Feed the Future Ethiopia Growth Through Nutrition Activity

Feed the Future Ethiopia Growth through Nutrition Activity Assessment report on food production, availability and consumption calendar in different agro-ecologies and livelihood systems of Ethiopia

Growth through Nutrition Activity Livelihood Team Addis Ababa, Ethiopia January 2019

List of Abbreviations and Acronyms AGP Agricultural Growth Program AGP-MF Agricultural Growth Program Model Farmers ASF Animal Source Foods CSA Central Statistics Agency CSPro Census and Survey Processing System DK Dry Kola DWD Dry Weyena Dega EDHS Ethiopia Demography and Health Survey H Harvesting LP Land Preparation MD Moist Dega MF Model Farmers MK Moist Kola MoA Ministry of Agriculture MVHHs Most Vulnerable Households MWD Moist Weyena Dega P Planting PSNP Productive Safty Net Program PSNP-B Productive Safety Net Program Beneficary SNNP Southern Nation, Naionality and People SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences T Threshing USAID United States Agency for International Development WASH Water, Sanitation and Hygiene WD Wet Dega WWD Wet Weyena Dega

Acknowledgements The livelihood team of Feed the Future Ethiopia Growth through Nutrition Activity would like to thank the staff of Growth through Nutrition Activity both at headquarters and the field offices for their all-round support and enumerators for their relentless effort to collect necessary data even during unsafe situations. We would also thank the facilitation role of agriculture experts of sample woredas and kebeles, without their kind support, the survey would not have been completed as planned.

We would also like to extend our gratitude to all respondents (smallholder farmers and marketing experts of sample woredas) of this study for the information they shared us. Their view is the cornerstone and building block of this report. We are also grateful to Ato Sahle Fanta for his support in data cleaning and analysis. Dr. Cherent, Mrs. Abse and Mr. Sibhatu are also acknowledged for their support rendered during designing the study.

Contents List of Abbreviations and Acronyms ...... 2 Acknowledgements ...... 3 Contents ...... 4 1. Introduction ...... 5 2. Methodology ...... 7 2.1 Sampling procedure followed ...... 7 2.2 Sample size determination ...... 8 2.3 Data Collection Methods ...... 8 3. Results and Discussion ...... 10 3.1 Characteristics of respondents ...... 10 3.2 Livestock ownership ...... 12 3.3 Size of landholding ...... 14 3.4 Onset and length of rainy season in different agro-ecologies ...... 16 3.5 Priority crop species produced in different agro-ecologies ...... 22 3.6 Food crops production (cropping) calendar ...... 25 3.7 Food types consumed by respondents in different agro-ecologies ...... 48 3.8 Seasonal food availability and sources in different agro-ecologies ...... 61 4. Conclusion and Recommendations ...... 84 5. References ...... 88 6. Annexes...... 89

1. Introduction Ethiopia is remarkably diverse in many aspects. Its altitude ranges from 120 m below sea level (in the Danakil desert) to 4620 m above sea level (in the Semen Mountains). The mean annual rainfall ranges from less than 100 mm to 2400 mm per year. Season and length of the rainy season varies in different parts of the country. Central, Eastern and Northern parts of Ethiopia receive bimodal rainfall, the major rain (kermet) from June to September and the minor rain (belg) from February to May. The Western and Southwestern parts of the country receive unimodal but long rainy season from March/April to October/November. The Southern and Southeastern parts of the country receive bimodal rainfall from September to November and from March to May, though the most reliable rainy months are April and May. The Northeastern parts of the country which comprises Western escarpment of the Rift-valley and adjacent to Afar depression have one little rainfall anytime between November and February.

Ethiopia also has diverse soil types (in color, texture, and fertility), vast water resources (122 billion m3 surface water and 2.6 billion m3 subsurface water resource), and large tract of irrigable land (4.25 million ha) (MoA, 2011). It is also a center of origin or genetic diversity for many crop species. About 84% of the total human population lives in rural areas and is directly engaged on subsistence agriculture. These all indicates the potential of the country to produce and supply adequate and diverse food to its citizens throughout the year.

Despite these opportunities, the problem of food insecurity and undernutrition are rampant in Ethiopia. According to the result of Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey (EDHS) conducted in 2016, 38% of children under 5 are considered stunted (short for their age), 10% are wasted (thin for their height), 24% are underweight (thin for their age), and 1% are overweight (heavy for their height) (CSA and ICF, 2016). Similarly, 22% of women in the reproductive age (15-49 years) are thin, while 8% are overweight or obese. The feeding practice of only 7% of children age 6-23 months meet the minimum acceptable dietary standards and only 14% of children had an adequately diverse diet. As a result, 57% of children age 6-59 months and 24% of women in the reproductive age are anemic. Stunting is slightly higher among male than female children (41% versus 35%) and among children in rural areas (40%) than urban areas (25%). There are some regional variations; stunting of children ranges from as high as 46% in the Amhara region to as low as 15 % in Addis Ababa. Similarly, percentage of anemic children ranges from 42% in Amhara region to 83% in Somali region. Likewise, the percentage of children consuming diversified diet ranges from 2.5% in Afar region to 40.7% in Addis Ababa. The percentage of children consuming vitamin A and iron rich foods varied from region to region. The percentage of children consuming vitamin A rich foods ranged from 11.3% in Afar to 69% in Addis Ababa. The percentage of children consuming iron rich foods ranged from 8.1% in Afar to 42.2% in Addis Ababa (CSA and ICF, 2016). This variability could be attributed to

the type of food produced locally, availability and accessibility of diversified food items in different seasons as well as the consumption habit of the community residing in different parts of the country. Abay and Hirvonen (2016) reported that children located closer to local food markets are better nourished compared to their counterparts residing in more remote areas, their weights are also subject to considerable seasonality.

Research results documented the impacts of season on household nutrition. Three main pathways through which season affects household nutritional status are an increase in morbidity during the rainy season, a decrease in food availability during the pre-harvest season, and fluctuating demand for female labor and its impacts on caring practices. Hirvonen et al (2015) studied the seasonality of household diets in Ethiopia and reported the presence of seasonal fluctuations in household diets in terms of both the quantity of calories and the number of different food groups consumed. Households consume less calories in the lean season (June and July), but the diet diversity score increases towards the end of the lean season (July). This is not true in some parts of the country since the harvesting season is different in different parts of the country. It is also difficult to generalize since the type of food items produced and consumed varies by agro-ecology and food habit of the community.

Feed the Future Ethiopia, Growth through Nutrition Activity is a five-years USAID funded Nutrition and WASH project under implementation in 100 (80 AGP + 20 PSNP) woredas of four regional states (SNNP, Oromia, Amhara and Tigray) of Ethiopia to improve the nutritional status of women and children on the first 1000 days. It targeted to directly support 28,000 nutritionally most vulnerable households (MVHHs) and 12,500 model farmers by the end of the project period. Beneficiaries of Growth through Nutrition Activity are residing in seven agro-ecologies and diverse livelihood systems. Growth through Nutrition Activity strives to enable all its beneficiaries to produce and consume diverse, nutritious and safe food throughout the year. This requires detail understanding of the current food production, availability and consumption practices in each agro-ecology and season. Therefore, this study was conducted to assess seasonal food production, availability and consumption practices of MVHHs and model farmers residing in seven agro-ecologies of Growth through Nutrition Activity intervention areas.

Objectives of the study 1. To identify the type of food crops produced in different agro-ecologies and define their production calendar 2. To document type of foods available and consumed in different agro-ecologies and seasons 3. To understand the sources of food (own production, market, wild foods and aid or gift) of MVHHs and model farmers in different seasons

4. To identify seasons when most MVHHs and model farmers face difficulty to fulfill their food requirements.

2. Methodology 2.1 Sampling procedure followed Feed the Future Ethiopia Growth through Nutrition Activity intervention woredas are found in seven agro- ecologies. Some of these woredas receive one rainy season with one harvesting season while others receive two rains with two cropping seasons. In some woredas field crops are dominantly produced, while in others horticultural crops are dominantly produced by smallholder farmers. It is also implemented in 80 surplus producing (Agricultural Growth Program (AGP) supported) and 20 food-insecure (Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP) supported) woredas. Therefore, Growth through Nutrition activity intervention woredas are diverse and needs to be categorized by their potential to agriculture (AGP versus PSNP), agro-ecology and farming system in order to draw representative sample for the study. Consequently, stratified multistage sampling method used to select sample woredas, kebeles and respondents. Purposive sampling method was used in order to select sample woredas from different agro-ecologies and farming systems. Similarly, two sample kebeles were selected from each sample woreda considering their representativeness to the targeted agro-ecology and farming system. On the other hand, respondents were selected through random sampling method among MVHHs and model farmers targeted by Growth through Nutrition Activity and PSNP beneficiaries and model farmers in PSNP targeted woredas. List of sample woredas are depicted in Table 1.

Table 1: List of sample woredas selected for the study

Agro-ecology Sample Woredas AGP PSNP Dry Kola ( 500-1500 masl and <900mm) Tselemti Moist Kola (500-1500 masl +900-1400 mm) Taqusa Dry Weyena Dega (1500-2300 masl +<900 mm) Tahetay Keraro Ebinat and Arsi Negele Moist Weyena Dega (1500-2300 masl +900-1400 Cheha and Merab Azernet Ginir mm) Wet Weyena Dega (1500-2300 masl +>1400 mm) Wenchi, Horo, Guangua and Were Wegera Jarso, Moist Dega (2300-3200 masl +900-1400 mm) Sinana and Malga Lay Gayint Wet Dega (2300-3200 masl +>1400 mm) Semen Ari Dabat 7 Agro-ecologies 10 8 • In each agro-ecology, Woredas highlighted with different colors have different farming systems

2.2 Sample size determination The objective of this survey was to draw lessons on food production practices, food availability and consumption calendar of smallholder (MVHHs, PSNP beneficiaries and model farmers) farmers. Production, availability and consumption are indicators or attributes for this study. Study conducted in four regions (SNNP, Oromia, Amhara and Tigray) of Ethiopia indicated that 68 % and 60 to 80% of the rural households produce and consume cereals, respectively. Therefore, 66% was considered as estimated proportion in order to determine representative sample size. Considering the above information, study sample size for individual interview was determined using the following formula.

n = Z2pq X DEF = 1.962 * 0.66 * 0.34 * 2 = 688 e2 0.052 Where n is the sample size, Z2 is the desired confidence level (95% C.I), e is the desired level of precision (0.05), p is the estimated proportion of an attribute that is present in the population, q is 1-p, and DEF is design effect. With this consideration and taking 10% as nonresponse rate effect, the total number of respondent HHs for the survey was 760. Therefore, the number of respondents per sample woreda and kebele were 40 and 20, respectively. From the total respondents, 50% were model farmers and the remaining 50% were MVHHs and PSNP beneficiaries. These respondents were selected randomly using sampled kebele Growth through Nutrition Activity and PSNP targeted households list.

2.3 Data Collection Methods

Individual interview Information related to seasonal food production, availability and consumption collected from MVHHs, PSNP beneficiaries and model farmers through individual interview using semi structured questionnaire. In addition, focus group discussion and key informant interview employed to support and triangulate information collected through individual interview. Therefore, the first activity in this part was developing semi-structured questionnaire and transcribing the questionnaire into CSPro data entry application software for computer assisted data collection followed by training enumerators and pre-testing the questionnaire. Computer assisted data collection assisted to detect and correct data collection errors as quickly as possible, to reduce the likelihood of data loss, to maintain the integrity of the collected data, and eliminate additional effort required for data entry. The household survey questionnaire employed covers a series of topics including respondent household characteristics, seasonal food production, availability and consumption.

Focus group discussion A group of 6-10 male farmers who are representative of the community selected for focus group discussion in each sample woreda. They have discussed and provided information related to the types of food crops

produced in their area and their production calendar. Similarly, a group of 6-10 women farmers who are representative to the community were selected for focus group discussion in each sample woreda. They have discussed and provided information related to seasonal food availability and consumption. Each focus group discussion was facilitated by two experts from Growth through Nutrition Activity livelihood team. Check list employed to capture necessary information during the focus group discussion.

Key informant interview Marketing experts in each sample woreda participated as key informant and provided information related to seasonal availability of different crops and animal source foods in the local market and their average monthly price.

Data collection, cleaning and analysis Data from individual respondents were collected on Computer Assisted Personal Interview. All data were directly recorded into portable computer (tablet) during interview. CSPro (Census and Survey Processing System) software was used for designing electronic data collection template, entry and cleaning. This mode of data collection saved data entry cost and time. It also minimized errors that might be encountered during data collection and entry. Data were collected by enumerators, checked by supervisors and further checked and cleaned by a statistician. Finally, data were analyzed by using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20 Software. Descriptive statistics were used to summarize and present results of the study. Most of the quantitative results in this report are presented as percentages and means.

Percentage was used to summarize data recorded in nominal scales (eg., yes/no responses). Percentages are computed using the unweighted number of cases that provided a given response as the numerator, and the total unweighted number of cases for that column as the denominator.

Mean was used to summarize data collected in a continuous scale format (eg., age, size of farmland, etc). Means are computed using the weighted sum of values as the numerator and the total weighted number of cases as the denominator.

Limitations/challenges

Although results obtained in the current study are encouraging, it may have the following limitations:

• Cropping calendar presented in this report is generated solely using respondents long-term experience. It is not supported by weather data, due to lack of weather data collected continuously at least for 10 years in each study sites or satellite image data. This might have limitation on the accuracy of the information. However, respondents long-term experience contributes to minimize the error.

• Respondents were interviewed using local languages by employing enumerators who can speak local languages. However, in a few cases (in Guangua, Semen Ari, and Cheha woreda) translators were used to capture information from some respondents. This might have effect on the accuracy of the information collected. • Data used for this report were collected through one-time survey and recall method. Therefore, food availability and consumption calendar developed using this data will have some limitation.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1 Characteristics of respondents

3.1.1 Sex and marital status of respondents Analysis of respondents’ characteristics indicated that results of this study is based on information captured from diverse respondents (Table 2). Both female and male respondents are required to collect all-rounded and reliable information on food production, availability and consumption. Female respondents are more important than male respondents to collect reliable information related to food availability and consumption. On the other hand, male respondents are more important than female respondents to capture reliable information on food production activities. As depicted in table 1, out of the total 702 respondents, 67% were male while 33% were female respondents. Therefore, the study captured experiences of both female and male respondents. In addition, 87% of respondents were married while 13% were single (unmarried, divorced, widow and separated). Therefore, the study collected food production, availability and consumption practices of respondents with different marital status.

3.1.2 Age and length of farming experience

Food production, availability and consumption calendar preparation requires long time experiences or observations. Therefore, respondents age has significant role to collect relevant and reliable information. The age of 81% of the total respondents were more than 30 years (Table 2). In addition, 80% of respondents had over 10 years farming experience. Therefore, data included in this report collected from aged and experienced respondents.

3.1.3 Religion and education level of respondents

Religion has significant effect on the type of food to be consumed in different seasons. About 62%, 19%, 16.4%, 2.3%, and 0.3% of the total respondents were followers of Orthodox, Muslim, Protestant, Catholic, and other religion followers, respectively. In addition, respondents have different education levels. About 48% of the total respondents did not attained formal education. Therefore, this report has

information collected from respondents with different religions and education levels.

Table 2: Description of respondents

Characters Percentage Number Sex

• Female 33.0 469 • Male 67.0 233 Marital status • Married 87.0 610 • Divorced 5.8 41 • Widow 5.0 35 • Separated 0.9 6 • Never married 1.3 10 Age • <30 years 19.0 133 • 30-59 years 75.0 527 • >59 years 6.0 42 Years of farming experience • <10 years 20.0 141 • 10-30 years 63.0 445 • >30 years 17.0 116 Religion • Orthodox 62.0 435 • Muslim 19.0 134 • Protestant 16.4 115 • Catholic 2.3 16 • Others 0.3 2 Education level • Illiterate 38.0 265 • Read and write 10.0 74 • Primary education 29.0 204

• Secondary education and 23.0 159 above

3.2 Livestock ownership The service of livestock for rural households is immense. They not only provide food, draft power, manure, but also serve as saving bank for rural households. Therefore, rural households keep different livestock species. The type of livestock species reared by rural households differ by agro-ecology (Table 3). The result of this study revealed that, most respondents (69%) own goat compared to all other livestock species in dry kola agro-ecology. On the other hand, most respondents own sheep compared to other livestock species in moist kola, wet weyena dega, moist dega, and wet dega agro-ecologies. Similarly, most respondents keep cattle compared to other livestock species in dry weyena dega and moist weyena dega agro-ecologies. Generally, over one-third of respondents own cattle, sheep, chicken and donkey.

Table 3: Percentage of respondents who own different livestock species by agro-ecology

Livestock Species Agro-ecology DK MK DWD MWD WWD MD WD Mean Cattle 50.2 61.7 64.6 57.0 60.1 33.2 38.2 52.1 Sheep 5.7 66.5 35.6 38.9 77.3 61.2 53.5 48.4 Goat 69.0 17.9 31.3 25.0 9.0 5.6 7.5 23.6 Chicken 45.3 58.5 46.4 28.0 52.6 22.0 39.6 41.8 Beehive 19.4 25.6 13.2 19.6 19.5 13.8 10.3 17.3 Camel 0.0 0.0 1.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 Horse 0.0 2.4 2.7 11.7 35.3 2.5 39.4 13.4 Mule 0.0 7.9 1.3 7.0 4.7 2.5 9.0 4.6 Donkey 41.7 64.0 46.7 44.2 47.6 30.0 2.6 39.5

The type of livestock species owned by farmers varied by household economic status. Economically better- off farmers (model farmers) keep several livestock species compared to economically poor farmers (most vulnerable households (MVHHS) and productive safety net program (PSNP) beneficiaries) (Table 4). They also differ in type of livestock species they own. Over 25% of respondents from productive safety net program beneficiaries owned small animals (sheep, chicken and goat). Similarly, over 25% of respondents from most vulnerable households own small animals (sheep and chicken). On the other hand, most model farmer respondents own both large and small animals. Over 50% model farmers own donkey, since it is important to transport their produce from field to house and market. Over 70% of respondent model farmers rear cattle since cattle required for different crop production activities, and serve as saving bank for rich

rural household. Generally, 51.5%, 50.4%, 40.1% and 37.3% of the total respondents owned cattle, sheep, chicken and donkey, respectively.

The advantage of small ruminants for poor households is higher than large ruminants. A poor household can have several small ruminants while it might not be able to support even one milking cow. In cases where there is urgent need for cash, one or more goat or sheep can be sold, while a cow can only be sold if a major problem should occur. Sheep and goat can tolerate harsh environment than cattle. It is also much quicker and cheaper to rebuild a stock of ruminants than a stock of cattle if a herd lost in one or another reason. The time to reach reproductive age and the gestation period of goat and sheep is only half that of cow. Therefore, goat and sheep are suitable to improve the livelihood of poor households. Hence, livestock distribution should consider both agro-ecology, and the household skill and resource to manage the intended livestock species. Growth through Nutrition Activity provides sheep, chicken and goat to MVHHs and is in line with this finding.

One of the purposes of livestock rearing is to produce food both for the household and market. Results of this assessment indicated that 78.8% and 86.1% of respondents among PSNP beneficiaries and MVHHs did not have cow, respectively. Similarly, 76.4% and 71.5% of respondents from MVHHs and PSNP beneficiaries did not have egg laying hens, respectively. In addition, 71.3% and 70.1% of respondents among PSNP beneficiaries and MVHHs during the interview period did not have chicken. Therefore, most PSNP beneficiaries and MVHHs did not have dairy products, and poultry egg and meat from own production for consumption. On the other hand, 80% and 80.4% of respondents among model farmers in PSNP and AGP supported woredas have cow, respectively. In addition, 49.6% and 52.3% of respondents among model farmers in PSNP and AGP supported woredas have chicken, respectively. Therefore, most model farmers have dairy products, and poultry egg and meat from own produce for consumption compared to MVHHs and PSNP beneficiaries.

Table 4: Percentage of respondents own different livestock species

Livestock species House Hold Types PSNP- AGP- AGP- B PSNP-MF MVHH MF Mean Cattle 23.5 85.7 20.6 76.2 51.5 Sheep 29.3 53.4 74.4 44.6 50.4 Goat 27.5 28.9 5 20 20.4 Chicken 28.7 49.6 29.9 52.3 40.1 Beehive 2.9 28.3 4.1 30.7 16.5 Camel 0 0 0 0.9 0.2 Horse 8.3 27.1 4.2 22.2 15.5

Mule 0 11.4 0.9 6.6 4.7 Donkey 14.2 73.9 8.8 52.4 37.3

Key lessons

• Most respondents own goat in dry kola, sheep in moist kola, wet weyena dega, moist dega and wet dega, and cattle in dry weyena dega and moist weyena dega agro-ecologies compared to other livestock species. • Adaptation ecology, feed availability and major livelihood (draught power for crop production) activities dictates the type of livestock species widely owned by respondents. The percentage of respondents owning cattle is lower in moist dega and wet dega agro-ecologies compared to other agro-ecologies. This is mainly attributed to feed shortage. The percentage of respondents owning chicken is high in moist kola and wet weyena dega agro-ecologies compared to other agro- ecologies. This is mainly attributed to grain availability. Therefore, consider agro-ecology suitability and feed availability while distributing different livestock species. • Most PSNP beneficiaries and MVHHs own shoat and chicken, while model farmers own cattle, sheep and chicken compared to other livestock species. This is attributed to availability capital for restocking, demand for draft power, length of gestation period or reproduction cycle, risk, and feed resources. Therefore, provision of shoat and chicken to MVHHs by Growth through Nutrition is an appropriate intervention. • Only 23.6% and 28.5% of MVHHs and PSNP beneficiaries have egg laying hen. Therefore, market plays important role in order to make available animal source food by most MVHHs and PSNP beneficiaries.

