Armenian Christians in Iran James Barry Index More Information

Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-42904-7 — Armenian Christians in Iran James Barry Index More Information

Index

Note: Page numbers in bold refer to ﬁgures and ‘n’ attached to a page number denotes a footnote.

Abbas I, Shah (the Great), 78–81, 85, confiscation attempts rebuffed, 103, 118, 247 143–145, 254 Abbas II, Shah, 228–229 cultural events, 210 Abdollahian, Hamid, 17 currency exhibition, 217–218 Abrahamian, Ervand, 34 events for non-Armenians, 141, Abrams, Lynn, 207, 214 217–218 Achaemenid Era (550–330 BCE), 9, government financial support, 43–44 138–139 adult education, 64 Holy Cross Chapel, 80, 208–210, al-Afghani, Jamal ad-Din, 42 208 Aghaie, Kamran Scot, 42 homeland in exile, 137 Ahmadi, Fereshteh and Nader, 46 Imam Reza Shrine land ownership, Ahmadinejad, Mahmoud, 45, 129, 167 144–145 Aidani, Mammad, 16, 18 militia training accusations, 71, air travel, Caspian Airlines crash, 121 195–196 Al-e Ahmad, Jamal, 166–167 old Ararat compound, 130 alcohol, 134, 227–230 social events, 252 Alik (Wave) (newspaper), 90, 106–107, sporting facilities, 138, 140, 256–257 142 symbolic decorations, 212, 214 Amanat, Abbas, 34 women’s freedom, 140, 143 American Armenians, 14, 50, 173, 246, Ararat Organisation, 137–138 264, 267 Ararat Stadium, 77, 138, 139 Amit-Talai, Vered, 253 Armenia Ansari, Ali, 35–37, 41 see Republic of Armenia Arab Spring, 274–275 Armenian alphabet, 48, 69, 74 Arabic language, 38 Armenian church Arak, 5 Antelias-Etchmiadzin split, 108–109 Arakel of Tabriz, 228–229 Armenian Evangelical Protestants, Arakelyan, Grigor, 213 111–112, 257–258 Aram I, Patriarch of Antelias, 110, 122 art, 174 Ararat, 137–145 Catholic community, 257 70th anniversary celebrations, Catholicoi background, 97n 138 declining congregations, 257–258 Armenian focal space, 139–141, 278 distanced from Western Christianity, Armenian language, 140–141 165–166 ban on non-Armenians, 141–142 Karabakh conflict, 194 children’s facilities, 143 synonymous with Armenian identity, cleaning staff, 141–142 163–164

300

Index 301

tensions with Armenian community, memorials, 87, 112 109–110 refugees, 91 Western Armenian clergy, 110 Saint Sarkis memorial gathering, 112 Armenian churches terminology, 85 attendance, 239 and Turkey, 86, 88 bell ringing, 81 Armenian language church building as public in Ararat, 140–141 performance site, 207–210 attempted relaxation of restrictions, female attendance, 239, 258 3, 38, 69 Holy Cross Chapel, 80, 208–210 differences in accent and vocabulary, Holy Mother of God Church, 83–84, 171–172 136, 255 emigration and teacher shortage, 254 Islamic law on new buildings, ﬁrst language for Armenians, 207–209 218–219, 223–224 Mashhad, 139 government restrictions, 68–69, 224 non-Armenians forbidden, 136, part of Armenian identity, 66 187–188 Persian language inﬂuences, ornate interior designs, 81, 165 180–181, 225 Saint Sarkis Cathedral, 73–74, 76, preferred for sensitive community 112, 134–136, 258 issues, 107, 223–224 Saint Thaddeus and Bartholomew, regional dialects, 222–223 130–131, 164, 258 reinforces Armenian insularity, Surb Gevorg (Saint George), 276–277 262–263 restrictions in schools, 37, 68–69, Surb Grigor Lusavorich (Saint 168, 224 Gregory the Illuminator), 209, 257 senior clergy’sWesternArmenian, Surb Hovhannes (Saint John), 111 110 Armenian Diaspora, 19–22 use in public, 66–67 changing views on Armenia, 275–276 Western vs Eastern dialects, 140–141, Genocide descendants, 87–88 225–227 terminology, 19–20 written language, 65–66, 69–70, 224 view of Iranian Armenians, 171 Armenian schools Armenian Genocide, 85–93 Armenian language and cultural annual commemoration, 91–92, instruction, 69 210–217 Armenian language restrictions, 37, campaign for Genocide recognition, 68–69, 168, 224 90–92, 129, 190–191, 215 closures and government acquisition, centennial anniversary, 22, 63–64, 254–255 92–93 enrolments, 249 central to all historical discussions, for girls, 230 276 history, 53, 67 Diaspora descendants, 87–88 Mashtots as patron, 74 executions and deportations, 49, restrictions under Reza Shah, 68 89–90 subjects taught in Persian, 69, few Iranian Armenians with direct 219 family experience, 87, 89, 91 textbooks, 65, 73 importance for all Armenians, 49, 53 veiling, 237 importance for Iranian Armenians, Armenian Secret Army for the 88–91 Liberation of Armenia (ASALA), Iranian Azeris, 195 216–217

