Nervous System Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System
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Of 100 1. the Golgi Tendon Organ Is an Essential Component of Static
1. The Golgi tendon organ is an essential component of static stretching because it A. increases muscle spindle activity in a tight muscle. Rationale A. Golgi tendon organs decrease muscle spindle activity. B. prevents muscles from stretching too far or too fast. Rationale B. Muscle spindles prevent muscles from stretching too far or too fast. C. increases contraction rate in muscle fibers. Rationale C. Holding a stretch creates tension in the muscle, which stimulates the Golgi tendon organ, causes relaxation of an overactive muscle, and allows optimal lengthening of tissue. D. prevents muscle from being placed under excessive tension.(correct) Rationale D. The Golgi tendon organ prevents muscles from being placed under excessive tension (autogenic inhibition). Question Name 1-1 Certification Thinking Skills Foundational Thinking Current Forms 2011 Practice A Primary Reference Chapter 7, Task 1A1 Page 1 of 100 2. Which of the following is the correct force-couple relationship that allows for the upward rotation of the scapula? A. Longus capitus and brachialis Rationale A. The longus capitus concentrically accelerates cervical flexion and lateral flexion, while the brachialis concentrically accelerates elbow flexion. B. Rhomboid minor and anterior scalenes Rationale B. The rhomboid minor concentrically accelerates scapular retraction and downward rotation, while the anterior scalenes concentrically accelerates cervical flexion, rotation, and lateral flexion. C. Sternocleidomastoid and longus coli Rationale C. The sternocleidomastoid concentrically accelerates cervical flexion, rotation, and lateral flexion while the longus coli concentrically accelerate cervical flexion, lateral flexion, and ipsilateral rotation. D. Upper trapezius and lower portions of the serratus anterior (correct) Rationale D. The upper trapezius and the lower portion of the serratus anterior are muscle groups that move together to produce upward rotation of the scapula. -
Chapter 2 Test Review
Unit III, Modules 9-13 Test Review • See also the Unit III notes and pages 76-122 • About 45 m.c., plus two essays; one on brain functioning, the other review concepts from previous units. • Some practice questions are embedded in this presentation • Other practice questions are available at the textbook website and in the textbook after each module. Neuron Order of a transmission: dendrite, cell body, axon, synapse (see arrow below) Neural Communication Neurons, 80 Neural Communication • (a)Dendrite – the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the (b)cell body • (c)Axon – the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages are sent to other neurons or to muscles or glands • Myelin [MY-uh-lin] Sheath – a layer of fatty cells segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons – makes possible vastly greater transmission speed of neutral impulses, – Damage to can lead to Multiple sclerosis Neural Communication • Action Potential – a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon; DEPOLARIZED – generated by the movement of positively charges atoms in and out of channels in the axon’s membrane • Threshold – the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse Action Potential A neural impulse. A brief electrical charge that travels down an axon and is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon’s membrane. Practice question • Multiple sclerosis is a disease that is most directly associated with the degeneration of: a. the myelin sheath. b. the pituitary gland. -
VIEW Open Access Muscle Spindle Function in Healthy and Diseased Muscle Stephan Kröger* and Bridgette Watkins
