of mines and re-opened). The road continues to the south-east along the Limpopo Valley.

Livelihoods Cattle ranching, the cultivation of rain-fed crops and hunting of game meat.

Water Supply Situation There are a number of hand excavated family wells in the sand deposits in the Mwaneze riverbed. This source of water is relatively secure all year round. Formerly there was a small sand dam present from colonial times, but this was destroyed during the civil war.

Salane

Location Lat: S - 22º 37‘ 01‖ Long: E 31º 42‘ 36‖, elevation 163masl The community of Salane is located along the valley of the Limpopo some 11km upstream of its the confluence of the Mwenezi River.

Physiography The community of Salane is located on the banks of the Limpopo. At that point the sand filled channel is about 1000m wide, and it meanders within a flood plain some 2500m wide. The combined valleys of the Mwenezi/Limpopo occupy a valley some 20km wide that has been incised to a depth of 150-200m within an arid to semi-arid plateau that lies at 320-360 masl. A ridge some 250 masl lies between the Mwenezi and Limpopo valleys. The area is underlain by continental Cretaceous age sedimentary rocks that include consolidated low permeability sandstones and mudstones.

Infrastructure The access to Salane and Lissenga communities through Tchale requires crossing the Mwaneze and the Limpopo Rivers (4x4), through Mapai, the only crossing over the Limpopo River (also 4x4). In the rainy season, access might be limited or impossible from both sides because of high water levels of river(s) and the condition of the road Pafuri-Mapai (road located in the riverbed turns impassable during rains)

However, Salane and Lissenga could be accessible during the rainy season through the road from Massingir through the Limpopo National Park (LNP).

Livelihoods Cattle ranching, the cultivation of rain-fed crops, some seasonal irrigated crops and hunting of game meat.

Water Supply Situation Borehole (highly brackish) with manual pump from Baptist church (dismantled) Family wells in the Limpopo riverbed, secure all year round Small rainwater lake for cattle

Lissenga

Location Lat: S 22º 51‘ 04‖ Long: E 31º 57‘ 29‖, elevation 135 m The community of Lissenga is located along the valley of the Limpopo some 27km downstream of its the confluence of the Mwenezi River.

Physiography The community of Lissenga is located on the banks of the Limpopo. At that point the sand filled channel is about 1200m wide, and it meanders within a flood some 2900m wide. The Limpopo occupies a valley some 10-19 km wide that has been incised to a depth of 100-160m within an arid to

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66 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008 semi-arid plateau that lies at 230-300 masl. The plateau slopes to the south east. The area is underlain by continental Cretaceous age sedimentary rocks that include consolidated low permeability sandstones and mudstones.

Infrastructure The access to Lissenga community through Tchale requires crossing the Mwaneze and the Limpopo Rivers (4x4), through Mapai, the only crossing over the Limpopo River (also 4x4). In the rainy season, access might be limited or impossible from both sides because of high water levels of river(s) and the condition of the road Pafuri-Mapai (road located in the riverbed turns impassable during rains)

However, Lissenga could be accessible during the rainy season through the road from Massingir through the Limpopo National Park (LNP).

Livelihoods Cattle ranching, the cultivation of rain-fed crops, some seasonal irrigated crops and hunting of game meat.

Water Supply Situation Family wells in the Limpopo riverbed, secure all year round, Small rainwater lakes for cattle (currently dry).

4.3 Monitoring

Monitoring both of the success or otherwise of the project and technical monitoring of the individual management plans and their outcomes is an essential component of achieving and demonstrating the project objectives. However, it is important to identify the setting in which the monitoring will take place and to identify what is to be measured and monitored at community level. Monitoring indicators are discussed further in section 5.

In terms of overall poverty, it is the marginal and undiversified resource-poor farmers (including female-head households, landless labourers, pastoralists and displaced people) that are at risk and indicators need to be found which measure change to their overall wellbeing and livelihoods base. However, the manifestation of livelihood insecurity is likely to vary between groups but must include aspects of both food security and water security. To assess food security information needs to be gathered on production and exchange capability in a given household and the impact this has on access to food. To assess water security, information needs to be gathered about water availability, access and use.

Normal monitoring systems at village level that are emplaced by government concentrate almost entirely on food security indicators and follow narrow agendas. These systems, if they are in place at all, can readily be extended to include water security, e.g. status of water points, to provide a better indication of livelihood security. Consequently the effort in this project will concentrate almost entirely on water security, but taking note of the food security indicators available at national level to provide an overall measure of livelihood security. More importantly it is essential that this project links the monitoring of specific indicators with interventions introduced by the project, but also paying cognisance to the importance of livelihoods indicators as an overall measure of the impact of a specific intervention.

Whilst monitoring at national or even regional level is feasible using available data held at national level, monitoring at community level is, by contrast, fraught by choice of appropriate indicators. By contrast physical monitoring of water points and water point status and the conversion of the monitored data to information is relatively straightforward (see Norad, 2004).

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67 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008 The selection of indicators that measure livelihood and wellbeing are not easy to identify and may not be simple to interpret. Care will, therefore, need to be taken to ensure that indicators are chosen that are simple to measure, meaningful and straightforward to interpret. Examples could include visit statistics to local clinics, community awareness of drought preparedness, and even the head of cattle owned by a community, while the picture will be completed given knowledge of the status of the water supply system, perhaps even physical detail such as the water level in the local well.

4.3.1 Monitoring the Achievement of the Project Goals

The success of the project depends not just on the positive impact of the interventions on community wellbeing but more particularly on the wider uptake of the management plans at national and in some cases regional level. The overall success of the project can, therefore, only be judged subsequent to the lifetime of the project but a number of indicators can be used during the project tenure. These include:

Community involvement, in particular the ease or the difficulty of attaining community uptake. Stakeholder involvement, in particular the degree to which the project is able to work alongside stakeholders. Uptake of management plans by stakeholders. The impact of the respective management plans on community wellbeing, in particular the degree of drought preparedness developed within a community. Various indicators can be measured but the main one is the likely degree of sustainability of the available water points and the available supply per capita in the non-drought situation.

4.3.2 Monitoring the Community Management Planned Interventions

The monitoring of the impact that interventions have on community livelihoods and wellbeing and of the degree to which communities can be drought proofed is the essential measure of the success or otherwise of individual management plans and interventions. Monitoring of change requires a baseline from which the change can be scored. It is, therefore, critical that detailed baseline monitoring is defined and implemented at an early stage in each village in order to record the ‗before‘ with which to compare the ‗after‘ implementation phase.

The monitoring needs to identify the critical effects of the implementation and ensure that measurements are recorded that reflect not only pre-intervention wellbeing and community health but also the livelihoods and other activities carried out within the community. This will require care to ensure that the pre-intervention monitoring picks up all the indicators appropriate to the proposed intervention, and these, once identified, need to be highlighted in the respective management plans (see Section 5).

Monitoring can best be undertaken by the community. It is recommended that facilitators commence the measurement and reporting process and that community officers be empowered to carry out the necessary observations. Periodic visits from the facilitator will ensure continuity and assist with reporting.

4.4 Upscaling

The chosen interventions applied within the project at community level must be transferable. Although each form of intervention will be specifically applied to the needs of each

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68 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008 community, the form of intervention must not be so unique that it cannot be transferred to other similar communities elsewhere. The work is viewed as a series of pilot projects from which those interventions that have a significant and measurable, but positive impact on community wellbeing can be upscaled across the semi-arid region within SADC. To this end the reporting of the intervention and the monitoring phase will need to be undertaken specifically with regard to ultimate dissemination of the information so gained. Only in this way can potential upscaling programmes be promoted within the wider community of the region.

A significant part of the upscaling process rests with the stakeholders, not only at the local nodal point scale, but also at national and regional level. Stakeholders need to be consulted throughout the intervention phase of the project in order to inform and maintain a dialogue with them and to provide the stakeholders with a degree of ownership in the respective interventions. The project should aim to demonstrate to the stakeholders that the interventions are achieving a positive response and that they are also cost-effective – this will ensure that the stakeholders will themselves want to promote the process of upscaling.

Each proposed intervention is targeting a different facet of community wellbeing and ultimately wealth creation. The main objective is to ensure that the respective community is drought proofed sufficiently to safeguard livelihoods so that the impact of drought will be lessened. There are two clear outcomes if this target can be achieved. The first is the protection of the community and the second is the cost saving in alleviating the need for emergency intervention. However, few of the proposed interventions can be universally upscaled across the semi-arid lands of SADC as each focuses on a different set of socio- political or agro-economic conditions.

One of the proposed interventions in Zimbabwe is to rehabilitate the water points within a given community. Monitoring of wellbeing indicators thereafter will provide some invaluable data on the importance of facility maintenance, data that are otherwise not available in the literature. This form of maintenance intervention readily lends itself to upscaling on both a national (Zimbabwe) basis and on a regional basis as well, but can only be undertaken with the full co-operation of the respective ministries and the relevant regional and district government agencies.

Intervention in South Africa is of the other extreme and is designed to promote a dialogue between the community and the utility providers and other stakeholders. This requires the community to form a committee with which to hold discussion with the service providers to ensure adequacy of supply at times of drought and to monitor early warning indicators of potential drought related issues. Provided this approach can be made to work, upscaling will again be promoted by the stakeholders who will have realised the benefits of dialogue with the communities and empowerment of the communities to monitor indicators of impending issues. However, upscaling will be limited to those countries which already have a comprehensive supply and a robust governmental institution and may be confined to South Africa and Botswana.

In Botswana, Government will provide at times of water scarcity. However, there is a lack of experience with community gardens and domestic gardens and it is proposed that a demonstration facility will raise the profile of this beneficial activity. Upscaling will follow once the benefit of community scale gardening is realised provided that sand river dams and such structures can be emplaced to support the activity. Dialogue with the respective ministries and local agencies will ensure that they are informed of the intervention and that they have ownership of it. The promotion of community gardens sits alongside the government ambition towards attaining rural community self sufficiency. Uscaling of this

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69 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008 intervention can be SADC-wide although community gardens have always been a part of South African rural culture and are widespread in Zimbabwe, Malawi, Zambia and elsewhere.

Upscaling of the proposed intervention in Mozambique will be discussed in a future report as field scoping advances.

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70 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008 5. MANAGEMENT PLAN STRUCTURE

The management plans need to be developed in collaboration with the respective community in order to ensure that the proposed intervention can be implemented by the community with minimal provision from outside sources. The project will act as the driver and facilitator, but the community must be the primary implementer. However, refurbishment of damaged water point systems in Zimbabwe will require external involvement, but even so, it is essential that the community is willing and able to maintain the plant that is reinstated and oversee the allocation of the water that is made available.

The management plans will be prepared for each village with due regard to the village needs with regard both to water and food security and above all with regard to security of livelihoods at a time of stress. They will be prepared in a format such that each village management plan can stand alone as a document that can be issued to respective stakeholders and others as required. Each management plan will follow a set template which shall incorporate as a minimum the following components.

1. Village description including present infrastructure, livelihoods – cash economy or agricultural economy, community health and community aspirations. 2. Detailed baseline analysis of the community status in terms of livelihoods. This is essential information with which to judge subsequent impact created by intervention of whatever kind. 3. Proposed and justified intervention accompanied by description of the dialogue with the community and other stakeholders – i.e. community buy-in. 4. Description of the agreed intervention and expected impact on the community. 5. Identification of appropriate indicators with which to monitor the impact of the intervention on overall wellbeing.

Identification of indicators with which to measure the success of interventions will require careful consideration. General indicators such as community or sample household wealth (number of cattle), livelihood diversification, number of visits to clinic, etc, provide an overall indication of the wellbeing of a community. Additional specific indicators, some of which, perhaps ecological ones, may even be adverse indicators, will also need to monitored and include, for example:

Monitoring of individual family unit activity, e.g. time taken to collect water. Downtime in supply, e.g. South Africa. Vegetable production, e.g. Botswana. Comparison of intervention community wellbeing with none intervention community, e.g. Zimbabwe. Water point: overall use, water level at start of pumping day, equipment status, etc. Ecology: e.g. observations on river bank vegetation below new sand river dams. Impact on downstream users following spring capture.

Likely indications of adverse impact due to intervention, and these may be on downstream riparian users or downstream ecology will require assessment at the management plan stage in order that tolerance of the adverse impact can be defined. This will need to be discussed at community level and agreed by the community representatives.

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71 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008 The TORs for the physical interventions will be written as individual documents for use in contract specifications.

The Nodal Point management plans will be drafted sequentially in order of the proposed and phased intervention. Zimbabwe will be considered as a priority but immediate implementation is dependent on current factors outside the control of the project. Botswana is thus likely to be first, South Africa second and finally, Mozambique, once adequate baseline information is acquired. This phased preparation of Nodal Point intervention and monitoring plans will be issued during the period January to April 2009, and once approved by SADC-PMU will be issued as the last of the Phase 2 project reports. The programme of implementation will be phased in parallel starting in Botswana and ending in Mozambique and Zimbabwe.

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72 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008 6. CONCLUDING STATEMENT

This report presents the findings of Stage 2 of the „Development and Testing of Groundwater Drought Management Strategies in the Limpopo Basin Pilot Areas Project‟ undertaken in the Eastern Pilot Area (South Africa; Mozambique; Zimbabwe) and the Western Pilot Area (Botswana; South Africa; Zimbabwe).