3.3 Size of landholding Land is one of the important inputs to produce food and ensure nutrition security. Results of this study indicated that, 95.7% of the total respondents own land. In addition, 45.6% of the total respondents rent land for their farming activities. Both economically poor and better-off farmers rent-in farmland. The size of farmland owned and rented-in by respondents are given in Table 5 and 6, respectively. Farmland size owned by economically poor households are much less than the size of farmland owned by model farmers. The average size of farmland owned by respondents was 1.3ha. Similarly, CSA and World Bank (2013) reported 1.37ha as the national average household land holding, and its variation from place to place and the gender of the household head.

Among agro-ecologies, on average respondents from moist weyena dega and wet dega agro-ecologies had the largest (2.0 ha) and smallest (0.7 ha) farmland size, respectively. Generally, most respondents had <1

ha farmland. Therefore, it is very difficult to grow diversified food from their own plot of land using the rainfed production system. Farmers practice intercropping, mixed cropping, and relay cropping to fulfill their food crop requirements. In addition, they rented-in farmland from other farmers (Table 6). The size of farmland rented-in varied by agro-ecology and also economic status of households. The average size of farmland rented-in by respondents ranged from 0.5ha in wet dega agro-ecology to 1.2ha in dry weyena dega and wet weyena dega agro-ecologies. The average rented-in land size of AGP-MVHHs, PSNP- beneficiaries, PSNP-MF and AGP-MF was 0.6ha, 0.7ha, 1.2ha and 1.3ha, respectively during the survey period. Generally, respondents have small plot of land to produce adequate and diversified food to their family throughout the year. Consequently, they buy food crops from local market to fulfill their food requirement.

Table 5: Average size of farmland owned by respondents in different agro-ecologies

Agro-ecology PSNP-B PSNP-MF AGP- AGP- Mean MVHHs MF

DK 1.19 1.6 1.4 MK 0.7 1.78 1.2 DWD 1.01 1.53 0.51 1.06 1.0 MWD 1.04 4.73 0.52 1.64 2.0 WWD 0.69 1.67 0.7 2.3 1.3 MD 0.42 0.99 0.53 3.28 1.3 WD 0.43 0.57 0.57 1.42 0.7 Mean 0.8 1.8 0.6 1.9 1.3

Table 6: Average size of farmland (ha) rented-in by respondents in different agro-ecologies

Agro-ecology House Hold Types PSNP-B PSNP- AGP- AGP- Mean MF MVHHs MF DK 0.8 1.1 0.9 MK 0.8 0.9 0.8 DWD 1.0 1.0 0.8 1.8 1.2 MWD 0.9 2.1 0.3 0.9 1.0 WWD 0.6 1.6 0.9 1.9 1.2 MD 0.4 0.6 0.6 1.6 0.8 WD 0.6 0.6 0.3 0.6 0.5 Mean 0.7 1.2 0.6 1.3 0.9

Key lessons

• Respondents on average owned 1.3ha farmland which is small to produce diversified food and income for their other essential needs. • Among agro-ecologies, respondents in dry weyena dega and wet dega agro-ecologies have the smallest plot of farmland per household (less than 1ha farmland). • Most vulnerable households and PSNP beneficiaries have small size farmland compared to model farmers in all agro-ecologies, which is less than 1ha. • Respondents cope this challenge through rent-in farmland (0.5ha on average), multiple cropping (wheat and barley, fieldpea and fababean mixed cropping, etc), purchasing relatively cheap staple crops (sorghum and maize), preparing food by mixing different types of grains (teff with maize, sorghum, wheat, fingermillet, etc), and engaging in off-farm income generating activity. o Therefore, Growth through Nutrition Activity homestead gardening intervention is vital to produce and supply diversified diet.

3.4 Onset and length of rainy season in different agro-ecologies The schedule of crop production activities, right from land preparation to the time of harvesting and threshing is rainfall dependent. In Ethiopia, irrigation contributes only 5.7% of the agricultural GDP in 2005/6 cropping season (Hagos et al., 2009). The variable nature of rainfall is often given as the main reason for frequent crop failures and food shortages in Ethiopia. The assessment and prediction of the onset and cessation dates of the rainy season in different agro-ecologies is therefore crucial to the success of agricultural activities in Ethiopia. The length (onset and cessation) of rainy season in seven agro-ecologies was assessed using 18 sample woredas in 2018.

Results of this survey indicated the presence of variation among agro-ecologies and even among sample woredas categorized in one agro-ecology in terms of the onset and length of the rainy season. According to respondents, the rainy season in dry kola and moist kola agro-ecologies usually onset in May and April and extends to August and to September, respectively (Fig. 1). In these agro-ecologies the average temperature is very high and leads to very high evapotranspiration. Therefore, the length of growing period is expected to be very short. Hence crops which are early maturing and drought tolerant are ideal for production in these agro-ecologies. In addition, intercropping/mixed cropping is also important to produce diversified food from a small plot of land. On the other hand, relay or sequential cropping is not appropriate to harvest two crops per year in such areas.

Rainy Season in Dry and Moist Kolla Agro-ecologies 120

100

0 Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb March April May June July August

Tselemti Taqusa

Fig. 1. Length of rainy seasons in Dry Kola and Moist Kola agro-ecologies

The length of rainy season in dry weyena dega agro-ecology varied among sample woredas. In Arsi Negale woreda, the rainy season mostly on-set in February and terminate in September with short dry spell in between. On the other hand, in Ebinat and Tahtay Keraro woredas the rainy season onset in April/May and terminate at the end of August (Fig. 2). Therefore, sample woredas dates of rainy season onset and length of rainy season is different. Hence crop species resistant to drought and with short growing period are important for Ebinat and Tahtay Keraro woredas compared to Arsi Negele woreda.

Rainy Season in Dry Weyna Dega Agro-ecology 120

100

0 Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb March April May June July August

Tahetay Keraro Arsi Negele Ebinat

Fig. 2. Length of rainy season in Dry Weyena Dega Agro-ecology

The length of rainy season of sample woredas in moist weyena dega agro-ecology was relatively long. Respondents reported the presence of rain from February to December in Ginir and from February to November in Cheha and Merab Azernet woredas (Fig. 3). Such long rainy season enable to grow long season and perennial crops even with limited supplementary irrigation. It also supports to produce diversified food crops from the same plot of land through double and sequential cropping in addition to mixed and intercropping system. Moreover, it is possible to access fresh produce throughout the year without any preservation or storage facilities. However, grain crops drying and threshing will be a challenge for smallholders due to short dry season. Drying and threshing facilities are very important to prevent mold and aflatoxin problem in these areas.

Rainy Season in Moist Weyna Dega Agro-ecology 120

100

0 Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb March April May June July August

Cheha Merab Azernet Ginir

Fig. 3. Length of rainy season in Moist Weyena Dega agro-ecology.

The length of rainy season in wet weyena dega agro-ecology was assessed by taking five sample woredas (Guangua, Horo, Wegera, Were Jarso and Wonchi) from northwestern, central and western parts of the country. The rainy season of these sample woredas show similar trend (Fig. 4). However, the onset of rainy season showed some variation. In Horo woreda the rainy season starts in March and terminated in September. On the other hand, in Guangua woreda the onset of the rainy season is in May and terminates in October. The rainy season of the remaining three sample woredas start in April and terminates in September. Therefore, the cropping calendar will differ accordingly. In this agro-ecology the length of dry season is relatively wide ranging from October to March/May. Therefore, it will be very difficult to produce and consume fresh produce (vegetables and fruits) throughout the year with rainfed production system. Hence fruit and vegetable preservation through simple drying technology seems important to make

available throughout the year. In addition, intercropping, mixed cropping, relay or sequential cropping can be practiced to produce diversified crops on the same plot of land.

Rainy Season in Wet Weyna Dega Agro-ecology 120

100

0 Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb March April May June July August

Wegera Wenchi Horo Guangua Were Jarso

Fig. 4. Length of rainy season in Wet Weyena Dega agro-ecology

The length of rainy season in moist dega agro-ecology was assessed by using three sample woredas (Lay Gaint, Malga and Sinana) selected from southern, central and northwestern parts of the country. The result of this assessment indicated the presence of variation on the onset as well as length of rainy season among the sample woredas (Fig. 5). In Lay Gaint woreda the rainy season onset in April and terminate in September. Therefore, it has eight months or extended dry period ranging from September to March. Consequently, it will be very difficult to produce and consume fresh fruits and vegetables throughout the year using the rainfed production system. Hence, market access, irrigated production or preservation through drying are important to make available these commodities throughout the year. On the other hand, in Malga the rainy season starts in February and terminates in November. It has extended (nearly 10 months) rainy season. Similarly, in Sinana woreda the rainy season starts in February and terminates in December. Therefore, it is possible to produce and consume diversified food crops including fresh fruits and vegetables throughout the year with rainfed production system in these woredas. In these woredas the dry season is very short (two months). Therefore, grain crops drying and threshing through traditional method will be a challenge. The prevailing wet climate coupled with the traditional drying and threshing practices will favor mold and aflatoxin development.

Rainy Season in Moist Dega Agro-ecology 120

100

0 Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb March April May June July August

Sinana Lay Gaint Malga

Fig. 5. Length of rainy season in moist dega agro-ecology

The length of rainy season in wet dega agro-ecology was assessed by using two sample woredas (Dabat and semen Ari) selected from southern and northwestern parts of the country. The result of this assessment revealed that sample woredas did not have similar length of rainy season (Fig. 6). In Dabat woreda the rainy season onset in April/May and terminates in September. Therefore, it has a very short (four month) rainy season. On the other hand, the rainy in Semen Ari woreda onset in February and terminates in October. Therefore, it has extended (8 months) rainy season. Hence, in Semen Ari woreda it is possible to produce and consume diversified food crops on a small plot of land through double cropping, intercropping, relay cropping or sequential cropping practices. On the other hand, in Dabat woreda, the rainy season is very short and difficult to access fresh vegetable from rainfed production system.

Rainy season in wet dega agro-ecology 120

100

0 Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb March April May June July August

Dabat Semen Ari

Fig. 6. Length of rainy season in wet dega agro-ecology

Key lessons

Sample woredas classified in one agro-ecology have different length of rainy season. Therefore, food crops and varieties to be introduced as well as type of cropping systems should be selected according to length of the rainy season. Sample woredas such as Tselemti, Tahtay Keraro, Taqusa, Lay Gayint and Dabat have relatively short rainy season. Therefore:

• Introduction of early maturing and drought tolerant varieties and crops (mung bean, sweet potato, etc) seems important. In addition, improved practices such as dry planting and seed priming can be introduced for efficient use of the available soil moisture in the rainy season. • Farmers practice mixed and intercropping (bread wheat and barley, faba bean and field pea) to produce diversified food crops on the same plot of land at the same time. Such practices have to be promoted since it is also useful to prevent pest and disease prevalence and reduce risk of total crop failure due to environmental calamities. However, compatible crop species have to be selected for mixed and intercropping practice. • In these sample woredas, the dry season is very long. Therefore, fresh fruits and vegetables are not available for consumption from own produce during the long dry season. To curb this problem introduction of solar drier technology for fruit and vegetable preservation seems important. Introduction of fruit and vegetable production in the homegarden through water harvesting and water saving irrigation practices seems important to make them available throughout the year in these areas.

• In these sample woredas, most agricultural activities are carried out in a short period of time. Therefore, labor demand during the crop production season is very high. This will negatively affect women’ child care and feeding practices. Therefore, introduction and demonstration of labor- saving technologies can contribute to solve this problem.

Sample woredas such as Semen Ari, Sinana, Ginir, Malga, Cheha and Merab Azernet have relatively long rainy season. Therefore:

• Multiple cropping practice such as double and sequential cropping is possible to produce diversified food on small plot of land. • Fresh produce (fruits and vegetables) can be supplied throughout the year with supplementary irrigation during the short dry season. In addition, fresh produce can be stored and supplied to consumers during the short dry period using zero-energy cooling chamber or evaporative cooling chamber. Zero-energy cooling chamber is technically simple and affordable technology for smallholder farmers.

3.5 Priority crop species produced in different agro-ecologies

Agro-ecology dictates the type of crop species produced by farmers. Respondents were asked to list crop species they were growing in the last five years. Results of this study revealed the presence of variation in number as well as type of priority crops produced by respondents’ economic status as well as by agro- ecologies. The priority crops produced by respondents were also different among sample woredas selected in one agro-ecology. This could be attributed to the differences in length of rainy season as well as food habit of the society.

In dry kola agro-ecology respondents reported the production of 11 food crops in their area (Annex 1). Of these crops five were cereal crops, two were legumes, two were oil crops and two were vegetable crops. However, the five top most widely produced food crops are sorghum, fingermillet, tef, maize and noug in decreasing order. Sorghum and fingermillet ranks first and second among food crops growing in the area. This could be since they are relatively drought tolerant and serve as staple in the area. On the other hand, legumes are not widely produced by respondents. The type of legumes listed by few respondents are cool season legumes. Therefore, introduction of drought tolerant or drought escaping legumes such as mung bean seems important to ensure self-reliance in protein source food especially for resource poor households. Moreover, fruits and vegetables are not widely produced by respondents. This could be due to shortage of water resource as well as food habit of the community. Introduction and demonstration of drought tolerant crops such as orange fleshed sweet potato, pumpkin, moringa, guava, pomegranate, zyziphus, etc seems

important to ensure the availability of balanced diet at household level. Moreover, market linkage can contribute to alleviate fruits and vegetable shortage in the area.

In moist kola agro-ecology respondents reported the production of 24 food crops in their area. Of these crops six are cereals, four are legumes, three are oil crops, two are root/tuber crops, six are vegetables and three are tropical fruit crops (Annex 1). The top ten widely produced crops in the area are pepper, fingermillet, chickpea, maize, teff, garlic, bread wheat, potato, onion and barley. This indicates that most respondents grow primarily staple crops, a legume and spices (cash crops). Therefore, fruits, vegetables and oil crops are not priority crops for smallholder farmers in moist kola agro-ecology. Hence, introduction and demonstration of fruits and vegetables adaptable to moist kola agro-ecology seems vital to promote nutrition sensitive agricultural practices in the area.

Respondents listed the production of 35 food crop species in dry weyena dega agro-ecology (Annex 2). Of these food crops seven were cereals, nine were legumes, four were oil crops, four were fruit crops, 10 were vegetables and one was tuber crop. However, the ten top most widely produced food crops in this agro- ecology are teff, maize, fingermillet, bread wheat, faba bean, chickpea, barley, potato and field pea in decreasing order. Fruits, vegetables, and oil crops are not widely produced by respondents. This result reveals the inadequate production of fruits and vegetables in the area. It could be associated to the food habit of the society in the agro-ecology. Therefore, introduction and demonstration of fruits and vegetables adaptable to dry weyena dega agro-ecology seems vital to promote nutrition sensitive agricultural practice in the area.

In moist weyena dega agro-ecology respondents reported the production of 33 food crop species (Annex 3). Of these food crops seven are cereals, eight are pulses, one oil crops, three root crops, nine vegetables, and five fruit crops. Of these food crops bread wheat, barley, enset, faba bean, maize, potato, field pea, teff, emmer wheat and lentil are the top ten food crops widely produced in moist weyena dega agro-ecology. Five, three, and two of the top-ranking food crops were cereals, legumes and root/tuber crops. This indicates that fruits, vegetables and oil crops are not widely produced and consumed by smallholder farmers. Therefore, introduction and demonstration of fruits and vegetables adaptable to moist weyena dega agro- ecology seems vital to promote nutrition sensitive agricultural practice in the area.

Respondents listed 47 crop species produced by smallholder households in wet weyena dega agro-ecology (Annex 4). Of these crop species nine are cereals, nine are pulses, five are oil crops, six are root crops, 11 are vegetables, and seven are fruit crops. Of these 47 food crops bread wheat, potato, barley, faba bean, teff, field pea, maize, garlic, chickpea and grasspea are found as the ten top widely growing food crops by smallholder farmers in wet weyena dega agro-ecology. Of these ten most widely growing crops five are

carbohydrate rich staple crops, four are protein rich pulses and one is high value spice crop (garlic). This reveal that most smallholder farmers grow cereals and pulses both for household consumption and market. In wet weyena dega agro-ecology, fruits and vegetables are not widely produced by smallholder farmers. Therefore, introduction and demonstration of fruits and vegetables adaptable to wet weyena dega agro- ecology seems vital to promote nutrition sensitive agricultural practice in this agro-ecology.

Respondents listed 30 crop species produced by smallholder farmers in moist dega agro-ecology (Annex 5). Of these crop species, nine were cereals, seven were pulses, two were oil crops, two were root/tuber crops, eight vegetables and two were fruit crops. Bread wheat, potato, barley, faba bean, enset, field pea, maize, teff, garlic, and kale were the top ten most widely grown food crops in moist dega agro-ecology in decreasing order of importance. Of the top ten widely produced crops, six of them are staples which are rich in carbohydrate, two of them are protein rich legumes, one of them is leafy vegetable and the remaining one is high value spice crop. This result revealed that fruit crops and oil crops are not widely produced by smallholder farmers. Therefore, introduction and demonstration of fruits and vegetables seems vital to promote nutrition sensitive agricultural practice in moist dega agro-ecology.

Respondents listed 36 crop species produced by smallholder households in wet dega agro-ecology (Annex 6). Of these food crops, six were cereals, eight were pulses, two were oil crops, six were root/tubers crops, ten were vegetables, and four were fruit crops. Barley, bread wheat, faba bean, field pea, maize, potato, enset, fenugreek, garlic, taro and lentil were the top ten food crops widely produced by smallholder farmers in wet dega agro-ecology. Of these crops, six of them are staples (three cereals and three root crops) which are rich source of carbohydrate, three of them are legumes which are rich in protein, and one of them is high value cash crop (garlic). Therefore, most smallholder farmers do not grow fruit, vegetable and oil crops. Hence, introduction and demonstration of fruits and vegetable crops adaptable to the wet dega agro- ecology seems vital to promote nutrition sensitive agricultural practice in wet dega agro-ecology.

Key lessons

• Though all agro-ecologies has suitable environmental conditions to grow fruits and vegetables, most smallholder farmers did not grow these food crops. Therefore, introduction and demonstration of fruits and vegetables in all agro-ecologies seems very important to promote the availability of diversified food crops. Most smallholder farmers did not grow fruits and vegetables may be due to shortage of farmland. This problem can be solved through promoting homestead fruit and vegetable production or different cropping system such as intercropping, relay cropping, sequential cropping, or double cropping. Of all the agro-ecologies, few food crop species are produced in dry kola agro- ecology. On the other hand, the most diverse food crops are produced in wet weyena dega agro-

ecology. Therefore, introduction and demonstration of drought tolerant or drought escaping crop species is vital to diversify the type of food crops produced in dry kola agro-ecology.

3.6 Food crops production (cropping) calendar A crop calendar is defined as a summarized chart with a schedule of essential cropping activities (such as land preparation, planting, harvesting and threshing) of an area sequentially. A crop calendar is essential for individuals, institutions and industries involved in producing, marketing and processing of crop-related outputs. It provides information on planting periods and agronomic practices of crops in specific agro- ecological zone. It supports farmers and agricultural experts in properly planning all cropping activities including planting and harvesting times, thus contributing to reduced production costs. It is also useful for agricultural input suppliers for providing sufficient amount of the required input at the right time and place. Furthermore, it is important for crop monitoring and accurately estimating agricultural water demand and food production or yield forecasting. Moreover, a crop calendar can serve as a quick reference for selecting crop varieties with a maturity period that fits to the length of the growing season of a given agro-ecology.

A crop calendar can be estimated by various techniques: census, climate, modelling and satellite-based estimation approaches (Wayima, 2016). Cropping calendars described below are developed using the census approach since it does not require data collection facilities in every survey site. Rather it employees long term experiences/ knowledge/ of the community. It also considers not only weather information but also the system as a whole, for example resources required for land preparation, water holding capacity of the soil, maturity period of crop varieties growing in the locality, pest and disease occurrence, etc. However, this method is time consuming, labor intensive and costly. The cropping calendar of different food crops growing in sample woredas is given in Fig. 7- 24. The climate-based method uses climatic variables to estimate crop calendars and defined as the period during the year when precipitation exceeds half the potential evapotranspiration. However, this method does not consider soil properties and soil moisture extracting abilities of different crop species. Therefore, it has a limitation to develop reliable crop calendar. Similarly, the reliability of crop calendar developed by modeling technique is influenced by the availability of reliable data to develop the model as well as by factors which are not considered in the model. Likewise, the inability to obtain data through cloud and its highly skilled manpower requirement for data analysis and interpretation affects the satellite-based method.

3.6.1 Dry Kola agro-ecology

Production calendar of 12 food crops produced by smallholder farmers in dry kola agro-ecology is depicted in Fig. 7. In dry kola agro-ecology food crops are produced during the meher rainy season. Major crop production activities such as land preparation, planting, harvesting and threshing are carried-out from

March to July, April to August, October to December, and November to March, respectively. The land preparation and planting activities of most food crops are carried out in the period from May to July. Likewise harvesting and threshing activities are carried-out mainly from October to January. Therefore, the labor demand for farm activities is very high from May to July and October to January. Each farm activity is carried-out for an extended period mainly due to use of traditional and time taking land preparation, planting, harvesting and threshing technologies. Introduction and demonstration of improved land preparation, planting, harvesting and threshing technologies is important to save labor, improve productivity and quality of the produce.

Food crops produced in this agro-ecology reach to consumption starting from November. In this agro- ecology smallholder farmers have only one harvest per year. Therefore, smallholder farmers store part of the produce for household food till the next harvesting season. However, grain storage structures are traditional and insect pests poses high postharvest loss. Farmers apply pesticides to control storage pests. Hence, introduction and demonstration of improved storage technologies such as hermetic bag, metal silo, etc seems important to reduce postharvest loss and prevent use of hazardous pesticides.

