MARINE PROTECTED AREAS: PAST, PRESENT, and FUTURE Editorial by Péter Prows by Pier Giovanni D'ayala

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75352PARiS 07 SP - FRANCE www a. org EDITORIAL: MARINE PROTECTEDAREAS

By Pier Giovanni D'Ayala

DOSSIER

PALAU'SMARINE PROTECTED AREAS: PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE Editorial By Péter Prows By Pier Giovanni d'Ayala

COCOSISLAND: A NATURALLABORATORY By FaanyRamirez, Isaac Chinchilla, and Guillermo Mora

WILDERNESSAND BIOTOPESIN THE ISLAND 0F PROCIDA 10 (GULF 0F NAPLES-ITALY) By Antonio D'Ayala Thé conceptand objectivesofa protectedarea diversity and supportsustainable development. MARINE PROTECTEDAREAS IN THE WIDER CARIBBEAN: 17 is not new. Peoplehâve always protected territorial or CHALLENGESAND OPPORTUNITIES marine areasin order to assurethé long tenu availa- What are currently thé objectivesofProtected ByAlessandra Vanzella-Khouri and Georgina Bustamante bility of food and resources. Fallow areas or "Rahui" Areas and what makes them interesting ? there are THEPRESERVATION 0F THE MEDITERRANEAN COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS: in thé Pacifie islands are forms of temporarypreser- several reasons. Some of them are économie, some 21 A STILL UNACHIEVED ENDEAVOUR vations. Nowadays restrictions in pemsing spécifie scientifically désirable,others satisfy social needs. By FrançoisRamade fishing grounds,or fishing gearswithin seasonalpe- EVALUATINGEFFECTIVENESS 0F CAPACITYDEVELOPMENT IN MARINE riodicity or for longer periods are commonpractices Thé maintenanceof ecologicalprocesses, thé 29 SCIENCE RESEARCH aiming at protecting fish stocksfrom over fishing or préservationof geneticdiversity, thé sustainableuse By JoannesBerque, Ehrlich Desa, and Genevesi Ogiogio extinction. of resources, their value for éducation and research During thé Middle Ages till récenttimes, feu- areail invokedreasons, but aboveail thé participation STATUSAND TRENDS 0F MARINEPROTECTED AREAS IN ISLANDCOUNTRIES 42 dal rights excluded thé common fisher man from thé of thé population in thé connectedprocess aiming at By MalgorzataA.Marszalek and Marjo Vierros accessto valuablehalieutic resources such as thé huge social and économiedevelopment. More so in islands Mediterraneantuna (thymusthymus). Its catchthrou- wherepeople are stronglydépendant from fishing and CULTURE AND TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE gh localizedfixed fisherieswas grantedby thé king to tourism. 53 a feudal lord an abbey exchange appropriate ON THE ISLANDS 0F THE MEDITERRANEAN or in of tax payments. Obviously thé aboveobjectives caanot be dis- By PedragMatvejevic Small developingisland statesin thé Pacifie sociatedfrom thé context of thé place where thèse arepresently granting similar rights on thé tuna shoals INSULA'SPAGE réservesare situated.Thé biosphèreréserves of thé swarming in their marine exclusive économie zone, to Fimiish archipelago or thé Estonian islands are esta- TUI'S ENVIRONMENTALAWAIID 61 countnessuch as Japanwho has thé relevanttechno- blished in affluent countries,facilitating thé manage- logicalstrength and paysthé appropriate royalties. ment and pemsal by thé population and visitors of 61 MILOS WORKSHOP: "ISLANDS HERITAGE" Since thé beginning of thé 20th century, thé thèse Protected Areas. numberof protectedareas has grown considerably. Such is perhaps not thé case in thé Protected UNESCO AND MAB PAGE Currentlytherc arc around1300 Protected Marine Zo- Areas established in developing countries, where nés of which nearly 400 are coral reefs situatedon pressureon thé protectedresources from thé popula- INTERNATIONALWORKSHOP ON MARINE SPATIALPLANNING 62 65islands and coastal zones. Many ofthem belong to tion side might be consistent. There are cases where By StefaniaDritsa UNESCO'sbiosphère réserves international network. thé accessto thé newly Protected Marine Resourcesis UNESCO'SPAGE: RESULTS FROM THE THIRD GLOBAL CONFERENCE ON OCEANS, ProtectedAreas hâve now becomefully in- part ofa sù-ongly embedded cultural tradition. 65 COASTS AND ISLANDS tegratedwithin thé countriespolitical andéconomie context.Thé initial reasonbehind safeguarding a spe- If so this cultural context shouldbe carefully MAB'S PAGE:THE 3rd WORLD BIOSPHERERESERVES CONGRESS WILL BE cies.or its habitatfrom human dégradation includes to- taken in account by thé Protected Areas Réserve ma- HOSTED BY SPAIN 65 daythé consciousness thatréserves provide an interest nagers. It is equally important to blend cultural he- development; 67 in theirown right: in termsof tourism ritage with nature's requirements,they are after ail, BOOKREVIEWS for neighboringnon protected zones; to maintainbio- inextricably linked. ^»^ . . ^ r<

by Péter Prows

Thé océan from Micronesia Palau has thousands of destroythé reefs in short order re- to thé southeastPacifie is speckled yearsoftraditional expériencewith gardless? by hundreds of coral atolls and protected areasthat is now being Instead of choosing to fringing and barrier reefs that are brought to bear on modem environ- consumeail their fish before they among thé most remote, pristine, mental threats through science and were wiped out by another El diverse, and healthy in thé world. its régional and international par- Nino, Palauansredoubled their ef- § Palau alone is home to 1300 spe- tners. EachPalauan is taught from forts to protect thé reefs by com- cies of fish and 700 species of co- childhood that they are caretakers bining traditional bul with cutting- l rais acrossits islands. Yet global of thé sea and in retum thé sea has edge science. Scientistsin Palau warming, development,and pollu- provided livelihoods for every Pa- and from Thé Nature Conservancy tion are puttmg new pressures on lauan. Thé traditional practice of studied thé characteristics of those i some of thé last gréât places on bul is an important example. Bul reefs that were bleached versus earth. involvesthé Council ofChiefs pla- thosethat werenot. They discove- Thatprotected areas are es- cing reefareasofflimits to fishing, red that thé reefs that fared thé best l > sentialto sustainabledevelopment or even entry, during known fish were thosethat had not prcviously is beyonddoubt. This was clearly spawningand feeding periods for been subjectedto gréât stressand ^ recognizedby thé Programmeof up to three years. This practice that had thé benefit of sfa-ong,re- Work on ProtectedAreas adop- respectsvulnerabilities in thé eco- freshing currents, such as at river ted at thé seventh Conférence of Systemto ensurethat there will be mouths and off deep océan cur- thé Parties to thé Convention on robust fish to catch during other rents. Biological Diversity. Thé UN péri ods. Secretary-Generalalso relies on This traditional expérience thé percentageof area protected endured four colonial administra- to maintain biological diversity tions through thé twentieth cen- m assessmg thé Millennium De- tury. Thé symbiotic relationship velopmentGoal of ensuringenvi- between humans and thé océan Péter Provvs lias an LL.M ronmental sustainabilityby 2015. was severelytested, however, du- and a JD from New York University Thé SecretaryGénéral reports, ring thé 1997/1998 war- El Nino School of Law. He is thé Océans and however, that small island deve- ming period when thirty percentof Law of Ihe Sea Adviser to thé Perma- loping States(SIDS) in particu- Palau's coral reefs were bleached. nent Mission of Palau to thé United lar-including those of Microne- In some areas, close to one-hun- Nations and will be clerking for Judge Koroma of thé International Court of sia andthé Pacifie-hâve fallen far dred percent of thé corals were Justice for its 2006/2007 term. Contact: behindin settingaside terrestrial bleached. Palauans had corne to 866 United Nations Plaza, Suite 575, and seaareas for protection. As of think that they knew ail that was New York, NY 10017,USA.Einail: pe- 2004,thé worldwide nationalratio required to protect their local ter.prows@nyu. edu ofprotectedareas was 12.9%, de- reefs and ensure their sustainable velopedcountries on averagepro- fisheries, but this bleaching event tect 16.7% of their territory.De- exposed Palau's vulnerability to velopingcountries protect 12. 6%, global climate change.This vulne- whilethé least developed countries rability engendered something of protect10. 2%. SIDS as a group an existential crisis in Palau: why hâvethé lowesttotal worldwide,bother with traditional long-term with only 4.7% oftheir territories conservation practices when war- set asidefor protection. Clown Fish (F ming watersand rising tides would this bottom trawling law seeksto If thèse résilient corals could be at least thirty percentof their near shore marine resources, and twen- protect deep sea fish when they protectedfrom future humanstres- aggregatearound seamountsfor ses,then perhapsthey could survi- ty percentoftheir forestresources, thus ve thé next environmental threat as acrossMicronesia by 2020. Thé breedingand feeding, and are most vulnérable. In Palau it is more well. Usingthis knowledge,Palau Nature Conservancyand Conser- now bas 21 nationally designated vation International hâve already thanjust a sayingthat "we do not secured thé inherit thé earth firom our parents, protectedareas and intends to add US $6 million towards we borrow it fi-om our children, more. Thé traditional bul System MicronesiaChallenge. bas also become thé basis for Pa- This money is meant to ge- it is a deeply held belief. Despite new threats not ofits own making, lau's network of protected areas neratematching funds from other By Fanny Ramirez, Isaac Chinchilla, and Guilleimo Mora is Palau's-and thé under its 2003 Protected Area financing sources,including from it world's- challenge ensure our Network (PAN) law. Thé PAN donor countries and thé Global En- now to that law looks first to local leadersand vironment Facility. A nominal but resourcesare protected for genera- tions to corne. their traditional guidance,and then fair environmental use fée for tou- Geological, climatic, ocea- (ENOS) and thé effects of thé In- fùngi. Apart from this, three ende- rists to finance this conservation to scientists,to identify vuhierable nographic and ecological ter-tropical Zone of Convergence. mie speciescan be highlighted: thé initiative bas also been suggested. 8 marine and terrestrial ecosystems factors combine to make Co- On thé other hand, thé island has irontree (Sacaglotis holdrigen), thé and to coordinate thé commumty, Protected areas need not entail a an exceptionaléconomie and poli- guammo (Cecropia pittier) and thé cos Island a unique natural .^ national, and international assis- complèteclosure to ail activity,but tical value for Costa Rica. Because coconut palm (Cocos nucifera). tance necessary to mstitute appro- can be more narrowly tailored to laboratory for thé world.. of its condition as an oceanic is- priateprotection and conservation. ensurelong-term sustainability. land, it générâtesaround it a radius i of 200 nautical miles of Patrimo- l Because of its diversity of niai Sea, which allows thé country ecosystems and microclimates, Isaac Chinchilla. Manager ot to establish approximately 290 000 'Forestal ProtectedAreasACMlC. Marine § Cocos Island provides numerous km2 Economie Zone of Exclusive 'Biologist. He worked during five yearsin ecological niches which support (ZEE). It also demarcatesthé Cos- thé Coco Island National Park, including lM a high endemism, and it provides ta Rican national sovereignty with two years as Adminislrator of thé Park. important information about thé respect to Ecuador and Colombia. dynamics of thé planet's ecosys- As a part of thé EastTropical Paci- tems and their relationship with fie Marine Corridor, Cocos Island thé global changesof thé marine National Park, together with thé and terrestrial environments. Galapagos Islands (Ecuador), Coi- Located on thé Pacifie Is- ba (Panama)and Malpelo (Colom- land, 533 km. from Cabo Blanco, Guillermo Mora. Director oflhe bia) protect and study thé connec- ACM1C, Adminislrator with studies in Costa is Rica, this insular portion tivity ofspecies,mainly pelagic. environmental législation and sustainable very important for that country. development. He worked during 12 years Swimminggreen turtle In 1978, it was déclarée a Natio- in thé environmental. He has been thé Di- Thé régulationsfor thé PAN law nursery Natural rector of thé Foundation for Development are just now cominginto effect, nal Park and later, in 1995,it was rechristened Cocos Island Marine at Ihe Departmentof SandConservation, but already Palau is looking to- An island of volcanic ori- législative adviser in ihe environmental Conservation Arca, thus exten- wardsimplementation. At thé ei- gin. Cocos is thé only part of thé field, sub director of thé National System ding thé area of protectionand ghthmeeting of thé Conférenceof Cocos Tectonic Plate that has for Protected Areas. Foreigncommercial fîshing and conservation of natural resources. Email: Guillermo. morafOiSinac. go. cr thé Parties to thé Convention on emergedfrom thé chain of unde- In 1997, UNESCO déclaresit a BiologicalDiversity (COP-8) held shark finning, for example,is res- rwater volcanoes that extends from tricted out to twenty four nautical World HéritageSite and in 1998, in March 2006 in Curitiba, Brazil, thé Galapagos Islands to thé Me- théRAMSAR Convention grants Palau's PrésidentTommy E. Re- miles. soamerican Trench on thé South- Palauan law also bans ail it thé title of Wetland of Intema- mengesauJr. held a High Level East of Costa Rica. Fanny Ramirez Esquive!. Side Event with leaders from island bottom trawl fishing within Pa- tional Importance.Apart from its Journalist, Consulting in Commiinication. It is covered by a very thick She worked for national and international govemments,international donors, lau's exclusiveéconomie zone and géographielocation, it is a point evergreen forest. It présents exube- press with specialization in environmen- anyPalauan or Palauanvessel of convergencefor seven marine and NGO partners to announce by rant végétation with a high level of tal and political matters. Since last year currents.That is why it is a unique thé "Micronesia Challenge." This anywherein thé worid. This law endemism. For instance, 60 of thé she works as an adviser for thé United also supports an intérim prohibi- sitefor théstudy of océanographie constitutes a commitmentby Palau, 235 plants présent are endémie (10 Nations Environment Prograimne, such tion on unregulatedbottom traw- dynamics,study of théclimate and as shetook part to thé Project for Marine thé Marshall Islands,thé Federated vascular terresû-ialspecies, 48 non- internationalwaters. Much environmentalmonitoring, linked Conservation for Cocos sland. Email: States of Micronesia, Guam, and ling in vascular species and 17 species like thé rationale behind thé bul, to phenomenasuch as El Nino [email protected] thé Northem Marianas to conserve of fems), as well as 90 species of ferai pigs (Sus scofra), white-tail INSET an oceanic legend inscriptionsmade on thé rocks by Thereis gréâtdiversity and impor- -^^A deer(Odocoileus virginianus), do- thé visitors, those who once visi- tant reproduction of marine spe- mestic goats (Capra hircus), rats Thé insular territory was ted it in search ofhidden treasiire. cies: manta rays, dolphins, inver- (Ratusratus), domestic mice (Mus discovered in 1526 by thé Spanish August Gisslerhimselfpersevered tebratecorals, 27 speciesofsharks musculus) and domestic cats (Felis pilot Juan Cabezas.In 1556, it was for 17 years in his search for thé registered,among which we find catus).So far, there is not enough displayedon thé world map ofNi- treasure that he never found. In mainly white-tip sharks(Trigeno- information available to detennine colas Desliens as Cocos Island. 1869, thé Président of Costa Rica, donobesus), black-tip sharks, blue thé best way to restore thé natural don Jésus Jiménez, claimed thé sharks and hammerhead sharks According to its history,thé island ecosystemsof thé island. was a refuge for pirates and cor- island as national territory and, to (Sphymalewinni). For many,the- sairs during thé XVII and XVIII exécute his orders, thé island was sesharks, together with thé whale It is évident that thèse Centuries. taken over and thé Costa Rican shark (Rhincodon typus) are thé threats imply gréât risks, but pe- flag was raised there for thé first main attraction of thé island. As Thé legend recalls thé fa- rhapsthé most importantchallenge mouspirate EdwardDavis (1684); time. Since that year, thé country for thé island's wildlife, it is redu- for thé efficient dosage and protec- Benito Bonito (1820) and Cap- has exercisedits sovereigntyover ced andnot very diverse. tion ofthis paradise and nahu-alla- tain William Thompson (1821), thé island. In 1874, thé island was boratory is to be able to intégrale converted into a prison where thé It harbours five endémie who was probably responsible § thé iatemational community and for hiding thé treasure of Lima, most dangerous inmates were sent. speciesof vertebrates:thé Cocos to gather sufficient économiere- Pem. Thé island shelters innume- Eight years later, thé prison was @ cuckoo (Coccyzus fermgineus), sourcesand technical equipment râblé legends dealing with hidden closed,mostly becauseof thé ele- thé Cocosflycatcher (Nezoti-iccus to strengthenthé capacity of thé treasures that hâve somehow been vated costs of maintenance and thé ridgwayi), thé Cocos finch (Pi- ! ACMIC. registeredthere remains difficulties ofaccess. naroloxias inomata), thé Cocos on thé of anolis(Norops towsendi), and thé time being, there are clear l gecko(Sphaerodactilus pacificus); conservation. With thé clear mis- For thé as well as an endémie invertebrate: sion of conservingthé area'seco- threats and challenges. For instance, although illégal fishing ac- thé Cocos scorpion (Opistocautus Systemby implementingan appro- lM valeroi). priate managementof its natural tivity hasdecreased diu-ing thé last Apart from thèse,510 spe- resources and a constant incrcase years, thé task of control requires cies of molluscs hâve been repor- in thé knowledgeof thé island and a pennanentinter-institutional pre- ted, 7% ofwhich are endémie;57 its area of influence, thé ACMIC sence. Another problem cornes speciesof cmstaceans;5 species aims to become thé main cen- from thé fact that over 200 years ofreptilians (2 endémieand 3 ma- tre of knowledge and researchof rine turtles); 382 speciesofinsects thé EastemTropical Pacifie and a ago,six speciesof mammalswere introduced to thé island: (64 endémie);97 speciesof birds world leader in conservation. reported(12 résidentspecies, 3 endémieand 3 endangered);3 spi- ders;more than 200 speciesoffish reportée,including sharks,jacks (mackerels), tunas, mantas, etc., as well as five speciesof fresh water fish (3 endémie:thé goby (Sycy- dium cocoensis),thé rock-sucker (Gobiesox fùlvus) and thé «gua- bina" (Eleotrispicta), aswell as 18 speciesof corals.

Protection and conservation

Thé Cocos Island Marine conservation Area (ACMIC) is thé regulating entity for thé protection of thé natural resources of thé island, aswell as for its managementand Thèse zones préserve stands of thé Thé inner landscape is Thé urbanization is never- original végétation,a mesophilous clearly man - made, with diffe- thelessforbidden along a gréâtpart oi io)ii(o)iao)io variety of Quercetumilicis and of rent typologies of cultivated soils of thé coastline, including Punta thé Quercetaliapubescentis substi- (orchards including vineyards, Solchiaro, Punta Serra, Punta Piz- tuted in thé most xeric terrains by olive graves and citrus orchards) zaco and Vivara, classifiedby thé thé Oleo-Ceratonion with fréquent which fonn a mixed ecomosaic island territory plan as zone A (of stagesof dégradationdominatedby with thé traditional built up units, considérablelandscape value). Vi- Euphorbiadendroides and Hypar- full of history. Thé soil, which is vara has been uninhabited since rheniahirta (Caputo,1964-1965). extremelyfertile, explainshow thé 1997, due to thé core area of thé Thé islandershâve preserved seve- island, possibly since thé Eneo- Campi Flegrei régional réserve.It byAntonio D'Ayala rai mixed oak graves as windbrea- litic âge, has been progressively is also thé site of community im- kers, in order to protect agriculture clearedfor agriculture.Nowadays portanceIT 8030012and a Spécial Abstract and cultural héritage (Comunedi rated by a sound.Due to thé good activities from thé north wind. Thé Procida is heavily populatedwith ProtectionZone, which is part of conservation of benthic commu- Procida, 1997).Thé présentwork, présenceof thé downy oak (Quer- 2900 inhabitants / Km2 : thé highest thé site of thé EuropeanEcologi- Thé small island of Pro- togetherwith otherspecialized re- nity, thé seabottom around Ischia, eus pubescens),which is unusual density recordedamong thé small cal Network NATURA 2000. For Procida and Vivara is included in cida showsan exù-aordinarilyhigh search (botanic, archaeology,ar- for such micro - msular environ- Mediterranean islands. thèse reasons we can observe thé thé site of community importance densityhuman population together chitecture)offers a confa-ibutionto ments, relishes in thé local mild During thé last few décades élémentsoflargernaturalistic inte- § IT 8030010, of thé Mediterranean with a natural relie ecosystem, m- thé création of six greenwaysof climate, due to Mount Epomeo (Is- thé building development, partially rest of thé Procida - Vivara insular .1 biogeographicrégion, with an ex- cluding a protectedarea, which is didactic and touristic purposes in chia)which protects Procidafrom linked to tourism, has reduced thé System. tension of 6116 ha. a habitat for many animal species thé four areas of Procida. Thèse thé SW winds. extension of thé arable land. Vivara (area0, 3 km2, max. l classified as endangeredin Italy areasof thé greatestvégétation and high 109 m asl), belongsto thé (IUCN catégories).Most of thé landscapevalue are: Starza(Coas- Faunistic Ressources wildemess is confined into nar- tal belt from Capo Serra to Punta municipality afProcida (area:3, 75 Pioppeto), Punta Pizzaco, Punta Km2, max. high 91 m asl). Thèse l row corridors either very close to Vivara, appears to be hi- > Solchiaro and Vivara. Thé author areashâve been artificially linked thé coast or to thé prevailing ur- ghly significative for biological bas studied thé terrestrial insular by anacqueduct-bridge since 1957. ^ ban seulement. Thé conservation conservation puqîoses due to low fauna (invertebratesand vertebra- In this context thé two islands are importanceand valuesof natural man's pressure and its particular consideredone insular Systemwith resources such as fauna and thé tes) obtaining a faunistic check environment. Its animal commu- list which hasput into évidence86 a coastal environment composed CORINE biotopes (EU Habitat nity, relatively undisturbed, allows mainly by sea cliffs. Along thé Directive 43/92) identified on thé speciesof particular conservation comparative considérations for a rocky slopes, flanking thé coast, island, are evaluatedhère with re- importancewith spécialréférence betterunderstanding of thé conser- to thé areas crossed by thé natura- there are four zones (Starza, Punta ferenceto their ecological sensiti- servationstatus of thé présentter- Pizzaco, Punta Solchiaro and Vi- vity. listic pathways. restrial fauna of Procida, which Ail thé selected species are vara),consuming about 38% of thé most likely evolvedfrom thé same island's surface. This study is thé outcome rare, relies, endémies,or threate- faunistic stock which once coloni- of field work carried out since ned in any case under protection zed Vivara. measures. Thé actual distribution 1999as a part of an interdisciplina- Thé zoology of Vivara is on thé island thé 86 species is ry projectwith thé aim to develop of well documented in literature, but examinée hère. Thé description a systemofgreen-ways supportmg few scientific works conceming of thé habitats according to thé Antonio d'Ayala is a Biologisl thé ecotourism in Procida. Procidaare available. To fill up this EU Directive 92/43, defines thé specialistin islandscommunity ecology. He has been INSULA's member anti knowledge gap, field surveysand Introduction significanceand thé relevance ( scientific advisor since 1995. His expe- sampling has been carried out on ecological importance, scientific, rience includes: protected areas issues most of thé island, particularly on conservation and didactic interest, and évaluation of terrestrial and subma- Under thé European pro- thé four areas aimed at sustainable aesthetic and récréative value) of rine ecosystems.He is alsoPhD studenl gram "Developmentand improve- in "Ecologyand managementof biolo- tourism. Moreover an appropriate thé four investigated areas. ment of sustainable tourism in thé rica) resources"with thé University "La questionnaire has been addressed régionsof objectivel" (1995-1999 Sapienza"of Ronie.Email: antonday^i to thé local environment resource and following observationperiod Thé insular environment katamail. com stakeholders(peasant, hunters and 2005-2006);thé islandsofProcida ofProcida environmental associations) in or- and Vivara, pertainingto thé Fle- der to obtain unpublisheddata on grée archipelago (Central Italy), Thé geological origins of settled fauna of thé island. A first were thé objects ofrecovery inter- Procida and Vivara are volcanic, inventory of thé insular fauna has vention and activities ofpromoting as those of Ischia and Campi Fle- been attained. sustainable fmition of thé nahiral grei, from which Procida is sepa-