The report sets out the information collected and evaluated as part of the Nodal Point selection process. This process has resulted in the identification of two communities in each Member State in each Pilot Area which will be more closely studied and in which a variety of drought-alleviation interventions will be implemented, monitored and assessed. A community-based Groundwater Management Plan will be developed for each of the selected Nodal Points and will be implemented in parallel with the specific intervention actions that are planned. This plan will incorporate the monitoring aspects of the forthcoming intervention assessments and will form the basis of evaluation and upscaling.

The project now moves into the Implementation Phase of the programme which requires considerable activity and involvement by the project with the respective communities at each of the selected Nodal Points. This will necessitate extensive fieldwork and significant involvement by the team sociologists, especially at Nodal Points where a more ‗sociologically-based‘ intervention than had been originally planned, which in turn may require some variation from the contracted time inputs. The implementation programme is currently under development and discussion and it is hoped that this will be agreed with the client in the near future.

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73 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008

REFERENCES

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Brandl, G. 1981. The Geology of the Messina Area: Explanation of Sheet 2230. Pretoria, South Africa, Geological Survey, Department of Mineral and Energy Affairs.

Brandl, G. 2002. The Geology of the Alldays Area: Explanation of Sheet 2228, scale 1:250 000. Pretoria, South Africa, Council for Geoscience.

Bruwer, J. J. 1990. Drought policy in the Republic of South Africa. Drought Network News, No. 2, Vol. 1, University of Nebraska, Feb. 1990.

Calow, R.C., Robins, N.S., MacDonald, A.M., Nicol, A.L. and Orpen, W.R.G. 1999. Planning for groundwater drought in Africa. Proceedings of the International Conference on Integrated Drought Management – Lessons for Sub-Saharan Africa. Pretoria, 20-22 September 1999.

Calow, R,C,, MacDonald, A.M., Nicol, A.L., Robins, N.S. and Kebede, S. , 2002. The struggle for water: drought, water security and rural livelihoods. British Geological Survey Commissioned Report CR/02/226N.

Christie, F. and Hanlon, J. 2001. Mozambique and the Great Flood of 2000. James Currey, Oxford.

Clanahan, M. and Jonck, J.L. 2005. A critical evaluation of sand abstraction systems in Southern Africa: Part 1: printed document, volume 1 of 3, Report Body. Pretoria, South Africa, Water Research Commission.

CSIR, 2003. Protection and Strategic Uses of Groundwater Resources in Drought Prone Areas of the SADC Region Groundwater Situation Analysis of the Limpopo River Basin. Final Report.

Devereux, S. 2001. Food security information systems. Chapter 8 in: Food Security in Sub- Saharan Africa, edited by S. Devereux and S. Maxwell. ITDG Publishing, London. du Toit, W. H. , 2002. Map No. 2127 Messina. Hydrogeological Map Series of the Republic of South Africa. Pretoria, Department of Water Affairs and Forestry and Government Printer, Pretoria.

Ferro, B.P.A. and Bouman, D. 1987. Explanatory notes to the Hydrogeological Map of Mozambique: scale 1: 1 000000. Project of the Hydrogeological Map of Mozambique sponsored by UNICEF.

Goba, Moahloli, Keeve and Steyn (Pty) Ltd. , 2004a. Internal Strategic Perspective (ISP) for the Luvuvhu/Letaba Water Management Area prepared for Department of Water Affairs and

BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WELLFIELD CONSULTING SERVICES CSIR WALLINGFORD, OXON GABORONE PRETORIA UK BOTSWANA SOUTH AFRICA

74 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008 Forestry Directorate: National Water Resource Planning (North). December 2004. Appendix J: Overview of Groundwater Resources of the Luvuvhu and Mutale Catchments

Goba, Moahloli, Keeve and Steyn (Pty) Ltd. 2004b. Internal Strategic Perspective (ISP) for the Limpopo Water Management Area prepared for Department of Water Affairs and Forestry Directorate: National Water Resource Planning (North). November 2004.

Hazelton, D.G., Pearson, I., et al. 1994. Development of drought response policy options for the cost effective provision of water supply to rural communities subject to recurring droughts. Pretoria, Water Research Commission by the Development Services and Technology Programme, Division of Water Technology, CSIR.

Houston, J. and Lewis, R.T., 1988. The Victoria Province Drought Relief Project, II. Borehole Yield Relationships. Ground Water, vol 26, part 4, pp 418-426.

Hughes, D.A. 1999. Towards the incorporation of magnitude-frequency concepts into the building-block methodology used for quantifying ecological flow requirements of South African rivers. Water S A, vol 25, part 3, pp 279-284.

Interconsult, 1985. National Master Plan for Rural Water Supply and Sanitation: Part 2/2, Hydrogeology, Ministry of Energy and Water Resources and Development, Republic of Zimbabwe.

Jacobson, G. and Haupt, C.J. 1993. Conjunctive use of groundwater and surface water – lessons from the great 1992 drought in Venda, South Africa. From: Groundwater Division of the Geological Society of South Africa Conference, ―Africa Needs Groundwater‖, 6-8 September 1993, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. Paper 50.

Johnson, M.R. Anhausser, C.R. and Thomas, R.J. (editors) 2006. The Geology of South Africa. Geological Society of South Africa and the Council for geoscience.

Lachelt, S. 2004. Geology and Mineral Resources of Mozambique. Direccao Nacional de Geologia, Miniserio Dos Recursos Minerais e Energia, Republica de Mocambique

Love, D. Taigbenu, A.E. and Jonker, L. 2005. An overview of the Mzingwane Catchment, Zimbabwe, a contribution to the WaterNet Challenge Program Project 17 ―Integrated Water Resource Management for Improved Rural Livelihoods: Managing risk, mitigating drought and improving water productivity in the water scarce Limpopo Basin‖. WaterNet Working Paper 1. WaterNet, Harare.

Mtisi, S. and Nicol, A. 2003. Caught in the Act: New Stakeholders, Decentralisation and Water Management Processes in Zimbabwe.ODI Research Paper 14, March 2003.

Moore, P., Marfin, A., Quenemoen, L., Gessner, B., Ayub, Y., Miller, D., Sullivan, K. and Toole, M. 1993. Mortality rates in displaced and resident populations of central Somalia during 1992 famine. The Lancet, vol 341, pp 935-938.

Mupindu, S., Murimirudzombo, N. and Changunda, P. 2004. Sida Support to Save Catchment Council. Sida Evaluation 04/05

BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WELLFIELD CONSULTING SERVICES CSIR WALLINGFORD, OXON GABORONE PRETORIA UK BOTSWANA SOUTH AFRICA

75 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008 Nash, D.J. and Endfield, G.H. 2008. ‗Splendid rains have fallen‘: links between El Niño and rainfall variability in the Kalahari, 1840-1900. Climatic Change, vol 86, pp 257-290.

Nicol, A.L. 2001. Adopting a sustainable livelihoods approach to water projects: implications for policy and practice. ODI Working Paper 133. Overseas Development Institute, London.

Norad, 2004. A framework for Groundwater Management of Community Water Supply. NORAD, Pretoria.

Office of the Compliance/Advisor Ombudsman, 2008. Participatory Water Monitoring: a Guide for Preventing and Managing Conflict. The Office of the Compliance/Advisor Ombudsman, Washington DC.

Orpen, W. R. G. 1996. Compendium of figures and data coverage for the Northern Province, RSA. Groundwater Management in Drought Prone Areas of Africa, British Geological Survey National Groundwater Information Directorate: Geohydrology. Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, Pretoria, RSA.

Reason, C.J.C., Hachigonta, S. and Phaladi, R.F. 2005. Interannual variability in rainy season characteristics over the Limpopo region of Southern Africa. International Journal of Climatology, vol. 25, pp 1835-1853.

Solanes, M.R. 1986. Legislative approaches to drought management. Natural Resources Forum United Nations, Vol. 10, issue 4, pp 373-378.

Taucale, F. 2002. Water resources of Mozambique ―and the situation of the shared rivers‖. River Basin Information Systems Meeting, Nairobi, Kenya, 13-14 February 2002. 6 pages.

Thompson, A. O. 1975. The Karoo Rocks in the Mazunga Area, Beitbrige District., Rhodesia Geological Survey.

Tyson, P.D. 1986. Climate Change and Variability in Southern Africa. Cape Town: Oxford University Press.

Vegter, J. R. 2001a. Groundwater development in South Africa: and an introduction to the hydrogeology of groundwater regions. Pretoria, Water Research Commission: 106pp.

Vegter, J.R. 2001b. Hydrogeology of groundwater, region 3: Limpopo Granulite Gneiss Belt. Pretoria, Water Research Commission: 81pp.

Vogel, C. 2000. Climate and climatic change: causes and consequences. In: Fox, R. and Rowntree, K., (editors) The Geography of South Africa in a Changing World. Oxford University Press, pp 284-303.

Water Surveys Botswana (Pty) Ltd, 2007. Bobonong Groundwater Investigation and Development Project, Inception Phase. June 2007, Report volumes 1-5.

Wright, E.P. and Burgess, W.G. 1992. Hydrogeology of Crystalline Basement Rocks in Africa. Geological Society, London, Special Publications 66.

BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WELLFIELD CONSULTING SERVICES CSIR WALLINGFORD, OXON GABORONE PRETORIA UK BOTSWANA SOUTH AFRICA

76 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008 List of Guidelines and Manuals

Groundwater:

GHV Consulting 1978. Shallow wells. GHV Consulting, Holland.

Holden R & Swanepoel T 2004. Introductory guide to appropriate solutions to water and sanitation. Toolkit for Water Services; No. 7.2, NORAD/DWAF, Pretoria.

Hussey SW 2007. Water from sand rivers: guidelines for abstraction. WEDC, Loughborough.

Macdonald AM, Davies J, Calow R and Chilton J 2005. Developing groundwater: a guide for rural water supply. ITDG Publishing, London.

Intervention:

Lovell C 2000. Productive water points in dry land areas: guidelines on integrated planning for rural water supply. ITDG Publishing, London.

Morgan P 1988. Bucket pump manual for field workers. Blair Research Laboratory, Ministry of Health, Harare.

Morgan P 1991. The Zimbabwe Bush Pump: a manual for the installation and maintenance of the ‗B‘ Type Bush Pump. Blair Research Laboratory, Ministry of Health, Harare.

Veterinaires Sans Frontiers 2006. Sub-surface dams: a simple safe and affordable technology for pastoralists. Veterinaires Sans Frontiers, Belgium.

Community action:

Laver S 1986. Water for all: a handbook for community based workers. GTZ: Germany.

Norad 2004. A framework for Groundwater Management of Community Water Supply. NORAD, Pretoria.

Office of the Compliance/Advisor Ombudsman 2008. Participatory Water Monitoring: a Guide for Preventing and Managing Conflict. The Office of the Compliance/Advisor Ombudsman, Washington DC.

Ravenscroft P & Murray R 2004. A framework for groundwater management of community water supply. Toolkit for Water Services: 1/1. NORAD/DWAF, Pretoria.

Schoeman G & Magongoa B 2004. Community identified performance indicators for measuring water services. Water Research Commission Report No TT 228/04.

SWELL 2004. Securing water enhance local livelihoods (SWELL): guidelines for implementing a water and livelihoods planning process. WHIRL/AWARD/CARE, South Africa.

BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WELLFIELD CONSULTING SERVICES CSIR WALLINGFORD, OXON GABORONE PRETORIA UK BOTSWANA SOUTH AFRICA

77 APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

Pilot Area Maps

28° 29° 30° 31° 32°

Sangakwe Ranch #S SIYOKA COMMUNAL LAND Bubye Ranch Manama Mission #S DILISHABA COMMUNAL LAND SiyokaÚÊ #S MATIBI No2 COMMUNAL LAND NUANETSI RANCH #S ZEZANI CENTRE #S Wunga Zenani Mission SHASHI COMMUNAL LAND GONAKUDZINGWA ' ' 0 0 Hwali DendeleÚÊ 4 4 Chikombedzi Mission #S ° ° ÚÊ 1 1 JOPEMPI BLOCK 2 2 #S ÚÊ K ÚÊ HWALI BOREHOLE HWALI BOREHOLE DENDELE R COMMUNAL Safari Estate A LAND #S JIMI LNE P

#S Z I M B A B W E Gobojango L MACHUCHUTA #S A COMMUNAL BAMBALI#S#S ÚÊ N Chassanga # Semolale LAND OLD MACHUCHUTA # MTITINGWE COMMUNAL LAND DITI COMMUNAL LAND O #S NEW MACHUCHUCHUTA NEW MACHUCHUCHUTA SENGWE I Mahatlane #S Mugugugo ÚÊ MASERA COMMUNAL LAND COMMUNAL T # #S Tobane Tuli #S #S NDAMBE A ÚÊ # LAND NO I BH TOPORO CENTER #STOPORO #S#S MALIPATI NO I BH Makado N ÚÊ Bobonong #S #S #S#S ÚÊ STOP13 WEL SAFARI # #S #S U # BIRI AREA ÚÊ JALUKANGA Gondekonde O #S#S MATETENGWE MADAULO BH H # COMMUNAL Z # JALUKA IRRIGATION SCHEME LAND MADAULO BH E Gota CHASVINGO SHASHE #S#S MADAULO BH R Molalatau #S#S #S#S # SHASHI IRRIGATION SCHEME PRIVATE BH A SHASHI IRRIGATION SCHEME ÚÊ # #S N CHINONI Chabile ÚÊ Shashe #S CHITURIPASI VILLAGE O FULA STOP10 BH # ÚÊ #S #S CHINONI ÚÊ G # Pont Drift #S #S STOP10 BH #S Chiturapasi RUKANGE CHALUBIMBI #S # B O T S W A N A #S Beitbridge DITI WARD2 ÚÊ#S Diti #S # #S Machete CHKWARAKWARA Mathathane ÚÊ #S # #S Madimbo Sengwe # #SVouzela ÚÊ #S #S STOP9 BH #S #S Tchale # M E S S I N A #S Messina Mabiligwe #S # Mpandhle ÚÊ #SVouga Evangelica # #S #S Florence Cunguma # #S M O Z A M B I Q U E Tsetsebjwe ÚÊ #S #S ÚÊ Platjanbridge # Meguzalala Mutale #S #S #S # Baines Drift # Chicualacuala - Apeadeira #S # # Maquiane #S Segole # # #S Brombeek # Vulela #S Dirleton # #S #S ÚÊ Muswodi # Chebeane #S #S #S #S Shakudza # # Macassane Bandur #S #S #S Vimioso Rosendale # #S ÚÊ Salane ÚÊ Alldays N O R T H E R N P R O V I N C E S O U T P A N S # B E R G Brenhilda #S #S # Pachela Tshivaloni Gwagwatini #S ÚÊ#S Thengwe # Mavhede Matambo KRUGER Maguajal #S #S #S #S Maasstroom ÚÊ Maheni # # NATIONAL #S Cucuane T H O H O Y A N D O U # Taaiboschgroet # ' ' # 0 0 S O U T H A F R I C A # # 5 5 PARK ° ° S O U T P A N S B E R G # # Lissenga 2 2 Swartwater #S#S #S Mapai 2 2 # # #S Ga-Mabelebele Chiveguemba ÚÊ P O T G I E T E R S R U S #S # Waterpoort Kromhoek # BOCHUM Pax Intrantibus # Naledi #S Kalkheuwel #

28° 29° 30° 31° 32°

LEGEND Hydrogeological Environment Main Aquifer Aquifer Potential Groundwater Quality Previous Work Intervention Types

...... Roads Weathered and fractured Drilling shallow borehole and collector ÚÊ Potential Nodal Points Archean Basement Complex gneisses and schists Low to medium Good to poor Much drilling but little reportage wells; well and borehole deepening

Low to medium, 2-7 m3/hr, poor storage, ...... Selected Nodal points ...... Proterozoic Soutpansberg Group Weathered fractured Many boreholes drilled especially in former ÚÊ Railline good recharge, high rainfall 600-> Sandstones and Lavas quartzite and basalts Good, TDS 0-70 mg/l Venda homeland area, little reported Springs, wells and boreholes deepening 1000 mm/annum

S# ...... Settlement ### ...... Powerline Ecca Sandstones and Limited studies in Zimbabwe and South Medium-high; 20-50m3/hr; Good storage; Fresh TDS <500 mg/l Africa, on-going studies in Botswana Karoo Sedimentary Rocks Ntane Sst/basalt Limited recharge Boreholes, wells contact zone Limited spatial data ...... Game Reserve ...... Pilot Areas Fractured basalts Low to medium; >2 along escarpment, Fresh, TDS 70-300 mg/l Limited studies in Zimbabwe and South Drilling shallow borehole and collector Karoo Lavas and rhyolites (along 2-9m3/hr elsewhere; Poor to good storage; Africa, on-going studies in Botswana Limited wells; well and borehole deepening Lebombo Escarpment) Good recharge occasionally >1000 mg/l ...... International boundary spatial data

Malvernia/ Sena Fms Low to medium; >2 Low to medium, ...... Built up Areas Fractured gritty sandstones Good to poor, Limited study in Mozambique In Zimbabwe 0.1-6 m3/hr, water table deep, recharge Borehole deepening but deep water table and conglomerates TDS 400-900 mg/l occurs within Gonarezhrou National Park ...... poor Rivers Cretaceous - Tertiary Sediments Elephants Sandstones Low, water table deep, Limited study in Mozambique Coarse to fine grained recharge poor Poor, TDS 300-6000 mg/l Borehole deepening but deep water table continental sediments

Where close to demand, abstraction from 8 0 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 Kilometers Shallow aquifer, regularly recharged, Fresh; TDS < 200mg/l in Irrigation studies along the Limpopo, shallow wells, sand-dams and galleries for Quaternary Sand River Alluvium but limited volume; high-very high west; TDS 200-1300 mg/l Alluvial sands and gravels Shashi and Umzingwani Rivers irrigation and village/town water supply 80-400m3/hr; limited storage volume further east

Hydrogeological Environments Map 1 28° 29° 30° 31° 32°

Sangakwe Ranch #S Bubye Ranch Siyoka #S MATIBI No2 COMMUNAL LAND Manama Mission #S DILISHABA COMMUNAL LAND ÚÊ SIYOKA COMMUNAL LAND NUANETSI RANCH ZEZANI CENTRE #S Wunga #S Zenani Mission SHASHI COMMUNAL LAND GONAKUDZINGWA ' ' 0 0 Hwali DendeleÚÊ 4 4 #S ° ° ÚÊ Chikombedzi Mission 1 1 JOPEMPI BLOCK 2 2 #S ÚÊ DENDELE K ÚÊ

Mamututuri COMMUNAL R

LAND A Safari Estate #S P Gobojango JIMI LNE #S ZIM 1 L #S MACHUCHUTA A BAMBALI#S#S # ÚÊ COMMUNAL N OLD MACHUCHUTA Chassanga LAND # Semolale MTITINGWE COMMUNAL LAND O #S MASERA COMMUNAL LAND SENGWE I Mahatlane #S NEW MACHUCHUCHUTA Mugugugo ÚÊ COMMUNAL T # #S Tobane Tuli Makado #S #S TOPORO A ÚÊ # TOPORO CENTER NDAMBE LAND NO I BH #S #S#S MALIPATI NO I BH N ÚÊ Bobonong #S #S #S#S ÚÊ STOP13 WEL DITI COMMUNAL LAND SAFARI # BOTS 1 U #S #S # AREA ÚÊ JALUKANGA BIRI O #S#S MATETENGWE Gondekonde H # COMMUNAL Z # JALUKA IRRIGATION SCHEME Gota LAND ZIM 2 E CHASVINGO SHASHE #S#S MADAULO BH R Molalatau #S#S #S#S # SHASHI IRRIGATION SCHEME PRIVATE BH A # SHASHI IRRIGATION SCHEME ÚÊ #S N CHINONI Chabile ÚÊ Shashe #S CHITURIPASI VILLAGE O FULA STOP10 BH # ÚÊ CHINONI #S #S ZIM 1 Shashe ÚÊ G # SA 2 #S #S RUKANGE #S CHALUBIMBI #S Chiturapasi # #S Beitbridge DITI WARD2 WESTERN PILOT AREA Pont Drift #S #S # Machete ÚÊDiti #S Mathathane ÚÊ DITI WARD2 EASTERN PILOT#S AREA # #S Madimbo CHKWARAKWARA Sengwe # #S Vouzela ÚÊ #S #S STOP9 BH Gumbu #S #S Tchale # M E S S I N A #S Messina Mabiligwe #S ÚÊ # Evangelica SA 2 Mpandhle #S Vouga # BOTS 2 Madangani #S #S Florence Cunguma # #S Tsetsebjwe M O Z A M B I Q U E ÚÊ #S #S ÚÊ Platjanbridge # SA 2 Mutale #S Meguzalala #S # #S # Baines Drift SA 1 #S Chicualacuala - Apeadeira #S Segole # # Maquiane Brombeek # # #S # #S # #SMOZ 1 #S Dirleton # Vulela ÚÊ Muswodi #S #S #S #S Shakudza # Magazano # Chebeane #S #S Macassane #S Vimioso Rosendale Bandur # #S Mukovhabale ÚÊ SalaneÚÊ S O U T P A N S #B E R G Alldays #S N O R T H E R N P R O V I N C E #S Brenhilda # Pachela Thengwe #S ÚÊ#S # Matambo KRUGER Maguajal Mavhede #S #S Maasstroom #S #S # ÚÊT H O H O Y A N D O U # NATIONAL #S Cucuane # # # ' ' SA 1 # 0 0 # 5 5 Taaiboschgroet # PARK ° ° S O U T P A N S B E R G # Lissenga Mapai 2 2 Swartwater #S#S # #S 2 2 # #S Ga-Mabelebele Chiveguemba ÚÊ P O T G I E T E R S R U S #S # Kromhoek BOCHUM Waterpoort # Pax Intrantibus # Naledi #S Kalkheuwel #

28° 29° 30° 31° 32° 8 0 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 Kilometers

LEGEND ...... Game Reserve ÚÊ ...... Potential Nodal Points ...... Roads ...... Pilot Areas

...... ÚÊ Selected Nodal Points ...... Railline International ...... Built up Areas

#S ...... Settlement ### ...... Powerline ...... Rivers WESTERN PILOT AREA EASTERN PILOT AREA

Land Use Type\Country Botswana South Africa Zimbabwe Land Use Type\Country Mozambique South Africa Zimbabwe

BOT1, population density ZIM1, population density Primary Target Areas Rural Areas Rural Areas SA1, population density 101-500 ZIM1, population density 3-5 persons/km2 SA1, population density 6-25 persons/km2 3-5 persons/km2 MOZ1, population density 3-5 persons/km2 persons/km2 6-50 persons/km2

Commercial Farms with Rural BOT2, population density ZIM2, population density BOT1, MOZ1, SA1 and ZIM1 SA2, population density 6-25 persons/km2 Areas 3-5 persons/km2 6-25 persons/km2 Commercial Farms with ZIM2, population density Rural Areas SA2, population density 26-50 persons/km2 6-50 persons/km2

ZIM2, population density Commercial Farms BOT2, population density SA2, population density 6-25 persons/km2 3-5 persons/km2 6-25 persons/km2 Commercial Farms SA2, population density 6-50 persons/km2 ZIM2, population density Secondary Target Areas 26-50 persons/km2

Tuli Circle Safari Area Proposed Conservation areas (CAs) area including Sentinal and Limpopo Valley Game Reserve Venetia BOT2, MOZ2, SA2 and ZIM2 Conservation areas (CAs) Nottingham Ranches and the Limpopo National Park Tuli Circle Safari Area Northern Tuli Game Reserve Limpopo Nature Reserve Proposed Core Area Kruger National Park Maramani Communal Area Proposed trans-frontier park Gonarezhou National Park Proposed Conservation Area Proposed Conservation Area Malipati Safari Area

Pilot Areas And Nodal Points Map 2

APPENDIX B

Workshop and Field Diaries

DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008 Workshop and Field Visit Report - Jeffrey Davies 16th June – 8th July 2008

CSIR Pretoria - Workshop Diary

19th June 2008 At CSIR, Pretoria, discussed workshop content with Dr Rascher. Agreed that due to financial and time limits, need to constrain work done by sociologists to a small number of selected areas. Met members of the project teams from Mozambique, South Africa and Zimbabwe.

20th June 2008 Attended the project workshop at CSIR with Dr Rascher and country team members. John Farr introduced the project, country members introduced themselves. Jeff Davies outlined the project to date based on first four sections of the inception report, followed by a description of the groundwater section using available information and data sets. Dr Rascher described the sociological/economic section. During a discussion session, exchanged ideas on the division of areas into conservation, commercial and rural zones with the nodal areas being located within the rural areas. Following the workshop discussed the project with Christine Colvin, Phil Hobbs and Dinis.

21st June 2008 Returned to Gaborone

Field Visit Diary

30th June 2008 At CSIR Pretoria discussed map, brochure and poster content with Phil Hobbs and Dr Rascher. Phil arranged a meeting with Willem Du Toit (DWAF) in Polokwane and the download of DWAF hydrogeological information. In store room went through reports collected by Reinye Meyer on Limpopo Basin. Selected reports for Phil to copy. Dr Rascher arranged meeting with Agnes (RSA socio-economist) in Polokwane. Drove from Pretoria to Polokwane where met Agnes to discuss maps, brochure and poster. She suggested we visit the Vhembe District Municipality offices in Thohoyandou and the Makopane area. Discussed groundwater use and related belief systems of the Venda people.

1st July 2008 Met Willem Du Toit and Heyns Vester at DWAF, Polokwane, to introduce them to the project. They described the GRIPS database; data not yet available on the web but DWAF will provide any data we need for areas of interest. Heynes described the water level monitoring system and impact of over pumping since the 1991-1992 drought. Monitoring boreholes are being installed through out Limpopo Province, all equipped with Divers. From Polokwane drove via the Albasini Dam to Thohoyandou to visit the District Municipality offices. Met Mr Ben Ramonedi, the DWAF water officer, and Mr Tshivhengwa, the Technical Manager to whom we introduced the project using the maps, poster and brochure. Drove from Thohoyandou via Sibasa, over the Mutale river and along the Thengwe valley, and over the Soutpansberg to the Nwenedi Resort.