Kröger and Watkins Skeletal Muscle (2021) 11:3 https://doi.org/10.1186/s13395-020-00258-x REVIEW Open Access Muscle spindle function in healthy and diseased muscle Stephan Kröger* and Bridgette Watkins Abstract Almost every muscle contains muscle spindles. These delicate sensory receptors inform the central nervous system (CNS) about changes in the length of individual muscles and the speed of stretching. With this information, the CNS computes the position and movement of our extremities in space, which is a requirement for motor control, for maintaining posture and for a stable gait. Many neuromuscular diseases affect muscle spindle function contributing, among others, to an unstable gait, frequent falls and ataxic behavior in the affected patients. Nevertheless, muscle spindles are usually ignored during examination and analysis of muscle function and when designing therapeutic strategies for neuromuscular diseases. This review summarizes the development and function of muscle spindles and the changes observed under pathological conditions, in particular in the various forms of muscular dystrophies. Keywords: Mechanotransduction, Sensory physiology, Proprioception, Neuromuscular diseases, Intrafusal fibers, Muscular dystrophy In its original sense, the term proprioception refers to development of head control and walking, an early im- sensory information arising in our own musculoskeletal pairment of fine motor skills, sensory ataxia with un- system itself [1–4]. Proprioceptive information informs steady gait, increased stride-to-stride variability in force us about the contractile state and movement of muscles, and step length, an inability to maintain balance with about muscle force, heaviness, stiffness, viscosity and ef- eyes closed (Romberg’s sign), a severely reduced ability fort and, thus, is required for any coordinated move- to identify the direction of joint movements, and an ab- ment, normal gait and for the maintenance of a stable sence of tendon reflexes [6–12]. -
Ultrastructural Cardiac Muscle and Cardiac Microvasculature Changes in Experimental Murine Infections Acta Scientiae Veterinariae, Vol
Acta Scientiae Veterinariae ISSN: 1678-0345 [email protected] Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Brasil Tejero, Felix; Arias-Mota, Lourdes Lorena; Roschman-González, Antonio; Aso, Pedro María; Finol, Héctor José Trypanosoma evansi: Ultrastructural Cardiac Muscle and Cardiac Microvasculature Changes in Experimental Murine Infections Acta Scientiae Veterinariae, vol. 38, núm. 3, 2010, pp. 279-285 Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Porto Alegre, Brasil Available in: http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=289021902008 How to cite Complete issue Scientific Information System More information about this article Network of Scientific Journals from Latin America, the Caribbean, Spain and Portugal Journal's homepage in redalyc.org Non-profit academic project, developed under the open access initiative Acta Scientiae Veterinariae. 38(3): 279-285, 2010. ORIGINAL ARTICLE ISSN 1679-9216 (Online) Pub. 910 Trypanosoma evansi: Ultrastructural Cardiac Muscle and Cardiac Microvasculature Changes in Experimental Murine Infections* Felix Tejero1, Lourdes Lorena Arias-Mota1, Antonio Roschman-González2, Pedro María Aso3 & Héctor José Finol2 ABSTRACT Background: Trypanosoma evansi is the etiologic agent of the equine trypanosomosis, a disease related to the detriment of the extensive bovine farming in the Venezuelan grasslands. Even though macroscopic pathologies such as anemia, pale mucosa, icteric tissues, generalized edema, splenomegaly, liver and renal hypertrophy, abortion, anoestrus, emaciation, lymphadenopathies, striated muscle atrophy as well as epicardiac and endocardiac hemorrhages have been described for infections with the agent, no reports of any heart ultrastructural change in experimental or natural infections induced by Venezuelan T. evansi isolates are available. So, a transmission electron microscopic approach to the problem was needed. This work describes cell features of the cardiac myocyte and the cardiac microvasculature ultrastructure in mice experimentally infected with an equine local isolate of T. -
Signaling by Sensory Receptors
Signaling by Sensory Receptors David Julius1 and Jeremy Nathans2 1Department of Physiology, University of California School of Medicine, San Francisco, California 94158 2Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Johns Hopkins Medical School, Baltimore, Maryland 21205 Correspondence: [email protected] and [email protected] SUMMARY Sensory systems detect small molecules, mechanical perturbations, or radiation via the activa- tion of receptor proteins and downstream signaling cascades in specialized sensory cells. In vertebrates, the two principal categories of sensory receptors are ion channels, which mediate mechanosensation, thermosensation, and acid and salt taste; and G-protein-coupled recep- tors (GPCRs), which mediate vision, olfaction, and sweet, bitter, and umami tastes. GPCR- based signaling in rods and cones illustrates the fundamental principles of rapid activation and inactivation, signal