11 10 ranean coasts with endémie Limo- It appears to be mostly Thé présentanthropic pres- thé basis of thé CORINE BIOTO- Punta Solchiaro. In spite -cal station has functioned, per- thé remaining isolated stand of composedby speciesof wide dif- sure on thé biotopes, is expressed PE coding System(Commission of mum spp; of mitting thé gatheringof biometric Starza often left - over fusion (cosmopolite, paleartic, indirectly (habitat depletion,intro- thé Europeancommunities, 1991) oak wood, thé common végétation data of 91 bird species,and thé Mediterranean)enriched by ele- duction of alien species, fires and developedfor thé EuropeanEco- belts, where thé tree / shrubvege- is a rather degraded thermo - censusof nearly 200 bird species Mediterranean faciès. This is often ments typical of thé coastal Me- uncontrolled waste disposai) and logical Network NATURA 2000. tation of downy oak (Querceta- (Milone et al., 1980).Ofparticular substituted with an abundance of diterraneanmaquis. Thé origin of directly (hunting including poa- In thé list of habitatsgiven below, lia pubescentis) are surrounded relevanceis thé downy oakwood, ruderal herb and grass formations, animal populations of Procida is ching and trampling). In thé four are added,if available,thé codes,by partially abandonedcultivated which is a very mesophilousrelie thé same as thé other Flegree is- locations crossedby thé equipped indicated with (*), of habitat ty- areas. Thé Mediterranean maquis, with many spontaneous and for thé région. Thé "dwarf va- lands and can be seenin thé migra- ecologicalpaths, thé factors of ar- pes présentin thé Mediterraneanas well as thé aerohaline vegeta- pioneering plants, being thé zone riety of thé Europeanrabbit and tory flows coming from thé nearby tificial disturbance are fortunately Région (European Commission,tion, is concentratedin thé vicinity is an areaof disturbedground and someInvertebrate species, among thé sea cliffs. is ascertainted Campiflegrei (mainland),thé prin- at a level still quite acceptableand 2003). Thé distribution on thé is- of It buildings.From a faunisticpoint of which are also présent endémie and relict forms out oftheir natural cipal source.Thé numerousfaunis- compatiblewith thé resultsexpec- land of thé CORINE BIOTOPEs that in this areathé majority of in- view, in respect to thé other three tic and floristic similarities (Scotto ted from thé objective l interven- habitattypes is visible on table l. sular abundanceof flyng insects, areas, thé species of naturalistic range of géographiedistribution. di Cesare,1999), with thé Campi tion: conservation and sustainable such as thé widespread butterfly interest are scarcely represented. An example of thèse is thé lepi- Flegrei area, suggestsan ancient fruition. 45. 31 Méso Mediterra- Red admirai (Vanessaatalanta) and On thé contrary, abundant dopter Chesiasisabella, belonging land snails live hère. Also worth connectionduring thé Quatemary A large number of signi- nean holm-oak forests: rich forma- populations of antropophile to thé iberic fauna, which in Italy mentioning is thé présence thé animais are présent such as thé only occurson Vivara. Beyondits lU2 (2 billion yrs B.P.) glaciations.Thé ficative species are still présent, tions, penetratinglocally, into thé of low numberofspecies and thé scar- under thé aesthetic and scientific thermo-Mediterranean zone. They coleoptersGréât capricom beetle global invasive roof rat (Rattus impor- tancefor thé biogeography, .1 ce occurrence of endémies could profile. Many of thèsespecies are are often degradedto arborescent(Cerambyxcerdo), which also oc- rattus). It is noted that there is a thé environment of Vivara is not - ciirs on Vivara, and thé Rhinocéros discrète community terrestrial being influenced anthropic be explained,at a first glance,by estimatedat appréciablevalues at matorral (32.11) Mediterranean of by any l thé small dimensions of Procida. a Europeanand global level and sclerophyllousforcsts 9340 Quer-beetle (Oryctes grypus).Avifauna gasteropods,but definitely more interventions and by very little 3 Concemingthé vertebrates,ende- thus are insertedin appropriatered eus ilex and Quercusrotundifolia is also présent,but discreet. For interesting are thé birds nesting pesticides, which therefore allows mism seems to be absent on Ischia lists. In this context, Vivara assu- forests(*); 32.12 Olive and lentiscexample,thé Woodcock(Scolopax sites, which is situated in an area scientists to study more than 200 l and Procida. Comparingthé flora mes thé highest value as it hosts matorral: Thermo-Mediterranean msticola), thé Nightjar (Caprimul- near cliffs, with little accessibility, speciesof insects (D'Antonio & > therefore indisturbed. Thé Lesser thé two islands(Ischia is larger ail thé insular speciesl) classified arborescent matorral with Olea gus europaeus)and thé Blackbird Fimiani, 1988) and their coevo- > of M than Procida),it tums out that thé threatened in Italy in conformity europaeass. p silvestris, Ceratonia(Turdus memla) hâve also been re- black - backed gull (Lams fuscus) lution with végétation, without can be seen hère. constraints. number of endémie species rea- with thé I.U.C.N. criteria; 2) requi- siliqua, Pistacia lentiscus,Myrtus cordedas someof thé many birds Vivara. Thé class chedby Ischia exceedsthat ofPro- ring spécialactions for their habitat communis; 32.11 Arborescent ma- nesting in this area. cida. Thé actual fauna ofProcida is conservationas establishedby thé tor- rai, Quercetaliailicis: mostly Punta Pizzaco. This site Gasteropoda is represented with Fauna and biotopes shows a low - médium Mediterra- also determinedby thé millenarian EU Directives 79/409 for thé birds ofQuecus ilex, usually with Erica sporadic occurrences, on account of thé arid conditions of this islet. antropic settlements,which cau- and 43/92 for thé habitats and their arboreaandArbutusunedo. pré or neanmaquis with fréquentportions Table l shows thé distribution on thé Oleo-Ceratonion(lentisk, sed thé graduai narrowing of thé speciesof animal and plants. Thé post forest formation with a moreof From 1975to 1990an omitologi- thé island of 86 animal speciesta- myrtle, etc. often substitutedwith natural habitats (vegetatedcoasts, avifaunaappears to be thé faunistic or less dense arborescent cover ) Euphorbia dendroides and aesthe- inland Mediterraneanmaquis and componentmore représentativeof and with a thick evergreenshrub woodland) to marginal coastal Procida. There are, in fact, nearly stratum. They are mostly degra-tically characterizedby exotic spe- areas,where thé few speciesconsi- 181 speciesofbirds migrant,bree- dation or reconstitution stagesof cies such as thé Agave americana, dered of naturalistic and scientific ding and nesting along thé shores, thé broad - leaved evergreenfo- which is présentin a high number. interest hâve found shelter. inland and above ail on Vivara rests (code 45) or their substitu-Thébare soil rocky slopes(where (Fraissinet& Scebba,1988). tion, intemmediatebetween theffl thé steepnessstops thé végétation settlement) habitat Thé animal species seems and maquis (32.2); 32.2 Thermo are important units for colonial birds such as thé for thé mostpart to hâveadapted to Areas of conservation inte- -Mediten-anean shmb formations: Black - headedgull (Lamsridi- humanprésence, and only thé mi- rest included hère are those thermo- bundus)and Herring gull (Lams nority aresensitive to thé anthropic Thé four areas ofnaturalis- phile formations of Oleo-Cerato- argentatus).Among thé manybirds disturbance and/or evaluated at ex- tic interest on thé island, described nion particulariydeveloped on thé rockyslopes of thésouth coasts of théTurtle dove (Streptopelia tur- tinction risk in Italy or in Europe. in thé following, occupies an area thé island; 32.22 Tree - spurgefor- tur)and thé Eagle Owl (Bubo bubo Thé fi-equenciesof thèselatter spe- of 1,55 Km2 which corresponds to mations; Thermo Mediterraneac) areprésent. Within thé végétation cies are directly proportional with 38,27% of thé entire insular surfa- and pre-steppebrush - 5320 (*)thereis anoticeable entemo- fauna thé végétationdegree ofnaturality, ce (4,05 Km 2). In référenceto thé a variety butterflies. thereforeas thé végétationfeatures low formationsofEuphorbia closewith rich of position in thé ecological succes- Concemingthé terrestrialmicro evolve toward thé régional çlimax to cliffs; Sea cliffs and shingle of sion, thé vegetational typologies faima,it seemsthere are no entities (Quercusilex and Quercuspubes- observed and thé floristic records stonybeaches - 1210(*) annual ofnaturalisticinterest between thé cens forest) they more abundantly végétationof drift Unes;1240 (*) completed,thé vegetationalhabitat samplescollected. occur. of Procida has been classified on vegetatedsea cliffs of thé Medite-

12 13 ken from thé insular zoologicalin- cies abundancefound respectively is apossible source of localextinc- that within thé formerly cultivated ventory.Many of thèsetaxa could on Vivara and Starza - Punta Piz- tion for animaissensitive to physi-plots of land (sometimesmixed cal barriers. thé preexistingnatural lands- be easily observéeby thé visitors zaco,can be associatedto différent with of thé ecological greenways,for reasons: cape) and in thé nearby orchards, their aestheticqualities (and also On thé contrary, in thé there was an abundanceof wild for thé birds song).Others are very l) thé habitat tipology mixedurban and agrarian ecosys- fauna. A possibleesplanation may elusive, but their présence(also 45.31 Méso Mediterranean holm- tems,andthoseofPuntaSolchiaro,be found: l) in thé light chemical potential)is acknowledgedby thé oak forests,présent on Vivara and prevail from thé artificialisationtreatment in thé traditionalagri- meansof appropriatedidactic ex- Starza,represent thé most evolved and habitatsdeeply degrated that culture of théisland; 2) in manyof planations,which contributeto thé stage of island végétation,which arebelonging to and/orare derived thé inner vegetated units which are importance and thé safeguardof gives thèse two areas thé maxi- from thé typology 32.2 Thermoprivate properties and are compa- thèse habitats with naturality still mum level of nahiral observable - Mediterraneanshmb formations,ratively at low humanimpact, thus appréciable,particularly at Star- landscapeon Procida; Consider S= number of species/capable of harbouring an assem- za, Punta Pizzaco and Punta Sol- 2) thé fraction number of area, whereS is a potentialesti- blage of résidentspecies. chiaro. habitat tipologies /area, reaches mate of thé intrinsic ecological In contrary,for Vivara, thé thé highest values for Punta Piz- sensitivity- reactivity,then Vivara absence of linksmay hâve positive AU of thé outlined species zaco and Vivara; and Punta Pizzaco should be thé conséquencesin conservingits fra- l are of ecolocical and naturalistic 3) thé increasing level of insularareas with thé highestpro- gile andinteresting micro - fauna. l importanceand are présent in either anthropic disturbance: Vivara < babilityof speciesloss following This is dueto théprolonged, geo- Starza Punta environmentalchanges. isolation. necessaryto one or both of thé following docu- Pimta Pizzaco < < On thélogical It is tri ments: l) SpeciesAnnex II - refe- Solchiaro< Urban and agricultural other hand,ail thé coastalbiotopes carefully monitor thé possiblemi- renéelist of speciesprésent in thé areas. of Procida are constantly erodinggration of new species,using thé Mediterranean région (European due to landslides. This island's bridge - acqueduct. Other small in- l Com- mision, 2004); 2) Repertory On thé contrary, in thé geologicaldégradation may be-sular environments, similar to that of thé Italian wild life protected mixed urban and agrarian ecosys- corneone of thémain components ofVivara hâve suffered thé impact l Ul fauna establishedby thé Italian tems,and those ofPunta Solchiaro, of thé overall ecologicalvulnera- ofalienspecies, whichirreversibly Ministry of thé Environment(**). prevail from thé artificialisation bility, which refersto thé envi-affected thé equilibrium of théis- Therefore ail thé 86 speciesare un- and habitats deeply degratedthat romnent'sprédisposition to beinglet's biological community. arebelonging and/orare derived wounded(Rossi & Zurlini, 1996). der protectionby one or more laws to Références Référencelist of habitattypes and species (**) Publishedby thé Italian Ministry of of thé Italian législation and by from thé typology 32.2 Thermo Another factor is thé degreeofiso- présent in thé MediterraneanRégion. Ha- thé environment in 1999, available on- thé international conventions and - Mediterranean shmb formations. lation.Thé absence of ecological caputo,G. (1964-65) Flora ebitat types - Aimex I, Spe-cies- Annex line in: http://www.miniambiente.it with community directives conceming Consider S= number of species/ corridors between Starza, Puntavegetazione délie isole di Procidae Vi- II. Directorate Général Environment, Eu- databankupdated 2002. This publication ropean Environment Agency - European contains more than 780 species (upon thé wild fauna, migrant species, area, where S is a potential esti- Solchiaro and Pizzaco, at thé edgevara. Delpinoa, 6-7, 195-276. topic centreof natureprotection and bio- nearly 57.400 represen-ting thé Italian mate of thé intrinsic ecological of thé urbanand cultivated tissue, commissionof the European birds and ecosystemsconservation. communities (1991). CORDsTEbioto- diversity Environment Doc.Med/B/fin.6 fauna)object of spécifieprotection forms Note that thé fauna of particular sensitivity - reactivity, then Vivara isapossible source oflocal extinc-^"^^ ^^ oÏAeÊur^nJuly 2004ETC/NC. by thé Italian nationallaw (legge 157/92), interest,is most frequently on Vi- and Punta Pizzaco should be thé tionfor animaissensitive to physi-Conununity. DG Environment,Nucle- Fraissinet M., Scebba S. (1988) thé international conventions (Berna, vara (97,6%), which corresponds insular areaswith thé highestpro- cal barriers. ar Safety and Civil Protection.L - 2920 Field activity of G.E.E. group of thé Insti- Bonn, Paris, Wa-shington, Barcellona) Luxembourg. tute and Muséumof Zoology, University and thé community directives (79/409, to thé 7,4% of thé insular surface. bability of speciesloss following ofNaples. II report: bird ringing in Cam- EECe92/43/EEC). With an aimof preserving__ Comunedi^rocida(l997). Pro- Also thé speciesdefined by one of environmental changes. On thé pania, 1983-84. Annu. Ist. Mus. Zool. thé IUCN catégoriesof extintion other hand, ail thé coastal biotopes ^ fâbiodive^^st^ S^'^^^^^ Univ. Napoli, 26, 125-154. risk, are found almost exclusively of Procida are constantly eroding lutioncould be thé créationotâ per l'ottimizzazione diattività digestione Milone M., Fraissinet M., De (sevenon nine species)on Vivara. due to landslides. This island's networkofecological corridors.TO e fhiizionedel patrimonioambientale eFilippo G. (1980) Le specie omitiche dell'isola di Vivara. Annu. Ist. Mus. Zool. Representing22, 7% thé insular geological dégradation may be- reachthis goal,thé few abandonedculturale. Intervento no2 Creazione diiti- of Univ.Napoli,23,137-156. territory, arethé areasofStarza and corne one of thé main components soils,old plantationsand woodednCTan stono architet-Jtomci edarcheo- i'paesa8^^^ progetto esecutivo Rossi 0. & Zurlini G. (1996) Punta Pizzaco. Hère, there is a de- of thé overall ecological vulnera- nudei"couMÏe'connectedto~fonïN°°to Carta délia natiira - National law n.394 of finite decrease of species between bility, which refers to thé envi- crossingcorridors through thé arti- D'AntonioC. & FimianiP. 1991 - Methods and preliminary results ento- of an environmental infonnation System 52,3% - 54,6 %. Thé remaining ronment's prédispositionto being ficial matrix. It is generallyknowc(1988) Approccio ad un inventario prototipe. Proceedingsof thé intematio- territory (about 70%), is madeup wounded(Rossi & Zurlini, 1996). that thèse kind of habitats couldmofaunistico dell'isola di Vivara(NA). nal conférence VII rassegna del mare, : Another factor is thé degreeofiso- 26, of urbanized area, cultivated en- supportarich and varied biota, ^^st- Mus.Zool. Univ. Napoli, récupéra e gestione délia fascia costiera, even when they are closely inte- ^^"".. _;. virons and Punta Solchiaro. Thèse lation. Thé absenceof ecological v^^^^ Commission Associazione Marea- mico and C.N.R., areas reach thé minimum values corridors between Starza, Punta rwovenwith cultivatedand bmll(2003) IterpretationmanualofEuropean Rome,371-378. Scotto di CesareM. (1999) Vi- ofspecie frequency:40, 6% - 43%. Solchiaroand Pizzaco,at thé edge up areas,as is thé caseofProcida. union habitats, EUR 25. DG Envi-ron- vara, flora e vegetazione. M. D'AU- ria Thé high andmédium level of spe- of thé urban and cultivated tissue, Théreports of thisstudy noted ment- Nature biodiversity. EuropeanCommission (2004) Editore.