3.6.2 Moist Kola agro-ecology

The production calendar of 24 food crops produced by smallholder farmers in moist kola agro-ecology is depicted in Fig. 8. In moist kola agro-ecology, smallholder farmers produce their food crop mainly during the meher rainy season. Major crop production activities such as land preparation, planting, harvesting and threshing are done from March to July, May to August, September to January, and September to February, respectively. Labor demand for farm activities is very high from May to July and from September to January since both land preparation and planting and harvesting and threshing are carried out during these months, respectively. Each farm activity took extended period since smallholder farmers did not use labor and time saving land preparation, planting, harvesting and threshing technologies. Food crops produced in this agro- ecology reach to consumption starting from September. Smallholder farmers store part of the produce for household consumption till the next year harvest season. However, smallholder farmers did not use improved storage facilities. Consequently, there is high postharvest loss and apply hazards pesticides to control storage pests. Therefore, introduction and demonstration of improved storage technologies (hermetic bag, metal silo) is important to reduce postharvest loss and reduce hazardous pesticide use.

3.6.3 Dry Weyena Dega agro-ecology

The production calendar of food crops produced in dry weyena dega agro-ecology is depicted in Fig.9 -11. In dry weyena dega agro-ecology smallholder farmers grow most of the food crops during the meher rainy season. In Tehtay Keraro woreda land preparation, planting, harvesting and threshing activities are done

from March to July, May to July, October to January, and November to February, respectively. There is high labor demand for farm activities in the months from May to July and November to January since land preparation and planting, and harvesting and threshing activities are carried out during these periods, respectively. In Ebinat woreda land preparation, planting, harvesting and threshing activities are usually done from February to June, May to August, September to December, and October to February, respectively. May to June and October to December are critical months for labor since land preparation and planting, and harvesting and threshing are carried out during these periods, respectively. In Arsi Negele woreda, land preparation, planting, harvesting, and threshing activities are carried out from March to July, March to August, August to January, and October to February, respectively. March to July, and October to December are the most critical months for labor since land preparation and planting, and harvesting and threshing are done in these months, respectively. Generally, in dry weyena dega agro-ecology land preparation, planting, harvesting and threshing are carried out from March to July, March to August, August to January, and October to February, respectively. Therefore, crops produced in this agro-ecology reach to consumption starting from October.

3.6.4 Moist Weyena Dega agro-ecology

The production calendar of food crops produced in moist weyena dega agro-ecology is depicted in Fig. 12- 14. Sample woredas of this agro-ecology receive extended rainfall. Consequently, there is extended land preparation, planting and harvesting periods. In Ginir woreda land preparation, planting, harvesting and threshing activities are carried out year round, year round, June to march, and July to October and December to March, respectively. In Cheha woreda land preparation, planting, harvesting and threshing activities are carried out from January to August, March to November, year round, and October to March, respectively. In Merab Azernet woreda, land preparation, planting, harvesting, and threshing activities are done in January to June, March to July, year round, and November to February, respectively. In this agro-ecology there is extended rainfall and grow perennial root crops such as Enset. Therefore, there is year round harvest especially for root crops and vegetables. Moreover, in Ginir there is two harvest seasons per year. Therefore, fresh produces are available throughout the year.

3.6.5 Wet Weyena Dega agro-ecology The production calendar of food crops produced in wet weyena dega agro-ecology is depicted in Fig. 15- 19. In this agro-ecology different types food crops are produced and their production calendar varies from sample woreda to woreda. In Wonchi woreda 24 food crops are produced by smallholder farmers and their land preparation, planting, harvesting and threshing activities are carried out from March to November, May to November (May to August for annuals), April to February (October to February for annuals), and November to April, respectively. In Horo woreda 24 food crops are produced by small holder farmers.

Their land preparation, planting, harvesting, and threshing activities are done in March to July, April to August, August to January, and December to March, respectively. Land preparation, planting, harvesting, and threshing activities of 25 food crops produced in Were Jarso woreda are carried out from March to July, June to September, October to March, and November to April, respectively. In Guangua woreda 23 food crops produced by smallholder farmers and their land preparation, planting, harvesting, and threshing activities are carried out in March to July, June to August, October to January, and November to March, respectively. Smallholder farmers in Wegera woreda grow 22 food crop species. Their land preparation, planting, harvesting threshing activities are usually done from February to July, May to August, August to January and November to February, respectively. Generally, the land preparation, planting, harvesting and threshing activities of annual crops produced in this agro-ecology are carried out from March to July, April to August, August to March, and November to April, respectively. Therefore, most food crops produced in this agro-ecology reach to consumption starting from November.

3.6.6 Moist Dega agro-ecology

The production calendar of food crops produced in moist dega agro-ecology is depicted in Fig. 20-22. In Sinana woreda, 17 food crops produced by smallholder farmers both in belg and meher seasons. Their land preparation, planting, harvesting, and threshing activities are carried out from January to October, February to April and June to September, June to August and November to January, and July to March, respectively. Therefore, smallholder farmers in Sinana woreda harvest food crops twice per year. Smallholder farmers in Malga woreda grows 14 food crops. The land preparation, planting, harvesting and threshing activities of these crops is carried out from January to July, February to August, year round (September to February for annuals), and October to March, respectively. Smallholder farmers of Malga woreda harvest potato twice per year and enset throughout the year. Therefore, smallholders of Malga and Sinana woreda will not have seasonal food shortage. In Lay Gaint woreda 21 food crops are produced by smallholder farmers. Land preparation, planting, harvesting and threshing activity of these crops is carried out in months from January to July, March to August, July to December, and November to January, respectively. Food crops produced in Lay Gaint woreda reach to consumption in November. Sample woredas of this agro-ecology have different cropping calendar.

3.6.7 Wet Dega agro-ecology

The production calendar of food crops produced in moist dega agro-ecology is depicted in Fig. 20-22. In Semen-Ari woreda smallholder farmers produce 24 food crops. Land preparation, planting, harvesting, and threshing activities of these crops are carried out in the months from December to August, February to September, August to February for annuals and year round for enset, and September to March, respectively.

Semen Ari has long rainy season and farmers harvest twice per year. In Dabata woreda, smallholder farmers grow 22 food crops. Land preparation, planting, harvesting, and threshing activities of these crops is carried out in months from February to July, May to August, July to January, and September to February, respectively. Smallholder farmers of Dabat woreda have one crop harvest per year. Therefore, sample woredas have different cropping calendar. However, land preparation, planting, harvesting, and threshing activities in this agro-ecology is carried out from December to August, February to September, July to February, and September to March, respectively.

Key lessons

• Woredas categorized in the same agro-ecology have different cropping calendar; mainly due to variation in crop types produced, and onset as well as length of rainy season. This is an opportunity to produce and supply food including fresh produce across the country throughout the year.

• Wenchi, Cheha, Semen Ari, Ginir, and Sinana have relatively similar cropping calendar: land preparation, planting, harvesting and threshing done at a time in most months. Therefore, workload and aflatoxin will be challenges in these areas. This problem can be solved by introducing and demonstrating labor saving, drying and threshing technologies. However, fresh produce available throughout the year in these areas.

• Tselemti, Tahtay Keraro, Taqusa, Ebinat, Guangua, Wegera, Lay Gayint, Dabat, Horo, Were Jarso and Arsi Negele have short rainy season and harvest one crop per year. They have long dry season and long storage period. As a result, they apply pesticide and lightly roast grains before storing grains in order to control storage pests. These practices have food safety and nutritional quality concerns. Therefore, introduce and demonstrate improved grain storage technologies such as hermetic bag and/or metal silo to curb this problem.

• In all areas each farm activity takes place in an extended period mainly due to use of traditional crop production technologies. This resulted in yield reduction, postharvest loss, soil loss, etc. Therefore, introduce time and labor saving technologies (potato harvester, threshers, harvesters, etc).

Fig. 7: Crop production calendar in Dry Kola Agro-ecology (Tselemti)

Crop Months Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb March April May June July August Teff H H, T T T LP LP LP, P LP, P P Fingermillet H H,T H, T T T LP, T LP, P LP, P LP, P LP, P Rice H H, T T T LP LP, P LP, P Sorghum H H, T H, T T T LP, T LP, P LP, P LP, P LP, P Maize H H, T H, T T T LP, P LP, P LP,P LP, P Fababean H H, T T T T T LP LP P Chickpea H H, T T T LP LP LP, P P Noug H H, T H, T T LP LP, P P P Sesame H, T T LP LP, P Potato H LP LP P Pepper H H LP LP LP P Mango H LP LP P Key LP= Land preparation P = Planting H = Harvesting T = Threshing LP, P = Land Preparation and Planting LP, T = Land preparation and Threshing H, T = Harvesting and Threshing

Fig. 8: Crop production calendar in Moist Kola Agro-ecology (Taqusa)

Crop Months Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb March April May June July August Teff H H H, T H, T H, T T LP LP LP, P LP,P LP, P P Bread wheat H, T H, T H, T H,T T T LP LP LP, P LP,P LP, P P Barley H H H, T H, T H, T T LP LP LP LP,P LP, P P Finger millet H, T H, T H, T H,T T T LP LP LP, P LP,P LP, P P Sorghum H H H H, T H, T T LP LP LP LP,P P Maize H, T H, T H, T H,T T T LP LP LP LP,P LP, P P Faba bean H, T H,T T T LP LP LP LP LP, P P Field pea H T T T LP LP LP LP P Chickpea H H,T H, T H, T H, T T LP LP LP, P LP,P LP, P P Grasspea H H, T H, T H, T T LP LP LP LP LP, P P Noug H H H,T T T LP LP LP LP P Linseed H T T LP LP LP LP P Gomenzer H H, T T T LP LP LP LP,P P Potato H H H H H LP LP LP LP,P LP, P P Sweet potato H H H LP P Onion H H H H H LP LP LP LP,P LP, P P Shallot H H H LP P Garlic H H H H H LP LP LP LP,P LP, P P Tomato H H H H LP LP LP LP,P LP, P P Pepper H H H H H LP LP LP,P LP,P LP, P P Pumpkin H LP LP LP LP P Avocado H LP P Banana LP P Mango H H H H LP P P

Key LP= Land preparation P = Planting H = Harvesting T = Threshing LP, P = Land Preparation and Planting H, T = Harvesting and Threshing

Fig. 9: Production calendar in Dry W-Dega (Tahtay Keraro)

Crop Months Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb March April May June July August Teff H H, T H, T T LP LP LP, P LP, P LP, P Fingermillet H, T H, T T LP LP LP, P LP,P LP, P Sorghum H, T H, T T LP LP LP,P P Maize H H, T H, T T LP LP LP, P LP, P P Fababean H, T H, T T LP LP LP LP, P LP,P Chickpea H,T H,T H,T T LP LP LP LP, P LP,P Grasspea H, T H, T T LP LP LP LP P Fenugreek H, T H, T LP LP LP LP P Cowpea H T LP P Linseed H, T H, T T LP LP LP LP P Tomato H H LP LP LP, P

Key LP= Land preparation P = Planting H = Harvesting T = Threshing LP, P = Land Preparation and Planting H, T = Harvesting and Threshing

Fig. 10: Crop production calendar in Dry W-Dega Agro-ecology (Ebinat)

Crop Months Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb March April May June July August Teff H H, T H, T H, T T LP,T LP LP LP LP, P P Bread wheat H H, T H, T H, T T LP,T LP LP LP LP, P P Barley H H, T H, T H, T T LP,T LP LP LP LP, P P Fingermillet H H, T H, T T LP,T LP LP LP LP, P P Sorghum H H, T H, T H, T T T LP LP LP, P LP, P P Maize H, T H, T H, T T LP, T LP LP LP LP, P P Faba bean H H, T H, T H, T T T LP LP LP LP, P P Field Pea H H, T H, T T T LP LP LP LP, P LP,P P Chickpea H H H, T T LP, T LP LP LP LP,P P Lentil H, T H, T T T LP LP LP LP, P P P Mungbean H H T T LP LP LP LP, P Noug H H T T LP, T LP LP LP LP, P P Linseed H T LP LP LP P Safflower H T LP LP LP P Gomenzer H H, T H, T T T LP LP LP LP LP, P P Potato H H LP LP LP LP, P LP, P P Carrot H LP LP LP P Onion H H LP LP LP P Garlic H H LP LP LP LP LP, P P Tomato H H LP LP LP LP LP P P Pepper H H LP LP LP LP P P Swisschard H H LP LP LP LP P P Avocado H LP LP LP P Guava H H LP LP LP LP, P Mango H H LP LP LP, P LP, P P Papaya H LP LP LP LP P

Key LP= Land preparation P = Planting H = Harvesting T = Threshing LP, P = Land Preparation and Planting LP, T = Land preparation and Threshing H, T = Harvesting and Threshing

Fig.11: Crop production calendar in Dry-Weyna Dega Agro-ecology (Arsi-Negele)

Crop Months Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb March April May June July August Teff H H, T H, T H, T T LP LP, P LP,P LP, P LP, P P, H Bread wheat H H, T H, T H, T T LP LP, P LP,P LP, P LP, P P, H Barley H, T H, T T T LP LP LP,P LP, P P P Fingermillet H, T H, T T T T LP LP LP P H Emmer Wheat H T LP P Sorghum H, T H, T T T LP LP, P LP,P LP, P LP, P Maize H, T H, T H, T H, T T LP LP, P LP,P LP, P LP, P P, H Faba bean H, T LP P Field Pea H H T LP P H Haricot bean H, T H, T H, T T LP LP LP LP, P P Chickpea H, T LP P Noug H, T LP P Potato H H H H LP, P LP,P LP, P LP, P P H Carrot H H LP LP LP P Beet root H H LP P Shallot H H H LP LP LP LP, P P Pepper H H H LP LP, P LP, P LP, P P H Kale H H H LP LP LP LP, P P

Fig.12: Crop production Calendar in Moist W-Dega Agro-ecology (Cheha)

Crop Months Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb March April May June July August Teff H H H, T H, T LP, T LP, T LP LP LP, P P Bread Wheat H H H, T H, T LP, T LP, T LP LP LP, P P Maize H H, T H, T H, T LP, H, T LP, H LP, P LP, P LP, P LP, P P Gomenzer H H H H, T T LP, T LP LP LP, P LP, P P Potato H H H H H LP LP LP LP, P LP, P P Taro H H Lp LP LP, P P Enset P, H LP, P, H LP, P, H LP, P, H LP, P, H LP, P, H LP, P, H LP, P, H LP, P, H LP, P, H LP, P, H LP, H Carrot H H H H LP LP LP, P LP, P P Beet root H H H H LP LP LP, P LP, P P Onion H H LP LP LP LP P Tomato H LP LP P Pepper H H H LP LP LP, P LP, P Kale P, H P, H P, H H H LP, H LP, H LP, H LP, P, H LP, P, H LP, P, H LP, H Avocado H H H H LP LP LP LP LP LP P Banana LP P Mango H H LP LP LP LP LP LP P

LP, P, H= Land preparation, planting and harvesting LP, H, T = Land preparation, Harvesting and threshing

Fig. 13: Crop production calendar in Moist W-Dega Agro-ecology (Merab Azernet)

Crop Months Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Bread wheat H H, T H, T T LP LP LP LP, P P Barley H H H, T H, T H, T T LP LP LP, P LP, P P Maize H H H H, T H, T LP, P LP, P LP, P LP, P P Faba bean H, T H, T T LP LP LP LP, P P Field pea H, T H, T T LP LP LP LP, P P Haricot bean H T LP P P Soybean H, T T LP P P Gomenzer H H, T H, T LP LP LP LP, P P Potato H H H H H LP, H LP, P, H LP, P, H LP, P, H LP, P, H P, H H Enset H H H H LP, H LP, H LP, P, H LP, P LP, P LP, P, H P, H H Carrot H H H H LP LP LP, P LP, P P Beet root H H LP LP LP, P LP, P P Onion H H H LP LP LP, P P Shallot H H LP LP LP, P LP, P P Garlic H H LP LP LP, P LP, P P Leek H H LP P LP P Pepper H H H LP LP LP, P LP, P P Kale H H H H H H LP, P LP, P LP, P LP, P P Apple H LP LP LP, P P Pineapple H H LP LP P

LP, P, H= Land preparation, planting and harvesting

Fig. 14: Production Calendar in Moist W-Dega Agro-ecology (Ginir)

Crop Months Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb March April May June July August Teff LP, P, H, T LP, P, T LP LP, H H, T LP, T LP, T LP, P LP, P LP, H LP, H, T Bread wheat LP, P, T LP, P LP, H LP, H, T H, T LP, H, T LP, P, H, T LP, P LP, P LP, H LP, H, T LP, P, H, T Durum wheat P H H, T LP LP LP Barley LP, P, H, T LP, P, H LP, H LP, H, T H,T LP, H, T LP, P, H, T LP, P LP, P LP, H LP, H, T LP, P, H, T Emmer wheat LP, P LP LP H H, T LP, H, T LP LP, P LP LP, H LP, H, T LP, P, H, T Oat P H, T LP LP P Maize LP, P, H, T P, T H H, T LP, H, T LP, H, T LP, P LP, P LP, H LP, H, T LP, P, H, T Faba bean LP, P H, T H, T LP LP LP LP LP, P Field pea LP, P, T LP, P LP LP, H, T H, T H, T P, T LP LP, H LP, H LP, P, T Chickpea LP LP, P P H, T Lentil LP, P, T LP LP LP, H H, T LP LP, P LP, P LP, P LP, H LP, H LP, P, H, T Fenugreek LP LP P H, T Cowpea LP LP P H, T T Soybean LP, P LP LP H T P LP LP, H, T Carrot H LP LP P Onion LP LP P H Shallot P H LP LP Garlic P H H LP P LP LP H P

Key LP= Land preparation P = Planting H = Harvesting T = Threshing LP, P = Land Preparation and Planting LP, T = Land preparation and Threshing H, T = Harvesting and Threshing P, H = Planting and Harvesting P,T = Planting and Threshing LP, H = land preparation and harvesting LP, P, H= Land preparation, planting and harvesting LP, H, T = Land preparation, Harvesting and threshing LP, P, T = Land preparation, Planting and threshing LP, P, H, T = Land preparation, Planting, Harvesting and Threshing

Fig. 15: Production Calendar in Wet W-Dega Agro-ecology (Wonchi)

Crop Months Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb March April May June July August Teff H H, T H, T H, T T LP,T LP,T LP LP, P LP, P P Bread wheat H H, T H, T H, T T LP,T LP,T LP, P LP, P LP, P P Barley H H, T H, T T LP,T LP,T LP LP, P P P Maize H H, T H, T H, T T LP,T LP LP, P LP, P LP, P P Faba bean H H, T H, T T T LP,T LP,T LP LP, P P Field pea H H T LP LP, P Haricot bean H H T T LP LP P Chickpea H H H, T H, T LP LP P P Grasspea H H H, T T T LP LP LP, P Noug H H T LP LP P Linseed H H T LP, T LP, T P P Gomenzer H T LP P Potato H H H H LP LP LP, P LP, P LP, P P Enset LP, P, H LP, P, H LP, P, H H H LP LP, H LP, P, H LP, P, H LP, P, H LP, P, H Carrot H H H LP LP, P LP, P LP, P Beet root H H H LP LP LP P P Tomato H H LP LP P P Pepper H H H LP LP LP LP, P P Swisschard H H LP LP, P LP, P P Kale H H H LP LP LP, P LP, P LP, P Apple H LP LP P P Avocado H LP LP P P Banana LP P Papaya LP P

Key LP= Land preparation P = Planting H = Harvesting T = Threshing LP, P = Land Preparation and Planting LP, T = Land preparation and Threshing H, T = Harvesting and Threshing LP, H = land preparation and harvesting LP, P, H= Land preparation, planting and harvesting

Fig. 16: Production calendar in Wet W-Dega (Horo)

Crop Months Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb March April May June July August Teff H H,T H, T T LP, T LP LP LP, P LP, P P Bread wheat H H,T H, T T LP, T LP LP LP, P LP, P P Barley H H,T H, T T LP, T LP LP LP LP, P P Maize H H H H,T H, T T LP, T LP, P LP, P LP, P LP, P P, H Fababean H H,T H, T T LP, T LP LP LP LP, P P Field pea H H,T T T LP LP LP LP LP, P Haricot bean H H H,T T LP LP, P LP, P Fenugreek H H T T LP LP P Cowpea H H T LP P Soybean H H T LP LP P Noug H H,T H, T T LP, T LP LP LP, P LP, P P Gomenzer H H T T LP LP LP, P LP, P Potato H H H H H LP LP LP, P LP, P LP, P P, H Taro H LP LP P Carrot H H LP LP, P LP LP P H Beet root H H LP LP, P LP LP P H Onion H H LP LP LP LP LP, P Shallot H H LP LP P Garlic H H LP LP LP LP, P LP, P Tomato H LP LP P Pepper H H LP LP LP LP, P LP, P Pumpkin H LP LP, P Swisschard H H H LP LP, P LP, P P Kale H H LP LP, P

Fig. 17: Production calendar in wet W-Dega Agro-ecology (Were Jarso)

Crop Months Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb March April May June July August Teff H H H, T H, T T LP, T LP LP, P LP, P P Bread wheat H H H, T H, T T LP, T LP LP LP, P P Durum wheat H H H, T T T LP LP LP LP, P Barley H H H H, T T LP LP LP LP, P P Emmer wheat P H H H, T H, T H, T LP, T LP LP, P LP, P P Oat H T LP LP, P Maize H H, T H, T H, T H, T LP, H, T LP LP LP, P LP, P P Faba bean H H H, T H, T T LP LP LP LP, P P Field pea H H H, T H, T LP LP, P LP, P P Chickpea H H H, T T T LP, T LP LP LP, P P Lentil H H T T LP LP LP LP, P P Grasspea P H H H, T H, T LP, H, T LP, T LP LP LP, P P Noug H H H, T H, T H, T LP, T LP LP, P LP, P P Potato H H H H H LP LP LP, P LP, P P Carrot H H H LP LP LP, P Beet root H H LP LP P Onion H LP P Shallot H H H H LP LP, P LP, P P Garlic H H H LP LP LP LP, P P Tomato P H H LP LP LP P Pepper P H H LP LP LP P Pumpkin H H H H H LP LP, P P Swisschard H H LP LP, P Kale H H LP LP LP, P Apple H H LP LP LP, P

Key LP= Land preparation P = Planting H = Harvesting T = Threshing LP, P = Land Preparation and Planting LP, T = Land preparation and Threshing H, T = Harvesting and Threshing LP, P, H= Land preparation, planting and harvesting