amplification, and gain control. Channel-based sensory systems illus- trate the integration of diverse modulatory signals at the receptor, as seen in the thermosen- sory/pain system, and the rapid response kinetics that are possible with direct mechanical gating of a channel. Comparisons of sensory receptor gene sequences reveal numerous exam- ples in which gene duplication and sequence divergence have created novel sensory specific- ities. This is the evolutionary basis for the observed diversity in temperature- and ligand- dependent gating among thermosensory channels, spectral tuning among visual pigments, and odorant binding among olfactory receptors. The coding of complex external stimuli by a limited number of sensory receptor types has led to the evolution of modality-specific and species-specific patterns of retention or loss of sensory information, a filtering operation that selectively emphasizes features in the stimulus that enhance survival in a particular ecological niche. -
Interpretation of Sensory Information from Skeletal Muscle Receptors for External Control Milan Djilas
Interpretation of Sensory Information From Skeletal Muscle Receptors For External Control Milan Djilas To cite this version: Milan Djilas. Interpretation of Sensory Information From Skeletal Muscle Receptors For External Control. Automatic. Université Montpellier II - Sciences et Techniques du Languedoc, 2008. English. tel-00333530 HAL Id: tel-00333530 https://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00333530 Submitted on 23 Oct 2008 HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents entific research documents, whether they are pub- scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, lished or not. The documents may come from émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de teaching and research institutions in France or recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires abroad, or from public or private research centers. publics ou privés. UNIVERSITE MONTPELLIER II SCIENCES ET TECHNIQUES DU LANGUEDOC T H E S E pour obtenir le grade de DOCTEUR DE L'UNIVERSITE MONTPELLIER II Formation doctorale: SYSTEMES AUTOMATIQUES ET MICROELECTRONIQUES Ecole Doctorale: INFORMATION, STRUCTURES ET SYSTEMES présentée et soutenue publiquement par Milan DJILAS le 13 octobre 2008 Titre: INTERPRETATION DES INFORMATIONS SENSORIELLES DES RECEPTEURS DU MUSCLE SQUELETTIQUE POUR LE CONTROLE EXTERNE INTERPRETATION OF SENSORY INFORMATION FROM SKELETAL MUSCLE RECEPTORS FOR EXTERNAL CONTROL JURY Jacques LEVY VEHEL Directeur de Recherches, INRIA Rapporteur -
Inside Your Brain You and Your Brain
Inside your brain You and your brain Many simple and complex psychological functions are mediated by multiple brain regions and, at the same time, a single brain area may control many psychological functions. CC BY Illustration by Bret Syfert 1. Cortex: The thin, folded structure on the outside surface of the brain. 2. Cerebral hemispheres: The two halves of the brain, each of which controls and receives information from the opposite side of the body. 3. Pituitary gland: The ‘master gland’ of the body, which releases hormones that control growth, blood pressure, the stress response and the function of the sex organs. 4. Substantia nigra: The ‘black substance’ contains cells that produce the neurotransmitter dopamine and the pigment melatonin, giving it a black appearance. 5. Hypothalamus: The interface between the brain and pituitary gland. It controls the production and release of hormones. 6. Spinal cord: A large bundle of millions of nerve fibres and neuronal cells, which carries information back and forth between the brain and the body. 7. Medulla oblongata: Controls vital involuntary functions such as breathing and heart rate. 8. Cerebellum: The ‘little brain’ that controls balance and coordinates movements. It’s normally required for learning motor skills, such as riding a bike, and is involved in thought processes. 9. Cranial nerve nuclei: Clusters of neurons in the brain stem. Their axons form the cranial nerves. Your brain underpins who you are. It stores your knowledge and memories, gives you the capacity for thought and emotion, and enables you to control your body. The brain is just one part of the nervous system. -
Characterization of Cecal Smooth Muscle Contraction in Laying Hens