14 15 Punta Urban Class n. EU Berna Cite EU Bonn Th ene ara Starza Punta Solchi centers By AlessandraVanzella-Khouri and GeorginaBustamante speci National Direct! conventi Directiv convent d (IUCN) (0,30 (0,74 aro & es Law ve on e43/92 ion catégories KmA2) Km"2) Pizza 157/92 79/40 Habitat 00 (0,33 hétérogène 9 (0,18 KmA2) ous KmA2 agricultural formations Geographically,thé Wider and numerous islands, most of occupies 0.1% of thé Earth but is 2,5 Km"2 Caribbeanrégion encompassesthé which form thé Antilles Arch that home to 2-3% of ail known terres- Invertebr Insecta 3 aies coastal and marine areas of most provides a relative isolation of thé trial vertébralesand plant species Gastrop 1 of thé Gulf of Mexico, thé Carib- Caribbean Sea from thé Atlantic in thé worid and has among thé .1 oda Vertébral Reptilia beauSea and thé adjacentareas of Océan. highest levels of terrestrial ende- es ^ 29 thé Atlantic Océan. This includes Thé Wider Caribbean re- mism in thé world. About 99% of Aves 69 61 21 35

3 3 areas "extending, in thé case of gion is also a biogeographicrégion thé reptiles found on thèseislands Mamm 9 9 alia water courses,up to thé fresh wa- itself, thé Tropical Northwestem are not found anywhere else and l TOTA 86 70 39 10 13 84 37 ter limit, and such related terres- Atlantic Coastal Biogeographic thé same is true for 93% of thé am- 0 % on thé total area of Procida and Vivara 7,40% 18,27% 4,44 8,14 61,72% trial areas(including watersheds)" Province (Sullivan-Sealey and phibians(CNAP et. al., 2003). (4,05 KmA 2) % % (UNEP, 1990) of Florida (USA), Bustamante, 1999), defined and l thé Mexican statesof Campeche, delineatedby its océantemperatu- Not less noticeable is thé ri- M Habitattype (code) 4s-31- 45.31 - 32.11 32.11 32.2- -32.2 - 32.2 Yucatan and Quintana Roo, Thé re régime and coastalgeomorpho- chnessprovided by its coastaland 45.31Méso Mediterranean holm-oakforests; 32.12 Olive and lentisc matorral; 32.11 32-12 32.^22. Bahamas, thé islands of thé Grea- logy. marine ecosystems,notably thé Arborescentmatorral; .. .. _ 32.2 1210- 32.22 32.2 Thermo- Mediterranean shrub formations; 32.22 Tree - spurgeformations - ^^ 1240 ter and Lesser Antilles, Central This région hasa combina- 26,000 km2 of coral reefs and thé 1210(*) annualvégétation of drift lines - 1240(*) vegetatedsea cliffs of thé '^y 1240 Mediterraneancoasts with endémie Umoniumspp. America, and thé South American tion of one of thé most important associatedhabitats (seagrass beds, counù-ies in thé north from Colom- geographicaland biological ma- mangrovesand sandy areas) which bia to French Guiana. rine and terrestrialbiodiversity on include thé most extensive barrier (*) Habitattypes présent inthé Mediterranean Région (European Commission, 2004). Thé Gulf of Mexico and thé planet and thé countries vary reefs in thé world and over 600 thé CaribbeanSea are large, semi- enormously in thé size oftheir po- species of fish Six of thé world's enclosedwater bodies with an area pulations and resource bases.A si- 7 seaturtle speciesspend ail or si- totaling roughly 4. 1 million km2. gnificant portion of thé économie gnificant part of their life cycle in ThéGulfreceives freshwater input activity in thérégion is linked to thé thé région, as well as 32 speciesof from rivers that drain two-thirds of marine and coastal resource base marine mammals (UNEP/WCMC, thé USA and half of Mexico, most (UNEP, 1992), including fisheries 1996). notablyfrom thé Mississippi-Mis-but mainly tourism, which consti- This natural wealth and soun river basin. Thé Gulf's main tûtes a major component ofits eco- diversity has also faced décades océanographiefeaturc is a loop nomy. of consistentpressures emanating current, which exchangeswater Thé Wider Caribbean re- from unplanned development, with théAtlantic Océanand Carib- gion has gréât diversity in natural land-use changes; sewage, sedi- beau Sea. resources and physical features. It ment and agrochemicalpollution, Thé Caribbean Sea also includes major parts of thé Ameri- andthé overexploitationofresour- rcceives major inputs from both can continent, connected indirectly ces such as reeffisheries and man- thé Amazonand Orinocorivers, through a rich insular ecosystem graves. Today Caribbeanforests althoughmajor influencescorne which has served as both a bridge cover only 19% of thé total land fromthé latter (UNEP, 2005). Thé and a barrier for thé continents bio- area and hundredsof speciesare région encompassesdeep troughs, ta in their movement and évolution threatenedor endangeredwith ex- banks,both large and narrow shel- through time. Thé insular Carib- tinction. Over 116 million people Distribution on thé island of 86 animal species ves,along thé continentalmargin beau with more than 5,000 islands live within 100 km of thé Caribbe-

17 16 an coast and more than 40 million habitats and ecosystems responsi- A conservation Tool in thé Thé Programmeincludes 2-week live within 10 km of thé coastline blé for thé very richnessand pro- Wider Caribbean MPA long annualrégional courses, followed by local targeted training (UNEP,2005). ductivity on which dépendsthé li- networking velihood of Caribbeanpeople has activitiesconducted by thé traînées Tourism bas become thé beenone of thé goalsofthis agree- within their MPAs. This scheme and its multiplying effect has almost important économie activity ment. An important effort in thé a period consul- lowed another400 MPA persormel for many countries, with émise After of région towards thé protection and and practitionersfrom thé région ship arrivaisgrowing at fasterrates tarions and negotiations, govem- conservation important habitats of to benefit from this initiative. than for otherrégions of thé worid. mentsadopted in 1990thé Protocol and ecosystemshas beenthé desi- Conceming Specially Protected In 2000, thé région received 40 gnation of marine protectedareas Areas (SPAW),which A training Manual develo- million visitors, generatmg over andWildlife (MPAs). Thereare over 300 MPAs ped by expertssupports thé Pro- US $25 billion in revenue and US is thé only légal agreement on establishedin thé région that in- conservation and sustainable use grammeand it is availablein En- $2.1 billion from thé dive tourism élude about 20% of thé region's glishand Spanish (http://www. cep. alone (Burke and Maidens,2004). ofbiodiversity for this vast région. coral reefs (Green and Donelly, However, récent studies indicate Recognisedintemationally as one unep.org/issues/MPA%20manual. 2003).However, only 6% arerated ^. -^yà that thèse same resources which of thé most comprehensiveand htm). It includes 8 modulescove- . 3» aseffectively managedand 13%as l innovative instmments of its kind ring thé basic éléments of plan- C/l hâve been attracting tounsts, are having partially effective manage- ning, management,research and ^ being degradedat alarming rates. (Freestone, 1990), thé Protocol ment (Burke and Maidens,2004). Doc at Punta Allen village, where monitoring, and régional policies résidents altemate fishing and tourist Approximately 25% of Caribbean places great emphasison thé par- Major factorsaffecting ma- relevant to MPAs, as well as tech- activities reefs hâve been lost already and ticipation of local communities nagementof MPAs in thé région tri and on thé need of éducation and niques and tools for communica- two-thirds are directly threatened arelimited capacity(human and fi- tion and training. This Training Thé MPA training programme undertaking thé developmentand by human activities (GCRMN, public information at ail levels of nancialresources). To changethis thé conservation efforts. It also Programmehas also greatly impro- and CaMPAM hâve contributed updating of a MPA database,ac- 2002). Future économie losses trend,thé SPAWProtocol launched l ved communications,exchange of towardsgreater intégration of ins- cessible at : http://cep.unep.org/ > are estimated between US$350- recognizesthé critical rôle of thé in 2000 a unique and comprehen- scientific and NGO communities expériencesand générationof lo- titutions and experts within thé campam, which contains basic in- > US$870 million/ year from dimi- sive RégionalTraining ofTrainers M and has established a Scientific cal and national initiatives among région. CaMPAM's international formation on dozens of MPAs of nished coral reef fisheries, dive Programme which has already and Technical Advisory Commit- thé participants, contributing to re- putation has promotedthé use thé région.Thé databaseis current- tourism and shoreline protection provideddirect training to about thé strengthening of MPAs in thé of thé network as a vehicle to ad- ly being updated aiming to offer services (Burke and Maidens, tee on this regard(Vanzella-Khou- 80 MPA managerson thé basic région. vice national and international ins- information on about 365 MPAs. 2004). ri, 1998). aspectsofMPA planning,manage- titutions in thé utilization of their This database will allow differ- In addition to habitat de- ment, and research,as well as trai- A trainingcourse for park rangersof thé Thé SPAW has also laun- resourcesrelevant to MPA training ent types of users, £rom managers gradation,overharyesting has led to ning and communicationskills. Mexican Caribbean at Chinchorro bank ched thé Caribbean Marine Pro- resources, thé sévère décline (including some andcapacity building (e.g. NOAA, of MPAs and natural Biosphère Réserve. local commercial extinctions) of tectedAreas(CaMPAM)Network Enviromnental Défense, Caribbean to professors, students, scientists, and Fomm MPA managersto Conservation Association, World plan- many fish and invertebratepopu- for policy makers, coastal zone promotebetter practices, as well as Resources Institute, Thé Nature lations. Among thé most depleted ners, conservation orgamzations, fostercommunication, sharing and etc.). resources are snapper, groupers, Conservancy, universities, donors and small businesses(eco- . . ---l- exchanges betweenMPAs. Thé tourism and others) to obtain infor- jacks, and otherreeffishes; several K implemented mation on oceanicspecies (sharks, tuna, bill- workofCaMPAM is Exchanges between MPAs with severalpartners through an hâve been amongthé most useful spécifie areasofinterest and on thé fishes,etc. ) and lobster and queen a page: activities of CaMPAM. Dozens of conch(Sullivan-Sealey and Busta- ctive list-serve, web région as a whole. org/campam/ mante, 1999). http://www. gcfi. fishers and MPA managershâve Sharing of expériences has CaMPAM.htm visited other sites and hâve benefit- Recognizing thé gravity proven to be very valuable tool in of thèse issues and thé need for ed from lessons-leamt expériences, particular when marine parks in Thé publication of ma- affecting notably their approach in thé région hâve demonstrated that régional coopération to address tenais in electronic newsletter addressingcommon problems and them, govemmentsof thé Wider self-financingcan also be achieved awareness on thé need to look for Caribbeanadopted since 1983 in MPANews), regular workshops throughdiverse revenue génération meetings Cartagena,Colombia thé Conven- nd (mainlyat théGulf solutions cooperatively to maxi- stratégies and that issues such as tion for thé Protection and Develo- d CaribbeanFisheries Institute mize resources. carrying-capacityand sustainable AnnualMeetings) with thé parti- use cannot be overlooked in thé pment of thé Marine Environment Relevant and updated in- ipation fishers, scientistsand formation on thé MPAs thé re- of thé Wider Caribbean (Cartagena of of searchof revenue.Marine protect- MPApersonnel, as asa Small Convention) (UNEP, 1983). Thé well gion is important for both manage- ed areas in thé islands of Bonaire, Grantsprogramme for technical importanceof protecting valuable ment and conservations pmposes. thé British Virgin Islandsand Saba ssistance. species and safeguardingcritical To this end, CaMPAM is also hâvebeen used as examplesof

19 18 successful revenue génération larly with other relevant organiza- better conservationstratégies for which is in tum invested in man- tions, a régional managementplan countriesto achievethé 2012 goal, agement improvement. However, was developedfor thé endangered Ail thèseefforts togetherwith thé there are many more MPAs in thé West Indian manatee and a conser- requirementsof thé Protocolon thé région wherethis potential hasnot vation Action Plan is under deve- developmentofalist andrepresen- beenfully realized.Approximately lopment for ail marine mammals tative network of protectedareas, 15 million dives occur in thé in- of thé region.With thé assistance will undoubtedlycontribute to thé sular Caribbean and half of thèse and supportof thé SPAWRégional global Millennium Developmenti within MPAs. Only 25% of thé Activity Centre (RAC), hostedby Goals and commitments made MPAs with coral reefs are charg- thé Govemment of France in Gua- under thé Conventionon Biologi- ing entry or user féesto thé divers deloupe,counfa'ies are making pro- cal Diversity regarding réduction andgenerating between 1-2 million gressin meeting thé objectivesof to thé loss of biodiversity and thé By François Ramade USD annually(Green and Dormel- théProtocol and through collabora- création of ecologically effective ly, 2003).In addition, various types tion and synergiesdeveloped with national and régional networks of of community-based fisheries relevant global agreementssuch protectedareas by thé year 2012.. managementand ecotourism op- as thé CBD, thé Bonn, RAMSAR, With thé entry into force of thé l erations with exclusive rights (e.g. CITES and WHS Conventions, SPAW Protocol in 2000, govem- Sian Kaan Biosphère Réserve, in thé SPAWachievements are being ments hâve committed to work l Mexico; Soufrière Marine Man- maximized. Thé coordination of jointly and independentlyon thé agementArea, in St.Lucia, Glad- CaMPAM activities (i.e. training conservation and sustainable man- i den Spit Marine Réserve,Belize, courses, database and exchanges) agementofcritical habitats,species i> etc.), hâvebeen successful in solv- with similar subrcgional initiatives and ecosystemson which greatly ing usersconflicts, providing high- - such as those for thé Mesoameri- dépendsthé prosperityof thèsena- l er income to local communities can Barrier Reef - will strengthen tions and to ensure that this natural > resourcessustainably. régional intégration and commu- legacyis enjoyedby générations while using w> Thé way forward nication of thé "human network" corne. High rich florating areas of thé Mediten-anean necessaryfor thé créationof eco- Lùnits of thé Mediterranean région Thé SPAW Protocol gives logically effective "geographical clear guidance on thé establish- MPA networks" which is a goal for Figure l - Distribution of thé Mediterranean"Hot Spots"of plant biodiversity (af- mentand management ofprotected thé région for 2012.1nthis context, ter Quezel& Medail, 1995).(green: high rich floating areasof thé Mediterranean; areasand through its threeAnnexes thé SPAW Protocol is strengthe- Dr.Georgina Bustamante black: umits ofthe Mediterranean région) worked as a marine conservation scientisl providesprotection to hundredsof ning coopérationwith severalre- scientists ndpolicy expert 33years. After wor- sity alreadydescribed by ranean archipelagosespecially in levant international organizations for __ ^\1^^^1 l^\ threatened and endangered plants ing 20 yearson fish ecologyresearch anti lnl:> C-<-<-'I-<-'UI^AI. KJILC VAIN- despiteits overall area spells over several large islands of which one subre- and animais in thé Wider Carib- and programmesworking ducationin Cubaand Mexico, she moved CE 0F THE MEDITERRANEAN less than 1.6 % of thé global ter- may quote Corsica, Sicilia, Creta beau (Vanzella-Khouri,1998). In gionally or intemationally (e.g. o thé U.S in 1994.and worked with ThcBTOGEOGRAPHICAL PROVLN- restrial land mass. Observed more and Cypms (fig.2). order to meet thèse conservation Thé Nature Conser^ancy's Mesoa- ature Conservancy'sLatin Amencaii çg accurately,ones can locatea dozen and thé Caribbean Marin Conservation objectives,SPAW Parties work in merican Reef Programme,Coral ofarea ofhigh biodiversity in thé Reef Alliance, ICRAN-MAR Pro- Programsand as an expert for UNEP- collaboration with a wide spec- CEP, UNESCO-WHC, IUCN and Othei Thé Mediten-anean bio- Mediterranean (over 2000 plant trum of partners.With thé Wider gramme,NOAA, UNESCO-World Organizations'international initiatives., geographical province Spellseast speciesper 15 000 km2). (Fig.l ). HéritageCenter) in order to build Caribbean Network for Sea Turtles Email:gbustamante@bellsouth. net - west over 4000 km from thé Sy- Moreover, thé Mediterra- Emeritus Professor of eco- (WIDECAST), thé SPAW Secre- synergiesby exchanginginforma- nan steppeto thé Atlantic parts of nean displays a high endemicity logy andzoology at ihe ParisSud Univer- tariat has been assisting govem- tion, fosteringcommunication and Moroccoand Portugal. It numbers proper to its high variety of its in- sity . Honorary présidentof Ihe French ments of thé région with thé de- coordinating initiatives. For ëxam- amongthé 25 major biodiversity sular habitats and due to its varions ecological society. Bureau member and honor président of thé French National velopment and implementationof pie, through CaMPAM intematio- «hot spots»of thé biosphèreand isolated mountains ranges which nal programmesare reaching out Society of Nature Conservancy. World national SeaTurtle Recovery Plans first regardingthé speciesri- stands as well as continental islan- Union for Nature (IUCN) Honor mem- to MPA managers and planners so (STRAP), which hâve been instru- AlessandraVanzella^' hness amidst thé few hotspots lo- ds. Areâs of higher endemismare ber. François Ramade is involved since a they canincorporate relevant infor- long time in thé science Conservation mentalin thé passingof législation Kliouri,isa Colombian manne microbioj i ated outside tropical areas (Myers located in thé Higher Atlas and thé of , and is such a member of tlie Editorial for sea turtle conservation and de- mation into their work. Thé gene- logistTd, conserva^tFOTÎl!TLÏ"a1-' 2000). Forexample about 28 Riff rangein Morocco,in thé Sierra ration research data on biologi- earsshe has worked on coastaland jna-1' ç^^ ^"^";. Board of Biological conservation,thé velopment of éducationand awa- of me'envIronmentaîisLies'ofTatmAme.uu,Species of vascular plants are Nevada and others mountains from cal connectivitywill allow refining first journal to be dedicated to thé publi- reness activities.Today thé Wider ica andthé Caribbean and cun'ently ^ r°Per to thé Mediterranean(Que- southemSpain, in SouthemGree- cationof researchregarding biodiversily thé ecoregional scénario but thé En-: Caribbeanis thé only région in thé Programme Officer fol -thé Caribbean el, 1995) which Spells only OVer ce and Turkey. This endemismis andit's préservationissued (since 1969). strengthening of human networ- world where sea turtle populations vironmentProgramme of thé United Na- 3. millions ofkm2. This number - quite logically - more particu- Email: [email protected] beginto show somerecovery. Simi- king will allow implementationof rionsEnvironment Programme (UNEP) xceeds 10% of thé plant biodiver- larly importantin varionsMediter-

20 21 Thé Threats to thé Mediter- Indeed,Mediterranean du- nés hâve been vastly eradicated ranean Coastal ecosystem throughout tourism urbanization. Thé Mediterranean envi- Thé shoreline bas been extensively ronment stands at large amongst built with hôtel and others balneal / building as a conséquenceof thé thé most at risk of thé varions areas ^...î of thé world. Of course, it is not '-w international tourism. Thé length by chancethat thé Mediterranean of thé Mediterraneancoasts spel- ? 1s aver 40 000 km which over was ranked by UNEP in 1978 as of one of thé most threatened région 5000 km are already urbanized. and launched thé Mediterranean However thé effective length of Capacitéen mégawatts c^y ^ Unités Unités Action Plan in order to secure its thé coastsalready artificialized is en service en projet Zonesà haut niveaud'endémisme du bassinméditerranéen valeurnon précisée préservation.Its coastalterrestrial far higher as in a numberof coun- Tauxd'endémisme > à 20 % 1000 tries isolated real estâtes hâve been 500km and marine ecosystems are espe- 2500 Tauxd'endémisme compris entre 10 et 20 % cially at risk and therefore their built randomly sometime at thé Limitesde la régionméditerranéenne very limit of beachesor of rocky Figure 5 - Location of thé major oil or coal fired coastalpower plants in thé Mediter- biodiversity is much threatened. ranean( After MAP, 1997). shores or marine cliffs. lM This point is especially a matter Figure2 - Distributionofareas ofhigh endemicityin théMediterranean. (After l concem regarding thé Mediterra- Medail & Quezel, 1995). (Dark green:less than 20% of endemismrate; Clear Of course, tourism pressu- Atmospheric pollution is sive and standsas a major matter nean islands as this sea ranks as green:between 10 and 20% ofendemism rate; Black: limits of théMediterranean l reaches its climax in thé Medi- well documented in its coastal ci- well as thé secondarchipelago of région) of concem regarding thé marine - famous thé world with a large number of terraneanarea where thé very term ties, thé Athens one's biodiversity (Boudouresque,Me- islands from thé Balears to Cypms. of tourism was createdduring thé nephtos- being frequentlyquoted. niez and al., 1994and foll..). This l Thé Mediten-anean coastal habitats XIXth century. Prédictions from Indeed, photochemicalsmogs cur- highly invasive alga originating § are chronically jeopardized by a UNEP assessthat up to over 125 rently affect thé coastalcities both fi-om thé Caribbeanappears as a > millions International tourist ofits west northem and southem si- number of factors of environmen- of major threat to natural seaweeds > would occur yearly by 2025, thé des.Spécial concems are related to beds Posidonia oceanica(Fig. m tal dégradation:urbanization, in- ..^" of dustrialization, non point sources ^kt, total numberof tourists exceeding thé ship traffic especiallythé one's 6). Thought Caulerpabeds exten- tankers and chemical carriers. A seems hâve sin- pollutions, soil érosion, intensive 200 millions of people by that of sion much slowed agriculturalpractices join their ef- time. Additionally, urbanization massive oil or chemical spill due ce thé end of thé 1990s( Jaubert in thé riverine counù-ies is swel- fects in a continuing artificializa- to ship wreckagewould prove es- et al., 2003), thé loss ofthis Posi- seaweedshabitats be tion especiallythose from coastal ling by thé increasingnumber of pecially catastrophicon thé shores donia, would people which migrâtes from thé ofthis sea, almost devoid oftides. invaluableas they host an inverte- areas (Ramade, 1997). A U^unw. tWUw. zonwhwnldw . Ourw. corAtn» tttUMWix inland toward coastal areas, Urban and industrial sewers Mediterranean coastal wet- A* EnMmWatiïururiftdunrtwHttoml thé brate and fishescommunity which lands are especiallyunder threat, by thé still unabateddémographie chronically spoil thé quality of its has a speciesrichness even higher Figure3- Map of thé duneand coastal mudflats proper to thé Mediterranean due permanentpollution growth in thé southem and eastem coastal marine waters and there- fi-omthat of ta-opicalseagrass beds to their (Triangle: lagoons,deltas and humid areas;Circle: lagoonareas) both by chemicalatmospheric fal- countrieswhich join their effects forejeopardizesome communities (Hamelin-Vivien, 1983). louts and direct water pollution to expand coastal cities and indus- ofoutstandinginterest. Partly rela- trialized areas settled on thé shore related to agricultural practices ted to thé tourism pressureforest This concem is enhanced line. Thé coastal industrialisation due others threat as and some time sewage release. fires display a significant trend to to thé fact that Even worse a number of wetlands is additionally favoureddue to thé increasetheir frequencyand ove- boatsanchoring is still of common easier access raw materials and hâve suffereddrainage in order to of rail ecological impact. Another use in Mediterranean protected couvert them in agricultural land industrialproducts by ships.As a factor of biodiversity décline in areas ( Milazzo et al. 2004) and and that since as long as thé ro- conséquence,a majority of thé fuel thé Mediterranean countries is a that thèse beds are at risk due to man time especially in Italia and or coalfired electricpower plants conséquenceof thé introductionof thé sea water pollution as well as Northem Africa! Coastal habitats of thé Mediterraneancountries are varionsplant or animal exotic spe- even thé dumping of garbage by are frequently under permanent locatedon its coastalareas (Fig. cies. boats like previously observed in Port-Cros National threat in thé Mediterranean, espe- This problem has been for thé island of cially dunes ecosystems(Fig. 3), example still recently exempli- Park in southem France. habitats which are periglacial re- Therefore,coastal areas in fied by thé accidentai release into licts quite uncommon in this area, théMediterranean are especially coastalmarine water, probably at coastal wetlands and even mudflats exposedto atmosphericand water thé level of Monaco, of an exotic (where occur significant pollution) pollutionboth continental and ma- macrophyticalga, Caulerpa taxifo- Figure4 - Coastaldunes backward ofan unfrequentedbeach in thé Camargue lia, which hasproven highly inva- (fig.4). Nature Réserve in southem France.