302 Index

Armenian social clubs, 134–137, 178 Azeri accent in Persian, 219 ban on non-Armenians, 141–142 ethnic status, 279 see also Ararat Iranian Turks (tork), 40, 92, 191 Armenian weddings, 1, 130, 228 limited anti-Armenian sentiment, 194 Armenian-ness mixed views of Iranian Armenians, Christian identity, 13–14, 50, 128–129, 190–191, 193–197 163–164 nationalist groups, 40, 190–191, concept, 48 194–195 deﬁnition, 14 negative media portrayals, 192 institutions of, 63–64 population numbers, 128, 190–191 and Iranism, 64, 180 Twelver Shi’ism, 191 performativity, 206–207, 239–240 Armenians Babi community, 34 adoption of Christianity, 48 Babi Revolt, 41 identity, 47–49, 66 Baha’is, 2–4, 34, 46, 114–115, 187, nationalism, 49 249 see also Iranian Armenians; Republic Bahar, Mehri, 17 of Armenia Bakalian, Anny, 173 army service, 68, 116, 118 Baluch people, 14, 46, 186 Arsacid Era, 180 Barth, Fredrik, 14, 50 ASALA (Armenian Secret Army for the basketball, 138, 140, 237 Liberation of Armenia), 216–217 Beglarian, Robert, 175 Ashura rituals, 42, 58n, 183–184 Berberian, Houri, 33, 50, 230 Assyrian Christians, 2–3, 91, 104–105, Bibles, Persian writing, 174 142, 255–256 blood money (dīyeh), 118–120, 277 Avanessian, Melanie, 231 Butler, Judith, 235 Avarayr, battle of, 76 Azadarmaki, Taghi, 17 Casey, Edward, 21 Azerbaijan Caspian Airlines crash, 121 continuing Karabakh conﬂict, 190, Chaldean Christians, 2–3, 104–105 193–194 Chaqueri, Cosroe, 81–82, 251 independence, 128, 192 Cheknavorian, Loris, 122 Karabakh region, 49 children, Ararat facilities, 143 Karabakh War (1988–1994), 21, Christianity 128–129 and Armenian identity, 13–14, 50, pan-Turkish elements, 92 163–164 tensions with Iran, 86 compared with Islam, 182, 184 territorial claims against Armenia Iranian curiosity towards, 187 and Iran, 93 symbols, 184 Azerbaijan (Iranian) and veiling, 233–234 Armenian emigrants in Tehran, 13, 157 Christians Azerbaijani territorial claims, 93, 192 census numbers, 248 Azeri populated regions, 93 converts from Islam, 2–3 Genocide refugees, 91 Christmas, 122, 127, 184 Saint Thaddeus Monastery, 139 churches see Armenian church; Shahsevan pastoralists, 174, 253 Armenian churches see also Azeri speakers in Iran cinema, 160, 190 Azeri accent, 219 Communist Party of Iran, 105 Azeri language, 37, 191–192 community spaces, 130–136 Azeri speakers in Iran ban on non-Armenians, 136, 141–142, on Armenian Genocide, 92, 193–194 187–188, 223