2nd July 2008 Drove from Nwenedi via Tshipise north to the Limpopo River and its junction with the Sand River; then to Mussina. From Mussina drove west through an area underlain by Basement Complex strata into to the area of irrigation schemes underlain by alluvial gravels at Wipie.

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83 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008 To the west traversed an area underlain by Karoo strata in Mapugumbwe conservancy area at the confluence of the Limpopo and Shashe Rivers. Crossed the Limpopo River into Botswana at Pontdrift. Noted the Motloutse sand river at its confluence with the Limpopo and the irrigation of alluvial gravels at Talana Farms. Drove through the Tuli Block conservancy area to Platjan.

3rd July 2008 Drove from Platjan to Bobonong via Molalatau. Met Ketsile at the kgotla where addressed a meeting of the District Development Council where used maps, posters and brochures to introduce the project. Bobonong has district level water management, community water supply being piped from wellfields to homes and standpipes in villages with populations >500 persons. The need to capture the historical narrative of elders describing their coping strategies during periods of drought was emphasised. Drove via Gobojango and Semolala, noting village, irrigation and cattle post water supply from the basalts and sand rivers, to the Tuli Circle and the Shashe River. Drove along the Tuli Circle and north to the Shashe River, then south along the Tuli Circle and west to Semolala, Bobonong and to Selebi Pikwe.

4th July 2008 Discussed the content of the project with Dr de Vries from the Acacia Institute (the Netherlands). He is interested in community management of groundwater systems. Drove from Selebi Pikwe to Bobonong and then to a Bobonong Water Supply Project borehole drilling site west of Mathathane. Drove through the Tuli Block conservation area to Zanzibar, Machaneng, Mahalapye and Gaborone.

Jeffrey Davies – Field Visit Diary 28th September – 5th October 2008 Members of field party included: Jeffrey Davies – BGS/core Hydrogeologist Phil Hobbs – CSIR/South African Hydrogeologist Agnes Rankoana – CSIR/South African Socio-economist Research Assistant Emanuel - University of the North

29th September 2008 At CSIR, Pretoria, with Phil Hobbs discussed field visit and downloaded relevant WRC reports.

30th September 2008 With Phil Hobbs drove from Pretoria to Polokwane.

Polokwane DWAF office Met Willem Du Toit and Heyns Vester with whom discussed possible interventions in the South African parts of the two focal areas. In the western area, confirmed that the villages of Evangelina and Mathete do not exist. Most of western area is occupied by commercial ranches, each with own water supply systems. Collected GIS and monitoring data from Heyns Vester.

Drove from Polokwane to Louis Trichard where visited boreholes of the Sand River water abstraction system for the Louis Trichardt air base.

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84 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008 1st October 2008 Drove from Louis Trichardt across the Soutpansberg; then west crossing the Sand River at Waterpoort and on to Alldays. Drove from Alldays through Evangelina to the Messina – Pontdrift road to a point west of the entrance to the Mapungubwe reserve. There, inspected core from three coal exploration boreholes. Water found within the underlying Ecca formations is reported by the driller to be brackish to saline. The apparent location of ‗Mathete‘ was located at the entrance to the Mapungubwe Reserve where water is supplied from two windmill equipped boreholes. Drove east to Messina, then to Tshipese and on to Muswordi and south to Shakodza village. Returned to Muswordi to drive east along the Mutele road to Segole (Klein Tshipese Spring). Then viewed the Mutale River where it meets the Mutele Road. East of this site noted two pairs of DWAF installed boreholes. At the Mutale bridge noted a sign advertising the installation of a well point system for Masisi. Drove through Masisi and Tshipese and over the Soutpansberg to Louis Trichardt.

2nd October 2008 Drove from Louis Trichardt to Polokwane to collected additional GRIPS borehole data from DWAF. Drove to the University of the North campus to meet Agnes Rankoana. Drove via Polokwane to Louis Trichardt where collected her research assistant, Emanuel, and continue to Thohoyandou. Drove from Thohoyandou to Sibasa then into the Mutale valley. At Tengwe, the valley is wide and dry, being infilled with quaternary sediments deposited along a down-faulted half graben. Villages are located along the southern (dip slope) and northern (scarp slope) sides of the valley where spring zones occur. Drove from the main road at Tengwe to visit three water supply boreholes within Maheni.

Maheni Village At first site noted an electrical submersible pump equipped borehole supplying a local school. Water obtained here is transported to adjacent villages by donkey cart or truck. At the eastern end of the village found an operating hand pumped borehole installed in the 1970‘s. Water drawn is used for domestic use, cattle watering, washing clothes and brick making. This is the only reliable source of water for this part of the village. The village has a piped water system installed during the 1990‘s fed from two header tanks located on the hill above Tengwe. Although meters and standpipes have been provided, those located at the extremities of the system receive little water. At Mulodi found an example of a roundabout pump at the local school on a recently installed borehole. Within Tengwe saw how water supplies are used to water lawns and wash vehicles.

Drove west along the Mutale valley to Rambuda where shown a spring guarded by a snake. Drove back to Thohoyandou.

3rd October 2008 Drove from Thohoyandou via Sibasa to Tengwe and then into the valley north of the Mutale valley to Matavhela.

Matavhela Village Water supply is obtained from a borehole located near the Savhani River to the west. Drove from Matavhela to the borehole site at Gwangwatini village where the borehole diesel powered mono pump had been replaced by an electrical submersible pump. Water from this borehole is reticulated to five villages, a sixth is currently being connected.

Drove back to the main road and on to Shakudza.

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85 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008

Shakudza Village At a site behind the local clinic, found an abandoned 1970‘s hand pumped borehole, a disused 1990‘s borehole formerly equipped with a diesel engine powered pump and a recently installed borehole equipped with a Mono pump powered by a surface electrical motor. Water is pumped to a header tank 1 kilometre away from which it is reticulated to the village. Although a flow meter is installed on the pump outlet it does not work. The automatic down-hole cutout used to stop the pump when water levels fall to a dangerous level has been withdrawn from the hole and is now located in a bucket of water to ensure that the pump doesn‘t stop. Cattle watering at the borehole site has been banned, cattle being now watered at a spring several kilometers to the south.

On to Muswordi from where drove along road to Mutele, turning north to visit the site of the Big Tree.

Big Tree Borehole Borehole next to car park used to supply local community, low yield and slightly saline. Farmers allowed to cut grass for cattle during drought. Has been in a state of drought since last December, last season no crops grown although fields have been ploughed.

On to spring source at Segole (Klein Tshipise).

Segole (Klein Tshipise) Water outflow from the spring is used to irrigate tree crops such as mangos, water to be reticulated to villages.

Looked at Mutale River then onto Maltule, where could not locate well point system in river – boulders in the bed of the river. Drove back along gravel road as far as Tshambuka where turned off to look at hand pump equipped borehole. Had another puncture, found that the repaired spare was flat. Drove to Makuyu police station from where transported by AA recovery vehicle to Louis Trichard.

4th October 2008 In Louis Trichard, purchased two replacement tyres and had them fitted. Drove to Polokwane to collect information on CD from DWAF. Carried on to Pretoria and to CSIR. Stayed night at Pretoria.

5th October 2008 Returned to Gaborone.

Jeffrey Davies – Field Visit Diary 21st -24th November 2008 Members of the party included: Jeffrey Davies – BGS/core Hydrogeologist Robert Gumiremhete – Wellfield/Botswana and Zimbabwe Hydrogeologist Philip Beetlestone and Barbara Lopi (PMU), Albert Tuinhof (GWMATE)

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86 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008 21st November 2008 Drove from Gaborone to the Tuli Block via Mahalapye. Night at the Limpopo River Lodge.

22nd November 2008 Drove to Bobonong North of Bobonong visited a small scale irrigation enterprise that uses water drawn from the Motoutse River.

Drove via Molalatau and Mthathane to the Limpopo crossing at Platjan. Drove via Alldays and Evangelina to Mussina. Stayed at the Ilalo Lodge.

23rd November 2008 Drove from Mussina to Bietbridge, crossed into Zimbabwe. Drove north to Mokado where turned west to Madziwe

Madziwe At Madziwe viewed abandoned handpumps and currently used wells, sand dam and village gardens.

Continued to the south west over the Mzingwane River to Wunga.

Wunga. At Wunga looked at sand dam sites, well sites, communal gardens and an operating handpumped borehole.

Returned via Mokado to north of Bietbridge then drove to Nuli

Nuli Viewed new dam site and garden enterprise.

Drove on to Diti.

Diti At Diti looked at the borehole that used to supply local clinic. Discussed cholera outbreak with local nurses. Need to equip clinic with rainfall catchment system. Inspected other abandoned boreholes and wells adjacent to sand river. Noted operating diesel engine powered pump on private borehole.

Returned to Bietbridge to cross back into South Africa and return to Mussina

24th November 2008 Drove from Mussina via Tshipise to Muswordi. From Muswordi drove east to the Klein Tshipise spring at Segole

Klein Tshipise spring at Segole Looked at the spring eye and irrigation distribution system. Development of the spring as a source of village water supply is currently underway.

Drove back to Muswordi and then south to Shakadze where visited the village boreholes.

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87 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008 Shakadze The operating borehole supplies water to a header tank located on the hillside to the south from where the water is reticulated to local villages.

Drove to the south to view the supply borehole at Tshivaloni/Gwagwatini.

Tshivaloni/Gwagwatini This borehole, equipped with an electrical submersible pump, is to be used to supply water to six villages.

Drove south to the Tengwe Valley where visited villages located along the southern side of the valley.

Tengwe Valley The villages are supplied by a metered water reticulation system that obtains water from the Mutale River. Currently the system is unable to maintain regular supply to those at the furthest parts of the system. Supply to schools are ensured from recently drilled boreholes, those communities at the south eastern end of the pipe system obtaining water from an old handpump equipped borehole.

From the Tengwe Valley, drove to Sabisa and then through the Soutpansberg, to Alldays, Swartwarter, Martins Drift, Mahalapye and back to Gaborone.

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88 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008

Blessing Mudzingwa (Zimbabwe Team Hydrogeologist) – Zimbabwe Field Visit Diary – 11/08/08 – 18/08/08 Date Trip Activity Important Notes Comments Contacts Had a meeting with There was a UN Project to drill boreholes in Westbury Nyahasha Westbury Nyahasha. Matebeleland. This data is with Zinwa and +263 912 675 817 Our Zimbabwe contact could also be obtained from the District Westbury to visit Zinwa offices and collect +263 23 222 308 11-08-08 Harare for data councils on ward by ward basis. There is data on boreholes, river discharges on the +263 912 377 966 digital information on hydrogeology and river Mzingwane and Shashe. [email protected] discharges. Acquired digital top sheets of the [email protected] western and eastern areas Shingirai Mapinde-Project Picked up Shingirai Sociologist-Zimbabwe Mapinde, Project +263 4 707266-9 Sociologist – +263 116 165 75 Zimbabwe and drove [email protected] to Bulawayo

Identified the following . Small catchment/earth dams built by the community with hand dug wells at the foot of the earth dam wall within the streambed on the downstream side. The earth dam provides water for livestock and other domestic uses on the upstream and the hand dug wells provide drinking and vegetable irrigation water for the Drove to Gwanda and community from infiltration under the dam branched off south- wall through the sand, see picture. 1 west into the Western . Several hand dug wells are found Project Area. Drove along stream and river banks. They Bulawayo to 12-08-08 through Guyu, Hwali, provide water for domestic and vegetable Beitbridge Zezane and rejoined gardening. All hand-dug wells are sealed the Bulawayo- and equipped with bush pumps. Beitbridge Road at . Deep boreholes were observed Makado away from the river banks. Most of the boreholes are not functioning due to breakdown and lack of spare parts. . Sand river dams-all the observed sand river dams were no longer in use. At Mzingwane river bridge at Zezane, the old bridge is almost covered by sand, indicating that a lot of sand has now filled the Mzingwane river since the old bridge was constructed. A new highly elevated

BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WELLFIELD CONSULTING SERVICES CSIR WALLINGFORD, OXON GABORONE PRETORIA UK BOTSWANA SOUTH AFRICA 89 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008

Date Trip Activity Important Notes Comments Contacts bridge has now been constructed . Community-feedback-It hardly rains in this part of the country and there have been successive years of crop failure. Community used to receive food relief from NGOs (World Vision), however, the Government suspended all NGOs activities and they now have to source money to buy food from Beitbridge . Temporary wells dug into the sand within sand rivers/streams providing water for domestic use. The wells are lined with open ended tins to prevent collapsing Met with the CEO, Mr A Mbedzi. We were asked to attend the Beitbridge Rural District Development committee Meeting so we could introduce ourselves and brief them on our Visited the Beitbridge Project Objectives. Mr Mbedzi pointed out that [email protected] 13-08-08 Beitbridge Rural District Council it is important to have organizations willing to offer development projects in the area as this will be incorporated into their 10 year development plans to alleviate poverty and increase development in the area. Met Mr S Muleya, acting District Administrator Mr. S Muleya Visited the District and Principal Administration Officer, who also +263 86 2230/22436/22841