22 23 Figure 7 - View of thé Selena Mountains in eastem Creta. Thé long history of deforestation has left large areas of baremountain slopes, with vast stretchoutorops ofmotherrock. ( F. Ramadepicture).

wl .1 igure8 - Proportionof plant iodiversity endangered in l he mediterraneanarchipela- o. Hère is figured in percen- l ÏIEv ge thé fraction of speciesat "1^ mmediate risk of extinction, hreatened, vulnérable, rare l and already extinct. ( After > op. , ç' ^~ IUCN, cit., pl. XXVI). "-\<^ l ^;~ ce r

500 Figure 6 - A Posidoniaoceanica seagrass bed in thé Port GrosNational Park (F. Ramadepicture). Ex = Éteinte E = en danger v = Vulnérable 200 R = Rare l . Indéterminé 100 K = Statut incertain nt = non menacé

Threatened insular habitats érosion thought occurring com- cliffs may be presently at risk monly in thé areareach usually its some Mediterranean islands. climax in Mediterranean islands As a conséquence, espe- Figure 9 - Thé S'albufera des Grau Nature Réserve in (Fig.7). cially through urban development Menorca bas been created Thé Mediterranean island Therefore, in thé various due to tourism, various speciesof in 1993 in order to préserve ecosystems are especially at risk Mediterranean archipelagos, a si- flowering plants,even chasmophy- a coastal wetland area of an dueto thé their limitée acreageand gnificant fraction of their endémie tes are at threat. In thé Balearic l outstanding interest threate- thé higher firagmentation of their speciesis currently at risk, numbe- lands archipelago,which number ned by a real estatedevelop- habitat in comparisonto thé conti- ring many specieseither vulnérable 50 speciesof endémieplants, 20 ment marina building (F. Ra- madepicture). nental ones, related to thé overall or in danger of extinction (fig. 8). them are endangeredand even on higher densitiesof humanpopula- Broadly speaking, endémie species of them Daphne rodriguezii ha tions than in mainland and a to an are especially at threat in islands as vanished from thé Minorca coa ancient history of overuse of their their populations are usually limi- subsequentlyto tourism develo naturalbiological resources,which ted in number. ment (Fig. 9). During thé 90s up t is a matter of concem as they are Insular habitats as coastal 84 plant species ( in Malta), wer placesofhigh biodiversity and en- wetlands are especially jeopardi- extinct and from 4 % up to 23 ° demism. zed in thé Mediterranean. Unex- of thé plant diversity was threate pectedly unattended habitats as ned in thé varions Mediterranea Overgrazing, deforestation and soil rocky shore... and even coastal islands.

24 25 Thé need of enforcing thé ne waters both common to France tion is still obvious betweén Medi. terraneanareas from neighbouring network ofCoastal and Ma- and Italia. countrieswhich explain thé relati. rine Protected Areas Improving thé management ve absence of corridors in spite o) Country Site Présent state of conservation achieved their relevance for thé sustainablç of already protected area Spain Thé présent network of préservationof coastalbiodiversi. Chafarinas islands none Mediterranean coastal and marine ty. Therefore,one's would encou- Alicante lagoons comp été protectedareas shows significant Thémanagement ofalready ragethé Mediterraneanstate to im- Guardamar none gapsand need be strengthe-protectedareas stands as a major still to plementthé recommendationscl Cerrillos ( Entina el sabinar) completed(IV) problem among thé others matter ned.IUCN had proposed at thé end thé UECC (Heslenfeld al, 1999 T rifa considered ofconcem regardingthé conserva- of thé 80iesthé urgent créationof to better intégrale mto nationa: S linas de Ibiza and Fermentera completed (IV) tion of coastal Mediterranean eco- 50 new protectedareas (table next policiesthé conceptof ecologica' M ar Menor lagoon completed (RAMSAR) Systems.Only a handfùlof coastal page). corridors for thé maintenance o] majority them has existing coastal réservesare cur- France Thé of ecosystemsin coastaland marint been since that enacted. Neverthe- rently managed according to thé partial; considered areas. Hyères archipelago less,Many outstanding coastal and international standardsprescribed Port-CrosNational Park (extension) As a conclusion, due to its § marineareas are still in urgentneed by IUCN. Bages-Sigean's pond completed (IV) outstandingbiodiversity and ende Too many Mediterranean Thau pond none of préservation.For example,few micity, thé Mediterraneancoasta! .^ hâve been achievedregarding thé protectedareas are devoid of per- Calanques of Marseille considered 2 and marinehabitats, especially ths > conservation ofbeaches where ma- manent staff, and even of budget Ponds of Diana and Urbino completed(RAMSAR) ?t) insular ones urgently need of ai not to mention that they are fre- rine turtles are usedto egg laying. increased effort of preservatioii quentlylacking of a clearlyiden- Italy On Zakintos beaches, a major area with thé enactment of new pro l tifiable delineation of thé réserve ntines archipelago considered of reproductionof thé loggerhead tected areas. On thé other hand, i Gulf Orosei (Sardinia) completed(IV) turtle (Carettacaretta) is at risk due geographicallimits. A big needof of 0 spécialattention has to be paidfe improvingthis stateofaffair is still Peninsula of Sinis completed(RAMSAR) to tourism developmentwith thé thé conservation of Mediterraneai l érection of electric lighting of thé pendingas well asthé achievement M seascapesup to now quite neglec Croatia shorewhich has proven detrimen- of a managementplan for thé forth- ted ( Fraschettiet al. 2005). Thf coming years(for examplefor thé Estuary of Neretva river completed(RAMSAR) tal to thé reproductionof thé Medi- achievement of such an endeavoii terraneanpopulation ofthis species next three yearsand prévisionsfor requiresthé créationof additiona Greece everywherein décline. Thé same three additional years. In France, protectedareas and a planning o Sporades islands completed(V) is valid for beaches where are lo- such managementplan has been coastal development actlvitie' Amvrakikos gulf completed(RA SAR) cated egg laying site thé green first settled in thé very beginning of which involve an environmen Porto Lagos lake completed (RAMSAR) turtle(Chelonya midas) (Kasparek of thé 80ies, by thé National Na- tal mapping underlining thé area' Zakynthos island completed (V) al.2001) ageangreek islands tire Réserveof Camargue,which et in where are found unique plant o Kephalonia Island none is a coastalwetland, protected area and on thé turkey southem coast animal communities and threate createdin 1927 and currently ma- and Cypms (Fig. 10). ned specieswhich need a prion Cyprus Nevertheless someprogress nagedby thé FrenchNational So- tary protection.Riverine countne Akamas peninsula considered ciety for Nahire Conservancy.This hâveto be quotedas thé enactment of thé Mediterranean hâve on tb Akrotiri lagoon completed (IV) thé international whale conser- managementplan has been exten- of otherhand to improvesigmficantl; Limassol take (extension) completed vation area over 100 000 km2 in ded to ail thé others French Natio- thé managementof their alread; nal Nature Réserve. thé Ligurian sea or thé Bonifacio protectedareas, and to restrict Egypt straightmarine réserve in thé mari- Endly a lack of coordina- Lake Manzata none1 Ras El Hekma none El Ksar none Sidi Barrani none Saloum none

Lybia irahbulli completed(II) Figure10 - Greenturtle hatchery in théNature Re- serveofLara ( wetrenCypms coast. Thé egg laying boreholes are caged in orderto protectfhem froiB prédation( F. Ramadepicture).

27 26 Sabrât a completed Proposedand/or already enactei Leptis Magna none Mediterranean nature réserve Farwah lagoon none ofcoastal or marine ecosystem none asdefined in 1988by thé UIC^ Syrte Magnum none MAP TaskForce (after Ramade Tunisia op. cit., 1999,but updatedregar Galitearchi -lago partial (ASP) ding thé présent conservatioi Kerkennah l nds completed statusofcompletion). Khneiss island completed Thé information between brac El Biban on considered Ikur ata ds completed kets refer to thé protectedare; Thynal goon none catégories (RJCN-WCMC 2003, or sites of thé RAMSAI Algeria convention) El Kala (extension) in process l. Protected area enacted sinci Taza (extension) none Gouraya (ex ion) none 1988 By JoannesBerque, Ehrlich Desaand GenevesiOgiogio Cnenoua none 2. protected area still unde: Habibas i nds none study. Collo peninsula none

Maroc Ist column: «country» Nador lagoon considérée! 2nd column: «sites» M 3rd column: «state of conserva l Turkey tion» ;:N Bokkoyas completed1 Dalyan "ay completed (IV) n delta completed l es delta considered enin a of likarnassos considered l Syria Omattouyour2 considered § l International parks w Strait of Bonifacio rance/ Italy) completed Delta of Meric / Evros (Turkey / Greece) none humanuses of their biological na- Pickaver A. & Salman A.. Corridors and eco- tivity andReproductive Output ofLoggerhea Systems: projectson coastaland marine areas, Sea Turtles, Caretta caretta, Over 19 Season tural resourcesthroughout an en- 1999. EuropeanUnion for Coastalconserva- (1984-2002)at LaganasBay, Zakynthos, Grès forcement of thé control and of thé tion, Leiden, 1999,38p. ce: Thé LargestRookery in thé Mediterranean banning, when enacted,of thèse Harmelin-Vivien M., 1983. Etude In ChelonianConservation and Biology, comparativede l 'ichtyofaune des herbiersde 4, 2005,p. 916-929. activities. Mediterranean Lastly, phanérogamesmarines en milieu tropical et Medail F. & Quézel P., 1997. Hc countries hâve to enforce thé in- tempéré.In Rev. Ecol, Terre & Vie, Vol. 38, spotsanalyse for conservationof plant bio temational conventions addressing 1983,p. 179-210. diversity in thé mediterraneanBasin. Anr, Hemandez-BermejoJ. K. & Sant01- Missouri Bot. Garden,Vol. 84, 1997, p. 11: thé conservation of its coastal and levo H., 1977.Algunos datassobre la conser- -127. marine ecosystemsespecially thé vacion de los recursosnaturals espanoles.In Milazzo M., Badalamenti F., Cee one on thé biological diversity. Elementos de Ecologia Applicada, Ramade cherelli G., Chemello R.,2004, Boat ancho F., Mundi PrensaPub., Madrid, 1977,p. 507 ring on Posidoniaoceanica beds in a mann -541. protectedarea ( Italy, westernmediterranean Bibliography Heywood V., 1995. Thé Mediterra- effects of anchortypes in différent anchorin^ neanflora in thé contextofworld biodiversity. stages.In Joum.Exp. Marine Biol. Ecol.,Vo! In EcologiaMediterranea, Vol. 21, 1995,p. 11 299,n°l, p. 51-62. Barbero M: Bonin G., Loisel R. & -18. Myers N., Mittermeier R.A., Mittei QuezelP., 1990.Changes and disturbances of IUCN-WCMC, 2003 United nations meier C.G., Da FonsecaG. A. et Kent J., 200C ofrest ecosystemscaused humanactivities by List od ProtectedAreas, Cambridge, IUCN Biodiversity hotspotsfor conservationpnoB westernpart Mediterraneanbasin. in thé of thé Publication Service Unit. ties ,In Nature,403, 24 Février2000, ° 6772 In Vegetatio,Vol. 87, 1990,p. 15&- 173. Jaubert J.M.. Chisholm J.M.. Min- p. 253-858. BoudouresqueJ. F., MenieszA., Ri- ghelli-Roman et al., 2003, Réévaluation fo Quézel P., 1995, La Flore du basu beira MA., & Ballesteros,1994. Spread of thé thé extent of Caulerpataxifolia development Méditerranée: origine, mise en place,endî green alga, Caulerpataxifolia in thé Mediter- in thé northem mediterraneanhusing airbor- misme.In EcologiaMéditerranea, Vol. 2l ranean:possible conséquence of a major eco- ne spectrographicnsensing. In Marine Ecol., 1995,p. 19-39. logical event. Scientiamarina. Vol. 59, suppl. Prog.Ser., Vol. 263, 2003, p. 75-82. Ramade F., 1993, Environnement» l, p. 21-29., 1994. Kasparek, M., B., Godley J-, & and ecotoxicologicalproblems in thé Meditei Fraschetti S., Terlizzi A., Bussotti Broderick A.C., 2001. Nesting of thé Green raneancountries. In Sci.Total Envir., Suppl S., et al., 2005, Conservation ofMediterranean Turtle, Chelonia mydas, in thé Mediterranean: 1993,n° l, p. 97-107. seascapes:analysis of exoisting protection a review of status and conservation needs. In RamadeK, 1997,Conservation de schemes. In m rine Env. Res;, Vol. 59, Zoology in thé Middle East ,Vol. 24, 2001,p. Ecosystèmesméditerranéens: enjeux et pers 2005,n° 4, p. 309- 332. 45-74. pectives.Paris, PNUE - Economica,Fascicii HeslenfeldP., Liévin J., Milchen V., MargaritoulisD., 2005, NestingAc- les du Plan Bleu, 1997,209 p.

28 29 Abstract finitions (e.g. Lusthaus 1999), thé communities. Equitable managç term capacity itself having many. ment ofresources often entails ecc We report on thé develop- For thé purpose of thé discussion nomically painfiil décisions th? ment of an évaluation framework herein, it should sufiice to view local scientists will usually hav for thé IntergovemmentalOcea- capacity development in marine better appréciationof: times an nographic Commission(IOC) ca- sciencesas a processof enhancing places where one can fish, tradç pacity development activities in thé ability ofindividuals, organisa- off between industrial or tourisi TABLES marine sciences, with attention to tions and societies to use science to development and thé preservatio thé context of small island states. identify and solve marine-related of living marine resources, ett Table l : Researchand develo ment ex enditures b coun A brief overview of basic indica- problems. "Global" programshâve an impoi tors scientific capacity island tant rôle to play translatingthé re of in As percentage of Per capita Country statesis provided. IOC is under- sults of major scienceinitiatives t GDP (PPP) taking new capacity development Marineresoiirces are importantfor provide local benefits,whilst usin island states, and marine science activities with focus on leadership local understandingand data to ei Iceland(2004) 3.01% of marine institutes,team-building is neededto managethem. rich global understanding. Howe for scientists, proposai writing ver, local scientists will be bette Ireland(2004) 1.21% skills, and décision support tools able to identify scientifically chai l for thé managementof thé coastal Marine issues are particu- lenging and community relevai New Zealand(2003) 1.16% 266.6 .^ zone. Guidelines being developed larly important for islands as thé issues than would donor-drive Cuba(2003) 0.65% l for thé évaluation of thèse activi- coastalzone often makes up a large scientific research. g ties in thé context ofprevious work part of thé island and many people Saint Lucia (1999) 0.38% 21.0 on monitoring and évaluation are dépend, directly or indirectly, on marine-related resources for their National scientists are needed présentée. IOC capacity develo- Cypms(2004) 0.37% i pment's long-term test of perfor- livelihood. Traditional knowledge promole thé national interest > mance will be obsolescence of its Systemsfor managing coastal re- Mauritius(2003) 0.35% 40.1 > m activities as presently framed, resources will remain a precious Nationally-ownedreseard sulting in Member Statesbuilding asset, but in a rapidly changing will better address thé national il Malta (2004) 0.29% their own capacity,requesting ex- environment, in thé context ofeco- terest in many cases,for instanceil teraal assistanceonly when requi- nomic and démographiegrowth, grantingfishing or minéral resoui Saint Vincent and thé Grenadines(2002) 0.15% 8.3 red for those activities that they marine sciences also are critical ces rights to foreign companies Sri Lanka (2000) 0.14% 4.6 deemimportant, from sourcesthat for managingoften pressingissues This will also be critical in emei consideroptimum, for islands such as thé sustainable ging international marine-relatei they and at ti- Madagascar(2000) 0.12% 0.9 mes they consider appropriate. use of living resources, érosion, issues such as thé délimitation o Achieving this stageof self-driven pollution, and safety in thé coastal thé continentalshelfand thé paten Trinidadand Tobago (2003) 0.12% 13.5 capacity development in marine zone. ting of marinebioactive molécules scienceinstitutes will allow capa- in both of which many island sta Philippines(2002) 0.11% 4.7 city developmentat IOC to pro- tes hâve considérable ressources a gressto thé stageof a knowledge Local scientistsare neededto ap- stake due to their large sovereig Seychelles(2002) 0.11% managementcentre for intematio- preciate thé local context. océanaréa and uniquemarine bio Bermuda(1997) 0.08% nal collaborationbetween peers. ta. Addressingthèse issues will re quire more than scientific capacit) Jamaica(2002) 0.07% 2.8 Thé case for developing It is essential for its effecti- It will entail island states havinj marine sciences in island ve applicationthat capacity ma- defeni in thé ability to promote and Indonesia(2001) 0.05% 1.6 states rine science be local, national or their interests in international mee ÎVhatis capacitydevelopment? régional as thé situation demands. tings andnegotiations, for instand Brunei Damssalam(2003) 0.03% 4.2 Local support and commitment of by holding a commonposition. Tb Théterm capacitydevelop- communities for enforcing a po- strengthofnegotiations will derivi ment emerged in thé 1980s out of licy for thé management of marine from solid scientific understandini many expériencesin différent fields resourcesis securedmore easily if and data delivered by locaVregio of internationaldevelopment, and it is based on research from local nal high-quality marine science hassince been increasingly seen as scientists, who would hâve a better mstitutes. a fundamentalaspect of develop- appréciation of thé cultural context ment coopération. It has many de- and interact more effectively with

30 31 Table 2: Human resourcesfor research

Researchersper Total number million Country ofresearchers mhabitant

Iceland(2003) 12,156 3,517

New Zealand(2003) 6,224 24,559

Ireland(2004) 4,001 16,321 lùd Portugueseisland, Mozambique l Cypms(2003) 1,334 1,089 Scientific capacity in island blé 2), publications (Table 3) and cutting-edge research in a partiel l § or archipelago states: a brief patent applications(Table 4) give lar spécialisation is much easier t overview a similar picture of large disparity achieve with a sufficient number ( Bmnei Damssalam (2003) 81 7 292 s with a prédominance of low scien- specialistsin thé discipline, a fai tific capacityin small island states. tor which is not feasible for maii Indicators suggestthat many is- Cuba(2003) 537 6,027 j land statesneed capacity develop- Publication output recorded in thé small island states. Developin > institutional networks that addres > ment m marine sciences Aquatic Sciencesand Fisheries. M SaintLucia(1999) 483 74 Abstract database (ASFA) commonproblems is importantf( suggeststhat countriescapacity in scientific institutions in thé Sout Thé many uses of scienti- marine sciences roughly parallels (TWAS 2004), and this is an eve Indonesia (2001) 438 92,817 fie capacity for coastalstates and that of overall scientific capacity. more critical need for islands. Tl University thé South Pacifie ( their spécialimportance for island of Trinidad and Tobago (2003) 399 518 states were discussed. What then is thé University of thé West Indic thé picture on thé ground?Wagner Shortage of scientific staff in is- can be cited as successful illustr; Sri Lanka(2000) 393 7,807 et al. (2001) measuredscientific lands increasesthé importanceof tions ofthis approach. capacityin différent countrieswith collaboration a variety of indicators.In that stu- CapeVerde (2002) 227 107 dy, only two island states(Taiwan Enhancing scientific capa- Scientificexcellence is possible developingisland states and Iceland) were in thé group of city is a complex and challenging Mauritius(1997) 201 231 scientifically advancedcountries, process,particularly in developing two were in thé group of scientifi- countries, due, among others, to SaintVincent and thé Grenadines(2002) 179 21 cally proficient (New Zealandand lack of funds, low rétention of Despite thèse challenge Cuba), two in thé group of scien- talent ("brain drain"), lower prio- facing scientists in small islan^ tifically developing(Mauritius and rity than immédiateneeds such as or archipelago developing state; Philippines(2002) 86 6,803 Indonesia), while thé remaining is- health or primary éducation (both some notable success stories sho' govemments donors),and that excellence is possible. Centt'f landssurveyed were in thécategory for and Virgin Islands(United StatesofAmerica) (2002) 12 described as scientifically lagging. in thé case of marine science, lack ofscientific excellence in a variel Gross expenditure on research ofawareness ofits societalbenefits. of fields, including marine sciei AmericanSamoa (United StatesofAmerica) (2002) and development (Table l) also In an island context, thé develop- ces,already exist in Cuba,Indons suggests large disparities between ment ofscientific capacity présents sia, Jamaica, Madagascar, Papï différent island states, with low a number of spécifie challenges New Guinea, thé Philippines, S expenditure being prévalent for that are not as acute in larger de- Lanka and Trinidad and Tobag small island states. Other indica- veloping or emerging économies. (TWNSO 2003), as shown in tors of scientific capacity such as Thé most important of thèsemay blé 5. human resources for research (Ta- be thé problem of critical mass:

32 33 IQC's self-driven Our strategy- changeapproach - Besidestransfemng leadershi;one planning and conflict resolu- mes imperative to find out what Indicators, ideally, are objective, Capacity development skills, IOC is also focussing o;ion,and are importantfor advoca- works and what doesn't. There is verifiable,easily applicable measu- In line with practicesof thé workshops where leaders wij;yin capacitydevelopment issues stronger emphasison assessmentres of performance.They can be a times, IOC capacity development identify,plan andimplement proe. g, Babuet al. 2005.,Vethamony of performancefrom development powerful tool for monitoring pro- lOC's expériencein capacitydeve- has long focussed on building grammesthat addresscore capacit;t al. 2005). agencies,partly in answer to pu- gress and for évaluation and gui- lopment compétence of individual scien- developmentissues whilst simulta. Lastly consideringthé perennial blic demand in donor countries. ding of capacity development.At tists. This expérience and those of neouslycreating good science acshortage of funds,efficiency will Perhaps most critically, insufîi- présentthere is no agreedupon uni- Since its inception in 1960, developmentcoopération in other addressingkey community issueaecritical. Ail capacity develo- cient requirementfor performance fied, easily applicable framework thé Intergovemmental Oceano- fields, as well as research institutes Implementationwill be througpmentefforts are soughtto be and accountability can result in for monitoring and assessment graphie Commission of UNESCO that hâve successfullybuilt their proposal-writing workshops thcombinedwith existmg events,in detrimentalimpact, for instanceby and indicators of capacity develo- (IOC) bas conducted many pro- capacity in thé last décade,hâve strengthenskills of articulationaiicollaboration with like-minded supporting and developing inef- pment, and marine sciences are no grammes that hâve achieved a va- shown that an equally important advocacyto attractfùnds for scieiorganisations,and using local and ficiency or corruption, especially exception. Increasing attention and luable contribution to thé develo- aspectto considerin capacity de- tific research.Leadership skills airegional skills sets. for projects that are significantly much research is devoted to this is- pment of marine sciencesin many velopment is thé enviromnent in therefore cast in a frame that i foreign-driven. Thé enhancement sue as shown in thé growing body countries.Many of thèseprograms which individual scientists evolve. sustainablefor institutes,releva^ndicators of capacity deve- of a "culture of évaluation" is in- of literature available on this sub- hâve benefited from long-term Excellent instituteswith visionary to local communities, and enhaii creasinglyseen as an essentialpart ject (e.g. Morgan 1999; MEASU- g committed funding partners, and leadershipcreate thé environment ces ownership of project desig of organisationaland societal de- RE2001;Mizrahi2004). velopment (Horton al. 2003). .^ many scientists hâve been trained that hold and foster young talent andfunds. ê remainderof thispa- et and this is thé élément central to in thé know-how of data and in- -Itwiiïbemthiscontextthattraip^p^gents thé principlesthat Appropriately measuringthé right thé IOC strategyfor capacity-buil- Thé complexity of measuring ca- things: some caveats with thé use formation exchangeand in iden- ningof individualscientists ^wi^î ^^ thédevelopment of an i tifying harmful algal blooms, and ding. Thus: hâvethé needed multiplier effeci^^tion frameworkand indi- pacity development ofindicators in thé know-why throughresearch - Visionary, inclusive, and respon- sinceit is gearedtodevelop thos^tors for assessingperformance Indicators can distort thé l at sea.Thèse efforts are increasing, sive leadershipis neededfor effec- 'know-how'skills necessary\^ ^ activitiesagainst what we Defining capacity enhancementis but recognising that we are in a tive, long-tenn, self-drivengrowth effectivelyfulfil projectrequireânt to achieve self-driven ins- itselfa complexproblem, although évaluation processmeasuring thé period where capacity develop- of organisations, and thé new IOC ments- titutes.Thèse principles are being much useful knowledgeon this is- particular and non-essential as- l Cd ment must be accelerated,thé IOC capacity developmentstrategy is developed based on previous work suehas been gained in thé last de- pects of capacity development, for Assembly of 139 Member States addressingthis constituency.Ex- A spectrumoftools that positivel;^ capacity development within thé cade(e. g. Mizrahi 2004). Capacity instance overly focussing on im- in June 2005 approved a strategy cellent leadershipis critical for fi- impactproject delivery will be SCIQCand other actors in this field. can be measured at several levels, pact rather than on sustainability for instance it is common to dis- (IOC 2005) promoting self-driven nancial sustainability as it focuses lectedby théteam of localsciei-rhis is still a work in progrcssthat or ownership (Ogiogio 2004). In capacity development. Some de- capacitydevelopment on institutes' tists,andthé training on thèse toolwill be adaptedwith newinfor- tinguish between thé capacity eva- certain cases,thé enforcement of a tails on this strategyare provided priorities, and by encouragingand will also be formulatedby theiimationthat will becomeavailable luated at thé level of individuals, formalised évaluation framework below. fostermg leadership in. others, it Bothactivities will beassistée bfrom other organisations andfrom organisation, or societies. It is rare and associatedindicators has yiel- ensuresthat best practicessurvive disciplinespecialists. One of thfheexpérience of IOC activities as that at any of thèse levels capa- ded figures that, although appa- Our bestadvlce cornes from analy- and are maintained, which enhan- toolsbeing offered is coastalMthey are implemented. city can be easily "measured",as rently useful in reports, are clearly sing our changing world. ces operationalsustainability (e. g. merical modelssince thèse preseB many of thé key attributes that are not meaningful when thé way they hâve been obtained is examined. continuing relevance, efficiency a cost-effectiveway of gaining^Monitoring and évaluation are es- thought to make capacity are not Today's emerging eco- and effectivenessof activities) . firstunderstandingoflocal coasta sentialfor developmentprojects. objectively quantifiable. Thé issue Seen fi-om actors actually imple- nomies hâve radically advanced Tanzania coastline at Kunduchi conditions, are useful for coastal of quantifying thé effectiveness of menting projects, collecting and their scientific capacityin thé last Monitoring andassessment capacity development interven- providing such figures, and thé décade,including in marine scien- of performanceis critical to any tions is complex- far too complex work involved in ensuring that ces.Thèse countries set aboutget- developmentwork. It is neededto to be uniquely quantifiée with pre- they remain within donor requirements, can become a bureaucratie ting thé right capacitieswhere they uide, adaptand improveimple- sently available measurementsand théories. sub- hurdle disconnected from thé real need it, when they need it, and tnentation.This is particularly im- A significant part of benefits a (this from whom they needit. What are portantfor capacitydevelopment, jectivity is unavoidablein thé eva- project provides thé conditions that hâve fostered s différencesin thé local cultu- luation of capacity and its change is a statement based on personal this self-driven capacity develop- al, économie and environmental in most fields. Indicators are one of communication from many field thé tools that can make an evalua- workers). This can be worsened by ment, and can this analysisbe sui- ^?; 4context require that projects be ^1^ , thé diversion ofresources from thé tably adaptedand appliedto other idaptedand often changed consi- tion more objective. developingnations? This question tierablyacross régions. In fact it primary goal of a project towards formed thé base of thé strategy asbeen argued that trial anderror Using indicators for monitoring monitoring and évaluation,which adoptedby IOC to developglobal isthé best approach todevelopment and évaluation ofcapacity develo- can impede progress (Watson capacity to conduct marine science Êasterly2006), and in that context pment 2006). Even if thé figures do hold research. ssessmentof performancebeco- some important information, it is

34 35 )ften thé casethat thé évaluationis Table 3: scientific ;ations ;onductedtoo late for making de- ;isions that will influence projects, \ '^^^ Country 2001 2002 2003 04 . ^..y^1 vith this information only ending- Amba ip in longand seldom read reports. Bahamas 3venif reportsarrive on time, their Bahrain 29 31 51 4l ise is often hamperedby many Barbados 32 25 4l 34 îther factors unrelated to thé im- Brunei 22 16 25 24 îrovement of thé capacity deve- Cuba 480 336 428 407 opmentactivity, such as political influence,ideology, or conflicting Cypms 111 123 130 139 interests(Horton et al. 2003). Fi- Dominica . lally, évaluationcan entail collec- Dominic. Rep. 19 13 14 14 tion of information that, although Fiji 13 25 24 19 appearinglogical in thé plaiming Haiti 14 stage,nécessitâtes some questions lLC Iceland 282 280 317 305 that are culturally insensitive or simply inappropriate, which can l Indonesia 388 320 341 350 naake thé évaluation counter-pro- Ireland 2,044 2,106 2,305 2,460 l ductive for thé project. Creek in Mombassa, Kenya Jamaica 72 75 66 76 Madagascar 46 55 79 56 Incorporatingbest practices in thé l Malta 29 23 38 31 developmentofIOC indicators gation of indicators to measure 3 Measuring performance at seve- performanceat différent levels, as rai levels §" Mauritius 26 36 22 29 > l. Building on existing UN well as thé recommendations on New-Zealand 3,233 3,249 3,461 3,281 lM effortsfor evaluatingcapacity de- thé advantageand disadvantages 284 Philippines 259 303 296 velopment of varions types of indicators and Capacity and its enhance- Samoa 3 2 their use. ment will be measured at several Seychelles 5 3 9 5 Developing and improving levels. As mentioned above it is Solomon Isl. 4 3 7 4 évaluation frameworks for capa- common to distinguish befrween city development is still an active capacity at thé levels indivi- Sri Lanka 116 129 201 191 of area ofwork within thé United Na- 2. Measiirahle outputs in capaclty duals, organisationsand Systems St-Lucia 3 dons(e. g. UN 2002). UNESCO is development in sciences or societies. An évaluation of best l St-Vinc. & Gren. tiow promoting thé use of Results practices in IOC capacity buil- Trinidad & Tob. 66 64 67 65 BasedManagement (RBM). RBM ding (Dean 2005) recommended is already used for existing IOC Certain aspects of capa- to measure performance and/or Total Selected Countries 7,242 7,772 7.855 7,769 activities,and will provide a basis city enhancementwill be relati- impact of capacitydevelopment at on which to build thé évaluation vely simple to measure. Objective thé level of individuals, projects, Total World 593,804 586,063 638,429 5l 2.747 frameworkfor new capacityde- indicators should include some programmes,at thé level of thé or- velopmentactivities and adaptit of those that were used to assess ganisation(in our case,IOC), and to its particularities. Another im- scientific capacity in thé UNESCO at thé environmental or societal le- portant basis will be work fi-om Science Report 2005 (UNESCO vel. Possible indicators for measu- théUnited Nations Development 2005) or in Wagneret al. (2001). rement at thèse différent levels are Programme(UNDP) and thé Glo- Number and share of publica- proposedin Dean (2005). In deve- bal EnvironmentFacility (GEF) tions in peer-reviewed joumals loping and applying indicators of whichare developing aresource kit and patents,human resourcesand capacity development,it will be for capacitydevelopment indica- financial resources (especially ex- important that each intervention tors(UNDP/GEF 2003). IOC will tra-budgetary)of instihites will be hâve clearly defined objectives takeguidance from this work for amongthé measurableoutputs for (that relate to thé direct output), théapproach to quantifying many which thé IOC contribution will purpose(that relate to thé rcsults/ aspectsof capacitydevelopment be analysed.Relevant measures of outcomes, or what thé use of thé (suchas thé scorecard approach), infrastmcturecapacity will alsobe output générâtes)and goals (what methodsproposed for thé aggre- monitored. thé outcomes in tum lead to).

36 37 4 A/feasuringimpact and sustaina- 5, Evaluation as a partici- In a first phase IOC is clear that measuringperfor- lopersofscientific capacity?Taken 2005, on fiindamentalqualifies of bility ofoutcomes pative process work closely with directorsof insiianceof efforts, in contributing to its logical conclusion,it implies capacity development:relevance, tituteson leadershipand managço thé developmentof capacityof that thé self-drive of institutes will ownership, sustainability, effecti- Following recommenda- Participation of ail actors ment skills of institutes.Thé feonstitutesto conductrelevant man- eventually make présentIOC ca- venessand impact, and efificiency). tions fi-omprevious studies (Ogio- will be soughtat every stageof thé dback fi-om thé directors in houescientific research is a complète pacity developmentinterventions Yet obsolescence of thé current gio 2004), measurement ofperfor- évaluationprocess, from thé design thé corresponding activities havicience. dispensable. approach will be thé ultimate test mance and associated indicators to thé implementation,adaptation impactedtheir daily work will li Without doubt however Therefore thé sunset clause - an uncomplicated and simple will avoid an over-emphasison and use, as recommendedby se- an essentialpart of thé assessmeigustainabilityof outcomes should that we must set ourselves is ob- measureof our credibility, since- impact assessment- also referred veral studies(e. g. Boesenand La- ofIOC capacitydevelopment. Oiibe our choice of one of thé most solescence- by which we mean rity andperformance. to as contribution analysis (Mac- fontaine 1998). Suchparticipation difficulty to considerin this resimportantparameters measunng that ail institutes within thé IOC With time, as capacity kay and Horton 2002, Mayne is critical for thé legitimacy and pectis thata leadershipdevelopcapacity development. Applying network will eventually reach a needs evolve, IOC should trans- 1999).One problem is that impact support of thé évaluationprocess, ment programmeshould not seesustainabilitythat at its conclu- stagewhere IOC capacitydevelo- form itself from providing skills or contributions,particularly so in which in tum are essential for thé to pleaseparticipants in thé shortsion,institutes will drive them- pment activities, as they are pre- and institutions-based capacity thé case of capacity development quality of thé results and their use. term,as leadership development iselves through a spiralof growth, sently framed, are no longer nee- building support to knowledge- in marine sciences,will clearly de- Another important benefit of this notnecessarilyapleasantprocesschangingfrom a cycle of donor- ded. This will undoubtedly dépend basedinputs. It leadsus and leaves pend on many factorsindependent approach is that it contributes to for instancea workshopthat steerdependency to one of identifying on performanceat many différent us freely to thé next stage- cataly- 8 ofIOC activities. developingcapacity for évaluation hard or unpleasantquestions fcand meeting their own core needs. levels, and in many différent as- sing collaborations between peers Cause and effect will re- (thé "process use" of evaluatmg participantsmay provide more opWhere would this leave us as deve- pects (e.g., following Ogiogio wherever they may réside. .^ main enmeshed in thé plethora capacity development,Horton et portunities for achieving positiv l of inputs that thé real world pre- al. 2003), which itselfis increasin- changein thé long-mn. It will alsi Table 4: Patent a lications filed b office l sents. For instance impact in terms gly recognisedas a key aspectof be kept in mind that changewil 2004 of sustainability of use of marine capacity development (Mackay take some time and thé evaluatioi 1999 l Filed by Filed by non- Filed by Filed by non- resourcewill dépend strongly on 1999). will only be meaningful when suf Office résidents résidents résidents résidents § économie development, societal has been fo ficient time allowed Aruba > changes, environmental changes 6. Partners in Member Slates eva- renewed mindsets or behaviours ti Barbados at thé global scale,etc. To evaluate luatinglOC Finall} influence thé workplace. Bahrain lasting benefits from capacity de- measuringchange in leadership o Brunei velopment,it is equally important Extending this participato- managementskills will be parti Bahamas to measure such dimensions as thé ry approachfurther, an important cularly challenging,and althougl relevance,ownership and sustaina- principle of thé évaluation pro- numerical indicators would b Cuba 127 bility of interventions, rather than cess will be that, more than IOC désirable, final évaluation will b Cyprus 85 focussingsolely on impact. evaluatingthé capacity of marine significantly subjective. Nonethe Dominica With this in mind, it will institutes, to thé contrary, institutes less, thé feedback from directoi; Dom. Rep. however be important to analyse evaluatehow useful IOC capacity of institutes will be critical to th Fiji thé contribution in societal benefits developmentactivities hâve been évaluationand guiding ofthis Haiti fi-om IOC capacity development. to them.IOC capacitydevelopment cess. Indonesia This will not mean attemptingto will also seek to evaluate itself Ireland 996 118 787 58 demonstratea causal relationship using indicatorsproposed by Dean Conclusions Iceland 35 31 49 15 between our activities and, to take (2005). Criteria for assessingIOC Jamaica an example,total generatedincome capacitydevelopment will also be Thé importance of eahan Kiribati from marineresources, environ- or soughtfrom thé IOC Consultative cing capacity for marine science! St Lucia mentalsustainability. Group on Capacity Development in island states was discussed ani Sri Lanka It will be important, rather, that is being formed basedon no- thé IOC strategyfor capacity de Madagascar 9 16 to ensure that thé final outcomes be minations proposed from IOC velopment briefly summarised Malta examined assessing hâve Member States and will include a 11 72 471 by ifthey Thé principles that will guide thf been achieved in thé time frame Mauritius geographicallybalanced panel of évaluationof IOC capacity deve New Zeal. 1420 2803 that was estimatedin thé planning experts in various disciplines of lopment were présentée,togethei developmentactivities, marine sciences and international Philippines 144 157 413 ofcapacity with an overview of récent prac Solomon is. and evaluatingthé contribution to development. tices in monitoring and evaluatioi this outcome, possibly with such and how they hâve been incorpo Seychelles tools as programme logic charts 7. Involving directors of institutes rated in thé formulation of thesi Trin. Tobag. (Mayne 1999). in thé évaluationprocess principles. St Vinc. Gr. Samoa

38 39 Acknowl edgements Table5: Centresofscientific excellencein islandor archi ela o develo in states

Number of centres Thé UNESCO Division of Country JoannesBerque joined thé GenevesiOgiogio holds Science Policy and Sustainable 3 section on capacity development of thé In- Ph.D. in économiesand is Managerf, Cuba Development and thé UNESCO tergovernmenta] Océanographie Cominis- KnowledgeManagement and Advisiindonesia 6 Institute statisticsprovided very sion of UNESCO after a PhD in Physical Stratégie Planning and Programmii 3 for Jamaica ceanographyfrom thé ScrippsInstitution helpfùl comments, information at thé Afi-ican Capacity Building Foii, 6 f Oceanography.Califomia. His publica- dation (ACBF). He is a Senior Visitii Madagascar and data for this study.This paper l lions arein thé field ofremote sensingan Fellow of thé University of Stellenbosc; Papua New Guinea draws on our initial expériences thé niodeling of clouds, snow and radia- SouthAfrica. Dr. Ogiogiospecializes i Philippines 6 in capacity developmentactivities tion. His cun-ent work is on inteiTialiona] econometrics, development economi,Singapore l that thé IOC is conductingin dif- collaborations for thé managementan capacity building and knowledgeman. Sri Lanka 5 development ofinarine and coastal resour- ferent régions.It is meet therefore ement. He is widely published in tl l ces,particularly in developingcountries. reas ot'institutional and économie Trinidad and Tobago to thank two colleagueswho are polii Email: j. [email protected] retbrms,exchange rate managementsir: pivotally involved in implemen- tegies and policies, capacity building Mackay, K. 1999. Evaluation Third World Network of Scientific Orga- ting thé IOC Capacity develop- knowledgemanagement Babu, M. T., P. Vethamonyand capacitydevelopment, a diagnosticguide nisations(TWNSO) in collaborationwith ment strategy - Sonia Guiraud and Desa,2005. Modelling tide-drivencur- and action framework. Thé World Bank thé South Centre and thé Third World lan Dean. Initial implementation rents and residual eddies in thé Gulf of OpérationsEvaluation Department, ECD Academyof Sciences(TWAS). l ICachchharid their seasonalvariability: a Working Paper Séries No. 6. January UNESCO2005. UNESCO scien- activities hâve beenpossible only marine environmentalplanning perspec- 1999. ce report 2005. UNESCO Publishing. becauseof a grant from thé Swe- Ehrlich Desagraduated with rive. Ecol. Model., 184,299-312. Mackay,R. andD. Horton 2002. UNESCO Institute for Statistics i dish International Development a PhD from thé University of Sheffield, Boesen, J. and A. Lafontaine Capacitydevelopment in planning,moni- 2006. Statistics on research and develop- Agency (Sida). Thèse funds are U.K. He joined thé National Institute ol 1998.Thé planningand monitoring ofca- toring and évaluation:results of an eva- ment, updated March 2006. permitting IOC to conduct thé first Oceanography, India, as a scientist and pacitydevelopment in environmentmitia- luation. International Service for National UN 2002. Report of thé UN in- later became its director from 1994 to tives.Prepared for DANIDAby thé Cana- Agricultural Research(ISNAR), briefing teragencyworkshop on capacitydevelop- leadership,team-building and pro- l 2003. His publications are in thé fields of dian International Development Agency paper no. 51. ment, Geneva 20-22 November 2002. posai writing workshops,thé very anne instrumentation, remote sensing, (CIDA). Mayne, J. 1999.Addressing at- UNDP 1997. Capacity develop- wl activities which we are evaluating 'nd modelling, and he holds severalpa- Dean, I. 2005. Best practicesin tribution through contribution analysis: ment.Technical Advisory Paper2, United with thé indicators discussed hère. ents in thé arcasofhis work. He joined IOC capacity-building.Groman consul- using performance measures sensibly. Nations Development Programme,Ma- We are also grateful to UNESCO, thé Intergovera- mental Océanographie ting and UNESCO Intergovemmen- Office of thé Auditor Général of Canada, nagementDevelopment and Govemance Commission of UNESCO in 2003 to stai tal Océanographie Commission (IOC). Discussion Paper. Division, Bureaufor Policy Development, thé Executive Secretary of IOC thé sectionon capacitydevelopment. Availablefrom IOC upon request. MEASURE 2001. Measuring 1997. and IOC Member States for their Easterly,W. 2006. Plannersvs. capacity building. L. Brown, A. LaFond UNDP/GEF 2003. Capacity support and encouragement. searchersin foreign aid. Paperprepared and K. Macintyre, MEASURE Evalua- developmentindicators, UNDP/GEF re- for thé Asian DevelopmentBank's Dis- tion, CarolinaPopulation Center, Univer- sourcekit (no.4), work in progress.Uni- tinguishedSpeakers Program. sity ofNorth Carolinaat ChapelHill. ted NationsDevelopment Programme and ^ Horton, D., A. Alexaki, S. Ben- Morgan, P. 1999. An update thé Global EnvironmentFacility. Port in Maputo nett-Lartey,K. N. Brice, D. Campilan,F. on thé performancemonitoring of capa- VethamonyP., G. S. Reddy, M. Carden,J. de SouzaSilva, L. T. Duong, city developmentprograms. What are we T. Babu, E. Desa and K. Sudheesh, 2005. ^ I. Khadar,A. MaestreyBoza, I. Kayes leaming?Paper presented at thé meeting Tidal eddies in a semi-enclosed basin: a Munimzzaman,J. Ferez, M. Somarriba of thé DAC Informai Network on Insti- model study.Mar. Environ. Res.,59, 519- -hang,R. Vemooy,and J. Watts.2003. tutional and CapacityDevelopment held 532. valuatingcapacity development. expe- in Ottawa,May 3-5th, 1999.Prepared for Wagner,C. S., I. Brahmakulam, encesfrom researchand developmentthé Policy Branch,Canadian International B. Jackson,A. Wang and T. Yoda 2001. rgamzations around thé world. Thé DevelopmentAgency Science and technology collaboration: Netherlands:International Service for Mizrahi, Y. 2004. Capacity en- building capacity in developing coun- NationalAgricultural Research (ISNAR); hancement indicators review of thé lite- tries? MR-1357.0-WB, préparée for thé Canada:International Development Re- rature.Thé World Bank Institute Working Worid Bank by RAND Scienceand Tech- searchCentre (IDRC), thé Netheriands:Papers. nology. ACP-EUTechnical Centre for Agricultu- Ogiogio, G. 2005. Measuring Watson, D. 2006. monitoring raiand Rural Coopération (CTA) performanceof interventionsin capacity and évaluation of capacity and capacity IOC 2005.draft IOC principles building: some fùndamentais. Thé Afri- development.A thèmepaper prepared for andstrategy for capacity-building.IOC/ can CapacityBuilding Foundation,Occa- thé project 'Capacity,Change and Perfor- INF-1211prov., Intergovemmental Ocea- sionalpaperno. 4. mance', European Centre for Develop- nographicCommission of UNESCO. TWAS 2004. Building scienti- ment Policy Management. Lusthaus,C., M.-H Adrien and fie capacity,a TWAS perspective.Report World Intellectual Property Or- M. Perstinger1999. Capacity develop- of thé Third World Academy of Sciences ganisation (WIPO) 2006. information nlent:définitions, issues, and implications (TWAS). obtained online fi-om thé statistical data forplanning, monitoring and évaluation. TWNSO 2003. Profiles of ins- query System. UniversaliaOccasional Paper No. 35, titutions for scientific exchangeand trai- sept.1999. ning in thé South. Third édition, 2003,