Index 303

see also Ararat; Armenian churches; links with Armenian church, Armenian social clubs 108–109 conscription, 117–118 Ottoman Empire, 49 Constitution (1906), 37 outside Iran, 108 Constitution (1979) prominence in public life, 106 limits to equality (Art 20), 117 David of Sassoon, 73, 77–78, 94 minority languages, 38, 69 Democratic Party of Iran, 104 non-Muslims barred from political Demoyan, Hayk, 86 positions, 52, 117 Diaspora see Armenian Diaspora political exclusions, 52 Dink, Hrant, 214–215 recognised religious minorities, 2, 69, discrimination, 111–123 117 Iran’s claim to religious tolerance, state religion, 19 112–114 Constitutional Revolution Islamic law, 116, 119–120 Armenian involvement, 47, 50, passive acceptance, 121 81–85, 104 religious, 111–112 causes, 33, 42 see also persecution Moderates and non-Muslim dīyeh (blood money), 118–120, 277 minorities, 104 dress code see veiling conversion enticements, 118 Ebadi, Shirin, 112 illegal to religions other than Islam, economic decline, 129–130, 168–169, 111–112 249 Council of Chalcedon, 48 education Cowe, Peter, 166 Armenian focus, 64 Cowlishaw, Gillian, 207 discrimination, 121, 125 Cultural Heritage, Handcrafts and Persian language and national unity, 37 Tourism Organisation, 139 see also Armenian schools; universities culture elections art, 174 Armenian voter turn-out, 250 national library of Armenia Armenian voting options, 105 manuscripts, 74 Majles (2012), 250 pre- and post-Islamic tensions, unrest following 2009 election, 6, 31–32, 34–35 42–43, 58n–59n, 211 symbolic dates, 211 Elling, Rasmus Christian, 8–9, 35, 39 emigration Da’esh, 182, 265–266 Archbishop speaking against, Dari, 9 261–262 Darieva, Tsypylma, 21 to Armenia, 245–246, 261–262, Darrus, 5 265–267 Dashnak Party Armenia assimilation difﬁculties, banned in Armenia, 107 171–172 and Constitutional Revolution, declining church membership, 82 257–258 and the Genocide, 90 destinations, 248, 261–262 government recognition, 108 disengagement from Iranian society, independent ticket for Iranian 240 elections, 108 effect on the elderly, 262–264 and Iranian Revolution, 124 effect on football team, 256–257 Justice Commandoes against the family connections, 259–260 Armenian Genocide (JCAG), 216 history, 246–250

304 Index

emigration (cont.) Iranian Armenian attitude, 170–171, increasing numbers, 212 230–231, 235 and Iran–Iraq War, 127 segregation, 231 Iranian sanctions and economic traditional values and modern life, decline, 129–130, 168–169, 249 17 loss of cultural institutions, 253–254 see also veiling; women loss to Armenian community, 251–253 generation gap loss to Iran, 250–251 Armenian accent in Persian, 218–221, Post-Revolution, 129, 248 240 reasons for leaving, 245–246, family tensions, 17–18 259–262, 265–266 identity crisis, 16–17 retirement destinations, 170, 262 Iran-Iraq war memories, 127–128 returnees, 265–268 Iranian Armenians, 10–11 for social freedoms, 245–246 Iranian family structures, 17–18 under Ahmadinejad, 129 Iranian Revolution as rupture point, Emin, Joseph, 49 18–19, 206–207 employment Iranian society, 15–17 discrimination, 121 Jewish Iranians, 15 negative effects of Iranian Revolution language, 14–15 on Armenians, 124–125 literacy in written Armenian, 69–70, occupations forbidden to Muslims, 224 51, 159–160 middle generation, 264–265 Esma’ili, Aileen, 177 and modern values, 46 espionage case, Silva Harotonian, 102 in novels, 18 ethnic boundaries, 14 social and political background, 15, ethnicity, 279 18 Persian, 9 see also Iranian Armenian identity; under Reza Shah, 37–38 young people European ideas, 159, 165 Georgia, Samatskhe-Javakheti region, Evangelical Protestants, 111–112, 20, 181 257–258 Gnoli, Gherado, 39 Greek Armenians, 169, 171–173 Farahani, Mirza Abul-Qasim Gregorian, Vartan, 50, 193 Qa’im-maqam, 37 Farsi see Persian (Farsi) Haddad, Fanar, 11–12 Fath-Ali Shah, 4–5, 37, 133, 144 Hakobyan, Hranush, 138 Ferdowsi, Shahnameh,36–38, 74 Harotonian, Silva, 102 festivals, 42, 181, 183–184 Haydari sect, 34, 54n film industry, 160, 190 Hazara, 141–142, 154n First Republic of Armenia Hemshin people, 14, 28n (1918–1921), 49, 217 Historic Armenia, 19–20, 112 food shops history forbidden foods, 162–163 Armenian migration to Tehran, signage rules, 120–121 4–5 football, 138, 140, 142–143, 182–183, Armenian population fluctuations, 237, 256–257 246–250 Azeri language, 191–192 Galichian, Rouben, 93 deportations of Armenians by Shah Garian, Elso, 63 Abbas I, 78–81, 85, 163, 247 gender Persian influence before conversion church attendance, 239, 258 to Christianity, 180