veterinary sciences Communication Characterization of Cecal Smooth Muscle Contraction in Laying Hens Katrin Röhm 1, Martin Diener 2 , Korinna Huber 1 and Jana Seifert 1,* 1 Institute of Animal Science, University of Hohenheim, 70593 Stuttgart, Germany; [email protected] (K.R.); [email protected] (K.H.) 2 Institute of Veterinary Physiology and Biochemistry, Justus-Liebig University, 35392 Gießen, Germany; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Abstract: The ceca play an important role in the physiology of the gastrointestinal tract in chickens. Nevertheless, there is a gap of knowledge regarding the functionality of the ceca in poultry, especially with respect to physiological cecal smooth muscle contraction. The aim of the current study is the ex vivo characterization of cecal smooth muscle contraction in laying hens. Muscle strips of circular cecal smooth muscle from eleven hens are prepared to investigate their contraction ex vivo. Contraction is detected using an isometric force transducer, determining its frequency, height and intensity. Spontaneous contraction of the chicken cecal smooth muscle and the influence of buffers (calcium-free buffer and potassium-enriched buffer) and drugs (carbachol, nitroprusside, isoprenaline and Verapamil) affecting smooth muscle contraction at different levels are characterized. A decrease in smooth muscle contraction is observed when a calcium-free buffer is used. Carbachol causes an increase in smooth muscle contraction, whereas atropine inhibits contraction. Nitroprusside, isoprenaline and Verapamil result in a depression of smooth muscle contraction. In conclusion, the present results confirm a similar contraction behavior of cecal smooth muscles in laying hens as Citation: Röhm, K.; Diener, M.; shown previously in other species. -
Let's Form a Reflex Arc Model
Journal of Inquiry Based Activities (JIBA) /Araştırma Temelli Etkinlik Dergisi (ATED) Vol 9, No 2, 84-95, 2019 LET’S FORM A REFLEX ARC MODEL: A STEM ACTIVITY1 Ayşegül Kağnıcı2, Özlem Sadi3 ABSTRACT The purpose of this study is to introduce an activity which has been designed in accordance with Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics (STEM) education within the scope of 5E learning model and to present the implementation steps of it. The activity plan is on the topics of Nerves, Hormones and Homeostasis in Human Physiology Unit in 11th grade biology curriculum. The activity was implemented with the participation of 49 students at a public high school. For the implementation of the activity, the students were divided into groups of five and they tried to complete the activity in four class hours. The participant students stated that they both learned and enjoyed learning while they were creating their model. Moreover, the teachers who implemented the activity stated that the equipment used in the activity is easy to access, which creates an advantage for the activity to be done in class. Keywords: biology education, reflex arc, STEM, nervous system. REFLEKS YAYI MODELİ OLUŞTURALIM: BİR STEM ETKİNLİĞİ ÖZ Bu çalışmanın amacı STEM eğitimine uygun olarak tasarlanan bir etkinliğin 5E öğrenme modeli kapsamında tanıtılması ve uygulama basamaklarının sunulmasıdır. Etkinlik planı, 11. Sınıf Biyoloji Dersi Öğretim Programında bulunan İnsan Fizyolojisi ünitesindeki Sinirler, Hormonlar ve Homeostazi konusu ile ilgilidir. Etkinliğin özellikle, omuriliğin görevleri ile refleks yayının çalışma mekanizmalarının öğrenilmesi noktasında faydalı olacağı düşünülmüştür. Etkinlik, bir devlet lisesinde öğrenim gören 49 öğrencinin katılımıyla gerçekleştirilmiştir. Etkinliğin uygulanmasında öğrenciler beşer kişilik gruplar oluşturmuş ve dört ders saati boyunca etkinliği tamamlamaya çalışmışlardır. -
Electromagnetic Field and TGF-Β Enhance the Compensatory
www.nature.com/scientificreports OPEN Electromagnetic feld and TGF‑β enhance the compensatory plasticity after sensory nerve injury in cockroach Periplaneta americana Milena Jankowska1, Angelika Klimek1, Chiara Valsecchi2, Maria Stankiewicz1, Joanna Wyszkowska1* & Justyna Rogalska1 Recovery of function after sensory nerves injury involves compensatory plasticity, which can be observed in invertebrates. The aim of the study was the evaluation of compensatory plasticity in the cockroach (Periplaneta americana) nervous system after the sensory nerve injury and assessment of the efect of electromagnetic feld exposure (EMF, 50 Hz, 7 mT) and TGF‑β on this process. The bioelectrical activities of nerves (pre‑and post‑synaptic parts of the sensory path) were recorded under wind stimulation of the cerci before and after right cercus ablation and in