Administrator‘s Office advised us to attend the development +263 11340733/+263 committee meeting 912280761 Briefed the committee on our purpose of the [email protected] Committee members present at the meeting visit and Project goals. The committee [email protected] were: Attended the welcomed our visit and regarded the Project [email protected] Mr A Mbedzi – CEO development as an important part of their long-term district +263 86 22404 Mr. Nsingo – District Engineer committee meeting development planning. Mrs. Nsingo – Deputy CEO Mrs. R Muyambo was tasked with Mrs. R Muyambo-District Officer, Health accompanying us to the field Visited World Vision The development department rehabilitated Mr J Mutingwende, Offices to brief them Visited the Development Department and met Tongwe Irrigation scheme in ward 4. New Development Facilitator- on our Project with Mr J Mutingwende and Nomsa Makado dam rehabilitation and construction projects Programmes objectives and share were to be implemented once the government +263 11645965 with us their ban was lifted in e.g., Masera village – +263 86 23750 experiences in the Lerombe dam, Machuchuta village- Mrs. N Makado, Project Area. World Domboledenje dam. In all 8 wards have been Development Facilitator-Child

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Date Trip Activity Important Notes Comments Contacts Vision is working with selected for projects implementation Sponsorship, HIV/AIDS, DDF, Council, DA, Micro financing, Community Rural Extension Empowerment Officers and other +263 86 23750 stake holders in the District. These comprise the development committee. The community mobilize material and manpower and the NGO provide expertise and expensive material. These are food for work projects and the community had done their best before the projects were suspended. The NGOs are eager to go back on the ground but do not know when the ban will be lifted. Drilled and rehabilitated boreholes under water and sanitation programme in various wards. Most boreholes are under breakdown Mr. J Mukarudzi, Facilitator- due to lack of spare parts or completely worn Visited Water and Sanitation Department PHHE (Participating Health out pipes. People travel long distances to the under Mr. James Mukarudzi and Hygiene Education) nearest water point. There are proposals for +263 86 23750 low cost pumps which use car tyres, beer plastic containers and ropes and will be implemented once field work resumes At the DDF office I met Mr P. Dube. All the Mr Nsingo referred us to the District borehole information is kept on cards (each Visited Mr Nsingo Development Fund, the custodians of all card for each borehole/well). There is no P. Dube DDF Officer, Water (District Engineer) to borehole information in the district. digital data. This borehole information has +263 86 22503 collected all relevant been transferred by hand on to sheets which

Project data Could not find any digital or hardcopy reports list each borehole by depth, location, etc. As or data on projects carried out in the district. there was only one copy, we couldn‘t get this data. Mr Dube was tasked with reproducing

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Date Trip Activity Important Notes Comments Contacts the data, and then fax it to WCS offices. In all >1000 records exist, however the status condition of each borehole is not known This dam was constructed during pre- independence and the irrigation scheme has After the various been rehabilitated a number of times. Lately morning meetings, Nearly 20 ha of wheat is under irrigation at World Vision (WV) has rehabilitated a section visited Tongwe Tongwe dam, see picture. There are more of the dam wall which burst during cyclone irrigation scheme to than 100 people in the irrigation scheme Eline. WV also rehabilitated canals and have the north of Beitbridge. built new canals for the scheme which are currently operational. WV has currently suspended work due to Government directive. Visited the eastern Lutumba, Gota and Nuli areas are Several boreholes-community and private and area and passed characterised by rocky terrain. Shallow wells a small dam were observed in this village. through several are prevalent next to streams/rivers with Water seems to be adequate in this village villages- Lutumba, vegetable gardens. Boreholes were observed provided all identified boreholes are Gota, Nuli, Chasvingo, away from the streams operational. Individual and cooperative Fula, Madaulo, In Chasvingo, Fula and Madaulo areas, vegetable gardens were observed. Chturipasi, Chipise, boreholes and wells were identified and these Beitbridge- Chalubimbi, Diti etc. areas are flat lying The eastern area is demarcated from the west 14-08-08 Chikwarakwara The village straddles two completely different by a steep slope with a difference in elevation Irrigation Scheme Drove eastwards to topographic features. The western area is of 100m-fault scarp, striking N-S Chturipasi village rocky and elevated. During the rainy season the spring is inundated by river water. The temperatures Chipise hot spring is found within the from the spring water is close to 1000C. The Visited Chipise hot riverbed-Chipise river. Only one hot spring water is used for cooking and bathing. spring was identified with smaller warm springs Evidence of lack of protection and pollution nearby. was from cow dung just next to the spring Drove to Nearly 10 ha of wheat are under irrigation Only close to 10 ha is under irrigation. The Chikwarakwara from groundwater from the alluvial sands in scheme is being resuscitated as existing irrigation scheme the Limpopo valley. The total area for the canals have been completely destroyed and irrigation scheme is nearly 65 ha. the previously cultivated area is now overgrown. The 10 ha are irrigated from three boreholes using diesel engines. The

community contributes money towards buying diesel from the government at subsidized rates. Managed to talk to the pump man who told us that 2 boreholes were working at that time as one has a breakdown due to lack of a fan belt. We were also informed that the

BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WELLFIELD CONSULTING SERVICES CSIR WALLINGFORD, OXON GABORONE PRETORIA UK BOTSWANA SOUTH AFRICA 92 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008

Date Trip Activity Important Notes Comments Contacts Deputy President Mrs. Joyce Mujuru once visited the scheme and contributed towards its resuscitation. Concerted and hard work Houses in this are show improved living would be required if the whole irrigation Visited a 2ha conditions, with some of the houses matching scheme were to function again. cooperative vegetable urban standards. Most of the able bodied Vegetable irrigation was once through uPVC garden in Chalubimbi people in this area are working in South Africa pipes connected to a well which has now village broken down. There is an artificial sand dam in the form of a culvert across the river. 32 people are in the project This is also another NGO in the district Visited Lutheran working in conjunction with World Vision on Their offices were closed as all field activities

Foundation dams and boreholes rehabilitation and have been suspended. construction. Also met Mr Mukarudzi once more. Regarding hydrogeological and borehole data, we were Visited World Vision informed that once the ban is lifted, there will for an appointment Mrs. P Dube Manager, be a Village based Consultative Inventory Mrs. P Dube welcomed our project objectives with Mrs. P. Dube, Beitbridge District (VBCI) in preparation for forthcoming projects and visit and was happy that there were other 15-08-08 Beitbridge Manager who was in +263 86 23750 in the 8 wards they are covering. This potential providers to work with in the area Beitbridge when we [email protected] inventory will collect data on water point and share responsibilities. initially visited World status in the wards as well as other relevant Vision data. This data will be shared with WCS on the SADC project

Visited the southern From Beitbridge going west, the eastern part part of the western of the western area consists of commercial area as the northern farms growing oranges with water from the Major efforts will be required to completely part had been covered Mzingwane river. Outside the farms further resuscitate the scheme. on the first field visit on west, there are villages of Mutshilashokwe, 12-08-08 Makado, Swereki, Machuchuta, Shashe, Jalukanga etc, see map Beitbridge- 16-08-08 Western Area Shashe Irrigation An irrigation scheme of nearly 8 ha of wheat The irrigation scheme is supplied by water Mrs. Bertina Ndou-Secretary scheme being fed from the Shashe river. Most of the from the Shashe river through boreholes Mrs. Rama Musipa – Farmer irrigation area is under utilisation and fallow. connected to electricity and diesel engines as Mr. Joromiah Moyo- Pump The scheme is connected with electricity back-up. Much of the interrupted water man supply at the irrigation scheme is from Jalukanga Irrigation In total there are about 46 ha, but 20 ha are borehole breakdown. The community gets scheme currently under irrigation for wheat during the farming inputs from GMB and busy diesel winter period. We were assisted by the from the government at subsidized prices. At

BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WELLFIELD CONSULTING SERVICES CSIR WALLINGFORD, OXON GABORONE PRETORIA UK BOTSWANA SOUTH AFRICA 93 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008

Date Trip Activity Important Notes Comments Contacts secretary, a pump man and a farmer in the present only one engine out of four is working. scheme Most of the boreholes stopped working during the cyclone, probably collapsed. Each Biri Irrigation Scheme This irrigation scheme is not operation and borehole uses about 20l of diesel/day. EU and will need complete rehabilitation. Also along UNDP funded extension of the irrigation the Shashe river scheme as well as supply of the engines Mr Rosen gave a brief talk on the situation regarding projects implementation in the catchment area which completely covers our Project Area. Muchabezi-Mzingwane dams link up project. Dam construction on the Tuli river. These projects have been delayed due to lack Mr Tommy Rosen, of funds. Catchment manager, Other water projects in the area have also Mzingwane been stalled by lack of funds. +263 9 885184 On the issue of supplying data to the SADC +263 112 308 73 project, WCS left a letter with Zinwa office [email protected] Meeting with Mr Briefed Mr Rosen on the SADC Limpopo Bulawayo to be submitted to The Director Mr Tommy Rosen, 18-08-08 Bulawayo project objectives and followed up on the VH Choga, Department of Water Affairs, Catchment manager- email sent to him in June 2008 Head Office Harare. This introduction letter Mzingwane catchment from SADC seeks permission to seek and use Mr. V H Choga data from Zinwa and DWA for the SADC Director, DWA Head Office project. Harare Correspondence between Mr Rosen and +263 4 704119 head office revealed that initial SADC project +263 4 707861 in the Limpopo basin saw data gathering by +263 118 843 17 Ninham Shand, South Africa and Mr Baroto was the contact person. Similar data was also collected by the Department of Civil Engineering, Water, at the University of Zimbabwe. Possible contact person would be Dr. P van der Zaag Action Plan . Follow up on data collection from Westbury . Follow up on borehole data from DDF, Beitbridge . Follow up on progress on VBCI from World Vision, Beitbridge . Follow up on data collection from Ninham Shand, RSA and UZ civil engineering . Follow up on letter of introduction to the Director, DWA to facilitate data gathering from Zinwa

BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WELLFIELD CONSULTING SERVICES CSIR WALLINGFORD, OXON GABORONE PRETORIA UK BOTSWANA SOUTH AFRICA 94 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008 Blessing Mudzingwa (Zimbabwe Team Hydrogeologist) – Zimbabwe Field Visit Diary – 20-24 October 2008

1 INTRODUCTION The third field trip into the Project Area in Zimbabwe was to gather detailed physical and socio-economic data on each of the three sites targeted for intervention methods implementation. Prior to the field visit the type of interventions required for each site were identified. The objectives at each site are summarised below 2 FIELD TRIP OBJECTIVES Verify and confirm the suitability of the intended intervention method(s) through physical checks and socio-economic considerations

Detailed field evaluation and selection of specific site/area to establish the intervention

Detailed evaluation and data gathering on water supply situation within a radius of 5km from the selected site

Consultation with the community to establish their expectations and evaluate whether the proposed intervention methods are in line with the community‘s needs and expectations

Identify contractors to build the intervention structures

Identify coordinators to oversee the implementation

Get estimates on budgets for the implementation stage

Notify stakeholders and local authorities on the project intentions.

3 FIELD TRIP DIARY AND FINDINGS The Table below summarises activities carried out during the trip.

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95 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008

Date Activity Contact Discussion Outcome Of The Discussiion And Comments Comments Zinwa could be engaged to do sand dams through its engineering division.

Borehole rehabilitation and any drilling was possible through its groundwater division

Potential contractors for intervention Construction of larger diameter wells would need to be

structures discussed with Mr Rashirayi, the Drill Superintendent

Other possible contractors were Robert Parker and Paul Bristol Gaborone-Bulawayo. who do large diameter wells in the middle of sand rivers for their citrus farms along Mzingwane River. Dabane Trust also does Meeting with borehole, well construction and rehabilitation. DDF were also 20-10-08 Mr. Tommy Rosen Mzingwane potential clients Catchment Manager Zinwa did not have columns. Even if parts could be found at Zinwa offices locally, the prices would be prohibitive. Availability of parts locally Zinwa could buy the parts directly from RSA if funds are availed to them, thus reducing the waiting time Implementation timing and Projecting implementation and timing would need to be

procurement procedures discussed with Mr Rashirayi. Sam Sunguro Mr. S. Sunguro is the Head of the Groundwater Division and is +263 4 792175 Organization structure and based at Head office in Harare. All payments are likely to go +2634250750 payments through head office, unless he gives a go ahead for financial +2634708717 issues to be handled in Bulawayo +26311801269 Groundwater Drill section is currently drilling for private clients in Work Schedules Gweru, Bulilimamangwe and in Chisumbanje- Mutare area Currently all/most government projects have been stopped due to lack of funds. Bulawayo. Current Projects Commitments

Clients are serve on a first come, first served basis, unless an 21-10-08 Meeting with the Mr Rashirayi +2639473533 emergency arises and the discretion comes from head office Groundwater Drill Borehole rehabilitation work with World Vision. The NGO Superintendent supplied all the parts. Groundwater drill section worked together Previous Related work with DDF during the rehabilitation work.