Index 305

regions of origin of Tehran Armenian casualties, 126–127 Armenians, 157 Armenian commemorations, symbolic ﬁgures from antiquity, 126–127 71–78, 94 Armenian contribution, 47, 161 see also Armenian Genocide; causes, 126 Constitutional Revolution Christmas visits, 122, 127 Hnchak Party, 49, 82 honouring the martyrs, 232 Holliday, Shabnam, 34–36, 40 memories, 127–128 Holy Cross Chapel, 80, 208–210 religious minorities, 117, 126 Holy Mother of God church, 83, 84, Iranian Armenian identity 136, 255 ambivalent discourses of belonging, honesty, 114, 160–163 12–13 honour, 253 anti-West reorientation, 167–168 Hoosk Organisation, 72, 92–93, Armenian community spaces, 141 130–136 Hooys (Hope) (newspaper), 107, 123, comfortable with Western ideas, 164, 177–178 79 Hunter, Shireen, 35 focus on Armenian rather than Hussein, Saddam, 126 Iranian history, 78, 88–89 Huttunen, Laura, 12 historical context, 47–48 insularity, 173–176, 178 identity Iranian Revolution as rupture point, Armenian, 47–49, 66 18–19, 206–207 Iranian contradictions, 32–35 Iranist elements, 47–49 Muslim Iranians, 8–9, 11 middle generation, 264–265 tribal, 33 parochial and region-based, 156–159 see also Iranian Armenian identity regionalism, 222–223 identity crisis, 16–17, 262 separate from Muslim majority, 50–52, Imam Reza Shrine, 144–145 101–102, 168–169, 245, 274, India 278–279 Armenian merchants, 49 shared aspects with Muslim Iranians, 11 Persian language, 36–37 and the state, 167 Indian Armenians, 247 terminology, 8 industrialisation, 32–34 villages of origin, 158 inheritance laws, 118 Western orientation under Pahlavi innovation, 159–160, 165 regime, 166–167 Institute of Iran-Eurasian Studies see also generation gap; stereotypes (IRAS), 141 of Armenians International Research and Exchanges Iranian Armenians Board (IREX), 102 associated with Christianity, 13–14, Iran 50, 163–164 origins of name, 38–39 ethnic boundaries, 13–14, 50–52 outsider image, 178–179 few with direct connection to problems of decline in religious Genocide, 87 diversity, 2, 277–278 internal divisions, 12 relations with the Republic of names, 175, 223 Armenia, 185, 187 nomenclature, 8 relations with Turkey, 91–92, 211 occupations forbidden to Muslims, sanctions and economic decline, 51, 159–160 129–130, 168–169, 249 openness to European ideas, 159, Iran–Iraq War 165

306 Index

Iranian Armenians (cont.) IREX (International Research and as pariah group, 51 Exchanges Board), 102 perceptions of Muslim Iranians, Isfahan, 134, 138, 158–159, 188–189, 179–184, 227–228 228–229 population decline, 2, 246–250 ISIS (Da’esh), 182, 265–266 as viewed by Azeri speakers, 128–129, Islam 190–191, 193–197 Armenians in passion plays during as viewed by Diaspora Armenians, 171 Moharram, 174 as viewed by Hayastants’is, 173 Ashura rituals, 42, 58n, 183–184 as viewed by Muslim Iranians, compared with Christianity, 182, 185–190 184 see also generation gap; young people football team send-off, 182–183 Iranian Civil Code haraam items, 227 inheritance laws, 118 occupations forbidden to Muslims, marriage laws, 176 51, 159–160 Iranian government, dialogue with religious festivals, 42 Armenian community, 102 Shi’a sects, 34 Iranian nationalism, under Reza Shah, Sunni-Shi’a divide, 11–12 37–38 superiority, 116 Iranian nationality, 19 Twelver Shi’ism, 1, 19, 25n, 41, 191 Iranian Revolution (1979) Islamic law Armenian actions, 47–48 dhimma (protected people) laws Armenian preparations for under Shah Abbas, 80–81 transition, 124 discrimination against non-Muslims, cultural changes and job losses, 116, 119–120 124–125 dīyeh (blood money), 118–120, 277 limited Armenian involvement, Islamic Republic 123–124 anti-Western reorientation, 167–168 opposition to Western culture, Armenian emigration, 129, 248 166–167 opposition to Western culture, public sector cleansing, 125 166–167 reframing of Iranian Armenian religion as central determinant of identity, 18–19, 206–207 identity, 101 veiling, 231–232, 236–237 state protests, 211 Iranism velāyat-e faqīh (Guardianship of the and Armenian-ness, 64, 180 Islamic Jurists), 116 concept, 35–36 Islamic State (Da’esh), 182, 265–266 ethnic and non-Shi’a minorities, Islamic terrorism, 22 46 Islamism idea of Iran, 38–40 emergence as political identity, links with Islam, 40 41–42 non-Persian speakers, 39–40 ethnic and non-Shi’a minorities, 46 Persian language, 36–38 and Iranism, 40 secular, ethnic nationalism, 32 links with Iran, 40–43 tensions between secular and Post-Revolution Islamic nationalism, 32 religious values, 43–46 subversive potential of Shi’ism, 43 Iraq use of symbols and ritual, 42 Mosul Christians, 266 Israel, and Iran, 115 sectarianism, 11–12 IRAS (Institute of Iran-Eurasian jewellery, 51, 159, 161 Studies), 141 Jewish Iranians