insects exposed to EMF and treated with TGF‑β. Ablation of the right cercus caused an increase of activity of the left presynaptic part of the sensory path. Exposure to EMF and TGF‑β induced an increase of activity in both parts of the sensory path. This suggests strengthening efects of EMF and TGF‑β on the insect ability to recognize stimuli after one cercus ablation. Data from locomotor tests proved electrophysiological results. The takeover of the function of one cercus by the second one proves the existence of compensatory plasticity in the cockroach escape system, which makes it a good model for studying compensatory plasticity. We recommend further research on EMF as a useful factor in neurorehabilitation. Injuries in the nervous system caused by acute trauma, neurodegenerative diseases or even old age are hard to reverse and represent an enormous challenge for modern medicine. -
The Reflex Arc: How a Stimulus Elicits a Response
The Reflex Arc How a Stimulus Elicits a Response A Knee-Jerk Response • What happened? • When the hammer hit the knee the foot jerked up. • Why? Reacting to Changes • You need to keep the conditions inside your body constant. Doing this is called homeostasis. Small changes inside your body can cause its cells to be damaged or destroyed. Yet, there are big changes going on outside your body. • You need to detect a change in the environment (a stimulus) and react to the change (a response) in a way that maintains homeostasis. When you do this without thinking, it is called a reflex. Reacting to Changes • It can get very hot or very cold outside, but the temperature inside your body stays the same. How? • When it gets cold outside (stimulus) you shiver (response) and keep the temperature inside your body from dropping. • When it gets hot outside (stimulus) you perspire (response) and keep the temperature inside your body from rising. Posture • In order to maintain your posture (even bad posture - stop slouching) your muscles are constantly monitoring their shape. A change in shape of a muscle (the stimulus) causes the muscle to readjust its shape (the response) and maintain your posture. • The knee-jerk reflex is base on the hammer changing the shape of a muscle. Revisiting the Knee-Jerk Response • What is the stimulus? The hammer hits the tendon. • What is the response? The muscle contracts, causing the foot to jerk upward. Other Reflexes Stimulus Response The aroma of your favorite Salivation food A nasty odor Nausea A bright light shining in your Pupils get smaller eye An insect flying towards your Blinking eye How is a Stimulus Detected? • Some cells are specialized to react to a specific stimulus. -
Fine Structure of the Receptors at the Myotendinous Junction of Human Extraocular Muscles
Histol Histopath (1 988) 3: 103-113 Histology and Fine structure of the receptors at the myotendinous junction of human extraocular muscles A. Sodii, M. Corsii, M.S. Faussone Pellegrini2and G. Salvii 'Eye Clinic, Chair of Physiopathological Optics and Departrnent of Hurnan Anatorny and Histology, Section of Histology, University of Florence, ltaly Summary. The myotendinous junction of the human lntroduction extraocular muscles was studied by electron microscopy. Some peculiar receptorial structures have been found in The proprioceptors known as tendon organs were first the majority of the samples examined. These structures identified by Golgi in 1880 in skeletal muscles. They were are very small and consist of 1) the terminal portion of first described at electron microscope level by Merrillees one muscle fibre, 2) the tendon into which it inserts and in 1962 and later by other authors (Schoultz and Swett, y), within the tendon, a rich nerve arborization, whose 1972, 1974; Barker, 1974: Zelena and Soukup, 1977; branches are always very close to the rnuscle component. Soukup and Zelena, 1985; Ovalle and Dow, 1983). In the Only one discontinuous layer, made up of tlat cells. extraocular muscles (EOM) the presence of tendon which lack a basa1 lamina and often show pinocytotic organs was first excluded by Golgi himself, but further vesicles, encapsules every musculo-tendinous complex. investigations (Dogiel. 1906: Loffredo-Sampaolo, 1952; The tendinous component consists of amorphous ground Bonavolonta, 1956, 1958) led to their identification and substance of different electron density. of collagen and description at light microscopy level in several animal elastic fibres and is divided in compartments by ramified species.