Zinwa (Drills) have not done any large diameter wells. The

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largest diameter they have drilled is 200mm (8‖). Information on availability of bush pumps can be sought from Mr Parts Availability Sunguro, V&W, Gomba & Gomba in Harare Most water sources (boreholes, wells, dams) dry up during the dry season, leaving the community to fetch water from the sand river, which also eventually dries up

Most of the water sources need rehabilitation and parts are not available and the community cannot afford An old large dia. well

used to supply water A large diameter well which has now collapsed used to be to a concrete tank for equipped with a windmill long back. The well was pumping livestock, domestic water into a large reservoir for domestic use, livestock watering and vegetable and vegetable gardening. The well is next to Hwunga River and gardening use. The gets water from the alluvial aquifer. existing infrastructure

can be rehabilitated A dam downstream on the Hwunga river has dried up and most and groundwater communities to the east of Hwunga do not have an safe drinking availability enhanced water by constructing a SADC Project introduction and sand dam across objectives Nearly a km from the old well targeted for replacement and the Hwunga river at this sand-dam site, a weir constructed in 1952 has now been filled site. Mr. Mazibeli. Village Head/Acting Water situation in the area with sand and acts as a sand dam. A number of vegetable Bulawayo-Hwunga Chief gardens and a brick making ventures rely on groundwater from Visited the dried up Sources of water the sand dam. Rest water level within the sand in the river was Hwunga dam and 2mbgl, with a level of 4.6m in a well on the river banks. The weir proceeded to Community expectations and needs was constructed on top of sand, with no foundation to the Domboledenje dam bedrock, thus it leaks downstream, hence the shallow saturated constructed along thickness. Dendele river,

supplying water to The community reported flash floods along Hwunga River and Domboledenje wells close the river gets inundated at times. They also reported irrigation scheme occurrence of saline groundwater away from the river, evidence consisting of 10 ha that the river recharges the alluvial aquifer. under maize irrigation

The community welcomes any form of intervention in the area Proceeded to as long as it will better their lives in terms of water supply Beitbridge

They will also welcome construction of a sand dam and large diameter wells at the selected site as the existing infrastructure (water tank) will boost vegetable gardening and provide water for livestock

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An engine borehole used to supply the clinic with water. The engine was stolen in 2005. The engine house is now dilapidated. Water level in the borehole is 10m.

Two existing boreholes have now been blocked. Pipes and headworks have been removed. The boreholes used to supply water for the community and for gardening

The only borehole supplying water is equipped with a bush- pump. The borehole used to be motorized. This borehole supplies the school, clinic, shops, livestock and the community. Due to pressure on this borehole, community can no longer do gardens. F Ncube (EHT) Sister S Sibanda This borehole has been kept functioning because the school SADC Project introduction and Sister E Banda(Dite Clinic) funds rehabilitation of the borehole objectives Mr Ndou-Village Head/Pump Minder

Village Committee members A private well, equipped with an engine supplies water to one of Water situation in the area 22-10-08 Beitbridge-Dite Mr Motho Dube the shop owners

District Environmental Health Officer, Sources of water Beitbridge Further downstream, a well equipped with a hand pump

+2638622498 supplies water to community, livestock and vegetable gardens Community expectations and needs +26311435553 and helps to relieve pressure on the well near the school. +267912814066 Patients to the clinic are requested to bring water as there is a serious water shortage at the clinic.

A visit was made to assess status of other water sources in the area. Two wells were identified and are not working. Headworks have been removed and water is drawn using a bucket tied to a rope and is not safe for drinking. A small earth dam downstream of Dite river has dried up

The community‘s expectations and priority is to alleviate water shortages at the clinic either by rehabilitating the existing clinic borehole and installing a new engine or drilling a new borehole within the clinic World Vision International World Vision programmes in the WVI are carrying out projects in wards 4, 5 and 6. The Mrs. P Dube – Limpopo ADP Manager district programmes involve rehabilitation of dams and irrigation +263912424153+26311416960 schemes. A VBCI on water and sanitation has been done in two 23-10-08 Beitbridge +2638623750 Partnership/collaboration on water of the wards. The programme is focusing on well/borehole Mr. J. Mukarutsi – Water and projects in Beitbridge district rehabilitation. Sanitation (PHHEO)

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+26311443071 Possibility of engaging WVI in WVI welcomed the possibility of collaboration in the district. +2638623750 contracting works for SADC Project They also appreciated that our programmes are not duplication Mr. Nyika as SADC project has targeted areas outside the wards they are Water Technician Time schedule working in. +2638623750 Financial disbursement WVI would welcome engaging them to put up intervention structures for SADC project. In all their projects, they involve the community. They train villagers on water points rehabilitation and involve DDF in the training. WVI sets up committees to oversee borehole rehabilitation. Large diameter wells are constructed by specially trained villagers or they engage Dabane Trust.

All their projects involve the community to give the community the sense of ownership

WVI has embarked on low cost, sustainable technology for water abstraction from sand dams, wells or boreholes. In sand river abstraction, they use Joma pumps which are low cost and available locally from Dabane Trust. They have also used rope and washer (elephant pumps), which utilise tyre rubbers, beer containers material and ordinary rope which can be easily found within the community.

WVI Beitbridge office referred us to the head office in Harare on issues of financial disbursements and project logistics as a memorandum of agreement would need to be put in place before the project could start. There is a critical water shortage at the clinic, with the nurses After consultations walking 3km to the nearest water source. Patients are asked to with the villages bring water when they come to the clinic. Some of the committee and the disinfecting practices are compromised. clinic representative, it SADC Project introduction and was apparent that objectives A diesel engine borehole B669E/B783E, whicvh used to supply borehole/well

the clinic, secondary school, and community shops through a breakdowns were Water situation in the area 23-10-08 Beitbridge-Shashi reticulated pipe system has broken down. The engine also prevalent and

needs concerted efforts to repair leaks. Council personnel are common in all the Sources of water not able to come and attend to the breakdown as they do not villages.

have transport. Community expectations and needs Despite water It was reported that the reticulation system is old and pipe problems being faced bursts are frequent in each of the villages, the community

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When the engine is in working condition, there are problems of concurred that the diesel as it is scarce. clinic should be given first priority in A large diameter well nearby the clinic which also serves the alleviating the water community has broken down. The water is reported to be shortage problems. brackish and the well is over-utilised and runs out of water. At the time of visit, the community was making efforts to rehabilitate the well in order to ease water shortages. Due to lack of funds, the rehabilitation was sub-standard and no durable.

The only nearby working borehole is >3km from the clinic and is also oversubscribed.

Another well outside the village has dirty water as the concrete cap has been opened to access water due to hand pump breakdown. This well will require rehabilitation of columns, headworks, discharge pipe and nuts.

It was reported that the well never dries up and PVC pipes noted in the vegetable garden indicated above average vegetable gardening. Rest water level below ground was 6.42m.

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The main first stop of the mission was at Vila Eduardo Mondlane where the district administrator is based. The objective of the stop was to introduce the project and the team to local authorities and to get their first contributions to the project based on their knowledge o the situation on the ground vis a vis the approach and objectives of the project.

The meeting with the administrator produced the following key inputs to the project:

1. The area initially selected by the project team for detailed study is not the most affected by the harsh climatic conditions of the district. There are other areas specially the northern parts where communities have far much less alternatives for water supply specially during dry seasons but normally throughout the year. 2. The administration recommends that the project looks first to the situation of the communities in the northern part of the district as these are most affected by droughts and aridity. 3. The district supports the project and is willing to contribute in ideas, information and communities and local leader mobilization to participate actively. 4. Overall the district of Chicualacuala faces serious shortage of water and has seen little investment in water points in its communities owing to the difficult hydrogeological conditions of the region.

Methodology

The meeting with the local administrator led the team to reassess the initial programme presented that involved only a quick survey around the communities located up to some 10 kms from the main Limpopo stem. The following adjustments were made:

Visit to few communities in the northern part of the district – Mahatlane, Mugugugo and Chissangue. Visit to few communities along the right bank of the Limpopo river as originally planned – Tchale, Lissengo and Dumela. Visit to few communities along the left margin of the Limpopo River – Salane

The visits were merely to introduce the team to local leaders and make appointment for detailed studies within few weeks. This opportunity was also used to make a quick scan of the existing situation in these communities.

Results

The visit to the northern parts of the district confirmed the assessment by the local administration. There are very limited options in terms of water supply and in most cases the communities have to walk long distance to fetch water in small containers. The impression was also that these communities have very limited options to support their livelihoods since the area has very few areas that can be cultivated. The communities‘ report that the rains

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101 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008 are scarce and most of the times of short duration while the temporary lakes dry very fast. The most reliable source is the river Chefo that crosses the area but only few stretches have water all-year. In Chissangue and Mahatlane there are boreholes but only the one in Chissangue is used by the community alleging extremely high salt content in the borehole of Mahatlane. This situation is known for this area where groundwater is either deep or brackish when found.

The left hand margin of Limpopo River, that was also the original target of the study, suffers chronic water shortage, communities have to walk to the Muanezi or Limpopo River to fetch water in hand dug unprotected wells. In principle the areas shows better conditions for agriculture practice and in many area household farming could be seen along the roads. Nevertheless the communities suffer from effects of droughts and have no other reliable source than the main rivers for most of the year.

The right hand margin of the river has similar condition as the left and most households have access to good farming land. The same problem with long distances to fetch water in the Limpopo River is noticed.

Conclusions

In Chicualacuala there is natural water scarcity linked to the climatic nature of the region where the district if located.

Both areas southern and northern can make good case study for the pilot study since they both suffer the effect of droughts. However, for the case of the northern Chicualacuala district it is necessary for the team to better define the term ―drought‖ since the normal conditions already deviate substantially from the norm. This part of the district is extremely arid and the living conditions are challenging even during its normal rain years. The community perception of droughts is somehow different from the interpretation one can arrive at by analyzing the climatic parameters driving the process.

Field Visits report – Agnes Sejabaledi Rankoana September – October 2008

01 September 2008. Thohoyandou: at the Vhembe District Municipality offices met Mr Ben Ramanyimi, the DWAF water officer at Vhembe District Municipality. The meeting was about sustainability of groundwater resources, their accessibility and quality in Mutale Municipality.

03 September 2008 At Mutale Local Municipality offices met with Mr. Nakambi Technical Manager. The meeting was about available groundwater resources within the municipality, their sustainability, accessibility and monitoring.

16 September 2008 Visited Mutale River Water Project in Mutale and several small irrigation schemes and enquired about sustainable use of groundwater.

18 September 2008

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102 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008 Visited a diesel-operated borehole at Maaheni that has been supplying five communities since 1993, but still in good condition.

22 September 2008 At Mutale visited several boreholes drilled by DWAF, some in good condition others in poor condition.

25 September 2008 Meeting with Mr. Nemafukate in Gwagwatini about quality and reliability of single groundwater supply to five communities.

26 September 2008 Meeting with Prophet Matshavhavhe of the Living Sabath of God in Zion in Mulodi near Maaheni- a registered water user who has a household of more than fifty members.

29 September 2008 Meeting with Mr. E Phaswane in Shakadza – a borehole manager who related the 1992 drought implications and drought management strategies.

02 October 2008 At Mutale visited a well called Matoka guarded by snake which is left undisturbed inside the well.

03 October 2008 Sagole Spa was visited in Madifha community .

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APPENDIX C

Community Reports

Zimbabwe Western and Eastern Pilot Areas field trip report with specific reference to: Dite Village Ward 2, Shashe Village Ward 7 and Whunga Village Ward 10

DITE VILLAGE

This village has an estimated population of 6091 people and lies in the eastern area of the Limpopo. It has a number of problems.

Challenges

We held a focus group discussion with community members comprising randomly selected members who also included key stakeholders and key informants such as the village councilor and two clinic nurses, the nvironmental health and hygiene officer for Dite clinic as well as a former school teacher. Also present within the group was the projects coordinator for the village as well as the pump man for the boreholes. It was revealed that approximately four boreholes were non functional due to broken cylinders, rods as well as pumps, and the engine that was supplying water to Dite clinic was stolen so the clinic was facing critical water shortages. Patients or their relatives were having to walk about 700m to the nearest borehole, which is also being used by the school and the community.

During the discussions it was also apparent that the groundwater in the area, but not specifically at the school or clinic, had high levels of magnesium and fluoride. The government lab analyst has tested the water and reported that the level of chemicals was way above the WHO standards - the effect was seen on villagers yellowing of teeth and may also cause internal disorders, so the water quality was indeed a cause of concern among the villagers.

Another main issue brought out during the discussions was that most of the boreholes were deep wells so during the rainy season they are easily contaminated since they are open and this has a severe negative impact on the health of the community as a lot of water borne disease like diarrhea and skin diseases are reported as evidenced by the monthly epidemiological reports of the clinic.

The community group suggested the following as their recommendations and they are ranked in terms of their priorities: 1. Borehole in the clinic premises 2. Replacement of the stolen engine with a more secure engine house. 3. Repairing of a broken down borehole just outside the clinic 4. Small irrigation scheme for the nutrition garden.

We highlighted issues to do with sustainability, cost effectiveness as well as feasibility of the available options. It was apparent that whilst the engine might be desirable in terms of efficiency it came with the issue of diesel supply and the security of the engine. The group, therefore, agreed that it was more logical to start by placing a new borehole inside the clinic premises whilst the engine issue was also being attended. These two options can be implemented in case the engine doesn‘t have fuel so that the clinic can resort to its own borehole. This option proved acceptable to the community and is also cost effective.

DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008

The community advocated enhancement of the nutrition gardens as this was a project mainly benefiting those being affected and infected by the HIV Aids pandemic. The members of the group requested small irrigation pipes running from their boreholes into their nearby gardens.