Index 307

declining congregations, 258 Khomeini, Ayatollah Ruhollah Exilarch, 33 food shops signage, 120 generational difference, 15 Genocide commemorations, 91 Iranian identity, 46 Iran–Iraq War, 126 and Israel, 115 on pre-Islamic Iran, 44 low social status, 3, 25–26n, 51 religious minorities, 116 murders, 115–116 Shi’ist justification for uprisings, 42 recognised religious minority, 2 Khuzestan, 38, 46 religious discrimination, 115–116 Komitas (musicologist), 212, 214 Rouhani policy, 122 Kurdish language, 38, 122 schools, 255 Kurdish population, 46, 186–187 in Shiraz, 34, 253 Kuwaiti Armenians, 266–267 in Tehran, 5–6, 132 wine making, 229 languages jizya (poll tax), 80–81, 116–117 Arabic, 38 Azeri, 37, 191–192 Kaputikyan, Silva, 74 bilingualism, 37, 191 Karabakh conflict Dari, 9 fear of violence spreading to Iran, generational difference, 14–15 129 Kurdish, 38, 122 Iranian government policy, 193–194 as marker of ethnicity, 8–9 Karabakh War (1988–1994), 21, Rouhani reform program for 128–129 minority languages, 3, 122 Khojaly massacre, 193–194 Safavid Era, 36 link with Genocide commemorations, Tajik, 9 129, 193–194 see also Armenian language; Persian ongoing violence, 190, 193–194 (Farsi) Karabakh Republic, 49, 90, 128 Lebanese Armenians, 249–250, Karimifard, Hossein, 34 253 Kesaratsi, Khachatur, Archbishop, Leeds-Hurwitz, Wendy, 15 74–75 leftist groups, 105–107, 123–124 Kessab attack (Syria), 86, 266 literacy, 69–70, 224 Khamenei, Ayatollah Ali Loeb, Laurence, 34, 46, 51 Azeri origin, 191 London Armenians, 253 Christmas visits to Armenians, 127 differentiation between Shi’ism and Mahgerefteh, Daniel, 115–116 Islam, 35 Majles see parliament (Majles) Karabakh conflict, 194 Maloney, Susanne, 34 legal rights for religious minorities, al-Mamalek, Mostowfi, 133 119–120 Mamikonian, Vartan, 73–76, 94 on Persian language, 44 Mandean community, 2–3 on pre-Islamic Iran, 44 Manukian, Artak, Archbishop, 102, Khan, Mirza Malkum, 83–85 176 Khan, Yeprem (Yeprem Davitian), marriage 83–85 banned between Armenian Christians Khanlari, Karen, 92, 175 and Catholics, 165 Khatami, Mohammad between Muslim man and non- religious tolerance, 113–114, Muslim woman, 176 119–120, 248 Hooys articles on mixed marriages, Scouting activities, 71 107, 177–178 Khojaly massacre, 193–194 intermarriage rare, 176