40 4l -he créationof marineprotected Importance of Marine Pro- Forty seven island nations u-easfalls underthé umbrellaof tected areas were included in thé analysis, woearlierprogramsofwork.Thé which included 37 of thé small is- akartaMandate on thé Conserva- Areas set aside for protec- land developingstates (SIDS) and ionand SustainableUse of Marine tion in thé marine environment 10 continental islands: Australia, md Coastal Biological Diversity range enormouslyin size, location Iceland,Japan, New Zealand,Ma- ?f thé Convention on Biological and purpose (Box 2 provides thé dagascar,Philippines, Republic of Diversity,and thé subséquentpro- main objectives of establishing Ireland, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, and grammeof workon thistopic set marine protectedareas). A ma- thé United Kingdom. Information outgoals and activities for théin- rine protectedarea (MPA) is de- on eachMarine protectedarea site was obtained Pro- femational community aimed at fined by Thé World Conservation from Marine By MalgorzataA. Marszalekand Marjo Vien-os nservation and sustainableuse Union (IUCN) as "Any area of tectedAreas Global: (http://www. f marineand coastalbiodiversity. inter-tidal or sub-tidal terrain, to- mpaglobal.org/home.html) a spa- tial database thé world's marine This work programme contains a gether with its overlying waters of spécifiesection dedicated to ma- and associated fauna, flora, histo- protected areas. rine and coastal protected areas. rical and cultural features, which This database is thé result pted of a formai collaboration befrween lM Introduction thé trendsand status of marinepro- protectedareas. ProtectedareasarAdditionallyLTh.e..cBD_lo has beenreserved by law or other thé Sea Around Us Project, Uni- l tectedareas as we areapproaching rreognizedas"thïmo7t^mporta;theProêTme,effective means to protect part or ^^ versity ofBritish Columbia,World Islandsplay a uniquerôle in the2010and2012targets. mùt:for'm^conservaton^tedareasw;thAemarineobJ^tive ail of thé enclosed environment" l . ""of establishing and mamtaining (IUCN, 1988; Kelleher, 1999). Wildlife Fund (WWF), United global biodiversity; their surroun- Thé paper attemptsto as- they provide a basis for assessin01. âw'J"îi^^ """^ "'of a nefrworkof marine protected Nations Environment Programme ^ ding waterscover one-sixthof thé sess thé degree to which island thé extent of formai protection oul a ll.^v^\'" "'""J They provide a highly variable Jareasby 2012 comprisedofrepre- - World ConservationMonitoring world's surfaceand provide habi- countries hâve used marine pro- global biodiversity and a measui'11^3," degree of protection to biodiver- reas Centre (UNEP-WCMC) and thé tat for more than halfofthe earth's tected areas as a way to imple- ^fconservatimônm;itmenrat'Ïâtwe^ï:^^weâla sity, which was not necessarilythé World Conservation Union - World l diversity of marineplants and ani- ment their commitments under thé gbbalâle(Chape'etï^05):'AatProtectSci^habltats,spe-prime purposefor which thé areas ., ecosystem services. Com- Commission on Protected Areas Convention Diver- -"-^ ^^ ^ were established.They areused to l mais.They harboran astonishingly on Biological Thé uniqueness, fragilit!,"'. ^"^1^. 7^"'^^".. i^TT. ÛO '1^ ""&^"Jbined,^^ thé activities included in (IUCN-WCPA). Additionally, thé high ratio of endémiespecies and sity (CBD). importance ofislands was for^"""', protect biodiversity, résolve user " thèsethree work programmes pre- database is thé result of a request contain more endangered,rare and mally recognizedunder thé CED i u^.^_""^.. ".^ conflicts, and help restore over- sent a commitment madeby thé Conférenceof thé Par- threatenedspecies than anywhere March 2006, when thé Conferenduw"1".' exploitée stocks and degraded Steps taken in face ofma- countries to focus efforts on thé ties to thé Conventionon Biologi- else. Islandsdeserve particular at- anewworl'"", "." areas. Given thé multiple benefits, rine biodiversity loss ^' establishmentand managementof cal Diversity in paragraph38 De- tention in relation to biodiversity programme on island biodiversitî *'""""""""""''. "^"/""""S7" protectedareas are important ins- marine protected areas. This com- cision VII/5. There are significant conservation priorities. Half of thé culmi ""*, "" -""^- tmments for meeting thé Conven- mittment r""--^-^-is limitations on data available for ail thé speciesin thé world that hâve Many island states throu- nation ot an extensive long-teni7 . , "i " r~-----^ ^"-^- tion's targetsof significantly redu- ' to islandcountries, not only in light protected sites, including lack of become extinct hâve been island ghoutthé world hâve,to varying effort that brought together repre ^7i.wT-w."^\^'"'_ cing thé rate of biodiversity loss. ^ of thé new CBD work programme While thé océanscomprise 72% of size of ail thé protected areas,types species.Additionally, many small degrees,taken steps in récentyears sentatives ofisland countries. Uni ^^~, "^. 'i ^^" aimed at islands, but also because Earth surface, approximately of habitatand lack ofgeographical island statesdépend on marinere- to address thé challengesposed organizations, NGOs Â^î'_i-"7~7Z;'c~~. ~"'_~'_^" thé J'-lL^. "ofthe global significanceofisland 0.6% (Wood, 2005) thé marine coordinates which ail prevented sourcesand a healthy fùnctioning by thé lossof marinebiodiversity andindigenous and local commu^;^^;^ of protected a more comprehensiveanalysis. ecosystem for traditional subsis- and ecosystemdégradation by im- mties. environment is within areas, 11.5% Additionally, many MPAs include tence, thèse practices combined plemen- ting their commitments Thé overall purposeof th( comparedwith about of thé land surface. There are cur- large terrestrial areaswith thé ex- with more récent overexploitation under Convention Biologi- programme ofwork on island bio- thé on tent of thé marine portion not re- createpressure on thé manyunique cal Diversity (CED). Box l lists diversity is thé significant reduc- rently 5000marine protected areas identified worldwide representing ported. For this analysis thé marine genetic resources, speciesand eco- thé current major threats to mation of island biodiversity loss b} BOX portion was estimated separately Systemsharbored by islands.Islan- 2010 and fùrthermore as a contri- 2.2 million km2, with many in thé rine biodiversity faced by islands. for SIDS and continental islands are tremendous Major threatsto marine biodiver- developmentstages 2006). ds confronted with Thé Convention requires actions bution to poverty alleviation and (CBD, sity: Systems by calculatmg thé proportion of responsibility and multiple chal- to be taken to conserve biodiver- thé sustainable development ol Since many of thé island -Over-exploitation known marine areas to total area lenges in thé face of marine bio- sity andencourage its sustaina-blé islands, particularly small island coincide with "hotspots", sites of -Extractionmethod impacts (e. g. conservation priority, bio- reported.Due to this estimationthé diversity loss. Thé establishment use.Two broad complimentaryap- developing States. It contains their marine portion is probably overes- of marineprotected areas in island commitmentsrelating to establis- diversity has global importance. proacheshâve been employed to timated and thé correction is only settmgsis an essentialstrategy in hmentandmanagement ofprotec. :water Pollution and eutrophica- Thé importance of marine protec- achievethis. Oneis by regulating providedas an approximation.Thé prcventmg thé loss of marine bio- activities that might threatenbio- tedareas by thé year 2010 and thé lon ted areasis thereforeofparamount databaseis a work in progressand diversity. diversity, for exampleby control- establishmentof comprehensive,"' importancein island settings. is continuouslybeing updatedand Thé goal ofthis paperis to ling sanddredging or prohibiting effectivelymanaged and'ecoTogi- -AHen-species invasions dépendent on inputs of thé users. focus on island nations and, with thé collection of live corals. Thé callyreprésentative protected -naDitatdégradation Methodology Although it is thé most up-to-date currently available data, examine secondapproach is by establishingnetworks.

42 43 global databaseavailable, it is was obtainedfrom thé University For island nations, Thé total area of protec- by 2012. Figures4 and 5 (next page) probably far from being complète. of BritishColumbia Sea , Around numberof marineprotected sitesbas also increased conti- As might be expectedthere show thé size distribution of ma- Ciurently, thé WorldFish Centeris UsProject (http://www. seaaroun-bas been rising for thé past decûously during thé past three deca- is considérable variance in both thé rine protected areas for continental updatingthé MPA information for dus.org/eez/eez.aspx). desand is nowin excessof 13(ês,and represents around 860, 000 averagesize and thé total number and small island developing sta- thé East Asian and Micronesia re- sites. Figurel showsthé increasan2,more than one third of thé of sites, tes. gions. Thé overview paper should Results and Discussion in numberofprotected areassincôrid total MPAs. Figures2 and 3 be available in 2006 for East Asia Increase Number and Size of in thé 1800'sfor islandnations. ;howthé yearly increase in théto- CumulativeGrowth in MarineProtected Areas for SmallIsland Develloping States and 2007 Micronesia. in for Marine Protected Areas Théearly marine protecter. al marineprotected areas for both 1928-2006 areas were probably designategIDSand continentalislands. BOX 2 by traditional cultures as a fon There is considérableva- 60000 Marine protected areas are esta- On a global scale, MPA of fisheriesrégulation. Many sucriationin thé total area protected MarineProtected Area (Terrestrial + Marine) ob- area bas increased rapidly since a blishedusually with two main Systemsstill operatein thé Pacifibetweenthé two groups, steady Estimated Marine Portion jectives: conservation and sustai- thé 1970's indicating that thé and somehâve beengiven legancreasepunctuated with jumps 50000 nable use for humans(Roberts et Convention on Biological Diver- récognition. Thé first "moderncanbe observedfor both groups al., 2003; Jones,2002). sityand various other international marine protected area was Tianalyzed. 40000 Main conservationgoals include: conventions(such as thé Ramsar RoyalNational Park in Australi; Thé two large jumps in "s Convention,thé World Héritage declaredin 1879(a terrestrialsitcumulative areas for small island -Biodiversity consenâtion Convention,and thé UNESCO- with a marineportion), while tbdevelopingstates can be attribu- 30000 l -Conservation of rare and vulnera- MAB) mighthâve played an im- first SmallIsland Developing statted to thé créationof two large l l blé speciesand habitats portantrôle in facilitatingthé pro- MPArecorded in thédatabase wamarine protected areas: thé Sanc- 20000 -Maintenanceofgenetic diversity tectedarea désignation process at establishedin 1928inTrinidad antuary for thé MarineMammals of î -Maintenance and/or restoration of nationaland local levels(CBD, Tobago.Despite thèse early sitesthe Dominican Republic which l ecological function 2006).This commitmentis reflec- thédésignation ofMPAs hasbeawasestablished m 1986 with a 10000 0 G -Conservea représentativeset of ted in thé results of thé CBD 3rd slow, with an increasein site desitotal area of 26,000 km2 and thé habitattypes nationalreports, where 92% of thé gnationin thé 70's for continental0, 000km2Ha' apai' Conserva- Ml -Conservation of areas vital for rcspondingisland nationsreported islands and 80's for thé small istion area in Tonga establishedin 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 vulnérablelife stages. that thé establishmentof newma- land developingStates. Currentl'1994. Unfortunately, thèse frwo Main goals for human uses: rine protectedareas and networks thé databasecontains 1175MPAareas represent 72 % of thé total -Managing fisheries (using mais an important part of their natio- for thé continentalislands and 32lSIDS MPAs and provide a false rine protected areas to sustain or nal biodiversitystratégies and ac- MPAsfor smallisland developini sensé in increaseof thérate of thé enhanceyields, restore or rebuild tion plans. States. cumulative areas established. Thé stocks overexploited species, two major increases in cumulative of GrowthIn théNumber of MarineProtected Areas over Time. and provide insuranceagainst ma- protected areas in thé continental nagement failure) islands are also attributed to thé Cumulative Growth in Marine Protected Areas for Continental Isalnd Nations -Control tourism and récréation 1400 création of two large MPAs: Aus- 1879-2006 -Promote éducation and research ti-alia's Gréât Barrier Reef Marine ContinentalIsland Nations -Maintain traditional values - Park (344,400 km2) established 1200 --- SmallIsland Developing States -Fulfillment ofaesthetic needs § in 1975and thé MacquaireIsland 1000000 -Promoteintegrated coastal mana- l NationalPark (162,060 km2) esta- Total Marine ProtecetedArea (Terrestrial + Marine) 1000 MarinePonion only gement ^ blishedin 1999. 800000 -Préservecultural symbolic value B For continental island na- ofprotectedareas 800 tions, 2.5% of thé marine area un- l T3 Oi der jurisdiction (EEZ) is within i ^ 600000 Thé percentageof marine 600 MPAsand 0.2 % for small island protected areas for small island Statescompared to thé 0.6 % for ts states and continental islands was globalMPA data ( althoughthé 400000 400 calculatedfor eachgroup by di- f globalvalue was calculatedfor en- viding thé total marine protected tireocéans including areas outside s area (estimated marine portion 200 nationaljurisdiction). Thèse va- g 200000 only) by thé sum of thé Exclusive _^~ luessuggest that continental island Economie Zones (EEZ) for each 0 --"~~- nationscontribute significantly to theglobal value but arestill low country by group. Thé Exclusive 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 if 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 Economiezone for eachcountry the10% targets are going to be met YearDesignated YearDesignated

44 45 For both groups, thé majority of included in thé previous four gra- MPA, thé GréâtBarrier Reef ]V )esign ©f Marine Protected and are thé most important ingre- on Biological Diversity. A major dient in network establishment. A drawback marine conservation protectedareas are very small with phs. Thé largest protected areas rine Park,(which is a collection ~ Areas of only a small proportionof siteslar- tend to be thé best documented and protected areas) is 344,400 km2i key principle is thé needof MPAs projectshas been thé failure to spe- ger than 1000km2. Additionally, so although it cannot be shown de- size;thé smallest MPAs were on] ^e size,shape and thé lo- to representthé fiill range of ma- cify thé objectivesof establishing 9 % of thé sites in thé database finitely, it is likely that those sites rine biodiversity. marine protected areas,resulting in 0.001lmi2 m size,for examp^^^^ a marineprotected area contained no infonnation on thé for which no size has beenprovi- LengerIsland in Micronesia. ^^ "hâveimportant biological ef- an inability to effectively address size of thé MPA and thus were not largest représentativenetwork objectives leading percei- ded are very small. Thé fectson its performance. Size is A and to will include protectedareas incor- ved failuresor loss supportfrom mostlydépendent on thé goals and of porating ail habitattypes, with thé stakeholdergroups (Lundquist and objectivesof thé marine protected area. Several général ecological amountof eachhabitat type being Granek,2005). As mentionedpre- sufificientto cover thé variability viously many objectives exist for SizeDistribution of MarineProtected Areas for SmallIsland Developmg Statesconcepts based on scientificstu- it. diescan help guidethèse décisions within establishingMPAs. For example, thé goal of managedareas in Pa- on MPA size and location. Re- Importance of Networks searchhas shown that even small pua New Guinea is conservation MPAsappear to be ableto increase of Resources,including fisheries. and density,biomass, size and diver- For this reason one of thé Becausethé goal is explicit agreed upon, stakeholders are Ul sity of organisms(Halpem, 2002; targetsof thé Conventionis to es- expected outcomes l Halpemand Wamer, 2003). tablish a network of marine protec- aware of thé and methods for measuring suc- 75 % ted areasby 2012. Additionally, l cess and consequently lend their (0-20km2) Ifsmall protectedareas are thé Convention recommends thé l support to thé effort (Lundquist placedin a sù-ategicmanner, for protectionofat least 10%3ofeach exampleon spawninggrounds or of thé world's ecological régions. and Granek,2005). l Thé has identified 3% (> 1000 km^) along migratory routes, their im- Within thé database, only 17% of IUCN catégories management ob- G pactmight be evengreater. thé sites contained information on six of > 9% However, small MPAs mi- thé type of habitat that was pro- jectives (BOX 3). Thé choice of (10(1-1001)km2) ^ tected. A more thorough geogra- category is based on broad ma- Figure4 "Size Distribution of Marine Protected ght not be able to provide suffi- nagement objectives and what Areas for Small Island DevelopingStates" 12 % cientexpert functionsfor adjacent phic Information Systems (GIS) kind of constraints and conversely (20-100km-') unprotectedarcas if thé objective analysiswas beyond thé scopeof of thé MPA is to provide spill over this paper,but would allow a more what kind of management options to nearby fisheries (Halpem and in-depth analysis of thé types of planners and stakeholders wish to Wàmer,2003). Large MPAs, on habitats and marine ecological re- impose on thé area (CBD, 2003). thé other hand, include more and gions that are protectedby island Figure 6 shows thé relative propor- Size Distribution of Marine Protected Areas for Continental Islands largerhabitats, more species,and nations. Based on thé 3rd National tion of marine protected areasby a greater number of individuals of Reportssubmitted to thé Conven- IUCN categoryfor continentalis- each species.Thus, large MPAs tion on Biological Diversity only lands and Small Island developing States. protect more of thé local ecosys- 53% of thé island nations hâve temand larger populationsof spe- currently put in place a national cies,which are less likely to be Systemof network of marine pro- wiped out by catastrophicevents tected areas. terms number si- suchas big storms,and spills. In of of 65. 5 % oil tes, thé prédominantmanagement (0-20km2) Although désirable, thé establis- Importance of establishing category for small island deve- hmentand effective management objectives of largerprotected areas might be loping Statesis categoryIV, while thé MPAs in continental island are 3.8% (>1000 km^) morechallenging in practice.The- rcfore,a consensusis emerging mostly in thé IV to VI catégories. thatnetworks intermediatesize Even though size,loca- Thé CBD programmeof work on Figure5"Size Distribution of Marine Protected 13.5% of thé marine and coastal biodiversity Areas for Continental Islands" (100-l 000km2) MPAs(10-100 km2) might be more tion anddesign of marineprotected effectivethan fewer largeones, areas are important in successful spécifiesthat two types of MPAs 16.9 % Particularly thé networksinclude conservaionsfa-ategies, many ad- are needed: areas where extractive (20-100km if many différent habitats (Halpem ditional factors must be considered uses are prohibited (IUCN cate- aûdWamer, 2003). Connectionsif MPAs are going to effectively goriesl or II) and areasthat allow areas should preventbiodiversity loss and meet sustainableuses (IUCN catégories movement between them thé targets set by thé Convention III, IV, V, or VI).