SHASHE VILLAGE

This is a village situated in the western side of the Limpopo and has a population of more than 7091 people according to the 2000 national census. We carried out a group discussion in this village whereby we discussed a wide variety of issues that affect day to day livelihoods, we discussed issues to do with health, food, water, and income generating projects because all these issues are affected by water and how best the communities wanted to be helped.

Present in the discussion group were 6 headmen representing the entire village, the former councillor of the village as well as a nurse from the clinic and some members of the community.

Challenges

The main problem highlighted is overpopulation in this village as there was a growing business centre so this was placing a strain on the limited resources of the boreholes. In one village there was no borehole working such that community members had to go and fetch water from two private boreholes at which they were given strict rules to adhere to. In the end they had no adequate drinking water and water for their livestock let alone their gardens. Highlighted in the discussion was the critical problem at the clinic where the engine which was pumping water into the clinic tank, the secondary school as well as the business centre was no longer functional. When it is functioning well it may not have fuel to run so patients and nurses are travelling more than 4km to go and fetch water. The other nearby borehole is reportedly not functional and in any case only produces salty water. Both the business centre and the secondary school were facing the same problems as they were walking a distance to go and fetch domestic water.

The community gardens are not working because of the water shortages and they had problems with elephants as they always come and destroy the vegetables. Even during the farming season their poor harvest was due to a combination of factors which included floods, inconsistent rains, lack of seed and fertilizers as well as elephants coming to destroy their crops.

Maintenance and servicing of boreholes and engines was also cited as most of the boreholes were down due to petty issues such as nuts and bolts, worn out pipes, leaking engine and pipes, lubricating oil and cylinders. The village heads were advocating for the boreholes to be repaired as more boreholes were not working. The community was also repairing one deep well which is close to the clinic but it had been badly done. The community recommendations were: Electrification of the diesel pump borehole since the borehole was supplying the clinic, community, secondary school and the business centre.

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106 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008 Repairing the nearby well which has saline water to supply the clinic and the community. Install water tank to ease the clinic problems temporarily. Fencing and protection of gardens against elephants. Repairing one borehole in each village would help the communities.

The focus group discussion managed to bring out a lot of possible solutions to problems being faced by the communities. The strengths and weaknesses of the suggested possible solutions were discussed and the group was given the opportunity to give us the list of their problems as well as rank them according to priority, the group also listed their suggested solutions and which one they wanted first implemented. It emerged from the community representatives that the clinic should be attended to immediately as the current situation had far reaching health implications which had a bearing on deliveries, cross-infection and water borne diseases such as cholera and diareahea. We discussed at length the engine problem and how best it can be solved, some members said the engine was too old to be repaired, some said electrification was the only sustainable solution to this crisis.

Whilst the issue of electrification was so popular in terms of ranking it had its fair share of obstacles since this issue had to be taken up with ZESA and with the current economic problem being faced by the country. It was almost impossible for the parastatal to come and put electricity in this village, so it was later resolved that the nearby borehole be repaired as a short term-solution whilst the electrification is seen as the long term goal for the clinic.

WHUNGA VILLAGE

Is situated in the western side of the Limpopo this village has an estimated population projection of 6732 of which 4091 are women in this village. It is under the leadership of herd men Mazibeli. We managed to have 2 focus group discussions whereby we discussed to great lengths issues to do with drought effects in the community, water sources and other problems such as income generating projects that could be done by the community.

Challenges

The major challenge highlighted from the discussions is the problem of the Whunga River which had accumulated a lot of sand and, therefore, is not holding any water for a longer period. The river last went dry in May so this was a major problem for the livestock which included cattle, goats and donkeys.

The deep well which used to supply water to a reservoir is not working. It collapsed from inside and is situated in the river so that when it is raining it gets flooded by the rains and no one can use it. The reservoir had pipes connecting from the well and the water was used for livestock as well as the nearby vegetable gardens.

The sand dam built in 1952 is still functional but it quickly runs dry such that the women watering their gardens have to take turns to water their vegetables since there is not enough water. There are three individual unprotected deep wells which are used for domestic purposes but this is not healthy for the community.

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107 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008 In the rainy season the thunder and hailstorms can kill livestock and destroy infrastructure so a long term solution for the livestock has to be put in place so that livestock can be protected. Livestock is the main source of income to the community. Grazing pastures are another problem as the cattle had very little grazing pastures and paddocks available to them so they had to send the cattle to the riverbeds of the Limpopo river where they stayed permanently. This was not safe for the owners of the livestock. Out of the 8 boreholes in the village just 3 were working so this placed a major strain on the boreholes, livestock and the people in this area. The gardens were not doing well as people had to travel a distance to go and fetch water for their gardens

The community recommended the following: Rehabilitation of the deep well which supplied water to the reservoir. Construction of a sand dam. Drilling a borehole to the communities west of the Whunga dam. Small irrigation scheme for the gardens with water coming from the tanks. De-siltation of the river which had accumulated sand. Gravity tank to supply the business centre.

The two groups discussed and prioritized the river as a major source of water and emphasized that if anything can be done to enhance the river‘s capacity to serve the community it will be of great significance. The issue brought out by the other group was that cropping was a perennial failure in this region so there is need for people to concentrate their efforts anew.

Another very significant issue was the issue of small irrigation schemes, the community members asked for increase area for the small gardens which were mainly subsistence so that they could become commercial. This would require planting vegetables with a longer lifespan outside the soil like butternuts, potatoes and onions and these can be transported to Gwanda or Beitbridge.

The community was willing to be part of the project and some even mentioned that they felt humbled by the fact that they had been consulted in trying to solve their problems. We managed to enlighten the community that we valued their contributions to the project and we will continue to work together until the project is completed. In conclusion it can be safely said the above discussions managed to enlighten us further on issues to do with water, drought, health and income generating projects and the link to the day to day livelihoods of people in the selected pilot areas. Whilst the challenges and possible solutions were discussed at length, implementation needs to be tackled in the most effective way possible. It is very important to take note of the fact that what is desirable might not be feasible in terms of the geographical setup or might not be cost effective in terms of sustainability so some of the community requirements might not met.

World Vision might be the right partner in terms of implementation because they are already on the ground in the field of water and sanitation. World Vision involves the community on implementation by training the community on how to do boreholes as well as how to repair them if there is break down, the trained pump men are also equipped with the tools and spare parts to ensure sustainability.

Lastly it can be said that the above discussion is a true reflection of the perceptions of the selected communities and that through the various discussions and interviews in which

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108 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008 members of the community and their leaders managed to articulate various problems being faced by the communities and the possible solutions to these challenges, we managed to come up with a list of problems through the problem census exercise, a list of alternative solutions through the opportunity ranking exercise and the village inventory through the community mapping exercise.

Another very important aspect of work in Zimbabwe is the issue of income generating projects such as nutrition gardening, brick making and cattle ranching. In order to effectively evaluate the success of our project in terms of groundwater utilization if an income generating project is attached to every intervention measure it will help the community and the project.

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109 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008

APPENDIX D

Stakeholder Analysis Data

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110 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008 The following tables show the stakeholders in the pilot areas, their interests, potential impact on their interest, the priority and pattern of cooperation as well as the possible conflicts. The table has to be understood as a working paper which will be adapted continuously over the next phase whenever new stakeholders will come up or the mentioned ones become better known. In addition, planed interventions and ways of how to approach the stakeholder may be elaborated in further columns as the stakeholder data tables develop.

The tables for each country start with governmental organisations which are represented on a national level, followed by entities on regional and district level (like councils). Finally communities and other actors on the local level are described.

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111 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF GROUNDWATER DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN THE LIMPOPO BASIN PILOT AREAS PHASE 2 REPORT – DECEMBER 2008

Botswana

Priority to be given in meeting interests of Potential Impact of Patterns of co-operation stakeholders (based Stakeholder Interest(s) in the Project project on each interest and/or conflict between on existing policies, of stakeholders stakeholders context and project objectives) Co-operates with local authorities, district administration and the Department of Water Rural water supply; provision of Affairs. As a community The project objectives sewerage facilities; water development and welfare compliment those of the connections; water management. focused ministry, it has strong ministry in terms of enhancing High as the District links with the community through livelihoods through Interest in the project Councils is the key local its extension workers and Village improvements in water That the project works within the authority in the sub- based development institutions. Ministry of Local provision. governments; water resources district and could play a Government The lessons learned through policy and legislative framework useful role in the project Patterns of Conflict: Conflicts the project can also benefit and contributes to the and facilitate its centre around the centralisation the ministry in terms of departments‘ goal of promoting the sustainability. of funds; delays in disbursement; livelihood improvement quality of life of communities in the delays in implementation of options during the onset of selected nodal points through the district level projects due to drought. supply of water. centralisation of decision- making. Other conflicts arise from partisan politics at local authority level. Responsible for implementing The ministry implements some High as the project would The ministry co-operates with policies and programmes in the drought relief programmes compliment its key goal DWA in the area of water Ministry of areas of crop production, animal and projects; the provision of of promoting horticulture, provision; local authorities and Agriculture health and production and dams for irrigation schemes food security especially farmers in the provision of agricultural research. as well as assistance to the for vulnerable sections of drought management and

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farming community in the community (female recovery programmes. livestock water provision. headed households, People Living with HIV & AIDS, unemployed youth and resource-poor farmers). The department co-operates with the Department of Geological Surveys in terms of well field The department has overall development. responsibility for national planning

and water allocation. It is also It also co-operates with the responsible for water conservation, Ministry of Local Government construction of dams and well through the Water Units fields, construction of water The project will compliment established at District Council reticulation schemes for rural water the departments‘ efforts at level. supply; water transfer from source water provision to enhance

to user point; operations and rural livelihoods. The lessons High priority should be Department of Water DWA also co-operates with the maintenance of small to medium learned from the pilot project given to this Affairs (DWA) Ministry of Agriculture in the rural water supply schemes can be shared with the stakeholder‘s interest. construction of dams aimed at through Water Units located in department for possible agricultural development. District Councils. replication by relevant

departments. Patterns of Conflict: overall Interest in the project: that the there are no major patterns of project is implemented within the conflict except in the government of Botswana‘s water implementation of the resources policy and legislative decentralisation process in framework. aspects of rural water supplies; delays in operation and maintenance schemes. Department of The role of this department is to That the project adheres to High in view of the Co-operates with all government Environmental monitor and co-ordinate the provisions of all legislation department having the ministries with a stake in issues

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Affairs environmental issues. The related to conservation and mandate of of environment and previously Department department advises government environmental sustainability. environmental monitoring conservation. of Environmental on all matters related to the of development Affairs (previously implementation of the National programmes and DEA works well with the National Conservation Conservation Strategy; oversees projects. Department of Water Affairs. Strategy Co-ordinating the Environmental Impact Agency) Assessment Act. DEA has taken into serious consideration the EIA legislation in water development. The DEA has co-operated with the DWA in the development of a Policy Brief on Botswana‘s Water Management.

Works with NGOs, CBOs involved in environment and conservation through raising awareness on environmental policies and legislation.

Patterns of Conflict: As an environment and conservation authority operating in a context where environmental impact assessments are yet to be fully appreciated, DEA is not always understood and accepted in ministries when requested to carry out EIAs. Some project decisions with potentially adverse impacts on the environment are taken prior to the results of the EIA result in

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conflicts with the DEA. Planning, facilitation and implementation of mechanisms for regulating the management of controlled waste in order to prevent adverse impacts on Works with local authorities; all Medium and only given human, animal and plant life; to government departments and the Department of its role in ensuring minimise environmental pollution Compliance to the Waste community on issues of waste Sanitation and Waste conservation of natural and the conservation of natural Management Act. collection, sanitation and landfill Management resources and resources. At the local sub-district facilities and communicable environmental protection. level, the Environmental Health diseases. Department of Council is responsible for ensuring full compliance to the Waste Management Act. Co-operation in sharing livestock water through borehole syndicates; co-operation in sharing skills and experiences;

Local communities Farmers are involved in arable High in view of the fact Co-operation with the Ministry of (farmers, female and livestock production for that ultimately the Agriculture through farmer headed households livelihood security. Their communities are the extension services in the area of and community based Pursuance of livelihood security interest in the project includes beneficiaries of the crop production, horticulture, social development and social development. skills and technology transfer project who can ensure water provision through small organisations; and the provision of water to its sustainability in the dams and livestock water horticultural projects pursue livelihood strategies. long term. sources. Co-operation with the and backyard gardens) DWA in water supply for domestic use.

Patterns of conflict: land use conflicts between arable and

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livestock farmers; Conflicts also arise between farmers and the DWA in borehole citing on farm land; Watering livestock at communal stand pipes in villages also causes conflicts between the DWA and farmers.