308 Index

marriage (cont.) nationalism, 41–42, 45, 247 intermarriage a taboo topic, Nazarian, Armen, 122–123 176–177 Nehdaran, Tubah, 115–116 see also weddings Ne’mati sect, 34, 54n Mashtots, Mesrop, 65, 73–75, Nercissians, Emilia, 36, 123 94 New Julfa, 79–81 Masnoumian, Leontin, 63 New Julfa merchants, 79, 246–247 Matian, Azad, 190 newspapers Matthiesen, Toby, 11–12 Alik (Wave), 90, 106–107, 142 Mazandarani, 39–40 Arax, 106–107 Mazdaic-Zoroastrian traditions, Hooys (Hope), 107, 123, 164, 180–181 177–178 Melik-Tangian, Nerses, Archbishop, Iran-e Now (New Iran), 104 193 non-Muslims see religious minorities Migliorino, Nicola, 66, 249–250 novels, generational conflict, 18 migration see emigration Nowruz festival, 181 Mik, Tateos, 111 Milani, Mohsen, 34 old people, 262–264 millet system, 103–104 Ori, Israel, 49 Minas (painter), 165 Ottoman Empire, 33, 49, 66, 103–104, minority, as term vs ‘non-Muslim 180–181 Iranian’, 122–123 Ovanessian, Ardashir (Ardashes), 105, Mir-Sardu, Tahereh, 16 123 Mkhitarists, 49 modernisation, 32–34 Pact of Umar, 81, 103 Moharram, 42, 183–184 Pahlavi Dynasty (1925–1979) monasteries, 153n Armenian settlers in Tehran, 5 Saint Thaddeus Monastery, 139 emigration, 247–248 Motamed, Maurice, 119 and the nation state, 101 Mousavi, Mir Hossein, 192 non-Muslims, 52 Mousavi-Ardebili, Ayatollah, 194 and the West, 166–167 Mozaffari, Ali, 32 Pahlavi, Mohammed Reza, 116 music, 51, 160, 170, 231, 238–239 Pahlevanian, Hovhannes, 37 Muslim Iranians parliament (Majles) identity, 8–9 Armenian representatives, 2, 175, perceptions of Armenians, 185–190 249 shared identity aspects with Iranian non-Muslim minorities (New Armenians, 11 Electoral Law 1909), 104–106 terminology, 9–10 non-Muslim minorities as viewed by Armenians, 179–184, (Supplementary Laws 1907), 227–228 104 see also Persian (Farsi) non-Muslims represented by Muslims, 105–106 Nader Shah Afshar, 247 propaganda value of seats for Nagorno-Karabakh conflict see religious minorities, 189, 249 Karabakh conflict passport eligibility, and military service, Nairi (publisher), 65 118 names, 175, 223 Payman (journal), 72, 164, 195 Nasreddin Shah, 41–42, 263 Payman Group, 71–72, 92–93, 239 National Museum of Iran, 31–32, 52 performativity

Index 309

Armenian Genocide political unrest (2009/10), 6, 42–43, commemoration, 210–217 58n–59n, 211 and Armenian-ness, 206–207, 239–240 poll tax, 80–81, 116–117 currency exhibition, 217–218 population performing arts, 51, 160 Armenians in Tehran, 4–5 physical sites, 207–210 Azeri speakers in Iran, 128, 190–191 posters and banners, 212–213 Christian census numbers, 248 symbolic dates, 211 decline in Iranian Armenians, 2, symbolic wall images, 212–214 246–250 terrorist organisations play, decline in religious diversity, 2, 215–217 277–278 see also music Kurdish population, 46, 186–187 persecution Zoroastrians, 249 under Ottoman Empire, 180–181 pork, 121, 162–163, 227 Western view that Armenians are printing technology, 159 persecuted, 112, 114, 168, 261 public spaces see community spaces Persian (Farsi) punishment, dīyeh (blood money), Armenian accent, 218–221, 118–120, 277 240 Azeri accent, 219 Qajar Dynasty (1798–1925), 32–34, historical origins, 9–10 191, 247 Hooys coverage of Armenian problems, 107, 178 Raffi (novelist), 117 influence on Armenian language, Raffi Club, 134–136, 136 180–181, 225 Rafsanjani, Ayatollah Hashemi, insults and swear words, 222 119–120, 236–237 official language, 68 Rahim-Mashaei, Esfandiar, 45 terminology, 9–10 Ramgavar Party, 49 use in Armenian schools, 219 religion used for non-Armenians in Armenian Armenian/Christian links, 163–164 public spaces, 188, 223 homogenisation, 2 vernacularisation, 33, 36–37 recognised religious minorities, 2–4 Phillips, Jenny, 50, 104, 214 see also Armenian church; Armenian Pirzad, Zoya, The Space between Us, churches; conversion; Islam; 176–177 religious minorities poetry, 63, 190 religious diversity, decline, 2, 277–278 see also Ferdowsi religious festivals, 42, 181, 183–184 political parties religious leaders Armenian revolutionary parties, 82 as political representatives in Safavid Communist Party, 105 Era, 103–104 Democratic Party, 104 state harassment, 104 Hnchak Party, 49, 82 religious minorities illegality in Iran, 108 alcohol rules, 229 Ottoman Empire, 49 freedoms, 189, 230–231 Tudeh Party, 47, 105, 123 inferior legal status, 119–120, 277 see also Dashnak Party jizya (poll tax), 80–81, 116–117 politics occupations forbidden to Muslims, leftist groups, 105–107, 123–124 51, 159–160 non-Muslims barred from political protected as People of the Book, positions, 52, 117 80–81, 103

