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The Architecture of Fools in the City Of TITLE Counter-Conduct; The Architecture of Fools in the city of Nowa Huta AUTHOR Charles Drozynski POSTAL ADDRESS Cardiff University, Welsh School of Architecture, King Edward VII Ave, Castle, Cardiff CF10 3NB EMAIL [email protected] PHONE +44 (0)29 2087 6097 AFILIATIONS University of Kent; Kent School of Architecture and University of Cardiff; Welsh School of Architecture KEY WORDS ‘The Lords Ark’; ‘Nowa Huta’; ‘Counter-conduct’; ‘Architecture’; ‘Foucault’; ‘Communism’ WORD COUNT 10066 ABSTRACT During Communism in the second half of the 20th Century the ‘analytical space’1 of Polish cities was dominated by the architectural intent of creating a new type of human: ‘homo-sovieticus2. Any distancing from the prescribed mode of behaviour that would create this entity could be subject to the authorities’ intervention. In spite of this places for Counter-conduct against the prescribed manner of behaviour were produced. 1 Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: the birth of the prison (New York: Vintage Books, 2012) 2 Aleksander Zinoviev, Homo-sovieticus (London: Paladin Grafton Books, 1986) 1 The paper is based on Michel Foucault’s Theories on ‘Heterotopias’3 and ‘Analytical spaces’4. The paper will engage with these to explore conduct and counter-conduct in spatial terms in the environment of Soviet reality in Poland, concentrating on the city of Nowa Huta. This paper explores the way in which the principle of creating fluid and irregulated heterotopias worked in the framework of a regimented and structured architectural language of the Soviet influence. It investigates the political and architectural situation of the Eastern Block in the 20th century and Nowa Huta in particular as an example of typical Soviet urban planning. It also analyses examples of ways that Polish people (in particular those that lived in Nowa Huta) engaged in counter conduct. This analysis focuses on an architectural example that fostered countering the conduct of the regime: The church of the Lord’s Ark. MAIN TEXT Introduction The second half of the twentieth Century (1945-1989) in Central Europe yielded an unprecedented totalitarian governance of the state. The aim of that governance was to convert each citizen into a construct ripe for the highest expectations of economical productivity dictated by the Soviet hegemony. Any disappointment of this expectation, even the slightest deviation of behaviour from that way of being, might have been considered as inappropriate for a modern persona and would signify a necessity of violent intervention. In one of the Central European states – Poland, a country immersed in an atmosphere of control and invigilation, cases of acting upon dissatisfaction with this style of governance eventually led to dissent. In 1980 cases of unrest culminated in strikes, in major factories, which are associated with the end of Communism in Poland. In the case of this progression from a Communist to a Democratic state the role of the Catholic Church was that of a facilitator of the resistance. The Church aided and supported activities which went beyond the dictatorship of the authorities. I am focussing herein on an example of, what Michel Foucault would refer to as, counter-conduct5 in Poland during Communism, acting against the city of Nowa Huta, an ideal example of a Soviet ‘’Utopia’’6, by erecting a church. Nowa Huta was a place designed to develop a level of attunement of its inhabitant’s bodies to Communist ideology. I am analysing the church of ‘’the Lord’s Ark’’ (a church erected in Nowa Huta against the directives of the Communist governmentality) and considering it to be a materialisation of a space in which the 3 Michel Foucault, ‘’Of other spaces’’, Diacritics, Vol. 16, No 1, (1968) pp. 22-27 4 Foucault, 2012 5 Michel Foucault, Security. Territory, Population: Lectures at the College de France, 1977-1978 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007) 6 Leszek Sibila and Maciej Miezian ed. Nowa Huta – Architectura I tworcy miasta idealnego; Niezrealizowane projekty (Krakow: Muzeum Historyczne Miasta Krakowa, 2007) 2 idealised construct of a new Soviet existence was denied. This space will hence be considered as one erected as a corporealisation of ‘’counter-conduct’’ (an act of being in space ‘’differently’’7 than what was expected) being at the same time a place, ripe for sustaining further practices of a similar nature. Foucault describes this understanding of conduct as a signifier of a modality of expressing dissatisfaction. The act is that of struggle with what is expected of an individual. It is actualised within the framework of what is not explicitly forbidden. It describes a modality of behaviour that explores new, creative ways of acting in spaces which bypass the prescribed normativity of the public space. As Marit Rosol writes, it is a diffuse form of resistance and a freedom to act ‘’otherwise’’8. On the other hand counter-conduct is a reactive mechanism that exists on the