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Mozambique

Priority to be given in meeting interests of Potential Impact of Patterns of co-operation stakeholders (based Stakeholder Interest(s) in the Project project on each interest and/or conflict between on existing policies, of stakeholders stakeholders context and project objectives) The Ministry implements Medium, but the project some drought relief Responsible for implementing would complement its key programmes and projects; it policies and programmes in the goals of promoting Ministry of provides seeds to local At district level part of the local areas of crop production, animal horticulture and food Agriculture communities, often through government. health and production and security especially for seed fairs, as well as it agricultural research. vulnerable sections of the provides agricultural community. extension services. The DNA is under the Ministry of DNA is responsible for Public Works and Housing and has articulating policies at national overall responsibility for national level. The actual implementation planning of all water related and action is under the interventions. The directorate is also responsibility of Regional Water responsible for water conservation, Administration in this Case for Generation of inputs in the construction of dams and well fields, the Southern Region (ARA-Sul). development of sound High priority should be Direcção Nacional de construction of water reticulation It requires the involvement of strategies to mitigate the given to this Agua (DNA) schemes for rural water supply; ARA-Sul at implementation level impact of aridity and droughts stakeholder‘s interest. water transfer from source to user to facilitate the participation of in Mozambique. point; operations and maintenance the water sector in the project. of small to medium rural water Patterns of Conflict: supply schemes. It is represented at ARA-Sul manages the river provincial level through the basin in its region through basin Provincial Directorate of Public management committees in the Works and Housing and at district case of the pilot area it falls

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level through the District Services entirely within Limpopo Basin for Planning and Infrastructure. Management Committee Interest in the project: (UGBL). In principle this should Development of sound water reduce the potential of conflict management policies and strategies with other organizations. The that address the problems of arid most likely conflict and need for areas is one of the challenges cooperation is related to the role facing DNA. The testing of of Disaster Management innovations in the subject is of Institute (INGC) that is very interest to DNA. DNA may extract active in the subject and lessons to inform the design of large spearheading the development impact project across arid areas in of strategies to mitigate the the country. effect of droughts and aridity in Mozambique. The project objectives compliment those of the INGC, which are short term Responsible for disaster prevention response to drought and and mitigation at national level with long-time prevention and delegations at provincial level and mitigation measures, Medium, but the project National Institute for regional emergency response especially for chronic would complement its key Close cooperation with district Disaster centres. One of its departments is drought-affected districts. goal of promoting drought administrations. Management (INGC) researching and implementing mitigation interventions. drought mitigation strategies for The lessons learned through chronic vulnerable districts in the the project can also benefit country, including water dams. the INGC in terms of cost- efficient options for water interventions. Manages all activities at district The project objectives High as the district The district administration (Chicualacuala) level and integrates the District compliment those of the administration is the key integrates and coordinates all District Services for Planning and district administration in terms local authority and needs government services at district Administration Infrastructure. of enhancing livelihoods to play an active role in level. Besides many constraints

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through improvements in the project, thus in terms of communication, it Interest in the project: That the water provision. guaranteeing its has a functional system of project closely collaborates with the sustainability. communication and community district government in the provision The lessons learned through organisation down to the of water solutions to local the project can also benefit community level. communities, thus contributing to the district administration in Patterns of Conflict: Conflicts the improvement of the terms of livelihood could centre on lack of material communities‘ quality of life in the improvement options during and human capacity to selected nodal point areas through the onset of drought. accompany as needed and the supply of water. guarantee its maintenance and sustainability. Co-operation in sharing livestock water through water committees; co-operation in sharing skills and experiences; Co-operation with the Ministry of Agriculture through farmer Local communities Farmers are involved in extension services in the area of (farmers, female arable and livestock High in view of the fact crop production, horticulture. headed households production for livelihood that ultimately the Cooperation with INGC through and community based security. Their interest in the communities are the construction of small dams and Pursuance of livelihood security and social development project centres on the beneficiaries of the livestock water sources. social development. organisations; provision of water for project who can ensure Patterns of conflict: Conflicts horticultural livestock and domestic its sustainability in the could arise between members of associations and consumption and possible long term. the communities because of backyard gardens) technology transfer. differences of access to water resources, differences of participation in water source maintenance and in maintenance of borehole committees; watering livestock at communal stand pipes in

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villages might also causes conflicts between farmers. These INGOs are mainly active inside the Limpopo National Park, coordinating all activities The project objectives linked to environmental compliment those of protection and livelihood Manages environmental and GTZ/Peace Park Foundation improvement, as well as income sustainable development activities in terms of enhancing generation activities. GTZ only in the Limpopo National Park. livelihoods near the Limpopo Medium, as these INGOs established itself very recently

GTZ/Peace Park National Park through are focussing on inside the park, after they Interest in the project: That the Foundation improvements in water population inside the worked several years with the project contributes to the Limpopo National provision. park, but also on Combomune community outside improvement of the communities‘ Park population living in areas the park. quality of life in the multiple use The lessons learned can also adjacent of the park. Patterns of Conflict: Conflicts areas adjacent to the Limpopo benefit these INGOs in terms could centre on the resettlement National Park through the supply of of livelihood improvement of families from the park to other water. options during the onset of areas, which is still not drought. concluded. Another conflict could centre on the prohibition of poaching and charcoal production in the area.

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South Africa

delivery. Upgrading to high levels District Municipality with technical Groundwater resources be Department of of water service delivery staff from the local municipalities accessible and put in good Water Affairs and Improvement and increase of and improve the status of and traditional authorities to condition as a mechanism Forestry strategies to address drought existing groundwater address water problems and to address drought. problems. resources. drought management strategies

in the area. Equal access to water Improvement of people‘s equal resources. access to water resources, Conflict: backlog of service delivery is attributed to lack of enough funding. Medium priority Status of groundwater services in Groundwater resources in Tourism attractions are registered Department of tourism attractions, mechanisms to good condition for water users. Monitoring of water Environmental Increased groundwater deal with drought to avoid negative sustainable biodiversity to resources is done by local Affairs and Tourism levels for constant implications on tourism attractions. attract more tourists. municipalities. supply. Groundwater irrigation High priority Groundwater resource use for The department hold meetings schemes accessible to all Department of sustainable agricultural production, with municipalities and farmers to farmers. Increased water access Agriculture types and quality of groundwater put plans for increased access to Stock farmers have access to large and emerging irrigation schemes. groundwater. to water resources. farmers.

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Increase of water resources and supply. Improvement of status of As water service authority the groundwater resources, response Groundwater resources district office plans and monitor to the problem of backlog in water properly managed and Vhembe District High priority water projects with the help of service delivery, improvement and monitored for consistent Municipality technical staff from the local increase of strategies to address supply of water. municipalities for quality water drought problems, improve people‘s service delivery in the area. equal access to water resources. Repair of groundwater resources for improved water service delivery. Water connection from The unit monitors water project Water Management Planning and implementation of High priority for quality resources to reservoirs and implementation and management Unit water projects water service delivery. tanks. of completed water resources High priority to increase water resources and The unit collaborates with DWAF, Catchment Increased water service delivery by Involvement of multiple training of Water User communities and municipalities Management Unit establishing water catchments in stakeholders in water Associations for proper for proper control and Authority perennial rivers management projects management of water management of water resources. resources. Increase of water resources. Equal access to water resources.

Management and monitoring of Groundwater resources Vhembe District Municipality groundwater resources for High priority Other Local properly managed and technical staff and local sustainability. Improvement of Municipalities monitored for consistent municipalities work together for water service delivery and equal supply of water. quality water services access by all people.

Repair of groundwater resources for improved water service delivery. Traditional Tribal Fostering equal access to water Equal access to water Traditional authorities participate Authorities resources, supply of clean water, resources, supply of clean High priority in water projects and support the

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management and monitoring of water, management and municipalities to ensure water resources. monitoring of water For proper management management of water resources resources, improved of water resources for consistent water supply to the drought management people. strategies. Local municipalities are in full monitoring and control of water resources. Any shortage, leakage Highest priority and dysfunctionality is immediately reported and Development of attended to. The exception is monitoring and boreholes as old as ten years and Consistent supply of water. Communities and Equal access to water resources, management skills to more which have been developed Equal access to water Public supply of clean water. water resource by DWAF which are non- resources. managers in the functional. communities. Conflict: Municipal staff has not been cooperative in proposals from the public to repair the boreholes for use by the communities. They are registered water users Medium priority with DWAF. Groundwater properly

Individual Mines Consistent water supply managed for consistent Increase groundwater Local municipality monitors supply. resources supply strategies and quantity of water use. High priority Increased production, improved Conflict: private farmers have Access to water resources irrigation schemes, mechanisms to Increased supply of their own water resources with Private Farmers by all farmers for increased cope with drought, access to quality of water for little monitoring of resources from production. reliable groundwater resources. irrigation municipality.

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Zimbabwe

Bureaucratic channels and red tape also places a lot of bottlenecks when trying to deal with the ministry. This is the national water body of There is potential to work High priority because ZINWA works with all district Zimbabwe National Zimbabwe and it falls under the with ZINWA as they are ZINWA still have some councils by giving the appropriate Water Authority ministry of water, It is responsible responsible for big projects expertise and equipment advice and also carrying out dam (ZINWA) for national water storage, such as dam construction to carry out thorough jobs construction programmes,

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distribution and purification as well and at time borehole drilling if funded well. borehole drilling and maintenance as testing the quality of water and construction of water and any water projects in the sources and water chemicals. reticulation schemes. We district. ZINWA is also responsible for can utilize them if we need sanitation and sewer systems of to construct sand dams to Patterns of conflict: Major the whole country but due to the drought proof pilot areas. problem is centralization ZINWA current economic and political is not found in many districts the impasse of the country ZINWA nearest is in Bulawayo so it is cannot buy water chemicals and quite a challenge to implement repair sewer systems. projects in rural areas they end up contracting DDF which also has its share of problems. Catchment Councils High priority as the Advises Rural District Councils on Established under the Water Act to essentially work as part of agreement of the water matters and manages water manage national water resources ZINWA, albeit with Catchment Council development projects. on a catchment level. Technically supposed local inputs and should be sought for all Catchment Councils and administratively supported by guidance. They authorise groundwater Patterns of conflict: Possible ZINWA. Catchment Councils cross water development projects development activities problems related to cross cutting cut local government in the catchment and need and they are closely tied administrative boundaries and administrative boundaries to be involved for project to ZINWA. competing political interests implementation work Advises and feeds information to the catchment Council on local Sub-Catchment Councils water development issues. Sub-Catchment Councils are the will need to be consulted High priority as

more local arm of the Catchment and be part of the local involvement of local Patterns of conflict: Possible Sub-Catchment Councils and include more local community planning, as stakeholders and local political involvement and Councils representation. They report to the they involve more local politicians would be competing interests may Catchment Council and authorise stakeholders and politicians helpful to project adversely influence the project, water activities at local level. who could support project progress. especially in current times of activities. hardship and intense politicisation. District The department is a quasi There is a possibility of Medium priority to be This department cooperates with Development Fund government organization cooperation with given in meeting interest the local district council on all

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(DDF) responsible for the infrastructural department as have an should be given to this projects. development of rural areas. Before inventory of all the water stakeholder as they have DDF also cooperates with NGOs the economic crisis of Zimbabwe, points, number, state, and personnel, knowledge such World Vision, Care and DDF was responsible for uplifting type of boreholes or wells in and experience with such Lutheran and any other interested rural people livelihoods with the communities although it project, what they don‘t private organization. projects such as road does not reflect the current have currently are maintenance, increasing rural situation on the ground financial resources to run Patterns of conflict: Due to the water points, immunization and .There is a possibility to projects. economic problems, DDF cannot dipping of livestock, construction of work with this department run their organization so they are dams and bridges as well as water as they have the expertise diverting funds, which creates a tanks and reservoirs. They have a and experience of working lot of conflict among other map of the sewerage systems and with such projects. stakeholders. the water points maps although they are manual so their input is definitely needed. Cooperation This office works with the ministry This office is under the ministry of of local government, ministry of local government and is health, ministry of education and responsible for rural administration High priority should be The project will compliment ministry of agriculture. in terms of water, health. given to the district office the departments role of The district office cooperates with Electricity, agriculture, health and as they are the ones that ensuring that communities world vision, who, Lutheran, care education. The district office give us a mandate to have adequate water international and any other NGOs facilitates meetings and projects in carry out our projects with Rural District sources during drought and or donors who are interested in the district that enhances the respect to the Council non drought seasons as developing or funding projects in livelihoods of rural communities. governments law with well as developing the area. Their water and projects regards to NGOs and sustainable developmental department is of significance to our other stakeholders projects in these Patterns of conflict: -They have project as we can liaise with them wishing to work in communities. a lot of half baked projects which in particular to do with wards and Zimbabwe. started more than two years ago boundaries as well as rules and but they are failing to finish them regulations. due to funds which they mismanaged. World Vision This is a Christian NGO which The project will compliment High priority should be WV cooperates with DDF and

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does both relief and developmental WV effort to alleviate rural given to WV because of they contract them to do the work projects in rural Beitbridge and poverty through utilization their mobilization together. Gwanda. They do water and of natural and sustainable capacity, training Also cooperates with local district sanitation projects, food resources such as experience as well as to council, ZINWA and ZESA. programmes, HIV/AIDS projects as groundwater. reduce conflict of interest well as ovcs. They have done a lot by duplicating projects Patterns of conflict: Whilst they of boreholes, maintenance and operate professionally the whole drilling, dams, irrigation as well as system is centralized and this can training members of the create problems as it will take communities. time for funds to reach Beitbridge World Vision. The project will enhance High priority in view of the social development and fact that the success of These include all the community, quality of life, there will be any project depends on Local Communities chief, community leaders, Cooperation in skills sharing and pursuance of livelihoods the reasonable and Water User members, teachers, nurses, ovcs experiences with previous security, and they will feel a participation of the Groups and vulnerable and disadvantaged stakeholders. sense of ownership of the community, whose lives groups. project if they are involved are going to be changed in the project. by it.

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