Fig. 18: Production Calendar in Wet W-Dega (Guangua)

Crop Months Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb March April May June July August Teff H H, T H, T H, T T T LP LP LP LP, P LP, P Bread wheat H H H, T T LP LP LP LP LP, P P Barley H H H, T T Lp LP LP LP LP, P p Fingermillet H H, T H, T T LP, T LP LP LP LP, P P Maize H H, T H, T H, T T LP, T LP LP LP LP, P p Chickpea H H, T H, T T T LP LP P Soybean H H T LP LP P Noug H H, T H, T H, T T LP LP LP LP LP, P P Sesame H H T LP LP P Groundnut H H T LP LP P Gomenzer H H H, T H, T T LP LP LP LP, P LP, P P Potato H H LP LP P Sweet potato H LP LP P Cassava H LP LP P Yam H LP LP, P P Carrot H H LP LP LP P Pepper H H H H LP LP LP LP, P P Pumpkin H LP P Avocado LP LP, P LP, P P Banana LP LP, P P Guava LP LP P Mango LP LP LP, P LP, P P Papaya LP LP P Key LP= Land preparation P = Planting H = Harvesting T = Threshing LP, P = Land Preparation and Planting LP, T = Land preparation and Threshing H, T = Harvesting and Threshing

Fig. 19: Production Calendar in Wet W-Dega (Wogera)

Crop Months Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb March April May June July August Teff H, T H, T T LP LP LP LP LP, P P Bread wheat H, T H, T H, T LP, T LP LP LP, P LP, P LP, P Durum wheat H, T T T LP LP P Barley H H, T H, T H, T LP, T LP LP LP, P LP, P LP, P Oat H H T LP LP, P Faba bean H, T H, T H, T T LP LP LP, P LP, P P Field pea H H, T H, T H, T LP, T LP LP LP, P LP, P P Chickpea H, T H, T H, T LP, T LP LP LP, P LP, P LP, P P Lentil H, T LP LP P Grasspea H, T H, T H, T LP LP LP, P P Fenugreek H H, T H, T T LP LP LP, P LP, P P Linseed H H, T H, T H, T T LP LP LP, P P P Gomenzer H, T H, T H, T T LP LP LP, P LP, P Potato H H H H H LP LP LP LP, P LP, P P P, H Carrot H H LP LP P Onion H H LP LP LP LP, P LP, P Shallot H H H LP LP LP, P P Garlic H H H H LP LP LP, P LP, P P Tomato H LP LP P Swisschard H H H H LP LP P P Apple H H H LP LP LP P Peach H H LP LP LP P

Fig. 20: Production Calendar in Moist Dega Agro-ecology (Sinana)

Crop Months Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb March April May June July August Bread wheat LP, P LP, T H, T H,T LP, H, T LP, P, T LP, P, T LP, P LP LP, P LP, P, H, T LP, P, H, T Barley LP, P, T LP, T H H, T H, T LP, P, T LP, P, T LP, P LP LP, P LP, P LP, P, H, T Emmer wheat P H H, T H,T LP,T LP, T LP LP LP, P LP, P LP, P Maize H H, T H, T LP LP LP LP LP, P LP, P P Fababean P LP, H, T LP, T P LP LP LP, H, T LP, P Fieldpea P H, T H, T LP LP LP LP LP, P LP, P LP, P Chickpea LP LP, T P P H Lentil P H, T LP LP LP LP LP, P LP, P Cowpea LP, H, T LP P LP LP LP, H, T P Soybean H, T LP LP P Linseed H,T LP LP LP P P Potato H H LP, H LP, P LP, P LP LP LP, H P, H P Carrot H LP LP LP, P LP LP P H Onion LP, H LP, P P LP LP H P Shallot H H H LP LP LP P P Garlic LP LP P P H Kale LP LP LP LP, P LP, P P H H

Fig. 21: Production Calendar in Moist Dega Agro-ecology (Malga)

Crop Months Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb March April May June July August LP, Barley H H, T LP, H, T LP, T LP, T LP LP LP, P P P Maize H H, T H, T LP, H, T LP, H, T LP, P LP, P LP, P LP, P LP, P P P Fababean H H LP, H, T LP, T LP, T LP LP, P LP, P P P Fieldpea H H LP, H, T LP LP LP LP LP P P Gomenzer H LP, H LP, H, T LP, P LP, P LP, P LP, P LP, P P Potato H H H LP, H LP, H LP, P, H LP, P LP, P LP, P LP, P, H P, H H Enset H H H LP, H LP, H LP, P, H LP, P, H LP, P, H LP, P, H LP, P, H P, H P, H Carrot LP, H LP, H LP LP LP, P LP LP P Onion H H H LP, H LP LP LP LP LP, P P Shallot H H H LP LP P LP P Garlic H LP, H LP, H LP, P, H LP, P LP, P LP, P LP P Swisschard H LP LP P Kale H H H H LP, H LP, P LP, P LP, P LP, H LP, H P,H P, H Apple LP, H LP LP, P

LP, P, H= Land preparation, planting and harvesting LP, H, T = Land preparation, Harvesting and threshing

Fig. 22: Production Calendar in Moist Dega Agro-ecology (Lay Gaint)

Crop Months Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb March April May June July August Teff H H H, T T LP LP LP, P LP, P LP, P P Bread wheat H H, T H, T T LP LP LP, P LP, P LP, P Durum wheat H, T H, T LP P P Barley H H, T T LP LP LP, P LP, P P Fingermillet H H T LP P Oat H H, T T LP LP P Maize H H, T T LP LP LP LP LP, P Fababean H H H, T T LP LP LP, P LP, P LP, P Field pea H H H, T T LP LP LP, P LP, P LP, P Haricot bean H H H, T T LP LP LP, P LP, P LP, P P Chickpea H, T H, T LP P P P Lentil H H, T T LP LP LP, P LP, P LP, P Linseed H H, T T LP LP P P Gomenzer H H, T LP LP P Potato H H H H LP LP LP, P LP, P LP, P LP, P LP, P, H H Carrot H H LP LP P P P Beetroot H H LP LP P P P Garlic H H LP LP LP, P LP, P LP, P Swisschard H H LP LP P P Lettuce H LP, P Apple H H LP LP P P

Key LP= Land preparation P = Planting H = Harvesting T = Threshing LP, P = Land Preparation and Planting H, T = Harvesting and Threshing LP, P, H= Land preparation, planting and harvesting

Fig. 23: Production Calendar in Wet Dega Agro-ecology (Semen Ari)

Crop Months September October November December January Feberuary March April May June July August Bread wheat H, T H, T H, T LP LP LP LP, P P Barley P, H, T H, T H, T H, T LP, H, T LP, H, T LP, P,T LP, P LP, P LP, P LP, P LP, P, H Sorghum T H, T H, T H, T LP, H, T LP, H, T LP, P,T LP, P LP LP P P, H Maize P, H, T H, T H, T H, T LP, H, T LP, P, H, T LP, P, T LP, P LP, P LP, P P P, H Faba bean H H, T H, T H, T H, T LP, H, T LP, P,T LP, P LP LP LP, P P Field pea H, T H, T H, T LP LP P Haricot bean H, T H, T H, T LP, H, T LP, H, T LP, H, T LP, P,T P LP LP P Soybean LP, H LP, T P Gomenzer H H, T H, T H, T LP LP LP LP LP, P P Potato H H LP, H LP, H LP LP, P LP, P H LP LP, P Sweet potato H H LP, H LP, H LP, P LP LP LP, P P Cassava H H H LP, H LP LP LP, P LP LP P Yam LP, H LP P Taro H H H H LP, H LP, H LP, P LP LP LP, P LP, P H Enset P, H H H LP, H LP, H LP, P, H LP, P, H LP, P, H LP, P, H LP, P, H LP, P, H LP, P, H Onion H H LP LP, P P LP P Shallot H H LP LP LP LP, P Garlic H LP P Pepper H LP P Kale H H H LP LP, P LP LP, P P, H Avocado LP LP LP LP, P Banana LP LP, P LP LP LP P Mango LP P Papaya LP P Key: LP = land preparation; P = planting; H= harvesting; T = Threshing

Fig. 24: Production Calendar in Wet Dega Agro-ecology (Dabat)

Crop Months Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb March April May June July August Teff H H, T T LP LP LP LP, P P Bread wheat H H, T H, T H, T T LP LP LP LP, P LP, P P Durum wheat H H, T H, T LP LP, P P Barley H, T H, T H, T H, T H, T T LP LP LP, P LP, P LP, P P Maize H, T H, T T LP LP, P LP, P Fababean H H, T H, T H, T T LP LP LP, P LP, P LP, P P Fieldpea H, T H, T H, T T LP LP LP LP, P P Chickpea H, T H, T H, T H, T H, T T LP LP LP, P LP, P LP, P P Lentil H H H, T H, T H, T T LP LP LP, P LP, P LP, P P Grasspea H H H, T H, T H, T T LP LP LP, P LP, P LP, P P Fenugreek H H H, T H, T H, T T LP LP LP, P LP, P LP, P P Linseed H, T T LP LP, P Gomenzer H H H, T H, T H, T T LP LP LP, P LP, P Potato H H H H H LP LP LP LP, P LP, P LP, P, H P, H Carrot H H H LP LP, P LP, P H Beetroot H H H LP LP LP P P Onion LP, P H Garlic H H H H H LP LP LP, P LP, P LP, P, H H Pumpkin H LP P Swisschard H H H LP LP LP LP, P LP, P LP, P H Lettuce H H H LP LP LP, P LP, P H Apple H LP LP P

Key LP= Land preparation P = Planting H = Harvesting T = Threshing LP, P = Land Preparation and Planting H, T = Harvesting and Threshing LP, P, H= Land preparation, planting and harvesting P, H = Planting and Harvesting

3.7 Food types consumed by respondents in different agro-ecologies

Food types consumed by respondents varied by household types and agro-ecologies. It is mainly attributed to the agro-ecological suitability of the area for the production of the food type as well as the economic capability of the household to purchase and consume a particular food commodity. Hirvonen and Hoddinott (2014), reported that increasing household production diversity leads to considerable improvements in children’s diet diversity. However, nutrition-sensitive agricultural interventions that push for market – integration are likely to be more effective in reducing undernutrition than those promoting production diversity alone. In addition, it is also dictated by the food habit of the community. It is not dictated by the nutritional value of the commodity. Types of food consumed in different agro-ecologies and by household types are described below.

3.7.1 Dry Kola Agro-ecology

Sorghum, fingermillet, teff, maize, potato and rice are among the staples consumed by respondents in Dry Kola agro-ecology. About 88.2%, 70.6%, 55.8%, 47.1%, 23.5% and 5.9% of PSNP-B eat sorghum, fingermillet, teff, maize, potato and rice, respectively. On the other hand, 100%, 94.4%, 94.4%, 83.3%, 16.7% and 16.7% of model farmers eat sorghum, teff, fingermillet, maize, potato and rice as staples, respectively. Therefore, sorghum, fingermillet, teff and maize are the major staple crops for the community in Dry Kola agro-ecology, however their importance varies between the two household types.

Chickpea, faba bean, field pea, lentil, fenugreek and haricot bean are among the pulse crops used to prepare sauce (wot) in dry kola agro-ecology. About 23.5%, 17.6%, 11.8%, and 11.8% of PSNP-Bs use chickpea, faba bean, field pea and lentil to prepare wot, respectively. On the other hand, 55.6%, 16.7%, 16.7%, 11.1%, 5.6%, and 5.6% of model farmers use chickpea, field pea, lentil, faba bean, fenugreek, and haricot bean, to prepare wot, respectively. Model farmers consume more diverse and relatively, expensive legumes such as lentil and fenugreek compared to PSNP-B households. However, chickpea is the most widely used pulse crops in the dry kola agro-ecology. This could be since it is widely grown in this agro-ecology by its drought tolerance characteristics compared to other pulse crops.

Noug, linseed and sesame are among oil crops consumed by respondents in dry kola agro-ecology. Only few respondents consume oil crops. However, rural households purchase and consume oil produced by oil pressing factories. In addition, 11.8% and 5.9% of PSNP-Bs consume linseed and noug grains, respectively. On the other hand, 22.2%, 11.1% and 5.6% of model farmers consume noug, linseed and sesame in different forms, respectively. Therefore, more and relatively diverse oil crops consumed by model farmers compared to PSNP-B.

Onion, pepper, tomato, garlic, lettuce, head cabbage, carrot, pumpkin and gomen are among the vegetable crops consumed by respondents in dry kola agro-ecology. However, only few respondents are eating vitamin rich (carrot and pumpkin) and iron rich leaf vegetables (lettuce, head cabbage and gomen). Vegetables such as onion, tomato, pepper and garlic are consumed by most respondents compared to other vegetables. However, they are mainly used as spice for flavoring sauce or wot. About 58.8%, 47.1%, 47.1%, 17.6%, 5.9%, 5.9%, and 5.9% of PSNP-Bs consume onion, tomato, pepper, garlic, carrot, lettuce and head cabbage, respectively. On the other hand, 55.6%, 55.6%, 33.3%, 16.7%, 5.6%, 5.6%, 5.6%, and 5.6% of model farmers consume onion, pepper, tomato, garlic, pumpkin, lettuce, head cabbage and gomen, respectively. Therefore, respondents did not consider the nutritional value of vegetables they are consuming. This could be lack of knowledge of the community about the nutritional value of each vegetable.

Banana, mango and papaya were among the fruit crops consumed by respondents in dry kola agro-ecology. However, only few respondents consume fruit crops. For example, only 5.9% of PSNP-B were consuming mango. Similarly, only 5.6%, 11.1%, and 11.1% of model farmers were consuming banana, mango and papaya, respectively. This could be since fruit crops are not widely growing in the area. In addition, the habit of fruit consumption is very low in rural households. Moreover, fruit crops are highly perishable commodities unless they are kept in refrigerated storage facilities and fruit marketing places are far from the residence areas of rural households.

Egg, meat, milk, butter, honey, cheese and yogurt were among the ASF consumed by respondents in dry kola agro-ecology. About 41.2%, 23.5%, 11.8%, 5.9%, 5.9%, and 5.9% of PSNP-B consumed egg, meat, milk, cheese, butter and yogurt, respectively. Therefore, more PSNP-B consumed egg compared to other animal products. This could be attributed to its lower market price compared to other ASF. About, 44.4%, 38.9%, 38.9%, 38.9%, 16.7%, 5.6% and 5.6% of model farmers consumed meat, egg, butter, milk, honey, yogurt, and cheese, respectively. Therefore, more and diverse ASF consumed by model farmers compared to PSNP-B. In addition, more model farmers consume meat compared to egg as oppose to egg. This is dictated by traditional attitude of the community, not based on detail understanding of the nutritional value of each ASF.

3.7.2 Moist Kola Agro-ecology

Finger millet, maize, potato, teff, bread wheat, barley, sorghum, and sweet potato are the staples consumed by respondents in moist kola agro-ecology. About 95.2%, 81%, 81%, 66.7%, 61.9%, 33.3%, 19% and 4.8% of MVHHs residing in moist kola agro-ecology consume fingermillet, maize, potato, bread wheat, teff, sorghum, barley, and sweet potato, respectively. On the other hand, 89.5%, 89.5%, 84.2%, 73.7%, 63.2%,

47.4%, and 15.8% of model farmers residing moist kola agro-ecology consume teff, maize, finger millet, potato, bread wheat, barley and sorghum, respectively. Fingermillet, maize, potato, teff and bread wheat are the major staple crops for the community in moist kola agro-ecology, however their importance varies between the two household types. For example, teff and maize are the two top most commonly consumed food crops by model farmers, but fingermillet is the top ranking food crop consumed by MVHHs. Food crops selected by consumers is mainly based on the purchasing power of the household, not based on their nutrient content.

Chickpea, faba bean, field pea, lentil and fenugreek are the pulse crops used to prepare sauce (wot) in moist kola agro-ecology. About 85.7%, 57.1%, 38.1%, 4.8%, and 4.8% of MVHHs consume chickpea, faba bean, field pea, lentil and fenugreek in different forms, respectively. On the other hand, 89.5%, 68.4%, 15.8%, 15.8%, and 10.5% of model farmers consume chickpea, faba bean, field pea, lentil, and fenugreek in different forms, respectively. Model farmers consume more expensive legumes such as lentil and fenugreek compared to MVHHs. However, chickpea is the most widely used in both cases. This could be since it is widely grown in this agro-ecology by its drought tolerance characteristics compared to other pulse crops.

Noug, linseed and groundnut are the oil crops consumed by respondents in moist kola agro-ecology. Only few respondents consume oil crops. However, rural households purchase and consume oil produced by oil pressing factories. In addition, 23.8%, 4.8% and 4.8% of MVHHs consume noug, linseed and groundnut, respectively. On the other hand, 21.1% and 5.3% of model farmers consume noug, and linseed in different forms, respectively. Therefore, more and relatively diverse oil crops consumed by MVHHs compared to model farmers. This could be since oil produced by oil crops pressing factories is expensive for MVHHs.

Pepper, onion, garlic, tomato, head cabbage, shallot, beet root, pumpkin, lettuce and swisschard are the vegetable crops consumed by respondents in moist kola agro-ecology. However, only few respondents are eating vitamin rich (pumpkin) and iron rich leaf vegetables (swisschard, lettuce, and head cabbage). Vegetables such as pepper, onion, tomato, and garlic are consumed by most respondents compared to other vegetables. However, they are mainly used as spice for flavoring sauce or wot. About 95%, 76.2%, 71.4%, 47.6%, 19%, and 9.5% of MVHHs consume pepper, onion, garlic, tomato, head cabbage, and shallot, respectively. On the other hand, 84.2%, 78.9%, 73.7%, 68.4%, 52.6%, 5.3%, 5.3%, 5.3%, 5.3%, and 5.3% of model farmers consume pepper, onion, garlic, head cabbage, tomato, beet root, shallot, pumpkin, swisschard, and lettuce, respectively. Therefore, respondents did not consider the nutritional value of vegetables they are consuming. This could be lack of knowledge of the community about the nutritional value of each vegetable.

Banana and mango are the fruit crops consumed by respondents in moist kola agro-ecology. However, less than one-third of the respondents consume fruit crops. For example, only 4.8% and 28.6% of MVHHs consumed banana and mango, respectively. Similarly, only 31.6% and 26.3% of model farmers consumed banana and mango, respectively. This could be since fruit crops are not widely growing in the study area. In addition, the habit of fruit consumption is very low in rural households. Moreover, rural households did not have storage facilities to store and consume fruit crops beyond the harvesting season. Furthermore, fruit marketing places are not found in rural areas.

Meat, egg, butter, milk, fish, cheese, honey, yogurt and whey are ASF consumed by respondents in moist kola agro-ecology. About 76.2%, 66.7%, 33.3%, 23.8%, 19%, 9.5%, 9.5%, 9.5%, and 4.8% of MVHHs consume meat, egg, butter, fish, honey, milk, cheese, yogurt and whey, respectively. More MVHHs consume fish compared to milk, cheese, yogurt and whey, mainly since these dairy products are not sold in rural areas and since fish found in natural water bodies are freely available to all households residing in the area. About, 84.2%, 78.9%, 73.7%, 52.6%, 47.4%, 42.1%, 42.1%, 36.8% and 36.8% of model farmers consume meat, egg, butter, milk, cheese, yogurt, whey, fish and honey, respectively. Since model farmers own more livestock resources, more model farmers consume ASF compared to MVHHs.

3.7.3 Dry Weyena Dega Agro-ecology

In dry weyena dega agro-ecology, PSNP and AGP targeted woredas were considered for this assessment. Rural households in AGP targeted woreda (Tahtay Keraro) consume less diversified food staples compared to wordas targeted by PSNP (Ebinat and Arsi Negele). Bread wheat, teff, maize, potato, sorghum, barley, fingermillet, rice, emmer wheat, sweet potato and cassava are the staples consumed by respondents in dry weyena dega agro-ecology. About 85%, 81.7%, 74.5%, 67.2%, 49.2%, 47.5%, 32.1%, 10%, 5%, and 5% of poor rural households (PSNP-B and MVHHs) residing in dry weyena dega agro-ecology consume bread wheat, teff, maize, potato, sorghum, barley, fingermillet, rice, emmer wheat and sweet potato, respectively. On the other hand, 94%, 87.8%, 85%, 70%, 59%, 52.2%, 34.6%, 20%, 15%, 15%, 5%, and 5% of model farmers residing in dry weyena dega agro-ecology consume teff, maize, bread wheat, barley, potato, finger millet, sorghum, emmer wheat, rice, sweet potato, durum wheat and cassava, respectively. Teff, bread wheat, maize, potato, barley, fingermillet, and sorghum are the major staple crops for the community in dry weyena dega agro-ecology, however their importance varies between the two household types. For example, bread wheat ranks first among most commonly consumed staples by poor households (MVHHs and PSNP-B, but teff ranks first among staples consumed by model farmers. Food crops selected by consumers is mainly based on the purchasing power of the household, not based on their nutrient content.

Faba bean, field pea, chickpea, lentil, haricot bean, fenugreek and cow pea are the pulse crops consumed in various forms especially used to prepare sauce (wot) in dry weyena dega agro-ecology. About 60.4%, 33.4%, 27.4%, 25.0%, 25.0%, 7.7%, and 5.0% of poor rural households (MVHHs and PSNP-B) consume faba bean, field pea, chickpea, lentil, haricot bean, and cowpea in different forms, respectively. On the other hand, 76.3%, 40.0%, 35.2%, 28.5%, 20.0%, 10.0%, 7.0% and 5.6% of model farmers in dry weyena dega agro-ecology consume faba bean, field pea, chickpea, lentil, haricot bean, soybean, fenugreek, and cowpea in different forms, respectively. In Tahtay keraro woreda, chickpea is the most commonly used legume by consumers. On the other hand, in Ebinat and Arsi Negele woreda faba bean is the most widely consumed pulse crop. This variation could be attributed to the production status of each crop in the study area, not based on their comparative nutritional advantage. For example, soybean is more nutritious compared to other legumes, but few households consume this pulse crop. This could be since it is not widely produced by rural households in the study area.