46 47 Proportion of Marine Protected Areas by IUCN category Continental Islands and Small Island Developing States Box3: Protected AreaManagement Catégories. IUCNbas defined aséries ofsix protected areamanagement for cateories, based onprima mana ement objectives (RJCN, 1994).

0.6 Cate o Descri tion StrictNature Réserve: protected area managed mainly for science. Sinall Island Developing States Continental Isahids 0.5 § Areaofland and/or sea possessing someoutstanding orreprésentative ecosystems, geologicalorphysiologicalfeatures and/orspecies, available primarily forscientific 3 researchand/or environmentaî monitormg. ^ 0.4 WildemessArea: protected area managed mainly for wildemess protection.

0.3 Largearea ofunmodified orslightly modified land, and/or sea, retammg itsnatural characterandfflfluence, without permanent orsignificant habitation, which isproîected and managedsoasto préserve îtsnaturaï condition. § 0.2 l NationalPark: protected area managed mainly for ecosystem protection andrécréation. l

£ 0.1 Natumlarea ofland and/or sea, designaîed îo(a) protect théecological integrity ofone or l

moreecosystems forprésent and future générations, (b)exclude exploitation oroccupation , 1l inimicaltothepurposes ofdésignation ofthé area and (c)provide afoundatlonfor spiritual, 0.0 scientific,educational, recreatlonaïandvisitoropportunities, ailofwhich mustbe la Ib III IV v VI NotAvailable environmentallyandculîurally compatible. j IUCN Catégories III NaturalMonument: protected arca managed mainly conservationspécifie natural for of lM Figure 6: Proportionof Marine ProtectedAreas by IUCN categoryfor ContinentalIslands and featurcs. Small Island DevelopingStates Areacontaimng one,or more, spécifie natural ornaîural/cuîturalfeature whichisof outstandingorunique value because ofits inhérent rarity, représentative oraesthetic Importance of Management qualitiesor culturalsignificance.

IV MPAs are only effective improvmg management aver time marine protectedarea managers Habitat/SpeciesManagement Area:protected arcamanaged mainly forconservation through managementintervention. when thereis an effectivemanage- and for demonstratingthé benefits assessand report on their progresi ment plan that includes adéquate of marineprotectedareas. To date in a standardizedway consistée] Areaofîand and/or sea subject toactive intervention formanagement purposes soas to ecological and socio-economic little emphasishas beenplaced on with thé World Summit on Sustai ensurethémaintenance ofhabitats and/or tomeet thé requirements ofspécifie species. monitoring, as well as enforcement evaluating effective monitoring nable Development (WSSD) ta- to ensure that thé plan is imple- and managementstratégies. Eva- get of a représentative network ProtectedLaadscape/Seascape: protectedareamanaged mainly for landscape/seascape mented(Wilkinson, 2000). Conse- luation is needed to leam which MPAsby2012. conservationand récréation. quently, thé CBD programmesof conservation approacheswork and work on marine and coastal bio- why, to demonstratethé impact of Hope for thé Future Areaofland, with coast andsea asappropriate, wherethé interaction ofpeople andnature diversity and protected areas on conservation,and to providepublic overtimehasproduced anarea of distinct character withsignificant aesthetic, ecological contain goals and activities related and internai accountability (Stem Although only 2.7 % ofthî and/orcultural value, and often with high biohgical diversity. Safeguarding théintegrity of to effective managementof exis- et. al, 2005; Leslie, 2005). Thé marine environment is within pro thistraditional interaction isvital to thé protection, maintenance andévolution ofsuch an ting protectedareas. A problem fa- challengeat this point is to define a tected areas for continental islands area. cing many island MPAs is thé lack standardmethodology of monito- nationsand 0.2 % for small islani! VI of such effective management. ring and managementand apply it states, thé programme of work o( ManagedResource Protected Area: protected area managed mainly for thé sustainable useof naturalecosystems. Although data is limited, a survey consistentlyamong MPAs so that island biodiversity is adoptedai in 2002 of 342 marine protected meaningful results can be derived a time when island countries sst areas in South-East Asia conclu- (Chapeet al., 2005).This would al- takinga leadershiprôle in global Areacontainingpredominantly mmodifiednatural Systems,mamgedto ensure long term ded that only 14% were effecti- low examinationofwhether global efforts to reduce thé rate of biodi protectionandmaintenance ofbiohgical diversity, while providing atthé same time a sustainableowo natural roductsand services to meetcommuni needs. vely managed(Burke et al., 2002; biodiversity targetsare being met. versityloss. In thiscontext, sévère CED, 2003). Evaluatingthé effec- A score card has been developed island nations announced duricS tiveness of MPAs is essential for by Staub et al, (2004) for use by COP-8 commitments that hâve

48 potential to make an enormous / map was derived from MPA Glo- marine réserves: do réserves work and rai Reefsof thé Worid." Australian Insti- différence to biodiversity. For bal, a global databaseof MPAs does réserve size matter? Ecological Ap- tuteof MarineScience. 363p. plications13(1):117-137. WOOD, L. 2005 A Global Review of developed Louisa Wood, Sea example,thé présidentofPalau an- by MPAs. Oral présentation at Thé First nouncedthé Micronesia Challenge, Around Us Project, University of HALPERN, B.S., WARNER, R.R. 2003. International Marine Protected Areas which commits Micronesian coun- British Columbia Fisheries Cenfa-e, Matching réservedesign to réserveobjec- Congress.Geelong, Australia. tries to protect 30 % ofnear-shore as part of her (currently) ongoing tives. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B. 270:1871. marine and 20 % of terrestrial re- PhD thesis, and in collaboration 1878. sourceson islands by 2020. Fol- with WWF and UNEP-WCMC. IUCN - Thé World Conservation Union. lowing thé lead of its Micronesian MPA Global was originally deve- 1988. Résolution 17.38 of thé 17th Gene- counterpartsin thé Pacifie, Grena- loped from thé World Databaseon rai Assembly of thé RJCN. Gland, Swit- da pledgedto effectively conserve ProtectedAreas (WDPA), maintai- zeriandand Cambridge,UK: IUCN. 25 % ofnear-shore marine and 25 ned by UNEP-WCMC, and much Malgorzata A. Marszalek is IUCN (1994). Guidelines for Protected % ofterrestrial resourcesby 2020. of thé data in MPA Global has been urrently a PhD student at Concordia w Areas Management Catégories. IUCN, Uiiiversity in Montréal. Her research @ Thé président of Kiribati, a tiny used to update thé WPDA. Refe- Cambridge,UK and Gland, Switzerland, 'ntereslsfocus on dispersai,phylogeogra- Pacifie island nation, announced renée: www.mpaglobal.org and 261pp. hy.an d phylogenyofaquatic invertebra- .?° thé formation of thé world's third- www.unep-wcmc. additio- org for tes. Email: ma_marsz(aialcor.concordia. § JONES, P.J.S., 2002 Marine protected largestmarine réserve, thé Phoenix nal information on thèse MPAs. [email protected]. areastratégies: issues divergences and thé Islands Protected Area, which co- Any further use or publication of searchfor middle ground. Reviewsin fisl this data must include this ack- vers both coral reef and deep-sea Biology and Fisheries 11:197-2 16. habitat. Other nations pledging nowledgement. We would like to j new conservation commitments thank Kalemani Mulongoy and LESLIE,H. M. 2005A SynthesisofMa. 1 included New Zealand and Indo- Sarat Babu Gidda for invaluable rine Conservation Planning Approaches, VI Conservation Biology 19(6):1701-1713. nesia. Earlier this year, Austra- comments on thé manuscript. lia committed to creating 13 new LUNDQUIST,C. J.,GRANEK, E. F.2005 Marine ProtectedAreas, totaling Références: Stratégiesfor successfùlmarine conser- -JMarjo Vien-os is cur- 226,000km2 in Australia's south- vation: integrating socioeconomic,poli- renlly affiliated with thé United Nations eastem waters. Thé area covers tical and scientific factors. Conservatioii University-InstiluteofAdvancedSludies. BURKE, L., SELIG, E., SPALDING,M. Biologyl9(6):1771-1778. Previoiislyshe worked for thé Secrétariat waters off thé Australian states of 2002. "Reefs at Risk in Southeast Asia. iflheConvention onBiological Diversity Victoria, Tasmania, southem New Washington DC, USA": Worid Resources KELLEHER, G. 1999. "Guidelines for sIhe Programme Officer responsible for' Institute. South Wales and eastem South Marine ProtectedAreas. " Gland, Switzer- ill aspectsof thé Convention'swork on Australia, paving thé way for thé land andCambridge, UK: IUCN - anneand coastal biodiversity. CBD 2003. UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/9/5/ a Worid Conservation Union, xxiv + Email-vierros@ias. unu.edu. création of national network of REV1: pp. MPAs throughoutAustralia's vast Statusand trends of, and threatsto, pro- océan territory. Additionally, thé tected areas.A document présentée to thé ROBERTS, C.M., BRANCH, G., BUS- Bahamas, in 2005, during thé 10 9th meeting of thé Subsidiary Body on TAMANTE, R H., CASTILLA, J C. DU- Year Review of thé Barbados Pro- Scientific, Technical and Technological GAN, J. HALPERN, B S. LAFFERTY, Advice (SBSTTA), 10 - 14 November gram of Action meeting, commit- K.D. LESILE, H., LUBCHENKO, J, 2003 - Montréal, Canada. McARDLE, D., RUCKELSHAUS, M., ted to set aside at least 20% of its WARNER,R R. 2003. Applicationof productive marine bank areas as CBD 2006.UNEP/CBD/COP/8/INF/4: ecological criteria in selecting marine re- Summary report thé current status of marine protected areas. With thé of servesand developingréserve networks. thé global marineprotected area network, dock ticking on thé commitments EcologicalApplications. 13 (l), pp. 215- and of progressmonitoring capabilities. to establish représentative marine 228. An information document presentedto protected networks by 2012, thèse thé 8th meeting of thé Conférence of thé STAUB, F., HATZIOLOS, M. E. 2004, and similar efforts demonstrate thé Parties to thé Convention on Biological «ScoreCard to AssessProgress in Achie' Diversity, 20-31 March 2006- Curitiba, commitment of island countries to ving ManagementEffectiveness Goals Brazil. taking concrète action to combat for Marine Protected Areas, Revised» Washington,D. C.: Thé World Bank. thé loss of marine biodiversity. CHAPE, S., HARRISON, J., SPADLING, M., LYSENKO, I. 2005. Acknowledgement STEM,C., MARGOLUIS,R., SALAFS- Measuringthé extentand efFectivenessof KY, N., BROWN, M. 2005 MonitoricS protectedareas as an indicator for meeting and évaluation in conservation: a revie" global biodiversity targets. Trans.R. A considérable amount of Phil. of trendsand approaches.Conservatio11 Soc.B. 360:443-455. thé Marine Protected Areas data Biology 19:295-309. used in this publication / database HALPERN,B. S. 2002.Thé impactof WILKINSON,C. 2000. «StatusofCo-

50 51 <-^ r "T^. re ^.9 n ^ / _/ '/ :.jy . '. / ^ - 3'j-^ ï ^ '^

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CharybdeandScylla by Alessadro Allori (1575) villa (Gianutri, Toscan Tamagnini

53 Nothing revealsthé destiny of thé Salomone, thé islands are rich and Brendano, and thé innumerable andEuropean customs. Thé small haddiscovered. Mediterranean better than its is- thé islanders are generous "II re Treasure Islands that seduced so Islandof SanNicole was an exem- It's bestto differentiatethé types ofislands. lands. are generally to di Tarsis e délie isole porteranno They doser many sailors? Did they suffer thé plarypénal colony of thé Kingdom Ruthlessbreakers and unre- summer. ; doni. " (Thé Tarsis Island-continentsstill exist: us in thé During thé win- loro King of same destiny as Atlantis? ofNaples.But then we're ignoring lenting cycloneshâve hiddentheir ter, many us keep distance and thé islands bring their No one kaows. firstof ail,there are Cypms, Crète, of our of will thé islandthat servedas a model corpses and tombs forever. their and Sicily. Then there is Malta from them. Yet therc are many is- gifts.) (Ixxii, 10). Thé inhabitants of thé for Kafka- whowas more familiar with its knightsand their orderand landsthat can't be forgottenin any southem shores, particularly thé with CentralEurope - for his Pe- As limited as they canbe, season. Some always remain whe- Thé image of thé flou- Maghrebi Arabs, hâve also looked cross; Rhodesand it's Colossus - nalColony. Certain exterminating islandsare not lackingdrama of re they are. Others appearto hide rishing island that is undisturbed for thèse "fortunate islands" (al- practiceswere use this oneof thé "^vondersof théworld"\ not yet in in universal significance.History themselvesor disappear,only to by thé outsideworld and where it djaz'ir al-khalidat), and they were part ofour continent. Corsica,which gavebirth to Em- hasn't ignoredthem and at times reemergein thé sameplace as they is possibleto createabsolute order probably convinced they would perors;and Sardinia,thé homeland findsconclusions there. (This is an were before or appearelsewhere. inspired numerousenthusiastic or discover them in a Spain that thé On thé whole, modem his- of théPrehistoric Giants. And why ideathat was dear to Braudel.) At délirions utopias. In Crizia and in imagination had filled with castles: tory has followed thèse classical not alsoinclude Maiorca or Ibiza othertimes, instead, history begins Islandsofevery kind fill our Timeo, Plato described splendid air castles.Châteaux en Espagne! traditions. not chance -^ "sait islands",or thé "sunny" It's just by there.Isn't Europeitself perhaps minds: some arebeautiful, seducti- Atlantis as an "island bathed in Thé gréât peninsula they Djerba and some Dalmatianis- thatNapoléon was exiled twice, just an Asian peninsula,as thé il- ve and are easily reachable.Others sun and stirring perfumes... with take landsofmuch smallerdimension? had conqueredwasn't slow to first to thé nearbyisland of Elba lustrions MediterraneanPaul Va- areseeped in mysteryor horror and temples, majestic palaces and revenge and to banish them. It'snot only thé size of thé territory andthen to thédistant Sant'Elena, léry claimed?It oncewas one and arehard to reach.They arereal and doorways " (Crizia, 11,5). Between Scylla and Charybdis, wherehe finally found peace. Thé that'simportant but also its disposi'- § couldperhaps become one again. tion. Whenan islandforces itselfto recognized islands that we oursel- dangersand temptations are setfor originofthis practice has nothing ves hâve discovered or inhabited, Islands like this one (ma- an ambush. In Crète, Daedalus had to do with islands. rivala continent, it risks becoming | Im not claiming to look and islands that hâve inspired our karôn nesôi) should hâve been built in thé worst of prisons: thé "upset"or "exhausted." When ft S hère for a conclusionto this dis- dreams or fantasies - islands that swallowed by thé sea to teach us labyrinth. His son, Icams, wanted lackspassion, it can be invaded by f Théfirstplace Léon Trotsky cussionthat doesn'tsolely pertain bring us joy and beckonus to tra- how fragile and fleeting happiness in vane to spreadhis wings fi-om was exiled was thé small island andtaken over by neglect. It is § of to théscience ofconnecting. 1S. alsoaccording to thèseaspects vel, andislands that arouseanxiety his cliffs, but he plunged into thé Prinkipo(in Turkish,Bûyùk Ada) that l and provokenightmares. sea that was called Icario after his in thé marvelousSea of Marmara. aninsular destination is profiled. l already noted that in thé States "human - This wasthé fateofso many name. As conservative and traditiona- ofmind or summerwe more easily forget thé Thé Cyclades and Spora- other islands - in thé inland sea or too human" traits are attributedto lists,Greek colonels more recently islandmishaps. In théwinter, few j des: hère, reconciled, thèse islands beyondits borders- ofwhich only In thé Iliad, Homer also islands:just like us, they are plea- usedthé smallisland of laros,as even remember thé islands exist. unité to form archipelagos;over their names hâve remained for us: calls him "divine " for this. sant,unknown, naked, bald, mys- well asthé more extensive Macro- In anycase, thé particular nature of there, divided, thé islands move Aulilia, Antilia, Avalon, Satanazes, tenons,cold or welcoming,deser- nicos,for thé samepurpose. Thé théislands doesn't cease to surpri- away from or face one another. In thé Island of thé Seven Cities, thé It would be difficult to list ted,volcanic, damned, and at times victims of thé "personalitycuit" seus. They differ fi-omone another essence, tme islands. Ardenti Islands, and those of thé thé islandson which thé tyrants - it needsto berepeated - happy or ail inthé Soviet Union had to adapt to according to their distancesfrom Dead? And let's not forget thé is- exiled their adversaries. In Rome fortunate.Some are burdened with thécold of théSoloviane islands, thé coast,thé nature of thé straits Thé very notion of an islands inhabited by thé Satires and there was once a judicial institute whichdiscouraged even thé finest théweight of thépast that threatens separatingthem from this, and on land variesfrom exampleto exam- thé Harpies,or by thé Cyclopsand named "insular punishment" that ofswimmers. their stability.Thé onesthat don't thépossibility ofreaching them by pie. On thé one hand, an island is thé Gorgons on which, from an- was mentioned in thé writmgs of succeedin subscribingto thépro- rowing or evenby swimming. tocol thé coast forcver remain a peacefulplace or a place for me- cient times until thé modem day, thé historian Ammiano Marcellino This misuseis due more to of ditation, a place of love, happiness Lotophagi and Anthropophagi four centuries after thé birth of orphans,solitary, or dissidents. austentyor continentalperversion It is hère that we better and bliss. On thé other hand, it's hâve resided. And how could we Christ: poenainsularis (xv, 7). ratherthan thoughtlessnessor in- Thé rocksrunning along understandto what point thé sea a place of exile or imprisonment, forget thé "Purpurin Islands " and sularhospitality. theircoasts inspired moving or ter- bringsthings doser together or di- rifying stories.Thèse taies are fed punishment, atonement or even "Pluvial Islands" (Purpuraria et And we were not dealing vides. or reinforced our superstitions penance. This is how we see thé Pluvialia) on whose coasts Giuba with a simple tenninology datable imaginarypunishing by Thé of or mistrust. islands from times immémorial. II, thé sovereign of ancient Mau- period décline. to thé of Europewould soon hâve reached Thé islandsare also distin- ritania, docked during a mission théNew Worldand become accli- Mostislands, large or small, guishedby théimages they présent Hesiodwas amongthé first that madehim famous?(Pliny thé Demosthenes was banished liveon waiting for anevent (that at matizedthere. In thé bay that na- or théimpression they leave: some to mention thé "blessed islands... Elder,vi, 202; Strabone,iii, 2). and executed on thé little Island of medafter thé MediterraneanSaint timeshas already taken place be- seemto nse or fall or to sink; others beside thé deep whirlpool of thé Calauria, not far irom thé shrine of Francisco,thé little islandof Al- fore).They wait on jetties,even appearanchored or petrified. Some only for thé arrivaiof a boat- a océan" on which happyheroes live Or then again, thé islands Apollo. Senecapassed eight years catrazbecame thé prison that was if arejust incomplètefi-agments, tom with their heartsfree from worry: that thé Phoenicians called Baal of intemment in Corsica, before it sort of entertainment,thé illusion "thésafest in théworld. " Finally,from thé coast; others hâve left ofadventure. thé fertile earth offers them thé and Tanit after thé name of their was given thé nameof "thé Island Weshoulcb't forget that thé gréât thécontinent time ago and, auto- three fruit of honey that matures divinity? Where is thé Promised of Beauty". This usual ancient explorers- Magellan,La Pérouse nomous,they daim to dépendon times a year. (Le Opère e i Giomi, Island and thé Island of Deli- Islands- simplythat. Greek-Romanprocédure anticipa- andCaptain Cook - ail perishedon themselvesand demandself-suffi- 169, 173). Even in thé Salmi of ght, thé distant destination of San ted thé future Mediterranean and thécoasts of théislands that they ciency. Thé inhabitantsof thé islandsare