periphery of power structures. Foucault also recognised spaces for this type of conduct by naming them ‘’heterotopias’'9. I am examining the space of ‘’the Lord’s ark’’ as part of a mechanism fostering identity exploration which was different than the Soviet intent and therefore being counter-conductive. This mechanism was grounded in forms of a literal pastoral power, present in the Polish culture for centuries before Soviet hegemony, and reinforced through its contestation with Communism. I am considering the fluidity of the irregulated heterotopias as Foucault’s ‘‘Ship of Fools’’10 sailing on the regimented and orderly philosophy of Soviet hegemony. This paper presents the Soviet aspect of the Eastern hegemony over Poland and the way in which the Heterotopian nature of the metaphorical ‘’Ship of Fools’’ managed to slip away from the constraints of visibility and counter the conduct of a Communist collaborator. The research presented in this paper was gathered via an interrogation of a historical archive of architectural documentation in Crakow which holds information of the Communist development of Nowa Huta at the time. I have also interviewed a number of people who lived in the city at the pinnacle of Communism. Together with the literature review I have analysed the available information from the point of architectural history and theory and the field of international political studies. This paper is divided into six sections. The first outlines the relevant literature by Foucault including: ‘Security. Territory, Population: Lectures at the College de France, 1977-1978’ focussing on his discussion on Counter-conduct (which, in Foucault’s description, is a way of acting that results in countering the objectives of the governmentality and developing a different agenda than that set out by the authorities); ‘Of other spaces’ (‘Des Espaces Autres’) looking at the notion of spaces for acting differently than expected, Foucault named those: Heterotopias; ‘History of Madness’ (‘Folie et déraison: Histoire de la folie à l'âge classique’) which 7 Foucault 2007 8 Marit Rosol, ‘’On resistance in the post-political city: conduct and counter-conduct in Vancouver’’, Space and Polity, Vol. 18, No. 1 (2014) pp 70-84 9 Michel Foucault, ‘’Of other spaces’’, Diacritics, Vol. 16, No 1, (1968) pp. 22-27 10 Michel Foucault, History of Madness (London: Routledge, 2009) 3 introduces the metaphor of the ‘’Ship of Fools’’ to elaborate on the functioning of heterotopias in architecture; and ‘Discipline and Punish: the birth of the prison’ (‘Surveiller et punir: Naissance de la Prison’) that elaborates on the notion of surveillance in society. The second presents the philosophical underpinnings of architecture in the Soviet environment. The third section presents the situation of Polish culture before the Soviet intervention. The fourth is introducing the hegemonic aspect of the Communist presence in Poland and concentrating on the city of Nowa Huta. The fifth section presents the position of the Catholic Church in Poland in respect to power circulation. The last describes the church of the Lord’s Ark as an example of performative Counter-conduct in architectural terms. The ship of fools The specificity of the church building as a raft for the unusual in the sterility of Communist governance aided the development of abnormal participation in power structures (from the point of view of the government). A similar concept of a space, one which would denote its presence on an ephemeral basis, and that would carry within it inhabitants seeking shelter from a homogenous world, was introduced in 1961 in Foucault’s book entitled ‘History of Madness’. As he wrote: ‘’A new object made its appearance in the imaginary landscape of the Renaissance, and it was not long before it occupied a privileged place there, this was the Ship of Fools’’11. The notion of the ‘’Ship of fools’’ related to the state of madness and alienation from society. The ship held all the people who, due to the state of their physical and mental health were expelled from the cities they inhabited. It was a place where Foucault’s counter-conduct, towards established port cities, was the unwritten law. This was regulated solely by its undesirable inhabitants. Torn from the generality of society the ship was free to develop its own moral frameworks alien to any port that allowed it in. The space on the boat is a concept that was later articulated in Foucault’s description of ‘’Heterotopias’’ (an idea that he developed in the 70s and presented during a lecture of March 1967)12. Heterotopias are ‘‘sacred’’ or ‘’forbidden’’ spaces that present the negative attitude of the society towards the counter-conductive events that they envelop13. Rejected from the totality of public life they are places for ‘‘a state of crisis’’, different from the generally accepted norm. They were inversions of the world that worked according to the generally accepted economy of common sense serving nothing more than the desires of the bodies within them.
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