310 Index

religious minorities (cont.) modernisation, 39 recognised religious minorities, 2–4 nationalism, 37–39 ritually unclean (najes), 50–51, 118, Persian language in schools, 37 124–125 suspicion of Armenians, 68 shrinkage and loss of religious tribal groups, 37–38 diversity, 2, 277–278 Rouhani, Hassan threatened by religious ideology, Azeri language rights, 192 274–275 Christmas visits to Armenians, 122, see also persecution 127 religious texts, 174–175 minority affairs policies, 3, 22, 38, Republic of Armenia 121–122 Armenian support, 90 Russian Empire Armenian-Turkish Protocols (2009), Armenian-Azeri violence, 193 212–214 Christian-Muslim violence, 82 Azerbaijan’s territorial claims, 93 Persian wars, 247 blockade, 180–181, 261–262 Rypka, Jan, 37 borders, 49, 85–93 continuing Karabakh conﬂict, 190, Safa, Zabihollah, 9 193–194 Safarian, Robert, 123, 181, 190 emigrant assimilation difﬁculties, Safavid Era (1501–1736) 171–172 alcohol, 228 emigrant destination, 245–246, army, 159 261–262, 267 Azeri language, 191 existential threats, 86 bilingualism, 36 Hayastants’is, 169–173 religious leaders, 103–104 Hayastants’is, negative views on, Tehran, 4 169–173 Twelver sect, 41 Hayastants’is, positive views on, Surb Gevorg (Saint George) church, 169–170 262–263 homeland, changing Diaspora views, Surb Grigor Lusavorich (Saint Gregory 275–276 the Illuminator), 209, 257 homeland for Iranian Armenians, Surb Hovhannes (Saint John) church, 20–22 111 independence, 128 Saint Sarkis Cathedral, 73–74, 76, 112, Iranian Armenian support for Iran, 134–136, 258 213 Saint Thaddeus and Bartholomew national anthem, 217 church, 130, 164, 258 positive views, 171 Saint Thaddeus Monastery, 139 property ownership, 170 Saleh, Alam, 35 relations with Iran, 185, 187 Sanasarian, Eliz, 8, 19, 68–69, retirement destination, 170, 262, 116–117, 168, 187, 191, 248, 265–266 274 social freedoms, 245–246 sanctions, 129–130, 168–169 tourist destination, 170–171 Sariolghalam, Mahmood, 34 Tsitsernakaberd memorial, 112 Sarkissian, Sebouh, Archbishop, 63–64, research constraints, 6–7 102, 107, 112, 127, 168 restaurants, 120–121, 134 against emigration, 259 see also food shops Sassanian Era (224–651 CE), 9, 48, Revolutionary Guards, 144 75–76, 180 Reza Shah Pahlavi (1925–1941) Saudi Arabia, sectarianism, 11–12 banning of the veil, 166 Savant, Sarah Bowen, 39