Linseed, noug, sesame and safflower are the oil crops consumed by respondents in dry weyena dega agro- ecology. Only few respondents consume oil crops. However, rural households purchase and consume oil produced by oil pressing factories. In addition, 10.1%, 10% and 5% of poor households (MVHHs and PSNP-B) consume linseed, noug and sesame, respectively. On the other hand, 21.1%, 12.8% and 15% of model farmers consume linseed, noug and safflower in different forms, respectively. Therefore, relatively more model farmers consume oil crops consumed to poor rural households. This could be since most poor rural households did not grow oil crops.

Pepper, onion, tomato, garlic, shallot, kale, head cabbage, carrot, beet root, swisschard, lettuce, pumpkin, and moringa are the vegetable crops consumed by respondents in dry weyena dega agro-ecology. However, only few respondents are eating vitamin rich (pumpkin and carrot) and iron rich leaf vegetables (kale, swisschard, lettuce, and head cabbage). Vegetables such as pepper, onion, tomato, and garlic are consumed by most respondents compared to other vegetables. However, they are mainly used as spice for flavoring sauce or wot. About 74.2%, 59.2%, 46.0%, 33.9%, 30.0%, 15.2%, 11.8%, 11.8%, 10.0%, 7.8%, and 7.8% of poor rural households (MVHHs and PSNP-B) in dry weyena dega agro-ecology consume pepper, onion, tomato, garlic, shallot, kale, head cabbage, carrot, beet root, swisschard, and lettuce, respectively. On the other hand, 79.3%, 67.4%, 56.9%, 55.0%, 45.0%, 20.9%, 15.2%, 25.4%, 22.5%, 5.3%, 18.9%, 5.0%, and 5.0% of model farmers in dry weyena dega consume pepper, onion, tomato, garlic, shallot, kale, head cabbage, carrot, beet root, swisschard, lettuce, pumpkin, and moringa, respectively. Therefore, respondents did not consider the nutritional value of vegetables they are consuming. For example, 0% of poor rural households and 5.0% of model farmers consume pumpkin which is rich in vitamin A. Similarly, moringa is rich in several micro-nutrients, but only few respondents are consuming moringa leaf as vegetable.

Pumpkin is usually provided to domestic animals as feed. This all could be due to lack of knowledge of the community about the nutritional value of each vegetable.

Avocado, banana, guava, mango, papaya, and sweet orange are the fruit crops consumed by respondents in dry weyena dega agro-ecology. However, less than a quarter of the respondents consume fruit crops. For example, only 5.3%, 7.5%, 10.0%, 10.0%, and 5.0% of poor rural households (MVHHs and PSNP-B) consume guava, mango, avocado, banana and papaya, respectively. Similarly, only 10.3%, 25.2%, 17.5%, 15%, 15% and 5.0% of model farmers consumed guava, mango, banana, avocado, papaya and sweet orange, respectively. This could be since fruit crops are not widely growing in the study area. In addition, the habit of fruit consumption is very low in rural households. Moreover, rural households did not have storage facilities to store and consume fruit crops beyond the harvesting season. Furthermore, fruit marketing places are not found in rural areas.

Meat, butter, milk, egg, yogurt, cheese, whey, honey, and fish are ASF consumed by respondents in dry weyena dega agro-ecology. About 55.8%, 35.6%, 35.3%, 32.3%, 20.0%, 15.0%, 10.0%, and 8.5% of poor rural households (MVHHs and PSNP-B) consume meat, egg, butter, milk, yogurt, cheese, whey, and honey, respectively. More poor rural households consume egg compared to other dairy products, mainly since these dairy products are not sold in rural areas and since egg is affordable both to buy and produce for household consumption. About, 66.5%, 64.6%, 63.7%, 58.7%, 35.9%, 30.2%, 29.4%, 20.0%, and 10.0% of model farmers in dry weyena dega agro-ecology consume meat, butter, milk, egg, cheese, yogurt, honey, whey, and fish, respectively. Since model farmers own more livestock resources, more model farmers consume ASF compared to MVHHs.

3.7.4 Moist Weyena Dega Agro-ecology

In moist weyena dega agro-ecology, PSNP and AGP targeted woredas were considered for this assessment. Rural households in AGP targeted woreda (Cheha and Mirab Azernet) consume more root and tuber crops compared to worda targeted by PSNP (Ginir). Enset, potato, barley, bread wheat, emmer wheat, teff, rice, sorghum, sweet potato, oat, durum wheat and taro are the staples consumed by respondents in moist weyena dega agro-ecology. About 97.5%, 84.9%, 61.4%, 61%, 45%, 33.8%, 15.2%, 10%, 7.7%, and 5% of poor rural households (PSNP-B and MVHHs) residing in moist weyena dega agro-ecology consume enset, potato, barley, bread wheat, emmer wheat, teff, rice, sorghum, sweet potato and oat, respectively. On the other hand, 91.1%, 90.0%, 77.1%, 74.0%, 73.2%, 57.7%, 27.5%, 15.0%, 12.0%, 5.6%, 5.3%, and 5.2% of model farmers residing in moist weyena dega agro-ecology consume potato, enset, bread wheat, teff, barley, maize, emmer wheat, taro, rice, oat, sweet potato, and durum wheat, respectively. Potato, enset and bread wheat are the major staple crops in Cheha and Mirab Azernet woredas. On the other hand, cereal crops such

as teff, bread wheat, and barley are the major staple crops in Ginir woreda. Therefore, food crops consumed in area depends on the food habit as well as the types of crops growing in the area.

Faba bean, field pea, lentil, chickpea, haricot bean, fenugreek, soybean and cow pea are the pulse crops consumed in various forms, especially to prepare sauce (wot) in moist weyena dega agro-ecology. About 42.6%, 45.8%, 26.8%, 10.0%, 5.0%, 5.0%, 10.0% and 7.7% of poor rural households (MVHHs and PSNP- B) consume faba bean, field pea, lentil, chickpea, haricot bean, fenugreek, cowpea, and soybean in different forms, respectively. On the other hand, 59.3%, 57.8%, 48.1%, 13.1%, 11.1%, and 10.3% of model farmers in moist weyena dega agro-ecology consume faba bean, field pea, lentil, chickpea, cowpea, and soybean in different forms, respectively. Generally, faba bean, field pea and lentil are the most widely consumed pulses in moist weyena dega agro-ecology.

In moist weyena dega agro-ecology oil crops are not consumed by respondents. Only 5% of poor rural households consume noug. This could be since oil crops are not widely produced in the study area. In addition, respondents purchase and consume oil produced by oilseed pressing factories. This could be attributed to the food habit of the community in the study area. They prefer to consume butter and other dairy by-products compared to oil extracted from oil crops. For example, Kocho or bulla prepared from enset is usually served with butter and other dairy by-products.

In moist weyena dega agro-ecology, onion, pepper, carrot, kale, tomato, shallot, garlic, beet root, head cabbage, lettuce, leek and swisschard are the vegetable crops consumed by respondents in moist weyena dega agro-ecology. Unlike other agro-ecologies, in moist weyena dega agro-ecology relatively higher number of rural households consume vitamin A rich (carrot) and iron rich leaf vegetable (kale). About, 52.5%, 49.1%, 37.5%, 32.2%, 32.3%, 28.7%, 15.3%, 13.5%, 12.9%, 7.5%, 5.3%, and 5.0% of poor rural households (MVHHs and PSNP-B) in moist weyena dega agro-ecology consume onion, pepper, carrot, kale, tomato, shallot, garlic, beet root, head cabbage, lettuce, leek, and swisschard, respectively. On the other hand, 63.0%, 57.6%, 30.5%, 35.0%, 32.8%, 32.0%, 31.7%, 12.3%, 11.8%, 12.7%, and 4.8% of model farmers in moist weyena dega agro-ecology consume onion, pepper, carrot, kale, tomato, shallot, garlic, beet root, head cabbage, lettuce, and leek, respectively. Onion and pepper are the most widely consumed vegetables. They are mainly used to flavor the sauce or wot. Therefore, respondents did not consider the nutritional value of vegetables they are consuming.

In moist weyena dega agro-ecology fruit crops such as avocado, apple, banana, lemon, mango, papaya, and sweet orange are consumed by respondents. However, less than 30% of the respondents consume fruit crops. For example, only 10.2%, 5.1%, 10.2%, and 5.3% of poor rural households (MVHHs and PSNP-B) consume banana, mango, avocado, and lemon, respectively. Similarly, only 23%, 5.3%, 13.3%, 30%, 4.8%

and 4.8% of model farmers consumed banana, sweet orange, mango, avocado, apple and papaya, respectively. This could be since fruit crops are not widely growing in the study area. Furthermore, fruit marketing places are not found in rural areas.

In moist weyena dega agro-ecology ASFs such as butter, meat, milk, egg, cheese, yogurt, whey, and honey are consumed by respondents. Unlike in other agro-ecologies, in moist weyena dega agro-ecology rural households consume butter, meat and milk since the most commonly served staple kocho and bulla are served with meat and dairy products. About 54.4%, 50.9%%, 27.1%, 17.3%, 6.8%, 7.8%%, 20.3%, and 5.3% of poor rural households (MVHHs and PSNP-B) consume butter, meat, milk, cheese, yogurt, whey, egg, and honey, respectively. About, 83.7%, 78.4%%, 70.2%, 38.5%, 30.7%, 6.7%, 30.7%, and 25.9% of model farmers in moist weyena dega agro-ecology consume butter, meat, milk, cheese, yogurt, whey, egg, and honey, respectively. Since model farmers own more livestock resources, more model farmers consume ASF compared to MVHHs.

3.7.5 Wet Weyena Dega Agro-ecology

In wet weyena dega agro-ecology, PSNP and AGP targeted woredas were considered for this assessment. Rural households in wet weyena dega agro-ecology consume different types cereal crops, however there are variations among woredas. Teff, bread wheat, barley, rice, sorghum, maize, durum wheat, emmer wheat, finger millet, oat, potato, sweet potato, enset, cassava and yam are the staples consumed by respondents in wet weyena dega agro-ecology. About 65.4%, 69.0%, 31.3%, 5.2%, 32.5%, 63.3%, 7.7%, 10.5%, 52.4%, 76.4%, 5%, and 65% of poor rural households (PSNP-B and MVHHs) residing in wet weyena dega agro- ecology consume teff, bread wheat, barley, rice, sorghum, maize, durum wheat, emmer wheat, finger millet, potato, sweet potato, and enset, respectively. On the other hand, 87.1%, 79.0%, 52.9%, 5.9%, 20.7%, 57.8%, 5.0%, 30.0%%, 52.5%, 5.0%, 77.3%, 13.5%, 58.8%, 5.3%, and 10.5% of model farmers residing in wet weyena dega agro-ecology consume teff, bread wheat, barley, rice, sorghum, maize, durum wheat, emmer wheat, finger millet, oat, potato, sweet potato, enset, cassava, and yam, respectively. In Guangua woreda, maize, finger millet, potato and teff are the important staples. In Horo woreda, teff, barley, maize and potato are important staple crops. In Wonchi woreda, tef, bread wheat, potato and enset are important staple crops. In Were Jarso and Wegera woredas teff, bread wheat and potato, and bread wheat, barley and potato are important staple crops, respectively. Therefore, food crops consumed in an area depends on the food habit of the community as well as the types of crops growing in the area.

In wet weyena dega agro-ecology pulses such as faba bean, field pea, chickpea, lentil, grass pea, fenugreek, haricot bean, and soybean are consumed in various forms, especially to prepare sauce (wot). About 68%, 40.9%, 10%, 18.5%, 18.3%, 10.2%, 10%, and 5% of poor rural households (MVHHs and PSNP-B)

consume faba bean, field pea, haricot bean, chickpea, lentil, fenugreek, grasspea, and soybean in different forms, respectively. On the other hand, 72.9%, 38.9%, 5%, 38.2%, 30.4%, 6.2%, 8%, and 5% of model farmers in wet weyena dega agro-ecology consume faba bean, field pea, haricot bean, chickpea, lentil, fenugreek, grasspea, and and soybean in different forms, respectively. More model farmers consume chickpea and lentil compared to poor rural households. Generally, faba bean, field pea, chickpea, and lentil are the most widely consumed pulses in wet weyena dega agro-ecology.

In wet weyena dega agro-ecology oil crops such as linseed, noug, safflower, sesame and groundnut are consumed by respondents. However, the percentage of respondents consuming oil crops is less than a quarter. This could be since respondents purchase and use oil produced by oil pressing factories. The percentage of poor rural households consuming oil crops is less than the percentage of model farmers consuming oil crops. This could be since poor rural households have small plot of farm land compared to model farmers. The percentage of poor rural households consuming linseed, noug, sesame and groundnut are 11.4%, 14.2%, 5.3%, and 5.3%, respectively. The percentage of model farmers consuming linseed, noug, safflower, and groundnut are 17%, 25.3%, 5% and 5.3%, respectively.

In wet weyena dega agro-ecology, carrot, beet root, onion, shallot, garlic, tomato, pepper, pumpkin, swisschard, lettuce, head cabbage and kale are the vegetables consumed by respondents. About, 24%, 14.2%, 56.1%, 25.5%, 37.8%, 32.8%, 61.3%, 15.5%, 10.1%, 5%, 15.3% and 25.2% of poor rural households (MVHHs and PSNP-B) in wet weyena dega agro-ecology consume carrot, beet root, onion, shallot, garlic, tomato, pepper, pumpkin, swisschard, lettuce, head cabbage and kale, respectively. Similarly, 9.2%, 15.6%, 60.6%, 30.5%, 40.6%, 38.8%, 66%, 5.3%, 25%, 21.9% and 23.4% of model farmers consume carrot, beet root, onion, shallot, garlic, tomato, pepper, pumpkin, swisschard, head cabbage and kale, respectively. Onion and pepper are the most widely consumed vegetables. They are mainly used to flavor the sauce or wot. Therefore, respondents did not consider the nutritional value of vegetables they are consuming. The percentage of vitamin A rich (carrot and pumpkin) and iron rich leafy vegetable (kale, swisschard, lettuce, head cabbage, etc) consuming rural households is much lower than the percentage of rural households consuming vegetables required to flavor the sauce, wot.

In wet weyena dega agro-ecology fruit crops such as banana, sweet orange, mango, lemon, apple, peach, pineapple, avocado, papaya, and guava are consumed by respondents. However, less than 25% of the respondents consume fruit crops. For example, only 17.5%, 8.6%, 20.8%, 5.3%, 5.0%, 5.3%, and 5.3% of poor rural households (MVHHs and PSNP-B) consume banana, sweet orange, mango, lemon, apple, avocado, and papaya, respectively. Similarly, only 17.7%, 6.8%, 23.8%, 10%, 5%, 5%, 5.3%, 5.3%, and 5.3% of model farmers consumed banana, sweet orange, mango, apple, peach, pineapple, avocado, papaya,

and guava, respectively. This could be since fruit crops are not widely growing in the study area. Furthermore, fruit marketing places are not found in rural areas.

In wet weyena dega agro-ecology ASFs such as milk, cheese, whey, butter, yogurt, meat, egg, honey and fish are consumed by respondents. Butter, meat and egg are consumed by most poor rural households and model farmers compared to other ASFs. About 14.5%, 15.5%, 15.6%, 31.5%, 12.1%, 53.9%, 42.9%, 15%, and 5.3% of poor rural households (MVHHs and PSNP-B) consume milk, cheese, whey, butter, yogurt, meat, egg, honey and fish, respectively. Similarly, about 61.8%, 44.6%, 32.4%, 66.4%, 35%, 63.9%, 57.9%, 25.6%, and 10.5% of model farmers consume milk, cheese, whey, butter, yogurt, meat, egg, honey, and fish, and honey, respectively. Since model farmers own more livestock resources, more model farmers consume ASF compared to MVHHs and PSNP beneficiaries.

3.7.6 Moist Dega Agro-ecology

In moist dega agro-ecology, PSNP and AGP targeted woredas were considered for this assessment. Rural households in moist dega agro-ecology consume different types of cereal crops, however there are variations among woredas. Potato, bread wheat, barley, maize, enset, teff, emmer wheat, durum wheat, finger millet, sorghum, rice, sweet potato and anchote are the staples consumed by respondents in dega agro-ecology. About 84.9%, 84.2%, 70.4%, 60.9%, 54.8%, 50%, 30%, 15%, 10%, 10%, 5.3%, and 5% of poor rural households (PSNP-B and MVHHs) residing in wet dega agro-ecology consume potato, enset, bread wheat, barley, maize, teff, emmer wheat, rice, sorghum, sweet potato, anchote, and fingermillet, respectively. Similarly, 86.7%, 85.7%, 82.2%, 77.7%, 58.9%, 57.8%, 52.6%, 10%, 5.1%, and 5% of model farmers consume potato, enset, barley, bread wheat, teff, maize, emmer wheat, durum wheat, rice and sorghum, respectively. However, variations recorded among sample woredas. For example, in Malga woreda, maize, potato, enset and barley are the important staples. In Sinana woreda, bread wheat, barley, potato and maize are important staple crops. On the other hand, in Lay Gayint woreda, bread wheat, potato and teff are important staple crops. Therefore, food crops consumed in an area depends on the food habit of the community as well as the types of crops growing in the area.

In moist dega agro-ecology pulses such as faba bean, field pea, chickpea, lentil, grass pea, fenugreek, haricot bean, and soybean are consumed in various forms, especially to prepare sauce (wot). About 52.4%, 38.7%, 16.8%, 13.4%, 10%, 7.7%, 5%, and 5% of poor rural households (MVHHs and PSNP-B) consume faba bean, field pea, lentil, chickpea, grasspea, haricot bean, fenugreek, and soybean in different forms, respectively. On the other hand, 73.4%, 45.4%, 29%, 16.7%, 10.5%, 10.5%, 10%, and 5% of model farmers in moist dega agro-ecology consume faba bean, field pea, lentil, chickpea, grasspea, soybean, haricot bean, and fenugreek in different forms, respectively. More model farmers consume lentil compared to poor rural

households. Generally, faba bean and field pea are the most widely consumed pulses in moist dega agro- ecology.

In moist dega agro-ecology oil crops such as linseed, noug, and safflower are consumed by respondents. However, the percentage of respondents consuming oil crops is higher than those in other agro-ecologies. This could be since it is required to tolerate the cold weather of the area as well as since oil crops are used as sauce for eating boiled potato tuber. The percentage of poor rural households consuming linseed, noug, and safflower are 35%, 5%, and 5%, respectively. The percentage of model farmers consuming linseed, and noug are 25.2% and 15%, respectively.

In moist dega agro-ecology, onion, pepper, head cabbage, garlic, tomato, shallot, carrot, beet root, swisschard, lettuce, kale and pumpkin are the vegetables consumed by respondents. About, 67.7%, 57.5%, 28.2%, 25.3%, 25%, 23.7%, 17.1%, 16.8%, 10%, 5%, and 5% of poor rural households (MVHHs and PSNP-B) in moist dega agro-ecology consume pepper, onion, kale, carrot, tomato, shallot, head cabbage, garlic, lettuce, pumpkin, and beet root, respectively. Similarly, 66.9%, 61.4%, 45%, 37.9%, 30.2%, 29.1%, 28.5%, 23.4%, 22.7%, 17%, and 5.3% of model farmers consume onion, pepper, swisschard, head cabbage, garlic, tomato, carrot, shallot, lettuce, beet root, and pumpkin, respectively. Onion and pepper are the most widely consumed vegetables. They are mainly used to flavor the sauce or wot. Therefore, respondents did not consider the nutritional value of vegetables they are consuming. The percentage of vitamin A rich (pumpkin) and iron rich leafy vegetable (kale) consuming rural households is much lower than the percentage of rural households consuming vegetables required to flavor the sauce or wot. Therefore, awareness creation efforts are required to produce and consume vitamin A and iron rich vegetables.

In moist dega agro-ecology fruit crops such as banana, sweet orange, mango, apple, avocado, and papaya are consumed by respondents. However, only one-fifth of the respondents consume fruit crops. For example, only 12.5%, 7.5%, 5.5%, 5%, and 5% of poor rural households (MVHHs and PSNP-B) consume banana, mango, avocado, sweet orange, and guava, respectively. Similarly, only 20.2%, 5.3%, 5%, 4.9%, 4.8%, and 4.8% of model farmers consumed banana, sweet orange, mango, apple, avocado, and papaya, respectively. This could be since fruit crops are not widely growing in the study area. Furthermore, fruit marketing places are not found in rural areas. Among fruit crops banana is widely consumed since it is available in the local market.

In moist dega agro-ecology ASFs such as meat, butter, milk, egg, cheese, yogurt, whey, and honey are consumed by respondents. Meat, butter and milk are consumed by most poor rural households and model farmers compared to other ASFs. About 45.6%, 35.5%, 20%, 15.1%, 5%, 5%, and 5% of poor rural households (MVHHs and PSNP-B) consume meat, butter, egg, milk, cheese, yogurt and whey, respectively.

Similarly, about 73.9%, 70.3%, 61.9%, 40.5%, 33.4%, 33.5%, 25.6%, and 22.4% of model farmers consume meat, butter, milk, egg, cheese, yogurt, honey, and whey, respectively. Since model farmers own more livestock resources, more model farmers consume ASF compared to MVHHs and PSNP beneficiaries. Among animal source foods few model and MVHHs consume whey. This could be associated to the misunderstanding of the community to the food value of whey. Woredas also differ on the type of ASF widely consumed by respondents. For example, milk, butter and meat are widely consumed in Sinana and Malga woredas compared to Lay Gayint Woreda. This could be since enset is a main food crop in Malga and barley in Sinana.