54 55 lesscarefree than thé peopleon thé on a narrow strip of land facing ted (In spiteof ail thé problemsthis llectedin this particularspace. His be taken literally. In fact, there Cytheragets further away discovery skeletons dwarf coast. Since thé sea isolâtes them, thé sea suggestedwe distinguish would appearto bring, thé author of of exist vanous catégories of insula- as thé one in love gets doser to its elephantsmeasuring thé size of a they focus more on themselves. islanders(insulaires) from "insu- of thèsewords recognizesthat he rity, and différent degreesofconti- port. This confessiondoesn't only ). ram that oncewere présenton cer- extent isolation. Their mainland - thé real thing - is lars" (insulés). Thé latter belong too is seriouslycontaminated. nentality and of regardmythology. tain islands thé Mediterranean, on thé other part of thé channel. to their island body and soûl. They of With thé sameappearance, thé is- or of a rabbit-mouse common in Their language differs from that takejoy in it and suffer for it more Thé différence between islanders land canexpress or présentvarious Whenyou nearTreasure Is- Corsica, elicited a misdirected cu- of thé nearby coastmore than thé than thé others- and from this they (nesiotes)and continentals(epei- connections or divisions that are land,thé pirates hâve already taken riosity that assimilated thé island distancethat séparâtesthem calls know gréâtand lesserpassion, and rotes) is alreadyprésent in thé pa- aquatic or terrestrial. An isthmus possession of it. This statement is itself with thé anomalies of which for. This gap probably influences thé causes and effects. radigmsofHerodotus, "theFather can be dug out or eliminated,as in not lacking a commoncharacter. it is a victim. thé relationship of thé island's in- ofHistory. " In his tum, thé "subli- Corinth, or as occurs more often, habitants with thé world, and hère They know what encoura- me Plato " in his tum distinguishes raisedor constructedartificially. 'Essere un'isola sull'iso- Arguments natureat and there, this créâtesstrange and gesor poisonsthem. between those who settle on thé ofthis la" (Tobe an islandon thé island) singular individuals. Someislands coast- epithalattidios- and those times are thé source of préjudice To cormect thé island better is Pirandello's observation and with regard to islanders. possess various languages that Some wise men who fol- who prefer thé inland - khersaios to thé mainland... lacks irony. explain where their tenants corne lower stricter définitions hâve also (Leggi,704, b). Fewislanders and Thé nature of desertifi- Vivere la proprîa vita Sorne islands are more true from. suggested a clearer distinction even few "insulars " are tmly ma- cation and its conséquences,thé corneun vizio solitario" (To live at- islands than others. Some of them l between thé "islandness " ("isola- ritime. It is thé island itselfthat depth of solihide, and thé type of your own life like a solitary vice) tracts them, ra- are more linked to thé mainland, They've settledthere for so nità") andthé "isolationess" ("iso- them or that holds lacérationscan be observée,ifnot is thé confessionofa poet who was g while others are less so. Far from long! lità," illéité), and they give thé lat- ther than thé opensea. Thé Sicilian measured,with a certainprécision. bom and died on his island, and coasts, a distance l ter a less vague,more emphasized writer Leonardo Sciascia offered thé inhabited at However, it's not easy to found whose name would not be written ?-i One can land on an island meanmg. me a passagein dialect from his or drifting, there are numerous a sciencethat is even minimally into thé history ofliterature. 0 ^ by chanceor settlethere out ofne- native island that confirms this: little islandsscattered or spread exactin a field in which thé excep- out. Some consider thèse "dust" cessity.Thé shipwreckslasts much This proposai could be si- Lu mari e amaru( "Thé sea is biî- tion sometimes becomes thé mie. "Al di là dell'isola inizia- l on thé waves; others find them tra- longer than thé stonnsthat caused lencedby pedantiy ter") Loda lu mari, afferati a 11giu- A positive discussion is therefore no le sue sventure"(Beyond thé ô them, and some damages seem ir- mari ( "Fraise thé sea, cling to thé cesof "peninsulasfreedfromtheir préférableto substitutinga séries island his misadventuresbegin." réparable.Thé retum tums out to Thé author of thé Quartetto moorings ") moorings. " Bateau ivre caught a of statements or stories when nee- Many islanders(and especiallythé tn glimpse ofthem... be as difficult as thé arrivai. d'Alessandria is a gréât expert on Cui nun sapi pregan, vaja a man ofsome ded (a "theory" in thé true senséof insular obsessed)believe this, and M thé Mediterranean and, above ail, {"Those who don't know how to thé word). some seek to défend themselves. Thé discussion on thé is- Memory plays anotherrôle of its islands. He has saved from pray are takenby thé sea ) Only thé gods can prevent It's an issue that merits to be taken there. oblivion thé word islomania (is- Mari, focu e fimmini, Diu milscan- lands is often linked to a discus- thé drifting of certainunsteady or into considération. land mania) or insulomania(insu- za! ("May Godrescueusfrom thé sionof love: Ogigiaof thénymph irritable islands, as Zeus did by Few islanders are tme nati- lar-obsessed),which he had disco- sea,fromfire and women! ) Calypso, Eea of thé enchanter Cir- positioning Delos in thé inlet of Thé island conserves it's ves, although each daims to hâve vered in an ancient description of ce, "where thé dawn itselfhad it's thé Cycladesto protect it fi-omthé own memory, much more than thé arrived before thé others. Howe- thé illnesses that médical science Numerous examples prevent us home," and finally Citera, where winds and currents, and to thus memory. This transforms thé me- dreams refuge. stable solid. ver, they display greater openness had not yet diagnosedor treated. from confusing thé islanders, thé of lovefind make it and mariesinto legacy.It is a habit that to foreignersthan thé peopleof thé without taking into account thé can seem like a sort of vendetta. coastdo. Oncethey passthé chan- "Island mania" is descri- différences - or strong contrasts Among other things, thé A studybased on appearan- Even ifbrought closetoge- nel, they too becomeforeigners. bed asa rareand unknown spiritual - existing among them. Even thé insularinventory includes imper- ce could prove to be a gréâthelp. ther, a multitude of islands are not suffering.There are men who find approachto thé island is characte- vious coasts invaded by putrid always enough to form an archi- Or they rememberto hâve islands irrésistible - thé knowledge rized by various paradoxes.Some végétationand a scatteringof ani- Thé way in which we as- pelago.They are not easilygover- corne from somewhere else. they are ableto acquirefi-om some emphasizea sort ofunusualnessor mal coqîsesin décomposition.Thé similate thé archipelagoswith thé nable, and thé islanders could take ofthem, andfrom this small closed irregularity.A scholarlike Alexan- island of Nekya, situated out of islandsofwhich they are a part of- advantageofthis. They only dream during world surroundedby thé sea,they der von Humbolt is impressednear time and veiled by constanttwili- ten causeus to lose sight of many There is more free space childhood: then it becomes too late expériencethé heightsofan indes- Tenerife by thé dimensions of a ght, offered etemal rest to tormen- peculiar characteristics. This does on thé island than on thé continent ted soûls. for day-dreams.Thé future appears cribable dnmkeimess. Thèse bom dracaena whose circumference ex- not signify that every insular dif- and, nevertheless,thé inhabitants ceeds tree, to them as a past that is starting insular-obsessed (insulomani), fourteen meters: in that ference constitutes something of leaveas soonas thé opportunity seesa hyperbole a curiosity Requiescantin peace! value itself, as some believe. over - thé best part of their past. whose subconscious aspires to an he or in présents itself. Even so, we daim This is not only valid for those insular life, are considereddirect of nature. Darwin's approach is Particularities and values are best that thé islanders remain more fai- who are bom on thé island. descendants of thé inhabitants of exactlythé opposite:when thé Bea- l provided thèse examples distinguishedon thé islandthan on thful to their island than continen- Many islanderswere bom Atlantis (Atlanteants). (Lawrence gle launchesthé anchoralong thé to retura to thé attemptsof classi- thé continent. tais are to thé mainland. into this world on thé continent, far Durrell, Riflessi su una Vénère coastof thé Galapagos,thé author ficationand nomenclature,whose Unfortunately,this sort of from thé sea. marina). This illness seemsto be of thé Origin of thé Speciesdérives criteria do not always seemto be grammaris not supportedby prac- Thé idea of autonomy is Apoet friend who was bom contagious.Many of us are afîiic- générallaws using thé dataco- tmstworthyand therefore shouldn't tical examples. susceptibleto changeinto a resig-

56 57

ned refusai. Thé island can receive thé nearby continent?Those who to deny thé idea of thé steadfas- and one islands of my native S-Sï'-. î, benefits from this. Instead, autar- live there or those who décide what tnessor obstinacyof thé islanders. country, between sanctuary and ^. ^^^.,.;U./^~>'"(f-yr. ". ^K;%"^(M^^-. i-

58 59 itself in technicalities, will touch uponthé archipelago of meanings belonging to thé central notion of islandness,together with its two TUI's EnvironmentalAward satellites: héritage and cultural identity. 30th August 2006 Thus thé Milos meeting was a successpromising further progress. A success which was of

^.1?tl*«BI»slfa coursedue to thé islandssingular Gari Cappelli,Mayor of thé town of Mali volcanic beauty,but more so to thé Losinj,,Dr AnamarijaMargan, Insula's This prestigiouspriée esta- président,WolfMichael Iwand, Director peopleofS&B Industrial Minerais blishedby TUI, thé well known in- GroupTUI, Dr D'Ayala,Insula's gene- SA, thé companywho sponsored temationaltour operator,has been rai secretary,Brian Thompson,Insula's thé meeting and hosted it at their board raember. attributedthis yearto INSULA,in Milos ConférenceCenter "George récognitionfor its pioneeringwork Eliopoulos" and at thé Milos Mi- in sustainableisland development, ning Muséum. Two contributions by S&B to Milos cultural life. l on thé occasionof thé workshop LO on "IslandTourism Development" l organized by thé International tn Scientific Council for Island Deve- lopment,under thé auspicesof thé authoritiesof Mali Losinj.

Dr. Michael Iwand, Di- CroatianTV interviewingDr D'Ayala,, rector Group Corporate Environ- Insula'sgénéral secretary mental Managementat TUI AG, Milos Workshop : ttlslands recognizedthé long-standingcoo- perationwith INSULA,in his pre- Héritage" Participants sentation on thé Croatian Adriatic Scptcmber 14-17 island of Losinj: "Islands and is- European Muséum Forum, landstates hold paramount signifi- in coopération with Insula cance for TUI. Since 1995 TUI and INSULA hâvejointly and interaa- tionally advancedthé économie, ecological, social and cultural core issues ofsustainable tourism deve- lopmenton islands." Participantsworking

Thé TUI International En- vironmental Award, which was "Milos : an openwindow" by PierGiovanni D'Ayala présentéefor théfirst timein 1991, is awardedto environmentalpro- tectionandnatureconservationor-Théquestions raised at ding interrc- -./ 8anlzatï)ns.or.autstefl thé Miloswo^hopwerelndeed gionalinitiatives which decisively many and multifaceted. Few of andin exemplaryfashion contribu- them could of course be answered te to thé protection and conserva- in such a short time, but were leflt Wim VanDer Eiden, chairmanof thé Eu- tion of nature and thé environment ropean Muséum Fomm, Pier Giovanni open as a window on thé sea. In and to sustainableDevelopment D'Ayala,Insula's général secretary, Ste- other words more questionswill in thé holiday destinationsof thé ^n^. /'^L^l"^^l"^""UI!i"11 phen Harrison director of Manks Natio- follow,attracting more people in nal Héritage,Isle ofMan. a debate which far from exhaust Détailsof a 1stcentury Bc bronzestatue of a youngGreek athlète (Island of LosinjCroate 61

RESULTS FROM THE ments. For more information: In other words, each MSP Références sustainable development, human THIRD GLOBAL CONFE- www.globaloceans. org migration, économiesustainability approachshould take account into and and give thé appropriatesignifi- RENCE ON OCEANS, (Bii-f«^Stefania Dntsa is cance values therolethatbiospherereservescould to thé différent of member oflNSULA. She is at présent an COASTS AND ISLANDS: SPAIN HOST THE WILL play as leaming laboratories. économie development, as well Associate Researcherfor thé Thematic MOVING THE GLO- 3rd WORLD BIOSPHERE Finally, Minister Narbona as to thé protection of thé manne - Guafrereport "Towardsa Spa- etwork on MSP of thé EuropeanPlat- BAL OCEANS AGENDA RESERVES CONGRESS environmentand biodiversity, and tial Stmcture Plan 4 Sustaina- form ENCORA, and a ScientificAdviso mentioned that thé Congress to a Member of thé Greek Parliamenl, FORWARD would elaborate a document thé différent values of well-being, blé Manage-ment of thé Sea", ENTITLED: [email protected] entitled thé "Madrid Action Plan when elaboratingan Integrated Belgian Science Policy, 2005, "BIOSPHERE (2008-2012)", in order to define Marine SpatialPlanning. D/2005/1191/20,English, 204p. FUTURES, UNESCO - A handbook for measuring thé thé rôle of biosphère réserves BIOSPHERE RESERVES progressand outcomesof Inte- in thé 21st century, both for thé Thé objectiveofthis vision FOR SUSTAINABLE gratedCoastal and OcéanMana- préservation ofnatural and cultural shouldbe to provide a sufficiently DEVELOPMENT" flexible fi-amework for protecting gement,IOC, Manuelsand Gui- resources,as well as for supporting sustainable development.It is and managing our seas m a sus- des, 46; ICAM, Dossier,2, paris, good to recall that Spain has tainableway. This callsfor a good UNESCO,2006, English, 217p. Ms. Cristina Narbona Ruiz, promoted a création of several nationalpolicy which shouldtake s Minister for Environment of thé an internationalapproach in which Saint PéterFish (ZeusFaber) BiosphèreRéserves involving thé Kingdom of Spain, announced whole surface of islands of thé spécifieissues of thé seaspace are on 24 October 2006, at thé 19th taken into account for each MSP Spanisharchipelagos such as thé session of thé MAB-ICC that Balearic island of Minorca and process.This sustainableintegra- Spain offered to host thé 3rd Worid thé following Canary islands: La ted plan shouldeventually be trans- \ Biosphère Réserves Congress and lated into a common,but flexible, Palma,Lanzarote, La Gomera, entitled: "Biosphère Futures, El Hierro. Thé last one is moreover international policy, as "thé pro- UNESCO Biosphère Réserves developing a program 100% blems of sea and océan space are of for SustainableDevelopment" in renewable énergies implemented closelyinterrelated and need to be Thé Third Global Confe- Madrid from Febmary2008. considered as a whole.. ." (Pream- 4-8 with thé support of thé European renée on Océans, Costs and Is- addition, Spain also host Commission. blé to thé UN Convention on thé In would lands: Moving thé Global Océans thé 20th Session of thé MAB-ICC. LawoftheSea, 1982). AgendaForward, organized by thé Thé announcement was Global Fomm on Océans,Coasts made in présence thé Director- For more information on thé of and Islands, was held fi-om Ja- Généralof UNESCO,Mr. Koïchiro Workshop programme and docu- nuary23-28, 2006 at thé UNESCO Matsuura, and thé Président of thé ments, c.f. headquartersin Paris,France. Thé Général Conférence of UNESCO, http://ioc3 unesco.. org/marinesp Conférenceincluded over 400 par- H E. Mr. Musa Bin Jaafar Bin ticipants fi-om 78 countries, with Hassan. 38 ministers and high-level go- Delegatesof thé MAB-ICC vemment représentatives in atten-. welcomedvery muchthé generous dance.Thé Conférencebrought to- offer from Spain and approvedat getherkey national level officiais, unanimity thé proposais.In fact, régional organizations,UN agen- Spainhosted already thé 2nd World cies,donors, industry, non govem- Congress of Biosphère Réserves mental organizations (including in Seville, which gavebirth to thé INSULA), and scientists to assess StatutoryFramework of Biosphère progress achieved and obstaclesfa- Réserves as well as thé Seville ced in thé implementationofinter- Strategy. national targetson océans,coasts, As thé Minister mentioned, and Small Island Developing Sta- thé objective of this Congress tes(SIDS), especiallythose related would be to asses thé progress to thé 2002 world summit on sus- made by thé World Network of tainabledevelopment (WSSD), thé Biosphère Réserves since 1995, Millennium Development Goals particularly in relation to thé (MDGs), and other related agree- conservation of Biodiversity,

65 64 Réserves. of islands in thé médiéval Islamic Each of thèse three instm- world. By thé 13thcentury thé most ments contributes to thé issue. productive and créative period of Protection under an inter- Arab sciencehad passed,and thé BOOKREVIEWS national instmment alone cannot order of thé day was collecting guaranteethé long-term viability and organizing knowledge in of thé coral reef, but it canhelp. encyclopedias.al-Qazwini (1203- Also thé présent volume 83), who was well-read and never Coral Reef ProtectedAreas in contributes with authority to thé hesitated to borrow from thé works International Instruments issue at stake. Carefully resear- of his predecessors, complied ched and preparcdby a team lead two encyclopedias,thé Book of by professerBernard Salvat, it pre- thé Wonders of thé Création and sents for thé first time a consolida- thé Book of thé Vestiges of thé ted list of coral-reef sites which Nations. hâve protection under one or more Delgado begins her book of thèse instruments. An essential with chapters on thé history of référence, allowing further work Islamic geography,thé history of on thé protected sites, as well as "fantastic geography," what we on sites that are not included, but know about al-Qazwini, and thé § should be. sourceshe used in writing about ^ thé world's islands. Her brief § Authors: Bernard Salvat, J. discussion of islands as venues a .^ Haapkylâ,and M. Schrimm. for stories about monsters and ^ Editer: CRIOBE-EPHE, Moorca, other wonders (pp. 95-102) is French Polynesia,2002. 210 pa- particularly interesting. Delgado ges. then moves to thé body of thé ISBN: 2-905630-07-8 book (pp. 109-180): a collection By J. Haapkylâ, Bernard Salvat of thé entriespertaining to islands and M. Schrimm Under thé direc- Lo real y lo maravilloso en la from al-Qazwini's Book of thé tion ofPr. Bernard Salvat. ecûmene del siglo XJIL Las islas en elAtar al-bilad de al-Qazwini Vestiges of thé Nations, translatée into Spanish and supplied with More than one million of notes that identify thé sourcesal- thé world's population benefit di- Ma Mercedes Defgado Pérez (.^k^ Qazwini used and discussionsof thé rectly from coral reefresources for . *u^y islands by both médiéval Islamic food. Moreover thèse formidable *v ->. geographers and modem scholars. living stmctures are essential for ->'-V-»>) . fy-.i\ y te Thé passagescover 31 islandsand share-line protection, especially H ys^ î- ^-"' islandgroups,from Socotra,Sicily, where human settlements and ac- iî and Ireland to thé mythical Island tivities are concentrated. Sï. of thé Pygmies and thé mythical Yet coral reefs are perhaps Island of thé Castle in thé Indian thé most endangeredof ail earth's A Océan,inhabited by men with thé ecosystems,threatened as they are faces of dogs and abounding in land based pollution sedi- from or corpses and skeletons. mentation, from wanning of thé sea surface, from invasive alien or- Angelo Arioli's Islario Ma- ganisms, and so on. ravilloso: Periplo arabe médiéval Their unique fùnction in (1992) includes many of al-Qa- océan dynamics and marine life By MercedesDelgado Ferez . zwini's passagesabout islands, but call for their urgent protection. Reviewedby ChetVan Duzer Delgadoprésents thé passagesand Thereare presently three main légal her notes on them in a much more instruments, available: thé RAM- This book by Mercedes attractive format, and her introduc- SAR Conventionon wetlands,thé Delgado offers thé reader a tion to thé material is much more World Héritage Convention, and wonderful opportunity to leam thoroughand thoughtfiil than ario- thé World Network of Biosphère aboutthé literatureand perceptions them one another mu- li's. Delgado'sbook alsoincludes to with fluid multiple indicés. Thé book is sicality:Cities, harbors, islands, valuableto anyoneinterested in waves,winds and coasts, lighthou- thé history ofislands in literature. ses,gulfs andfishing, languages andhabits, peuples and naval batt- Author:: MercedesDelgado Ferez les... Editer: EdicionesAlfar of Seville, Thé secondtitled "Charts" becomes more analytic, scienti- Spain,2003 .206 pages. ISBN: 84-7898-206-X fie, andtechnical. Thé third called "Glossary"takes thé thèmesup Mediterranean , a cultural again,commenting them, provi- dmgréférences weaving , around landscape them strongties of poetry,recal- lingthat thé sea he has enchanted for us is now his own and ours. By PedragMatvejevic, reviewed by PierGiovanni D'Ayala Author: PedragMatjvejevic Editer: CalifomiaUniversityPress, Berkeley,Los Angeles, September 1999, 218 pages Bookshop: London Review Bookshop15 Bury Place,London, WClA2JLEngland. Queen'sFalcon (Luca Tamagnini) ISBN: 0520207386

Surprisinglyenough many oh those who hâve celebratedthé Mediten-aneanare seldom children ofits waves,bom on its shores. Hèreagain it is PedragMa- tvejevican eminentCroatian spe- cialist of Roman studies, gréât voi- ceofa Mittel-European continental world who offers us an unexpected flashing MediterraneanBreviary, enriching thé cultural histonogra- phy of thé inland seaas muchas what we call sea-literature within thé noblestmeaning of thé world. Thé Books approaches its subject from three différent perspectivesthé first "breviary" Quarryof Calcarenite(or "tufaceousrocks"), Favignana, West Sicily ( photoby LucaTamagnini) enunciates thé thèmes enchaining

68 opment.Each issue focuses on a spécifieas- ThéInternational Scientific Council for Island tionalorganisations, aswell as institutions at thénational or régionaltevel sharing thé same pectof islands development andcultural life. Development(INSULA) wasformally created in Thé membershipfées are: November1989 as a non-gouvernmentalor- goalsofinterests. Through itsinternational and . 70 euros for individual multidisciplanrynetwork of expertsand re- ganisation(NGO) whose aims is to contribute . 190 euros for institution searchers,INSULA contributes towards bal- toshape island awareness anddevelop islands anced,sustainable development initiatives Paymentscan be made by check (in euros 'commonfuture, supporting necessary coop- only),MasterCard, Visa or AmericanExpress erationand informationactions in thé scien- undertakenbyisland authorities. publishes a Interna-(pleaseindicate card number and expiration tific andtechnological fields. INSULA twice year"Thé date). Théaims of INSULAare to contributeto thé tionalJournal Island Affairs". Thé aim of this Back issues are also available for 8 euros économie,social and cultural progress of is- journalisto create a worid wide forum for ail thosewho consider islands as an important part each(plus shipping costs). landsthroughout thé world, as to théprotec- Pleasevisit our websitewww. insula.org for tionof islandenvironment and thé sustainable ofmankind'sheritagedeservingmajorattention. "ThéInternational Journal of IslandAffairs" is more informationsabout our publications, developmentoftheir ressources. Within such projectsand actions for wich INSULA 's mem- a context,INSULA coopérâtes with UNESCO, sent,free of charge, tothé members ofINSULA InternationalScientific Council for Island Devel- bershipisinvited to playan active rôle. théEuropean Commission and other interna-

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