Index 311

schools Tabriz, 50, 193 Jewish schools, 255 tailoring, 159 Persian language and national unity, 37 Tajik, 9 see also Armenian schools Tajik, Mohammad-Reza, 16 Schwalgin, Susanne, 169, 171–173 Tapper, Richard, 174 Scouting activities, 12, 70–71, 143 Tavakoli-Targhi, Mohamad, 36 accusation over militia training, 71, taxation, jizya (poll tax), 80–81, 195–196 116–117 sectarianism, 11–12 Taylor, Alice, 165 secular leaders, 104 Tehran Seym (1918–19), 217 architecture, 159 Shahnameh (Ferdowsi), 36–38 Armenian ghettos, 5 Shahsevan pastoralists, 174, 253 Armenian population, 4–5 Shahshahani, Soheila, 228 Armenian shops, 132 Shari’ati, Ali, 167 centre of Armenian life, 4–6 Shaykhi sect, 34 dispersed Armenian neighbourhoods, shoemakers, 160 132–136 Siamanto (poet), 63 Golestan Palace, 133 Sikh community, 2 hayashat neighbourhoods, 6, 134 social clubs see Armenian social clubs Hayastants’is, 169 Soviet Union, Armenians, 105, 157, 247 Naderi, 5–6, 158 sport Rafﬁ Club, 134–136 Ararat facilities, 138, 140 Vanak, 5, 132–133 Armenian freedoms, 134 Ter-Petrossian, Levon, 107 see also football terrorist organisations, 215–217 spy case, Silva Harotonian, 102 textbooks, 65, 73 stereotypes Teymourian, Andranik (Ando), Azeri speakers, 192 142–143, 182–183, 194–195 inter-ethnic perceptions in Iran, 156 theatre, 230 stereotypes of Armenians Tobacco Rebellion, 41–42 Chaharmahal-Bakhtiari province, 158 Toumanian, Hovhannes, 212, 214 clannishness, 188–190 trade as foreigners, 163–169 Iranian merchants, 165 from Armenian villages, 6, 158 New Julfa merchants, 79, 246–247 Hayastants’is in Armenia, 170 Trans-Caucasian Republic Hayastants’is view of Iranian (1918–1919), 217 Armenians, 173 tribal identity, 33 industriousness, 127 truck driving, 159 as innovators, 159–160 trustworthiness, 114, 160–163 regional stereotypes, 158 Tudeh Party, 47, 105, 123 trustworthiness, 114, 160–163 Turkey surnames, 175 Armenian churches refurbishment, symbols 88 Ararat, 210, 212, 214 and Armenian Genocide, 86, 88 of Christianity, 184 Armenian-Turkish Protocols (2009), historic and mythical ﬁgures, 72–78, 212–214 94 Azeri minority, 91–92 of Islam, 42 discrimination against Armenians, 185 symbolic dates, 211 Hidden Armenians, 14 see also performativity Mount Ararat, 137, 214 Syria, Kessab attack, 86, 266 political power, 86

312 Index

Turkey (cont.) view of Armenian persecution, 112, relations with Iran, 91–92, 211 114, 168, 261 Twelver Shi’ism, 1, 19, 25n, 41, 191 White Revolution, 42, 144, 154 women United Arab Emirates, 267 blood money (dīyeh), 120 United Nations church attendance, 239, 258 General Assembly, 189 freedom in Ararat, 140, 143 Genocide protests in Tehran, 211 in restaurants, 134 United States sporting venues, 134 CIA espionage charges, 102 see also veiling embassy anti-Armenian graffiti, 129 written language, 65–66, 69–70, 224 tourist visa difficulties, 259 see also American Armenians Yaghoubian, David, 3, 173 universities Yarsani (Ahl-e Haqq), 2–3 Dar ol-Fonun, 32 Younesi, Ali discrimination against Armenians, minority affairs advisor, 3, 38, 121, 125 122 University of Kurdistan, 38 on regional borders, 46 veiling, 232 young people Usuli sect, 34 ambivalent discourses of belonging, 12 Varisco, Daniel, 231 Armenian accent in Persian, 218–221, Varoujan, Daniel, 63 240 Vaspurakan, 157 Armenian identity, 18–19 veiling, 230–239 behaviour within Ararat, 209–210 attempts to enforce in Ararat, 144 defence of Iran from outsider banned under Reza Shah, 166 ignorance, 178–179 and Christianity, 233–234 lack of connection to Iranian identity, effect on women’s appearance, 168–169, 262 238 literacy in Armenian, 69–70, 224 freedom in Ararat, 140, 143 see also generation gap; Iranian ideational significance, 231–232 Armenian identity and identity, 231 regional and class variations, Zoroastrianism 232–233 attempted conversion of Armenians, in restaurants, 134 48, 75–76 Velayati, Ali Akbar, 44–45 and Iranian identity, 181–182 Mazdaic-Zoroastrian traditions, weddings, 1, 130, 228 180–181 West, the Zoroastrians Armenians comfortable with Western declining congregations, 258 ideas, 79 Iranian identity, 46, 186 criticism of Iran’s human rights in Kerman, 34 record, 168 loss of Qasr-e Firuzeh, 143–144 Islamic Republic opposition, population, 249 166–168 recognised religious minority, 2–4 Pahlavi Era pro, 166–167 in Tehran, 5–6, 132