3.7.7 Wet Dega Agro-ecology

In wet dega agro-ecology, PSNP and AGP targeted woredas were considered for this assessment. Rural households in wet dega agro-ecology consume different types of cereal crops, however there are variations among woredas. Potato, bread wheat, barley, maize, sorghum, enset, taro, cassava, teff, sweet potato, yam, and durum wheat are the staples consumed by respondents in wet dega agro-ecology. About 82.5%, 65%, 62.5%, 62.5%, 57.5%, 55%, 40%, 35%, 25%, 15%, 10%, and 10% of poor rural households (PSNP-B and MVHHs) residing in wet dega agro-ecology consume potato, enset, bread wheat, maize, sorghum, barley, taro, sweet potato, cassava, durum wheat and yam, respectively. Similarly, 85%, 79.5%, 74.9%, 67.1%, 63.3%, 60%, 55%, 35%, 33.6%, 25%, and 25% of model farmers consume potato, barley, bread wheat, sorghum, maize, enset, taro, cassava, teff, sweet potato and yam, respectively. However, variations recorded among sample woredas. For example, in Dabat woreda, potato, sorghum, barley and bread wheat are the important staples. In Semen Ari woreda, maize, potato, enset, and barley are important staple crops. On top of this, several root crops are consumed in Semen Ari woreda. Therefore, food crops consumed in an area depends on the food habit of the community as well as the types of crops growing in the area.

In wet dega agro-ecology pulses such as faba bean, field pea, chickpea, lentil, fenugreek, haricot bean, and soybean are consumed in various forms, especially to prepare sauce (wot). About 75%, 25%, 25%, 20%, 15%, and 12.5% of poor rural households (MVHHs and PSNP-B) consume faba bean, field pea, haricot bean, chickpea, fenugreek, and lentil in different forms, respectively. On the other hand, 79.9%, 31.6%, 31.1%, 30.9%, 20%, 15.7%, and 5.0% of model farmers consume faba bean, fenugreek, field pea, lentil, haricot bean, chickpea, and soybean in different forms, respectively. More model farmers consume lentil and fenugreek compared to poor rural households. This could be since lentil and fenugreek are expensive compared to other pulse crops. Generally, faba bean and field pea are the most widely consumed pulses in wet dega agro-ecology.

In wet dega agro-ecology oil crops such as linseed, and noug are consumed by respondents. The percentage of poor rural households consuming linseed and noug are 10%, and 5%, respectively. The percentage of model farmers consuming linseed is 26.3%, respectively.

In wet dega agro-ecology, pepper, onion, garlic, kale, swisschard, shallot, head cabbage, tomato, lettuce, carrot, pumpkin, beet root, and moringa are the vegetables consumed by respondents. About, 67.5%, 65%, 42.5%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 12.5%, 12.5%, 10%, 7.5%, and 5% of poor rural households (MVHHs and PSNP- B) in wet dega agro-ecology consume onion, pepper, garlic, kale, shallot, swisschard, lettuce, head cabbage, tomato, carrot, and pumpkin, respectively. Similarly, 67.3%, 61.7%, 46.5%, 31.6%, 30%, 15.6%, 15.4%, 12.7%, 10.4%, 7.8%, 7.8%, 5.2% and 5% of model farmers consume pepper, onion, garlic, swisschard, kale, head cabbage, tomato, shallot, lettuce, pumpkin, beet root, carrot, and moringa, respectively. Onion and pepper are the most widely consumed vegetables. They are mainly used to flavor the sauce or wot. Therefore, respondents did not consider the nutritional value of vegetables they are consuming. The percentage of vitamin A rich (pumpkin and carrot) and iron rich leafy vegetable (moringa) consuming rural households is much lower than the percentage of rural households consuming vegetables required to flavor the sauce or wot. Therefore, awareness creation efforts are required to produce and consume vitamin A and iron rich vegetables.

In wet dega agro-ecology fruit crops such as avocado, banana, mango, papaya and sweet orange consumed by respondents. However, fruit crops consumed by respondents are not adaptable for production in wet dega agro-ecology. Respondents in Dabat woreda are not consuming fruit crops. This indicates, that fruit crops are not widely produced in wet dega agro-ecology. Therefore, market is the primary source of fruits for consumption in this area. In Semen Ari woreda, 40%, 35%, 30%, and 5% of poor rural households (MVHHs and PSNP-B) consume avocado, mango, banana, and sweet orange, respectively. Similarly, 45%, 35%, 30%, and 10% of model farmers consumed banana, avocado, mango, and papaya, respectively. Therefore, promoting fruit production and consumption in wet dega agro-ecology is highly required.

In wet dega agro-ecology ASFs such as meat, butter, egg, milk, whey, cheese, yogurt, and honey are consumed by respondents. Meat, butter and egg are consumed by most poor rural households and model farmers compared to other ASFs. About 70%, 30%, 20%, 5%, 5%, 5%, and 5% of poor rural households (MVHHs and PSNP-B) consume meat, butter, egg, milk, cheese, yogurt and whey, respectively. Similarly, about 77.1%, 49.5%, 48.7%, 46.1%, 42.1%, 31.1%, 23.4%, and 10.4% of model farmers consume meat, egg, butter, milk, whey, cheese, yogurt, and honey, respectively. Since model farmers own more livestock resources, more model farmers consume ASF compared to MVHHs and PSNP beneficiaries. Among animal source foods only few model farmers consume honey. This could be since beekeeping is not widely

practiced in wet dega agro-ecology. Butter is widely consumed in Semen Ari compared to Dabat woreda. This could be since enset is one of the widely consumed staples in Semen Ari woreda.

3.8 Seasonal food availability and sources in different agro-ecologies

3.8.1 Dry Kola Agro-ecology

Sorghum, fingermillet and teff among staples, chickpea, field pea and faba bean among pulses, noug and linseed among oil crops, onion, pepper and tomato among vegetables, papaya, mango and banana among fruits, and egg, meat and milk among ASF are widely consumed by respondents. Respondents access food both from own production and market sources. The contribution of production and market sources to supply different food groups for household consumption is found different in different months (Fig. 25). PSNP beneficiaries were asked to list months when different food groups are available for consumption both from production and market sources. The availability of cereals, pulses, oil crops, vegetables, fruits, and ASF from production reached the highest peak in January, December, December to February, January, April, and September and January, respectively. On the other hand, the availability of cereals, pulses, oil crops, vegetables, fruits and ASF for household consumption from production depleted in September, July and August, May to September, June to October, July to December, and March, respectively. Therefore, the highest percentage of PSNP beneficiaries fill the gap by purchasing cereals, pulses, oil crops, vegetables, fruits, and ASF from local market in September, January and March, January and April, February, April, and September, respectively.

Model farmers were also asked to list months when different food groups are available for consumption both from production and market. The availability of cereals, pulses, oil crops, vegetables, fruits, and ASF from production reached the highest level in January and February, December and January, December, February to April, December and April, and September, respectively. However, the availability of cereals, pulses, oil crops, vegetables, fruits, and ASF from production depleted in August to October, July to October, July to October, August, June to August, and March, respectively. To fulfill this gap most interviewed model farmers, purchase cereals, pulses, oil crops, vegetables, fruits, and ASF in September, November and June, January and February, September and February, March, and April, respectively.

The role of production and market for supplying different food groups differ among household types. The contribution of market was found higher than production to supply pulses, oil crops, vegetables, and fruit crops for poor rural households (PSNP beneficiaries). On the other hand, the contribution of market was higher than production to supply vegetables to economically better-off rural households (model farmers). Therefore, market plays key role to supply diversified diet to poor rural households compared to economically better-off households in dry kola agro-ecology.

3.8.2 Moist Kola agro-ecology

Fingermillet, maize and potato among staples, chickpea, faba bean and field pea among pulses, noug and linseed among oil crops, pepper, onion and garlic among vegetables, banana and mango among fruits, and meat, egg and butter among ASF are widely consumed by respondents. Respondents access food both from their own production and market sources. However, the contribution of own production and market to supply different food groups varies in different months (Fig. 26).

MVHHs respondents were asked to list months when different food groups are available for consumption both from own produce and market. The availability of cereals, pulses, oil crops, vegetables and ASF from own produce reached to the highest peak in January and February, October to December, throughout the year, October, and September, respectively. On the other hand, the availability of cereals, pulses, oil crops, vegetables and ASF from own produce depleted in July to September, March and August, throughout the year, June to July, and May and June, respectively. Therefore, about 78.9%, 57.1%, 28.6%, 85.7%, 23.8%, and 66.7% of interviewed MVHHs buy cereals, pulses, oil crops, vegetables, fruits, and ASF in July to September, January, May to June, August, March to May, and April respectively from local market to fulfill their food requirement. In addition, MVHHs access fruits only from market.

Model farmers were asked to list months when different food groups are available for consumption both from own produce and market sources. The availability of cereals, pulses, oil crops, vegetables, fruits and ASF from own produce reached the highest level in November to February, November to January, December, October, March to May, and September, respectively. However, the availability of cereals, pulses, oil crops, vegetables, fruits and ASF for consumption from own produce relatively depleted during August, September, February to July, May to July, November to February, and July and August, respectively. To fulfill this gap 26.3%, 36.8%, 26.3%, 68.4%, 36.8%, and 47.4% of the model farmers purchased cereals, pulses, oil crops, vegetables, fruits, and ASF in January and May, December to January, December, May, December to January, and September and December, respectively.

The role of production and market for supplying different food groups differ among household types. The contribution of market was found higher than production to supply oil crops, vegetables, fruits, and ASF for poor rural households (MVHHs). On the other hand, the contribution of market was found higher than production to supply oil crops, vegetables, and fruit crops for economically better-off rural households (model farmers). Therefore, market plays key role to supply diversified diet both to economically better- off and poor rural households in moist kola agro-ecology.

3.8.3 Dry Weyena Dega agro-ecology

Teff, bread wheat and maize among staples, faba bean, field pea and chickpea among pulses, Linseed and noug among oil crops, pepper, onion and tomato among vegetables, mango, banana and avocado among fruits, and meat, milk and egg among ASF were widely consumed by respondents residing in dry weyena dega agro-ecology. Respondents access food both from their own produce and market. The contribution of own produce and market to supply different food groups varied in different months and households (Fig. 27 and 28).

PSNP beneficiaries and MVHHs residing in dry weyena dega agro-ecology were interviewed to list months when different food groups are available for consumption both from own produce and market. The availability of cereals, pulses, oil crops, vegetables and ASF from own produce reach the highest peak in December and January, December and January, November to March, August to November, December to June, and September and November, respectively. However, 64%, 56%, 14%, 78%, 13% and 49% of interviewed PSNP beneficiaries and MVHHs purchase cereals, pulses, oil crops, vegetables, fruits, and ASF, respectively in June to August, September and December, September to December, August to October, December to April, and September, December and April, respectively to fulfill their food requirements. Most PSNP beneficiaries and MVHHs purchase cereals when their harvest is depleted, pulses, oil crops, vegetables, and fruits mainly during the harvesting season, and ASF during major holidays (Ethiopian New Year on September, Ethiopian Christmas on December, and Ethiopian Easter on April). About 32% of interviewed MVHHs and PSNP beneficiaries produce vegetables for their own consumption. In addition, rural households access market once per week and did not have storage facility to preserve fruits and vegetables for daily consumption. Therefore, MVHHs and PSNP beneficiaries have to be encouraged to establish homegarden for fruit and vegetable production.

Model farmers residing in dry weyena dega agro-ecology were interviewed to list months when different food groups are available for consumption from own produce and market. The availability and consumption of cereals, pulses, oil crops, vegetables, fruits and ASF from own produce reaches the highest level in November to December, November to February, December to April, August to September, April, and September, respectively. However, the availability of cereals, pulses, oil crops, vegetables, fruits and ASF for consumption from own produce relatively depleted during July to August, June to August, June to October, June to October, and January to May, respectively. To fulfill this gap, most interviewed model farmers purchase cereals, pulses, oil crops, vegetables, fruits, and ASF in December and June, January, January to April, August to September, March, and September and November, respectively. The percentage of model farmers purchasing cereals (32%) are much lower than those purchasing vegetables (88%), ASF (53%), and pulses (39%). The percentage of model farmers consuming fruit crops is less than 20%. Similarly, the percentage of MVHHs consuming fruit crops is less than 9%, mainly by purchasing from

market. Therefore, efforts are required to encourage both production and consumption of fruit crops in order to curb malnutrition.

The role of production and market for supplying different food groups differ among household types. The contribution of market was found higher than production to supply pulses, vegetables and fruit crops, and oil crops, vegetables, fruits, and ASF to poor rural households residing PSNP (PSNP-B) and AGP (MVHHS) supported woredas, respectively. On the other hand, the contribution of market was found higher than production to supply oil crops, vegetables and fruits, and vegetables for economically better-off rural households (model farmers) residing in PSNP and AGP targeted woredas, respectively. Therefore, market plays key role to supply diversified diet primarily to poor rural households and model farmers of PSNP targeted woredas.

3.8.4 Moist Weyena Dega agro-ecology

Enset, potato and bread wheat among staples, field pea, faba bean and lentil among pulses, onion, pepper and tomato among vegetables, banana, avocado and mango among fruits, and butter, meat and milk among ASF were widely consumed by respondents residing in moist weyena dega agro-ecology. Respondents access food both from their own produce and market. The contribution of own production and market to supply different food groups varies in different months and households (Fig. 29 and 30).

PSNP beneficiaries and MVHHs residing in moist weyena dega agro-ecology were asked to list months when different food groups are available for consumption from own produce and market. The availability of cereals, pulses, vegetables and ASF from own produce reaches the highest peak in November and December, July to September, and June to November, respectively. This is the peak harvesting period of the meher season crop. On the other hand, the highest percentage of respondents purchase cereals, pulses, vegetables, and ASFs for consumption during December and January, January to March, June to December, and September, December and April, respectively. PSNP beneficiaries and MVHHs purchase cereals, pulses and vegetables during the peak harvest season since their market price declines and are widely available in the local market. On the other hand, PSNP beneficiaries and MVHHs purchase ASFs for consumption mainly during holidays (Ethiopian New Year in September, Ethiopian Christmas in December, and Ethiopian Easter in April). This indicates that most MVHHs and PSNP beneficiaries purchase and consume animal source food during holidays.

Model farmers residing in moist weyena dega agro-ecology were interviewed to list months when different food groups are available for consumption from own produce and market. The availability of cereals, pulses, vegetables and ASF from own produce reach the highest peak in September to December, September to December, June to October, and September to November, respectively. This is the peak

harvesting period of the meher cropping season. On the other hand, the highest percentage of respondents purchase cereals, pulses, vegetables, and ASFs for consumption during January and February, November, and September and January, respectively. Model farmers purchase cereals, pulses and vegetables during the peak harvest season since their market price declines and are widely available in the local market. On the other hand, they purchase ASFs for consumption mainly during holidays (Ethiopian New Year in September, and Ethiopian Christmas in January). This indicates that model farmers also purchase and widely consume animal source foods during holidays.

The role of production and market for supplying different food groups differ among household types. The contribution of market was found higher than production to supply oil crops, vegetables, fruit crops and ASF, and cereals, pulses, vegetables and fruit crops to poor rural households residing PSNP (PSNP-B) and AGP (MVHHS) supported woredas, respectively. On the other hand, the contribution of market was found higher than production to supply oil crops, vegetables and fruits, and pulses, vegetables and fruit crops for economically better-off rural households (model farmers) residing in PSNP and AGP targeted woredas, respectively. Therefore, market plays key role to supply diversified diet both poor and economically better- off rural households residing in moist weyena dega agro-ecology.

3.8.5 Wet Weyena Dega agro-ecology

Bread wheat, potato and teff among staples, faba bean, field pea and chickpea among pulses, pepper, onion and garlic among vegetables, banana and mango among fruits, and meat, egg and butter among ASF are widely consumed by respondents residing in wet weyena dega Agro-ecology. Respondents access food both from their own produce and market sources. The contribution of own produce and market to supply different food groups varied in different months and household types (Fig. 31 and 32). Market plays significant role to fulfill the food requirement of MVHHs and PSNP beneficiaries compared to model farmers. For example, 70% of MVHHs and PSNP beneficiaries and 46% of model farmers purchase cereals for consumption especially during harvesting season December and January. In this agro-ecology the importance of root and tubers as staples is very high. Therefore, significant number of model farmers fulfill their cereal requirement by purchasing from local market. The major staple of respondents from PSNP woredas are cereals. On the other hand, the major staples of respondents in most of AGP woredas are root and tuber crops. Therefore, most respondents from AGP supported woredas purchase cereals. On the other hand, most respondents in PSNP woredas purchase vegetables including root and tuber crops compared to cereal crops. This indicates that food habit dictates the type of crops produced and purchased for consumption. Therefore, NSA interventions packages should also consider not only the agro-ecology but also the food habit of the community.

PSNP beneficiaries and MVHHs respondents residing in wet weyena dega agro-ecology were asked to list months when different food groups are available for consumption both from own produce and market. The availability of cereals, pulses, oil crops, vegetables, fruits, and ASF from own produce reach the highest peak from December to February, November to March, July to April, August to November, November to March, and September and December, respectively. This is the peak harvesting period of the meher season crop. In addition, most PSNP beneficiary and MVHH respondents purchase cereals, pulses, oil crops, vegetables, fruits, and ASFs for consumption during August to September and December, June to October and December, March and July, July to October and April, March to May, and September, December and April, respectively. Most poor households purchase cereals, pulses, oil crops, fruits and vegetables during the peak harvest season and also during the lean season since they do not have money to buy the quantity they need during the harvest season. Therefore, any credit service during the harvesting season for poor households enable them to purchase more food with the same amount of money. Most poor households purchase fruits and vegetables mainly during the peak harvesting season. This is attributed to the perishability of fruits and vegetables coupled with lack of preservation technology. PSNP beneficiaries and MVHHs purchase ASFs for consumption mainly during holidays (Ethiopian New Year in September, Ethiopian X-Mas in December, and Ethiopian Easter in April). This indicates that most MVHHs and PSNP beneficiaries purchase and consume animal source foods mainly during holidays.

Model farmers residing in wet weyena dega agro-ecology were interviewed to list months when different food groups are available for consumption from own produce and market. The availability and consumption of cereals, pulses, oil crops, vegetables, fruits and ASF from own produce reach the highest peak from December to March, November to January, December to April, July to October, March to May, and September to November, respectively. This is related to the peak harvesting season of different food groups. Model farmers also purchase different food groups for consumption. Most model farmers purchase cereals, pulses, oil crops, vegetables, fruits, and ASFs for consumption during December to February, December to March, November to May, December to April, November to March, and September, December and April, respectively. Model farmers purchase cereals, pulses and fruits during the peak harvest season since their market price declines and are widely available in the local market. On the other hand, they purchase vegetables during fasting periods and ASFs for consumption mainly during holidays (Ethiopian New Year in September, and Ethiopian X-Mas in January). This indicates that model farmers also purchase and widely consume animal source food during holidays.

The role of production and market for supplying different food groups differ among household types. The contribution of market was found higher than production to supply vegetables and ASF, and pulses, oil crops, vegetables and fruit crops to poor rural households residing PSNP (PSNP-B) and AGP (MVHHS)

supported woredas, respectively. On the other hand, the contribution of market was found higher than production to supply vegetables, and vegetables and fruits for economically better-off rural households (model farmers) residing in PSNP and AGP targeted woredas, respectively. Therefore, market plays key role to supply diversified diet to economically poor rural households compared to economically better-off rural households residing in wet weyena dega agro-ecology. Generally, market plays key role to supply vegetables to both poor and economically better-off rural households.

3.8.6 Moist Dega Agro-ecology

In moist dega agro-ecology potato, bread wheat and barley among staples, faba bean, field pea and lentil among pulses, pepper, onion and kale among vegetables, banana and mango among fruits, and meat, egg and butter among ASF are widely consumed by respondents. Respondents access food both from their own produce and market. The contribution of own produce and market to supply different food groups varied in different months and household types (Fig. 33 and 34). In this agro-ecology the importance of root and tubers as staples is very high. Therefore, significant number of model farmers fulfill their cereal requirement by purchasing from local market. The major staple of respondents from PSNP woredas are cereals. On the other hand, the major staples of respondents in most of AGP woredas are root and tuber crops. Therefore, most respondents from AGP supported woredas purchase cereals. On the other hand, most respondents in PSNP woredas purchase vegetables including root and tuber crops compared to cereal crops. This indicates that food habit dictates the type of crops produced and purchased for consumption. Therefore, NSA interventions packages should also consider not only the agro-ecology but also the food habit of the community.

PSNP beneficiaries and MVHHs respondents residing in moist dega agro-ecology were asked to list months when different food groups are available for consumption from own produce and market. The availability of cereals, pulses, oil crops, vegetables, and ASF from own produce reach the highest peak in January, December to February, December to March, July to September, and September, respectively. In addition, as high as 55%, 55%, 30%, 60%, 25%, and 10% of PSNP beneficiaries purchase cereal in September, January, April and July, pulses in March, oil crops in January, vegetables in April, fruits in January to February, and ASF in September. Similarly, as high as 71.8%, 64.1%, 2.6%, 76.9%, 12.8%, and 48.7% of MVHHs purchase cereal in January, pulses in December, January, May and June, oil crops in September, December, March and June, vegetables in December, fruits in May, and ASF in September, respectively. Most poor rural households purchase cereals, pulses, oil crops, fruits and vegetables during the peak harvest season and also during the lean season since they do not have money to buy the quantity they need during the harvest season. Therefore, credit provision during the harvesting season for poor households enable them to purchase more food with the same amount of money. Most poor households purchase fruits and

vegetables mainly during the peak harvesting season. This is attributed to the perishability of fruits and vegetables coupled with lack of preservation technology. PSNP beneficiaries and MVHHs purchase ASFs for consumption mainly during holidays (Ethiopian New Year in September, Ethiopian X-Mas in December, and Ethiopian Easter in April). This indicates that most MVHHs and PSNP beneficiaries purchase and consume animal source foods mainly during holidays.

Model farmers residing in moist dega agro-ecology were interviewed to list months when different food groups are available for consumption both from own produce and market. The availability and consumption of cereals, pulses, oil crops, vegetables, fruits and ASF from own produce reach the highest peak from December to February, December to February, November to December, August to September, March to April, and September, respectively. This is related to the peak harvesting season of different food groups. Model farmers also purchase different food groups for consumption. Most interviewed model farmers purchase cereals, pulses, oil crops, vegetables, fruits, and ASFs for consumption during January and September, January and June-September, December to April, November to March, November to April, and September and April, respectively. Model farmers purchase cereals, pulses and fruits during the peak harvest season since their market price declines and are widely available in the local market. On the other hand, they purchase vegetables during fasting periods and ASFs for consumption mainly during holidays (Ethiopian New Year in September, and Ethiopian X-Mas in January).

The role of production and market for supplying different food groups differ among household types. The contribution of market was found higher than production to supply cereals, pulses, oil crops, vegetables and fruits to poor rural households residing in PSNP supported woredas. Similarly, the contribution of market is higher than own produce to supply all food groups compared to own produce to MVHHs residing in moist dega agro-ecology. On the other hand, the contribution of market was found lower than own produce to supply all food groups to model farmers in PSNP supported woreda. However, market plays important role compared to production to supply vegetables and fruits for model farmers residing in AGP targeted woredas. Therefore, market plays key role to supply diversified diet to economically poor compared to better-off rural households residing in moist dega agro-ecology. Generally, market plays key role to supply vegetables to both economically poor and better-off rural households.

3.8.7 Wet Dega Agro-ecology

In wet dega agro-ecology potato, bread wheat and barley among staples, faba bean, field pea and chickpea among pulses, linseed and noug among oil crops, pepper, onion and garlic among vegetables, avocado, banana and mango among fruits, and meat, butter and egg among ASF are widely consumed by respondents.

Respondents access food both from their own produce and market. The contribution of own produce and market to supply different food groups varied in different months and household types (Fig. Fig 35 and 36).

PSNP beneficiaries and MVHHs respondents residing in wet dega agro-ecology were asked to list months when different food groups are available for consumption both from own produce and market. The availability and consumption of cereals, pulses, oil crops, vegetables, fruits and ASF from own produce reach the highest peak in December to January, November to February, October to January, August to September, May to June, and April, respectively. On the other hand, as high as 85%, 50%, 25%, 85%, 10%, and 45% of PSNP beneficiaries purchase cereal in June and September, pulses in June, oil crops in July, vegetables in December, fruits in August, and ASF in September, respectively. Similarly, as high as 70%, 70%, 85%, 50%, and 55% of MVHHs purchase cereal in November, pulses in January, vegetables in September, fruits in April, and ASF in September, respectively. As high as 70% to 85% of poor rural households purchase cereals or staples. In addition, as high as 85% of poor rural households purchased vegetables. This depicts the importance of market to ensure balanced diet for poor rural households. Most poor rural households purchase cereals, pulses, fruits and vegetables during the peak harvest season and also during the lean season since they do not have money to buy adequate quantity they need during the harvest season. Therefore, any credit service during the harvesting season for poor households enable them to purchase more food with the same amount of money. Most poor households purchase fruits and vegetables mainly during the peak harvesting season. This is attributed to the perishability of fruits and vegetables coupled with lack of preservation technology. PSNP beneficiaries and MVHHs purchase ASFs for consumption mainly during holidays (Ethiopian New Year in September).

Model farmers residing in wet dega agro-ecology were interviewed to list months when different food groups are available for consumption both from own produce and market. The availability and consumption of cereals, pulses, oil crops, vegetables, fruits and ASF from own produce reach the highest peak in December to April, November to February, August, September, May to July, and September and April, respectively. This is related to the peak harvesting season of different food groups. In addition, as high as 78.9%, 36.8%, 36.8%, 94.7%, 5.3%, and 26.3% of model farmer respondents residing in PSNP targeted woreda purchase cereals, pulses, oil crops, vegetables, fruits, and ASF, respectively for consumption. Similarly, as high as 55%, 65%, 5%, 70%, 45%, and 35% of model farmer respondents residing in AGP targeted woreda purchase cereals, pulses, oil crops, vegetables, fruits, and ASFs for consumption, respectively. Therefore, market plays an important role to supply diversified diet to model farmers.

The role of production and market to supply different food groups differ among household types. The contribution of market was found higher than production to supply cereals, oil crops, and vegetables to poor rural households residing PSNP supported woreda. Similarly, the contribution of market is higher than own

produce to supply cereals, pulses, vegetables, fruits, and ASF compared to own produce to MVHHs residing in moist dega agro-ecology. Likewise, the contribution of market was found higher than own produce to supply cereals, oil crops, and vegetables to model farmers residing in PSNP supported woreda. On the other hand, market plays important role compared to production to supply pulses, oil crops, and fruits to model farmers residing in AGP targeted woreda. Therefore, market plays key role to supply diversified diet to both economically poor and better-off rural households residing in wet dega agro-ecology.

Key lessons

• All respondents are unable to fulfill their food requirement from their own produce. They purchase at least some food sometime in the year. Very few respondents fulfill their fruit, vegetable, ASF and oil crops requirement from own produce. Therefore, market plays significant role to make available these food groups. According to Sibhatu and Qaim (2017), on average, subsistence production accounts for 58% of rural households” calorie consumption, that is, 42% of the calories consumed are from purchased foods. During the lean season, purchased foods account for more than half of all calories consumed. But even during the main harvest and postharvest season, purchased foods contribute more than one-third to total calorie consumption. During all seasons, purchased foods play a much larger role for dietary diversity than subsistence production. Therefore, our observation agrees with the findings of Sibhatu and Qaim (2017). • Model farmers (economically better-off rural households) purchase grains at harvest season when it is cheap since they have money. On the other hand, MVHHs and PSNP beneficiaries (economically poor rural households) purchase food items whenever they get money. Therefore, credit service provision and off-farm employment opportunity required to make diversified food consumption affordability to poor rural households. • Staples consumed by respondents varied both by agro-ecology and food habit of the community. On top of this, food items preferred for consumption by respondents are not based on their nutritional content. For example, a smaller number of respondents consume vitamin A (carrot and pumpkin) and iron rich leafy (kale, moringa, swisschard) vegetables compared to other vegetables. Therefore, awareness creation effort required to make informed decision on what to eat. • July to October is season of critical food shortage. During these months, consumers reduce the quantity, frequency and food types they consume (injera with only mustard sauce, injera with sauce made of potato, injera with sauce made of without oil, pulses and spices, etc.). The lean season coincides with labor demanding (heavy workload) season and coincides with disease outbreak (water contamination) season. These magnifies the problem of malnutrition. On the other hand, November to April is season of excess food availability. Therefore, efforts are required to reduce

food waste and postharvest losses, as well as to extend season of food production through expansion of homegardening and irrigated agriculture. Likewise, Wijesinha-Bettoni et al (2013) recommended promotion of better preservation and storage techniques for increasing year-round food availability. • Rural households prepare different food items such as injera, bread, porridge, shiro, etc by mixing different food grains. Their main purpose is to reduce food cost, but this practice contributes for the improvement of the nutrient content of the food item. For example, Injera prepared by mixing teff and wheat flour will be better than injera prepared from pure teff flour in protein content. On the other hand, injera prepared from a mixture of teff and wheat flour will be better than injera prepared from pure wheat flour in carbohydrate, iron, calcium, zinc and phosphorous content. For example, rural households mix different food grains to prepare different food items as follows. They prepare Injera: by mixing Sorghum + Teff + Bread wheat + Fenugreek (2 Teff + 1Sorhum + 1Maize), prepared bread by mixing Maize + Bread wheat + E-Wheat (1 Maize + 2 Bread wheat), prepare porridge by mixing Teff + Bead wheat, and prepare Shiro by mixing Fababean + Chickpea; Fababean + Field pea. However, the ratio of mixture should have to be standardized through research. • Rural households prepare and consume protein and fat rich food items during cool seasons and whenever there is heavy workload. Chererte is a type of bread prepared from mix of bread wheat and chickpea flours. Likewise, they prepare a food item by smearing injera or bread with noug or linseed and named it Keboshe. Research results documented the significant superiority of consuming food items prepared by mixing 90% cereal flour with 10% legumes on body weight gain compared to food items prepared from pure cereal flour. However, the nutritional value of traditional food items prepared in Ethiopia need to be studied and documented through scientific investigations. • Vitamins and minerals of most grain crops are found on the skin or haul of grain crops. Traditional milling machines used by smallholder farmers in rural areas do not remove the skin or haul of the grain while milling unlike big flour factories. This practice is very important to maintain the nutrient content of food crops.

Fig. 25: Seasonal food sources in Dry Kola Agro-ecology (PSNP-Woreda)

Own production PSNP Beneficary Dry Kolla From Market PSNP Beneficaries Dry Kolla 90 100 80 90 70 80 60 70 50 60 40 50 30 40 30 20 20 10 10 0 0

Cereal Pulses Oil crops Vegetables Fruits ASF Cereal Pulses Oil crops Vegetables Fruits ASF

From Own production PSNP Model Farmers Dry Kolla From Market PSNP Model farmers dry Kolla 100 60 80 50 60 40 40 30 20 20 0 10 0

Cereal Pulses Oil crops Vegetables Fruits ASF Cereal Pulses Oil crops Vegetables Fruits ASF

Fig. 26: Seasonal food sources in Moist Kola Agro-ecology (AGP Woreda)

Own production AGP-MVHHs Moist Kolla From market AGP-MVHHs Moist Kolla 100 90 90 80 80 70 70 60 60 50 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0

Cereals Pulses Oilcrops Vegetables Fruits ASF Cereals Pulses Oilcrops Vegetables Fruits ASF

Own production AGP-Model farmers Moist Kolla From Market AGP-Model farmers Moist Kolla 120 80 70 100 60 80 50 60 40 30 40 20 20 10 0 0

Cereals Pulses Oilcrops Vegetables Fruits ASF Cereals Pulses Oilcrops Vegetables Fruits ASF

Fig. 27: Seasonal food sources in Dry Weyna Dega Agro-ecology (PSNP-Woredas)

Own production PSNP Beneficaries Dry W-Dega From Market PSNP beneficaries Dry W-Dega 90.0% 90.0% 80.0% 80.0% 70.0% 70.0% 60.0% 60.0% 50.0% 50.0% 40.0% 40.0% 30.0% 20.0% 30.0% 10.0% 20.0% 0.0% 10.0% 0.0%

Cereal Pulses Oil crops Vegetables Fruits ASF

Cereal Pulses Oil crops Vegetables Fruits ASF From market PSNP model farmers Dry W-Dega Own production PSNP model farmers Dry W-Dega 100.0% 120.0% 90.0% 100.0% 80.0% 70.0% 80.0% 60.0% 60.0% 50.0% 40.0% 40.0% 30.0% 20.0% 20.0% 0.0% 10.0% 0.0%

Cereal Pulses Oil crops Vegetables Fruits ASF

Fig. 28: Seasonal food sources in Dry Weyna Dega agro-ecology (AGP-Woredas)

Own production AGP-MVHHs Dry W-Dega From market AGP-MVHHs Dry W-Dega 80.0% 80.0% 70.0% 70.0% 60.0% 60.0% 50.0% 50.0% 40.0% 40.0% 30.0% 30.0% 20.0% 20.0% 10.0% 10.0% 0.0% 0.0%

Cereal Pulses Oil crops Vegetables Fruits ASF Cereal Pulses Oil crops Vegetables Fruits ASF

Fig. 29: Seasonal food sources in Moist Weyna Dega Agro-ecology (PSNP-Woredas)

From market PSNP beneficaries Moist W-Dega Own production PSNP beneficaries moist 80.0% W-Dega 60.0% 40.0% 20.0% 200.0% 0.0% 100.0% 0.0%

Cereal Pulses Oil crops Cereal Pulses Oil crops Vegetables Fruits ASF Vegetables Fruits ASF

Own production PSNP model farmers moist W-Dega 120.0%

100.0% From Market PSNP model farmers moist W-Dega

80.0% 120.0%

60.0% 100.0%

40.0% 80.0%

20.0% 60.0%

0.0% 40.0%

20.0%

Cereal Pulses Oil crops 0.0%

Cereal Pulses Oil crops Vegetables Fruits ASF

Fig. 30: Seasonal food sources in Moist Weyna Dega Agro-ecology (AGP-Woredas)

Own production AGP-Model farmers Dry W-Dega From market AGP-MVHHs Moist W-Dega 100.0% 90.0% 90.0% 80.0% 80.0% 70.0% 70.0% 60.0% 60.0% 50.0% 50.0% 40.0% 40.0% 30.0% 30.0% 20.0% 20.0% 10.0% 10.0% 0.0% 0.0%

Cereal Pulses Oil crops Vegetables Fruits ASF Cereal Pulses Oil crops Vegetables Fruits ASF

Own production AGP-MVHHs moist W-Dega From market AGP-model farmers Dry W-Dega 70.0% 100.0% 60.0% 50.0% 80.0% 40.0% 60.0% 30.0% 40.0% 20.0% 20.0% 10.0% 0.0% 0.0%

Cereal Pulses Oil crops Cereal Pulses Oil crops Vegetables Fruits ASF Vegetables Fruits ASF

Fig. 31: Seasonal food sources in Wet Weyna Dega Agro-ecology (PSNP-Woredas)

Own production PSNP beneficiaries wet W-Dega From market PSNP beneficaries wet W-Dega 100.0% 100.0% 90.0% 90.0% 80.0% 80.0% 70.0% 70.0% 60.0% 60.0% 50.0% 50.0% 40.0% 40.0% 30.0% 20.0% 30.0% 10.0% 20.0% 0.0% 10.0% 0.0% From market AGP-model farmers moist W-Dega 80.0% Cereal Pulses Oil crops 70.0% Cereal Pulses Oil crops Vegetables Fruits ASF Vegetables Fruits ASF 60.0% 50.0% From market PSNP model farmers wet W-Dega Own production PSNP model farmers Wet W-Dega 40.0% 90.0% 120.0% 30.0%80.0% 100.0% 20.0%70.0% 80.0% 60.0% 10.0% 60.0% 50.0% 40.0% 0.0%40.0% 30.0% 20.0% 20.0% 0.0% 10.0% 0.0% Cereal Pulses Oil crops Vegetables Fruits ASF

Cereal Pulses Oil crops Vegetables Fruits ASF Cereal Pulses Oil crops Vegetables Fruits ASF

Fig. 32: Seasonal food sources in Wet Weyna Dega Agro-ecology (AGP-Woredas)

Own production AGP-MVHHs Wet W-Dega Own production AGP-model farmers moist W- Dega 80.0% 100.0% 60.0% 80.0% 40.0% 60.0% 40.0% 20.0% 20.0% 0.0% 0.0%

Cereal Pulses Oil crops Cereal Pulses Oil crops Vegetables Fruits ASF Vegetables Fruits ASF

From market AGP-MVHHs Wet From market AGP-Model Farmer Wet Own production AGP-Model W-Dega W-Dega farmers Wet W-Dega 70.0% 60.0% 80.0% 100.0% 50.0% 60.0% 80.0% 40.0% 60.0% 40.0% 20.0% 40.0% 30.0% 0.0% 20.0% 20.0% 0.0%

10.0%

July

Aug

May June

April 0.0%

March

January

October

February July

Aug Cereal Pulses Oil crops

December

May

November

June

April

September

March January

October Vegetables Fruits ASF February

Cereal Pulses Oil crops December

November September Vegetables Fruits ASF Cereal Pulses Oil crops Vegetables Fruits ASF

Fig. 33: Seasonal food sources in Moist Dega Agro-ecology (PSNP-Woredas)

Own production PSNP beneficiaries Moist Dega From market PSNP beneficaries Moist Dega 70.0% 70.0% 60.0% 60.0% 50.0% 50.0% 40.0% 40.0% 30.0% 30.0% 20.0% 20.0% 10.0% 10.0% 0.0% 0.0%

Cereal Pulses Oil crops Vegetables Fruits ASF Cereal Pulses Oil crops Vegetables Fruits ASF

Own production PSNP model farmers Moist Dega From market PSNP model farmers Moist Dega 120.0% 60.0% 100.0% 50.0% 80.0% 40.0% 60.0% 30.0% 40.0% 20.0% 20.0% 10.0% 0.0% 0.0%

Cereal Pulses Oil crops Vegetables Fruits ASF Cereal Pulses Oil crops Vegetables Fruits ASF

Fig. 34: Seasonal food sources in Moist Dega Agro-ecology (AGP-Woreda)

Own production AGP-MVHHs Moist Dega From market AGP-MVHHs Moist Dega 90.0% 70.0% 80.0% 60.0% 70.0% 50.0% 60.0% 40.0% 50.0% 30.0% 40.0% 30.0% 20.0% 20.0% 10.0% 10.0% 0.0% 0.0%

Cereal Pulses Oil crops Vegetables Fruits ASF Cereal Pulses Oil crops Vegetables Fruits ASF

Own production AGP-model farmers Moist Dega From market AGP-model farmers Moist Dega 100.0% 80.0% 90.0% 70.0% 80.0% 60.0% 70.0% 50.0% 60.0% 50.0% 40.0% 40.0% 30.0% 30.0% 20.0% 20.0% 10.0% 10.0% 0.0% 0.0%

Cereal Pulses Oil crops Vegetables Fruits ASF Cereal Pulses Oil crops Vegetables Fruits ASF

Fig. 35: Seasonal food sources in Wet Dega Agro-ecology (PSNP- Woreda)

From own production PSNP beneficaries Wet Dega From market PSNP beneficaries Wet Dega 70.0% 90.0% 60.0% 80.0% 70.0% 50.0% 60.0% 40.0% 50.0% 30.0% 40.0% 30.0% 20.0% 20.0% 10.0% 10.0% 0.0% 0.0%

Cereal Pulses Oil crops Vegetables Fruits ASF Cereal Pulses Oil crops Vegetables Fruits ASF

Own production PSNP model farmers Wet Dega From market PSNP model farmers Wet Dega

100.0% 100.0% 90.0% 90.0% 80.0% 80.0% 70.0% 70.0% 60.0% 60.0% 50.0% 50.0% 40.0% 40.0% 30.0% 30.0% 20.0% 20.0% 10.0% 10.0% 0.0% 0.0%

Cereal Pulses Oil crops Vegetables Fruits ASF Cereal Pulses Oil crops Vegetables Fruits ASF

Fig. 36: Seasonal food sources in Wet Dega Agro-ecology (AGP-Woredas)

From own production AGP-MVHHs Wet Dega From market AGP-MVHHs Wet Dega

80.0% 100.0% 80.0% 60.0% 40.0% 60.0% 40.0% 20.0% 20.0% 0.0% 0.0%

Cereal Pulses Oil crops Vegetables Fruits ASF Cereal Pulses Oil crops Vegetables Fruits ASF

From own production AGP-model farmers Wet Dega From market AGP-model farmers Wet Dega 100.0% 80.0% 90.0% 70.0% 80.0% 60.0% 70.0% 50.0% 60.0% 50.0% 40.0% 40.0% 30.0% 30.0% 20.0% 20.0% 10.0% 10.0% 0.0% 0.0%

Cereal Pulses Oil crops Vegetables Fruits ASF Cereal Pulses Oil crops Vegetables Fruits ASF

4. Conclusion and Recommendations Feed the Future Growth through Nutrition activity is implemented in diverse agro-ecology. The onset and cessation month of the rainy season, length of the rainy season, size of farmland owned by respondents, species and number of livestock owned by respondents, and food crops produced are varied in different agro-ecologies. In addition, the food crop production calendar varied across different agro-ecologies. Furthermore, the type of food crops produced and consumed varied by the food habit of different communities residing in the same agro-ecology. On top of this, food types consumed by respondents varied by their economic status and seasons. Of all the food groups, ASF, fruits and vegetables are not widely and continuously produced and consumed by rural households. Some ASFs such as milk, yogurt, cheese, and meat are not sold in rural areas due to cultural barriers as well as lack of market infrastructure. Similarly, fruits and vegetables are short shelf-life food crops. Rural households do not have perishable food items (fruits, vegetable and ASFs) storage facilities. In addition, most rural households are found far from market centers. It is also very difficult for rural households to buy and consume everyday fruits and vegetables. Despite this fact, market is the major source of fruits and vegetables to rural households compared to other food groups. Consequently, food items such as fruits, vegetables and ASFs are not regularly included in the daily diets of rural households. Food crops widely produced and consumed by the rural community are not based on their nutritional importance. For example, iron rich leafy vegetables such as swisschard, kale, and moringa are not widely produced and consumed compared to other vegetables. Similarly, vitamin-A rich vegetables such as carrot and pumpkin are not widely produced and consumed compared to other vegetables. Likewise, preference to produce and consume different cereal, pulse and root crops is not based on their nutritional value. The protein content of soybean is twice of the protein content of other pulse crops widely grown and consumed in Ethiopia such as faba bean, field pea, chickpea, lentil, etc. Similarly, bread wheat is more preferred compared to fingermillet for consumption, but fingermillet is better than bread wheat in carbohydrate, calcium, phosphorous and iron. Therefore, the following interventions are recommended to make available diversified food throughout the year.

1. The average land holding of rural households is 1.3ha. This plot of land is not adequate to produce and supply diversified food throughout the year through the current traditional and rainfed crop production practice. Therefore, it is important to introduce year round crop production practice through irrigation infrastructure development and/or promotion of water saving irrigation techniques, homegardening, and multiple cropping system.

2. The type of livestock species owned by rural households differ by agro-ecology and economic status. Economically poor rural households own small ruminants and poultry compared to large ruminants. This is mainly attributed to shortage of capital and feed resources. Among livestock

species, goat is found important in dry kola agro-ecology, sheep is found important in moist kola, wet weyena dega, moist dega and wet dega agro-ecologies, cattle is found important in dry kola, moist kola, dry weyena dega, moist weyena dega, and wet weyena dega agro-ecologies, and chicken is found important in moist kola and wet weyena dega agro-ecologies. Therefore, any livestock distribution should consider the agro-ecology and economic capability of rural households to manage the livestock.

3. Growth through Nutrition activity intervention woredas have different length of rainy season including those classified in one agro-ecology. Therefore, food crops and varieties to be introduced as well as type of cropping systems should be selected according to length of the rainy season. Intervention woredas such as Tselemti, Tahtay Keraro, Taqusa, Ebinat, Lay Gayint, and Dabat receive relatively short rainy season. Therefore, in intervention woredas with such type of rainy season, the following interventions are recommended:

• Farmers practice mixed and intercropping (bread wheat and barley, faba bean and field pea) to produce diversified food crops on the same plot of land at the same time. Such practices have to be promoted since it is also useful to prevent pest and disease prevalence and reduce risk of total crop failure due to environmental calamities. However, compatible crop species have to be selected for mixed and intercropping practice.

• In these sample woredas, the dry season is very long. Therefore, fresh fruits and vegetables are not available for consumption from own produce during the long dry season. To curb this problem introduction of solar drier technology for fruit and vegetable preservation seems important. Introduction of fruit and vegetable production in the homegarden through water harvesting and water saving irrigation practices seems important to make them available throughout the year in these areas.

• In these sample woredas, most agricultural activities are carried-out in a short period of time. Therefore, labor demand during the crop production season is very high. This will negatively affect women’ child care and feeding practices. Therefore, introduction and demonstration of labor- saving technologies can contribute to solve this problem. In agreement, Savy et al. (2006) ascribed the anthropometric indices decrease in September to an increased workload for women.

• Woredas such as Semen Ari, Sinana, Ginir, Malga, Cheha and Merab Azernet have relatively long rainy season. Therefore, multiple cropping practice such as double and sequential cropping is possible to produce diversified food on small plot of land. In addition, fresh produce (fruits and vegetables) can be supplied throughout the year with supplementary irrigation during the short dry season. In addition, fresh produce can be stored and supplied to consumers during the short dry period using zero-energy cooling chamber or evaporative cooling chamber. Zero-energy cooling chamber is less costly, technically simple, and is affordable technology to smallholder farmers.

4. Woredas categorized in the same agro-ecology have different cropping calendar; mainly due to variation in crop types produced, and onset as well as length of rainy season. This is an opportunity to produce and supply food including fresh produce across the country throughout the year. Woredas such as Wenchi, Cheha, Semen Ari, Ginir, and Sinana have relatively similar cropping calendar: land preparation, planting, harvesting and threshing done at a time in most months. Therefore, workload and aflatoxin will be challenges in these areas. This problem can be solved by introducing and demonstrating labor saving, drying and threshing technologies. However, fresh produce available throughout the year in these areas. On the other hand, woredas such as Tselemti, Tahtay Keraro, Taqusa, Ebinat, Guangua, Wegera, Lay Gayint, Dabat, Horo, Were Jarso and Arsi Negele have short rainy season and harvest one crop per year. They have long dry season and long storage period. As a result, they apply pesticide and lightly roast grains before storing grains in order to control storage pests. These practices have food safety and nutritional quality concerns. Therefore, introduce and demonstrate improved grain storage technologies such as hermetic bag and/or metal silo to curb this problem. In addition, in all intervention areas each farm activity takes place in an extended period mainly due to use of traditional crop production technologies. This resulted in yield reduction, postharvest loss, soil loss, etc. Therefore, introduce time and labor saving technologies (potato harvester, threshers, harvesters, etc).

5. Rural households access food both from own produce and market sources. The importance of market, especially to supply fruits and vegetable food groups to the rural households was very high compared to own production. It is also more important to economically poor households compared to economically better-off rural households. However, market centers are far from most rural households’ residence to buy and include in their everyday diet. Promote establishment of market center at kebele level in order to facilitate the availability of diversified food to the rural community. In agreement, Abay and Hirvonen (2016) reported that children located closer to food markets consume more diverse diets than those located farther away.

6. Food types produced and consumed by rural households is dictated by the food habit of the community. The type of food widely produced and regularly consumed by the community are not selected according to their nutrient content. Therefore, awareness creation efforts are required to promote nutrient rich food production and consumption. Similarly, Nti (2008) recommended nutrition education intervention programs aimed at improving nutrient intake through improved diet diversity and increased use of local foods rich in iron, calcium and the B-vitamins in Ghana.

7. July to October is season of critical food shortage. During these months, consumers reduce the quantity, frequency and food types they consume (injera with only mustard sauce, injera with sauce made of potato, injera with sauce made of without oil, pulses and spices, etc). The lean season coincides with labor demanding (heavy workload) season and coincides with disease outbreak (water contamination) season. These magnifies the problem of malnutrition. On the other hand, November to April is season of excess food availability. Therefore, efforts are required to reduce food waste and postharvest losses, as well as to extend season of food production through expansion of homegardening and irrigated agriculture.

8. Rural households prepare different food items such as injera, bread, porridge, shiro, etc by mixing different food grains. Their main purpose is to reduce food cost, but this practice contributes for the improvement of the nutrient content of the food item. For example, Injera prepared by mixing teff and wheat flour will be better than injera prepared from pure teff flour in protein content. On the other hand, injera prepared from a mixture of teff and wheat flour will be better than injera prepared from pure wheat flour in carbohydrate, iron, calcium, zinc and phosphorous content. For example, rural households mix different food grains to prepare different food items as follows. They prepare Injera: by mixing Sorghum + Teff + Bread wheat + Fenugreek (2 Teff + 1Sorhum + 1Maize), prepared bread by mixing Maize + Bread wheat + E-Wheat (1 Maize + 2 Bread wheat), prepare porridge by mixing Teff + Bead wheat, and prepare Shiro by mixing Fababean + Chickpea; Fababean + Field pea. However, the ratio of mixture should have to be standardized through research.

9. Rural households prepare and consume protein and fat rich food items during cool seasons and whenever there is heavy workload. Chererte is a type of bread prepared from mix of bread wheat and chickpea flours. Likewise, they prepare a food item by smearing injera or bread with noug or linseed and named it Keboshe. Research results documented the significant superiority of consuming food items prepared by mixing 90% cereal flour with 10% legumes on body weight gain compared to food items prepared from pure cereal flour. However, the nutritional value of

traditional food items prepared in Ethiopia need to be studied and documented through scientific investigations.

10. Vitamins and minerals of most grain crops are found on the skin or haul of grain crops. Traditional milling machines used by smallholder farmers in rural areas do not remove the skin or haul of the grain while milling unlike big flour factories. This practice is very important to maintain the nutrient content of food crops.

5. References 1. Abay K. and K. Hirvonen. 2016. Does Market access mitigate the impact of seasonality on child growth? Panel data evidence from Northern Ethiopia. ESSP Working Paper 85. Ethiopia Strategy Support Program. 2. CSA and ICF. 2016. Ethiopia Demographic and Health Survey 2016. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, and Rockville, Maryland, USA. 3. Hirvonen K., A.S. Taffesse, and I.W. Hassen. 2015. Seasonality and household diets in Ethiopia. Public Health Nutrition, 19(10), 1723-1730. 4. Hirvonen K. and J. Hoddinott. 2014. Agricultural production and children’s diets: Evidence from rural Ethiopia. Working Paper 69, Ethiopia Strategy Support Program. 5. MoA. 2011. Guide on Irrigation Agronomy. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 6. Nti C.A. Household dietary practices and family nutritional status in rural Ghana. Nutrition Research and practice, 2(1): 35-40. 7. Savy M., Y. Martin-Prevel, P. Traissac, S. E. Duvernay, and F. Delpeuch. 2006. Dietary diversity scores and nutritional status of women change during the seasonal food shortage in rural Burkina Faso. The Journal of Nutrition. 8. Sibhatu K.T. and M. Qaim. 2017. Rural food security, subsistence agriculture, and seasonality. PLOS ONE 12 (10): e0186406. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0186406. 9. Wayima E. F. 2016. Mapping the spatial variability of the practiced crop calendars using NDVI and livelihood zone maps: A comparative approach. MSc thesis. 10. Wijesingha-Bettoni R., G. Kennedy, C. Dirorimwe, and E. Muehlhoff. 2013. Considering seasonal variations in food availability and caring capacity when planning complementary feeding interventions in developing countries. International Journal of child Health and nutrition, 2: 335-352.

6. Annexes Annex 1: Percentage of respondents growing different crop species in different agro-ecologies

Dry Kola Moist Kola Crops Respondents growing the Crops Respondents producing Total Rank crop (%) the crop (%) PSNP- PSNP- Total AGP- AGP- B MF Rank MVHHs MF Teff 64.7 88.9 153.6 3 Teff 42.9 94.7 137.6 4 Fingermillet 76.5 100.0 176.5 2 Bread wheat 52.4 57.9 110.3 6 Rice 5.9 16.7 22.6 7 Barley 14.3 36.8 51.1 9 Sorghum 100.0 94.4 194.4 1 Finger millet 71.4 89.5 160.9 2 Maize 58.8 72.2 131.0 4 Sorghum 4.8 5.3 10.1 17 Faba bean 5.9 0.0 5.9 10 Maize 57.1 84.2 141.3 3 Chickpea 0.0 44.4 44.4 6 Faba bean 14.3 31.6 45.9 10 Noug 23.5 22.2 45.7 5 Field pea 4.8 10.5 15.3 15 Sesame 0.0 5.6 5.6 11 Chickpea 71.4 89.5 160.9 2 Potato 0.0 11.1 11.1 9 Grasspea 0.0 26.3 26.3 12 Pepper 5.9 5.6 11.5 8 Noug 4.8 15.8 20.6 13 Linseed 0.0 5.3 5.3 18 Gomenzer 9.5 5.3 14.8 16 Potato 33.3 36.8 70.1 7 Sweet potato 4.8 0 4.8 19 Onion 38.1 31.6 69.7 8 Shallot 4.8 0 4.8 19 Garlic 61.9 68.4 130.3 5 Tomato 9.5 21.1 30.6 11 Pepper 90.5 94.7 185.2 1 Pumpkin 0 5.3 5.3 18 Avocado 0 5.3 5.3 18 Banana 0 5.3 5.3 18 Mango 0 15.8 15.8 14

Annex 2: Percentage of respondents growing different crop species in Dry Weyna Dega Agro-ecology

Crop Respondents producing the crop (%) PSNP-B PSNP-MF AGP- AGP-MF Total Rank (n=40) (n=40) MVHHs (n=18) (n=19) Teff 67.5 95.0 73.7 100.0 336.2 1 Bread Wheat 45.0 70.0 0.0 0.0 115 5 Barley 32.5 55.0 0.0 0.0 87.5 8 Finger millet 20.0 35.0 26.3 72.2 153.5 3 Emmer Wheat 0.0 2.5 0.0 0.0 2.5 21 Sorghum 32.5 27.5 21.1 38.9 120.0 4 Maize 67.5 77.5 42.1 77.8 264.9 2 Faba bean 25.0 45.0 15.8 27.8 113.6 6 Field pea 17.5 12.5 0.0 0.0 30.0 10 Haricot bean 10.0 7.5 0.0 0.0 17.5 14 Chick pea 12.5 17.5 15.8 50.0 95.8 7 Lentil 2.5 17.5 0.0 0.0 20.0 12 Grasspea 0.0 0.0 5.3 16.7 22.0 11 Fenugreek 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.6 5.6 19 Mung bean 0.0 2.5 0.0 0.0 2.5 21 Cowpea 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.6 5.6 19 Noug 0.0 7.5 0.0 0.0 7.5 18 Linseed 0.0 2.5 5.3 11.1 18.9 13 Safflower 0.0 2.5 0.0 0.0 2.5 21 Gomenzer 10.0 10.0 0.0 0.0 20.0 12 Potato 27.5 32.5 0.0 0.0 60.0 9 Carrot 2.5 5.0 0.0 0.0 7.5 18 Beet root 2.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.5 21 Onion 2.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.5 21 Shallot 5.0 2.5 0.0 0.0 7.5 18 Garlic 5.0 7.5 0.0 0.0 12.5 16 Tomato 0.0 2.5 5.3 5.6 13.4 15 Pepper 15.0 15.0 0.0 0.0 30.0 10 Swisschard 0.0 2.5 0.0 0.0 2.5 21 Kale 5.0 5.0 0.0 0.0 10.0 17 Pumpkin 2.5 2.5 0.0 0.0 5.0 20 Avocado 0.0 2.5 0.0 0.0 2.5 21 Guava 0.0 2.5 0.0 0.0 2.5 21 Mango 0.0 7.5 0.0 0.0 7.5 18

Papaya 0.0 5.0 0.0 0.0 5.0 20

Annex 3: Percentage of respondents growing different crops in Moist Weyna Dega Agro-ecology

Crop Respondents producing the crop (%) PSNP-B PSNP-MF AGP- AGP-MF Total Rank (n=20) (n=18) MVHHs (n=41) (n=39) Teff 10.0 38.9 0.0 17.1 66.0 8 Bread Wheat 80.0 83.3 23.1 53.7 240.1 1 Durum Wheat 0.0 11.1 0.0 0.0 11.1 18 Barley 55.0 94.4 35.9 48.8 234.1 2 E/Wheat 30.0 33.3 0.0 0.0 63.3 9 Oat 0.0 5.6 0.0 0.0 5.6 22 Maize 25.0 11.1 12.8 41.5 90.4 5 Faba bean 10.0 27.8 25.6 36.6 100.0 4 Field pea 5.0 33.3 12.8 19.5 70.6 7 Chick pea 0.0 5.6 0.0 0.0 5.6 22 Lentil 10.0 50.0 0.0 0.0 60.0 10 Fenugreek 0.0 5.6 0.0 0.0 5.6 22 Cowpea 0.0 11.1 0.0 0.0 11.1 18 Soybean 10.0 11.1 2.6 4.9 28.6 15 Haricot bean 0.0 0.0 2.6 0.0 2.6 25 Gomenzer 0.0 0.0 17.9 19.5 37.4 13 Potato 0.0 0.0 23.1 53.7 76.8 6 Taro/Godere 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.9 4.9 24 Enset 0.0 0.0 71.8 100.0 171.8 3 Carrot 5.0 0.0 20.5 17.1 42.6 12 Beet root 0.0 0.0 5.1 4.9 10.0 19 Onion 0.0 5.0 0.0 12.2 17.2 17 Shallot 5.0 0.0 0.0 4.9 9.9 20 Garlic 0.0 16.7 2.6 9.8 29.1 14 Leek 0.0 0.0 2.6 2.4 5.0 23 Tomato 0.0 0.0 2.6 0.0 2.6 25 Pepper 0.0 0.0 15.4 2.4 17.8 16 Kale 0.0 0.0 20.5 31.7 52.2 11 Apple 0.0 0.0 2.6 4.9 7.5 21 Avocado 0.0 0.0 2.6 14.6 17.2 17 Banana 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.4 2.4 26 Mango 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.4 2.4 26 Pineapple 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.4 2.4 26

Annex 4: Percentage of respondents growing different crops in Wet Weyna Dega agro-ecologies

Crop Respondents producing the crop (%) PSNP-B PSNP MF AGP-MVHHs AGP-MF Total Rank (n=40) (n=40) (n=78) (n=76) Teff 5.0 15.0 55.1 88.2 163.3 5 Bread Wheat 80.0 95.0 30.8 63.2 269.0 1 Durum Wheat 10.0 5.0 0.0 2.6 17.6 20 Barley 75.0 95.0 9.0 35.5 214.5 3 Fingermillet 0.0 0.0 17.9 25.0 42.9 14 Emmer Wheat 0.0 0.0 0.0 15.8 15.8 21 Oat 0.0 5.0 1.3 0.0 6.3 29 Sorghum 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.6 2.6 34 Maize 0.0 0.0 60.3 69.7 130.0 7 Faba bean 65.0 70.0 7.7 31.6 174.3 4 Field pea 60.0 85.0 0.0 9.2 154.2 6 Chickpea 10.0 50.0 3.8 22.4 86.2 9 Lentil 0.0 5.0 0.0 2.6 7.6 27 Grasspea 10.0 35.0 15.4 25.0 85.4 10 Fenugreek 10.0 10.0 0.0 2.6 22.6 19 Haricot bean 0.0 0.0 3.8 0.0 3.8 33 Cowpea 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.3 1.3 35 Soybean 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.6 2.6 34 Noug 0.0 0.0 19.2 53.9 73.1 12 Linseed 5.0 40.0 0.0 1.3 46.3 13 Sesame 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.3 1.3 35 Groundnut 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.3 1.3 35 Gomenzer 40.0 25.0 9.0 7.9 81.9 11 Potato 80.0 75.0 30.8 36.8 222.6 2 Sweet potato 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.9 3.9 32 Cassava 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.3 1.3 35 Yam/Boye 0.0 0.0 1.3 2.6 3.9 32 Taro/Godere 0.0 0.0 1.3 0.0 1.3 35 Enset 0.0 0.0 14.1 13.2 27.3 17 Carrot 0.0 5.0 23.1 1.3 29.4 16 Beet root 0.0 0.0 9.0 2.6 11.6 25 Onion 5.0 15.0 5.1 5.3 30.4 15 Shallot 5.0 5.0 1.3 3.9 15.2 24

Garlic 50.0 50.0 6.4 10.5 116.9 8 Tomato 0.0 5.0 2.6 2.6 10.2 26 Pepper 0.0 0.0 6.4 13.2 19.6 19 Pumpkin 0.0 0.0 1.3 3.9 5.2 30 Swisschard 10.0 5.0 10.3 0.0 25.3 18 Lettuce 0.0 0.0 1.3 0.0 1.3 35 Kale 0.0 0.0 11.5 3.9 15.4 23 Apple 5.0 10.0 1.3 1.3 17.6 20 Peach 0.0 5.0 0.0 0.0 5.0 31 Avocado 0.0 0.0 1.3 2.6 3.9 32 Banana 0.0 0.0 1.3 5.3 6.6 28 Guava 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.3 1.3 35 Mango 0.0 0.0 3.8 11.8 15.6 22 Papaya 0.0 0.0 2.6 1.3 3.9 32

Annex 5: Percentage of respondents growing different food crops in Moist Dega Agro-ecology

Crop Respondents producing the crop (%) PSNP-B PSNP-MF AGP- AGP-MF Total Rank (n=20) (n=20) MVHHs (n=40) (n=39) Teff 10.0 40.0 0.0 0.0 50.0 8 Bread Wheat 55.0 90.0 33.3 45.0 223.3 1 D/Wheat 0.0 5.0 0.0 0.0 5.0 21 Barley 10.0 60.0 20.5 77.5 168.0 3 Emmer wheat 0.0 0.0 7.7 17.5 25.2 12 Finger millet 5.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.0 21 Oat 0.0 5.0 0.0 0.0 5.0 21 Sorghum 5.0 5.0 0.0 0.0 10.0 20 Maize 0.0 5.0 25.6 47.5 78.1 7 Faba bean 5.0 60.0 2.6 35.0 102.6 4 Field pea 15.0 50.0 0.0 25.0 90.0 6 Haricot bean 10.0 25.0 0.0 0.0 35.0 11 Chickpea 0.0 10.0 0.0 2.5 12.5 18 Lentil 0.0 15.0 0.0 7.5 22.5 14 Cowpea 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.0 5.0 21 Soybean 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.5 2.5 22 Linseed 10.0 20.0 0.0 5.0 35.0 11 Gomenzer 5.0 5.0 5.1 10.0 25.1 13 Potato 40.0 65.0 33.3 42.5 180.8 2 Enset 0.0 0.0 48.7 45.0 93.7 5

Carrot 0.0 2.0 7.7 10.0 19.7 15 Beet root 0.0 10.0 0.0 0.0 10.0 20 Onion 0.0 0.0 5.1 10.0 15.1 16 Shallot 0.0 0.0 2.6 7.5 10.1 19 Garlic 5.0 25.0 2.6 12.5 45.1 9 Swisschard 0.0 10.0 2.6 0.0 12.6 17 Lettuce 0.0 5.0 0.0 0.0 5.0 21 Kale 0.0 0.0 25.6 15.0 40.6 10 Apple 0.0 10.0 0.0 2.5 12.5 18 Peach 0.0 5.0 0.0 0.0 5.0 21

Annex 6: Percentage of respondents growing different food crops in Wet Dega agro-ecology

Crops Respondents producing the crop (%) PSNP-B PSNP MF AGP- AGP-MF Total Rank (n=20) (n=19) MVHHs (n=20) (n=20) Teff 5.0 15.8 0 5 25.8 19 Bread wheat 40.0 84.2 5 30 159.2 2 Durum wheat 10.0 0 0 0 10 26 Barley 50.0 73.7 20 75 218.7 1 Sorghum 0.0 0 10 30 40 14 Maize 5.0 5.3 60 70 140.3 4 Faba bean 35.0 57.9 30 25 147.9 3 Field pea 0.0 15.8 10 0 25.8 19 Chickpea 25.0 26.3 0 0 51.3 13 Lentil 20.0 47.4 0 0 67.4 10 Grass pea 15.0 42.1 0 0 57.1 12 Feugreek 35.0 57.9 0 0 92.9 7 Haricot bean 0.0 0 25 10 35 15 Soybean 0.0 0 0 5 5 28 Linseed 0.0 10.5 5 0 15.5 23 Gomenzer 20.0 26.3 15 5 66.3 11 Potato 50.0 63.2 5 15 133.2 5 Sweet Potato 0.0 0 10 15 25 21 Cassava 0.0 0 0 15 15 24 Yam/Boye 0.0 0 0 5 5 28 Taro/Godere 0.0 0 30 45 75 9 Enset 0.0 0 50 55 105 6 Carrot 10.0 5.3 0 0 15.3 23 Beet root 0.0 10.5 0 0 10.5 25

Onion 5.0 0 0 15 20 22 Shallot 0.0 0 10 10 20 22 Garlic 25.0 47.4 0 5 77.4 8 Pumpkin 0.0 5.3 0 0 5.3 27 Swisschard 15.0 15.8 0 0 30.8 16 Lettuce 15.0 10.5 0 0 25.5 20 Pepper 0.0 0 0 5 5 28 Kale 0.0 0 5 25 30 17 Apple 0.0 5.3 0 0 5.3 27 Avocado 0.0 0 10 5 15 24 Banana 0.0 0 5 10 15 24 Mango 0.0 0 0 5 5 28